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[ [ "Anus" ], [ "Introduction", "In mammals, invertebrates and most fish, the '''anus''' (: '''anuses''' or '''ani'''; from Latin, 'ring' or 'circle') is the external body orifice at the ''exit'' end of the digestive tract (bowel), i.e.", "the opposite end from the mouth.", "Its function is to facilitate the expulsion of wastes that remain after digestion.Bowel contents that pass through the anus include the gaseous flatus and the semi-solid feces, which (depending on the type of animal) include: indigestible matter such as bones, hair pellets, endozoochorous seeds and digestive rocks; residual food material after the digestible nutrients have been extracted, for example cellulose or lignin; ingested matter which would be toxic if it remained in the digestive tract; excreted metabolites like bilirubin-containing bile; and dead mucosal epithelia or excess gut bacteria and other endosymbionts.", "Passage of feces through the anus is typically controlled by muscular sphincters, and failure to stop unwanted passages results in fecal incontinence.Amphibians, reptiles and birds use the same orifice (known as the cloaca) for excreting liquid and solid wastes, for copulation and egg-laying.", "Monotreme mammals also have a cloaca, which is thought to be a feature inherited from the earliest amniotes.", "Marsupials have a single orifice for excreting both solids and liquids and, in females, a separate vagina for reproduction.", "Female placental mammals have completely separate orifices for defecation, urination, and reproduction; males have one opening for defecation and another for both urination and reproduction, although the channels flowing to that orifice are almost completely separate.The development of the anus was an important stage in the evolution of multicellular animals.", "It appears to have happened at least twice, following different paths in protostomes and deuterostomes.", "This accompanied or facilitated other important evolutionary developments: the bilaterian body plan, the coelom, and metamerism, in which the body was built of repeated \"modules\" which could later specialize, such as the heads of most arthropods, which are composed of fused, specialized segments.In comb jellies, there are species with one and sometimes two permanent anuses, species like the warty comb jelly grows an anus which then disappear when it is no longer needed." ], [ "Development", "In animals at least as complex as an earthworm, the embryo forms a dent on one side, the blastopore, which deepens to become the archenteron, the first phase in the growth of the gut.", "In deuterostomes, the original dent becomes the anus while the gut eventually tunnels through to make another opening, which forms the mouth.", "The protostomes were so named because it was thought that in their embryos the dent formed the mouth first (''proto–'' meaning \"first\") and the anus was formed later at the opening made by the other end of the gut.", "Research from 2001 shows the edges of the dent close up in the middles of protosomes, leaving openings at the ends which become the mouths and anuses." ], [ "See also", "** * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Appendix" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Appendix''' (: '''appendices''') may refer to:__NOTOC__" ], [ "In documents", "* Addendum, an addition made to a document by its author after its initial printing or publication* Bibliography, a systematic list of books and other works* Index (publishing), a list of words or phrases with pointers to where related material can be found in a document" ], [ "Anatomy", "* Appendix (anatomy), a part of the human digestive system" ], [ "Arts and media", "* Appendix (band), a Finnish punk rock group* ''The Appendix'', a quarterly journal of history and culture" ] ]

[ [ "Acantharea" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Acantharea''' (Acantharia) are a group of radiolarian protozoa, distinguished mainly by their strontium sulfate skeletons.", "Acantharians are heterotrophic marine microplankton that range in size from about 200 microns in diameter up to several millimeters.", "Some acantharians have photosynthetic endosymbionts and hence are considered mixotrophs." ], [ "Morphology", " Acantharian radiolarians have shells made of celestine crystal, the heaviest mineral in the oceanAcantharian skeletons are composed of strontium sulfate, SrSO4, in the form of mineral celestine crystal.", "Celestine is named for the delicate blue colour of its crystals, and is the heaviest mineral in the ocean.", "The denseness of their celestite ensures acantharian shells function as mineral ballast, resulting in fast sedimentation to bathypelagic depths.", "High settling fluxes of acantharian cysts have been observed at times in the Iceland Basin and the Southern Ocean, as much as half of the total gravitational organic carbon flux.Acantharian skeletons are composed of strontium sulfate crystals secreted by vacuoles surrounding each spicule or spine.", "Acantharians are unique among marine organisms for their ability to biomineralize strontium sulfate as the main component of their skeletons.However, unlike other radiolarians whose skeletons are made of silica, acantharian skeletons do not fossilize, primarily because strontium sulfate is very scarce in seawater and the crystals dissolve after the acantharians die.", "The arrangement of the spines is very precise, and is described by what is called the Müllerian law, which can be described in terms of lines of latitude and longitude – the spines lie on the intersections between five of the former, symmetric about an equator, and eight of the latter, spaced uniformly.", "Each line of longitude carries either two ''tropical'' spines or one ''equatorial'' and two ''polar'' spines, in alternation.The cell cytoplasm is divided into two regions: the endoplasm and the ectoplasm.", "The endoplasm, at the core of the cell, contains the main organelles, including many nuclei, and is delineated from the ectoplasm by a capsular wall made of a microfibril mesh.", "In symbiotic species, the algal symbionts are maintained in the endoplasm.", "The ectoplasm consists of cytoplasmic extensions used for prey capture and also contains food vacuoles for prey digestion.", "The ectoplasm is surrounded by a periplasmic cortex, also made up of microfibrils, but arranged into twenty plates, each with a hole through which one spicule projects.", "The cortex is linked to the spines by contractile myonemes, which assist in buoyancy control by allowing the ectoplasm to expand and contract, increasing and decreasing the total volume of the cell." ], [ "Taxonomy", "The way that the spines are joined at the center of the cell varies and is one of the primary characteristics by which acantharians are classified.", "The skeletons are made up of either ten diametric or twenty radial spicules.", "Diametric spicules cross the center of the cell, whereas radial spicules terminate at the center of the cell where they either form a tight or flexible junction depending on species.", "Acantharians with diametric spicules or loosely attached radial spicules are able to rearrange or shed spicules and form cysts.", "* Holacanthida – 10 diametric spicules, simply crossed, no central junction, capable of encystment *Chaunacanthida – 20 radial spicules, loosely attached, capable of encystment* Symphiacanthida – 20 radial spicules, tight central junction* Arthracanthida – 20 radial spines, tight central junctionThe morphological classification system roughly agrees with phylogenetic trees based on the alignment of ribosomal RNA genes, although the groups are mostly polyphyletic.", "Holacanthida seems to have evolved first and includes molecular clades A, B, and D. Chaunacanthida evolved second and includes only one molecular clade, clade C. Arthracanthida and Symphacanthida, which have the most complex skeletons, evolved most recently and constitute molecular clades E and F." ], [ "Symbiosis", " Many acantharians, including some in clade B (Holacanthida) and all in clades E & F (Symphiacanthida and Arthracanthida), host single-celled algae within their inner cytoplasm (endoplasm).", "By participating in this photosymbiosis, acantharians are essentially mixotrophs: they acquire energy through both heterotrophy and autotrophy.", "The relationship may make it possible for acantharians to be abundant in low-nutrient regions of the oceans and may also provide extra energy necessary to maintain their elaborate strontium sulfate skeletons.", "It is hypothesized that the acantharians provide the algae with nutrients (N & P) that they acquire by capturing and digesting prey in return for sugar that the algae produces during photosynthesis.", "It is not known, however, whether the algal symbionts benefit from the relationship or if they are simply being exploited and then digested by the acantharians.Symbiotic Holacanthida acantharians host diverse symbiont assemblages, including several genera of dinoflagellates (''Pelagodinium, Heterocapsa, Scrippsiella, Azadinium'') and a haptophyte (''Chrysochromulina'').", "Clade E & F acantharians have a more specific symbiosis and primarily host symbionts from the haptophyte genus ''Phaeocystis'', although they sometimes also host ''Chrysochromulina'' symbionts.", "Clade F acantharians simultaneously host multiple species and strains of ''Phaeocystis'' and their internal symbiont community does not necessarily match the relative availability of potential symbionts in the surrounding environment.", "The mismatch between internal and external symbiont communities suggests that acantharians can be selective in choosing symbionts and probably do not continuously digest and recruit new symbionts, and maintain symbionts for extended periods of time instead." ], [ "Life cycle", "Hypothetical scenario of the life cycle in symbiotic and cyst-forming Acantharia with shallow and deep reproduction, respectively.Adults are usually multinucleated.", "Earlier diverging clades are able to shed their spines and form cysts, which are often referred to as reproductive cysts.", "Reproduction is thought to take place by formation of swarmer cells (formerly referred to as \"spores\"), which may be flagellate, and cysts have been observed to release these swarmers.", "Non-encysted cells have also been seen releasing swarmers in laboratory conditions.", "Not all life cycle stages have been observed, however, and no one has witnessed the fusion of swarmers to produce a new acantharian.", "Cysts are often found in sediment traps and it is therefore believed that the cysts help acantharians sink into deep water.", "Genetic data and some imaging suggests that non-cyst-forming acantharians may also sink to deep water to release swarmers.", "Releasing swarmer cells in deeper water may improve the survival chances of juveniles.", "Study of these organisms has been hampered mainly by an inability to \"close the lifecycle\" and maintain these organisms in culture through successive generations." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "African National Congress" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''African National Congress''' ('''ANC''') is a political party in South Africa.", "It originated as a liberation movement known for its opposition to apartheid and has governed the country since 1994, when the first post-apartheid election resulted in Nelson Mandela being elected as President of South Africa.", "Cyril Ramaphosa, the incumbent national President, has served as President of the ANC since 18 December 2017.Founded on 8 January 1912 in Bloemfontein as the '''South African Native National Congress''', the organisation was formed to advocate for the rights of black South Africans.", "When the National Party government came to power in 1948, the ANC's central purpose became to oppose the new government's policy of institutionalised apartheid.", "To this end, its methods and means of organisation shifted; its adoption of the techniques of mass politics, and the swelling of its membership, culminated in the Defiance Campaign of civil disobedience in 1952–53.The ANC was banned by the South African government between April 1960 – shortly after the Sharpeville massacre – and February 1990.During this period, despite periodic attempts to revive its domestic political underground, the ANC was forced into exile by increasing state repression, which saw many of its leaders imprisoned on Robben Island.", "Headquartered in Lusaka, Zambia, the exiled ANC dedicated much of its attention to a campaign of sabotage and guerrilla warfare against the apartheid state, carried out under its military wing, uMkhonto we Sizwe, which was founded in 1961 in partnership with the South African Communist Party (SACP).", "The ANC was condemned as a terrorist organisation by the governments of South Africa, the United States, and the United Kingdom.", "However, it positioned itself as a key player in the negotiations to end apartheid, which began in earnest after the ban was repealed in 1990.In the post-apartheid era, the ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement, although it is also a registered political party.", "Partly due to its Tripartite Alliance with the South African Communist Party (SACP) and the Congress of South African Trade Unions, it has retained a comfortable electoral majority at the national level and in most provinces, and has provided each of South Africa's five presidents since 1994.South Africa is considered a dominant-party state.", "However, the ANC's electoral majority has declined consistently since 2004, and in the most recent elections – the 2021 local elections – its share of the national vote dropped below 50% for the first time ever.", "Over the last decade, the party has been embroiled in a number of controversies, particularly relating to widespread allegations of political corruption among its members." ], [ "History", "=== Origins ===A successor of the Cape Colony's Imbumba Yamanyama organisation, the ANC was founded as the South African Native National Congress in Bloemfontein on 8 January 1912, and was renamed the African National Congress in 1923.Pixley ka Isaka Seme, Sol Plaatje, John Dube, and Walter Rubusana founded the organisation, who, like much of the ANC's early membership, were from the conservative, educated, and religious professional classes of black South African society.", "Although they would not take part, Xhosa chiefs would show huge support for the organisation; as a result, King Jongilizwe donated 50 cows to during its founding.", "Around 1920, in a partial shift away from its early focus on the \"politics of petitioning\", the ANC developed a programme of passive resistance directed primarily at the expansion and entrenchment of pass laws.", "When Josiah Gumede took over as ANC president in 1927, he advocated for a strategy of mass mobilisation and cooperation with the Communist Party, but was voted out of office in 1930 and replaced with the traditionalist Seme, whose leadership saw the ANC's influence wane.In the 1940s, Alfred Bitini Xuma revived some of Gumede's programmes, assisted by a surge in trade union activity and by the formation in 1944 of the left-wing ANC Youth League under a new generation of activists, among them Walter Sisulu, Nelson Mandela, and Oliver Tambo.", "After the National Party was elected into government in 1948 on a platform of apartheid, entailing the further institutionalisation of racial segregation, this new generation pushed for a Programme of Action which explicitly advocated African nationalism and led the ANC, for the first time, to the sustained use of mass mobilisation techniques like strikes, stay-aways, and boycotts.", "This culminated in the 1952–53 Defiance Campaign, a campaign of mass civil disobedience organised by the ANC, the Indian Congress, and the coloured Franchise Action Council in protest of six apartheid laws.", "The ANC's membership swelled.", "In June 1955, it was one of the groups represented at the multi-racial Congress of the People in Kliptown, Soweto, which ratified the Freedom Charter, from then onwards a fundamental document in the anti-apartheid struggle.", "The Charter was the basis of the enduring Congress Alliance, but was also used as a pretext to prosecute hundreds of activists, among them most of the ANC's leadership, in the Treason Trial.", "Before the trial was concluded, the Sharpeville massacre occurred on 21 March 1960.In the aftermath, the ANC was banned by the South African government.", "It was not unbanned until February 1990, almost three decades later.", "A South African Native National Congress delegation to England, June 1914.L–R: Thomas Mtobi Mapikela, Walter Rubusana, John Dube, Saul Msane, and Sol Plaatje.|left=== Exile in Lusaka ===After its banning in April 1960, the ANC was driven underground, a process hastened by a barrage of government banning orders, by an escalation of state repression, and by the imprisonment of senior ANC leaders pursuant to the Rivonia trial and Little Rivonia trial.", "From around 1963, the ANC effectively abandoned much of even its underground presence inside South Africa and operated almost entirely from its external mission, with headquarters first in Morogoro, Tanzania, and later in Lusaka, Zambia.", "For the entirety of its time in exile, the ANC was led by Tambo – first ''de facto'', with president Albert Luthuli under house arrest in Zululand; then in an acting capacity, after Luthuli's death in 1967; and, finally, officially, after a leadership vote in 1985.Also notable about this period was the extremely close relationship between the ANC and the reconstituted South African Communist Party (SACP), which was also in exile.===uMkhonto we Sizwe===In 1961, partly in response to the Sharpeville massacre, leaders of the SACP and the ANC formed a military body, Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK, ''Spear of the Nation''), as a vehicle for armed struggle against the apartheid state.", "Initially, MK was not an official ANC body, nor had it been directly established by the ANC National Executive: it was considered an autonomous organisation, until such time as the ANC formally recognised it as its armed wing in October 1962.In the first half of the 1960s, MK was preoccupied with a campaign of sabotage attacks, especially bombings of unoccupied government installations.", "As the ANC reduced its presence inside South Africa, however, MK cadres were increasingly confined to training camps in Tanzania and neighbouring countries – with such exceptions as the Wankie Campaign, a momentous military failure.", "In 1969, Tambo was compelled to call the landmark Morogoro Conference to address the grievances of the rank-and-file, articulated by Chris Hani in a memorandum which depicted MK's leadership as corrupt and complacent.", "Although MK's malaise persisted into the 1970s, conditions for armed struggle soon improved considerably, especially after the Soweto uprising of 1976 in South Africa saw thousands of students – inspired by Black Consciousness ideas – cross the borders to seek military training.", "MK guerrilla activity inside South Africa increased steadily over this period, with one estimate recording an increase from 23 incidents in 1977 to 136 incidents in 1985.In the latter half of the 1980s, a number of South African civilians were killed in these attacks, a reversal of the ANC's earlier reluctance to incur civilian casualties.", "Fatal attacks included the 1983 Church Street bombing, the 1985 Amanzimtoti bombing, the 1986 Magoo's Bar bombing, and the 1987 Johannesburg Magistrate's Court bombing.", "Partly in retaliation, the South African Defence Force increasingly crossed the border to target ANC members and ANC bases, as in the 1981 raid on Maputo, 1983 raid on Maputo, and 1985 raid on Gaborone.Oliver Tambo, ANC president in exile from 1967 to 1991.During this period, MK activities led the governments of Margaret Thatcher and Ronald Reagan to condemn the ANC as a terrorist organisation.", "In fact, neither the ANC nor Mandela were removed from the U.S. terror watch list until 2008.The animosity of Western regimes was partly explained by the Cold War context, and by the considerable amount of support – both financial and technical – that the ANC received from the Soviet Union.=== Negotiations to end apartheid ===From the mid-1980s, as international and internal opposition to apartheid mounted, elements of the ANC began to test the prospects for a negotiated settlement with the South African government, although the prudence of abandoning armed struggle was an extremely controversial topic within the organisation.", "Following preliminary contact between the ANC and representatives of the state, business, and civil society, President F. W. de Klerk announced in February 1990 that the government would unban the ANC and other banned political organisations, and that Mandela would be released from prison.", "Some ANC leaders returned to South Africa from exile for so-called \"talks about talks\", which led in 1990 and 1991 to a series of bilateral accords with the government establishing a mutual commitment to negotiations.", "Importantly, the Pretoria Minute of August 1990 included a commitment by the ANC to unilaterally suspend its armed struggle.", "This made possible the multi-party Convention for a Democratic South Africa and later the Multi-Party Negotiating Forum, in which the ANC was regarded as the main representative of the interests of the anti-apartheid movement.However, ongoing political violence, which the ANC attributed to a state-sponsored third force, led to recurrent tensions.", "Most dramatically, after the Boipatong massacre of June 1992, the ANC announced that it was withdrawing from negotiations indefinitely.", "It faced further casualties in the Bisho massacre, the Shell House massacre, and in other clashes with state forces and supporters of the Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP).", "However, once negotiations resumed, they resulted in November 1993 in an interim Constitution, which governed South Africa's first democratic elections on 27 April 1994.In the elections, the ANC won an overwhelming 62.65% majority of the vote.", "Mandela was elected president and formed a coalition Government of National Unity, which, under the provisions of the interim Constitution, also included the National Party and IFP.", "The ANC has controlled the national government since then.=== Breakaways ===In the post-apartheid era, two significant breakaway groups have been formed by former ANC members.", "The first is the Congress of the People, founded by Mosiuoa Lekota in 2008 in the aftermath of the Polokwane elective conference, when the ANC declined to re-elect Thabo Mbeki as its president and instead compelled his resignation from the national presidency.", "The second breakaway is the Economic Freedom Fighters, founded in 2013 after youth leader Julius Malema was expelled from the ANC.", "Before these, the most important split in the ANC's history occurred in 1959, when Robert Sobukwe led a splinter faction of African nationalists to the new Pan Africanist Congress." ], [ "Current structure and composition", "Cyril Ramaphosa was elected ANC president at the 2017 conference.=== Leadership ===Under the ANC constitution, every member of the ANC belongs to a local branch, and branch members select the organisation's policies and leaders.", "They do so primarily by electing delegates to the National Conference, which is currently convened every five years.", "Between conferences, the organisation is led by its 86-member National Executive Committee, which is elected at each conference.", "The most senior members of the National Executive Committee are the so-called Top Six officials, the ANC president primary among them.", "A symmetrical process occurs at the subnational levels: each of the nine provincial executive committees and regional executive committees are elected at provincial and regional elective conferences respectively, also attended by branch delegates; and branch officials are elected at branch general meetings.=== Leagues ===The ANC has three leagues: the Women's League, the Youth League and the Veterans' League.", "Under the ANC constitution, the leagues are autonomous bodies with the scope to devise their own constitutions and policies; for the purpose of national conferences, they are treated somewhat like provinces, with voting delegates and the power to nominate leadership candidates.=== Tripartite Alliance ===The ANC is recognised as the leader of a three-way alliance, known as the Tripartite Alliance, with the SACP and Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU).", "The alliance was formalised in mid-1990, after the ANC was unbanned, but has deeper historical roots: the SACP had worked closely with the ANC in exile, and COSATU had aligned itself with the Freedom Charter and Congress Alliance in 1987.The membership and leadership of the three organisations has traditionally overlapped significantly.", "The alliance constitutes a ''de facto'' electoral coalition: the SACP and COSATU do not contest in government elections, but field candidates through the ANC, hold senior positions in the ANC, and influence party policy.", "However, the SACP, in particular, has frequently threatened to field its own candidates, and in 2017 it did so for the first time, running against the ANC in by-elections in the Metsimaholo municipality, Free State.The logo of the ANC in 1990, since updated.=== Electoral candidates ===Under South Africa's closed-list proportional representation electoral system, parties have immense power in selecting candidates for legislative bodies.", "The ANC's internal candidate selection process is overseen by so-called list committees and tends to involve a degree of broad democratic participation, especially at the local level, where ANC branches vote to nominate candidates for the local government elections.", "Between 2003 and 2008, the ANC also gained a significant number of members through the controversial floor crossing process, which occurred especially at the local level.The leaders of the executive in each sphere of government – the president, the provincial premiers, and the mayors – are indirectly elected after each election.", "In practice, the selection of ANC candidates for these positions is highly centralised, with the ANC caucus voting together to elect a pre-decided candidate.", "Although the ANC does not always announce whom its caucuses intend to elect, the National Assembly has thus far always elected the ANC president as the national president.=== Cadre deployment ===The ANC has adhered to a formal policy of cadre deployment since 1985.In the post-apartheid era, the policy includes but is not exhausted by selection of candidates for elections and government positions: it also entails that the central organisation \"deploys\" ANC members to various other strategic positions in the party, state, and economy." ], [ "Ideology and policies", "As ANC president (1991–97), Nelson Mandela saw the ANC expand and informally absorb other anti-apartheid groups.The ANC prides itself on being a broad church, and, like many dominant parties, resembles a catch-all party, accommodating a range of ideological tendencies.", "As Mandela told the ''Washington Post'' in 1990:The ANC has never been a political party.", "It was formed as a parliament of the African people.", "Right from the start, up to now, the ANC is a coalition, if you want, of people of various political affiliations.", "Some will support free enterprise, others socialism.", "Some are conservatives, others are liberals.", "We are united solely by our determination to oppose racial oppression.", "That is the only thing that unites us.", "There is no question of ideology as far as the odyssey of the ANC is concerned, because any question approaching ideology would split the organization from top to bottom.", "Because we have no connection whatsoever except at this one, of our determination to dismantle apartheid.", "The post-apartheid ANC continues to identify itself foremost as a liberation movement, pursuing \"the complete liberation of the country from all forms of discrimination and national oppression\".", "It also continues to claim the Freedom Charter of 1955 as \"the basic policy document of the ANC\".", "However, as NEC member Jeremy Cronin noted in 2007, the various broad principles of the Freedom Charter have been given different interpretations, and emphasised to differing extents, by different groups within the organisation.", "Nonetheless, some basic commonalities are visible in the policy and ideological preferences of the organisation's mainstream.=== Non-racialism ===The ANC is committed to the ideal of non-racialism and to opposing \"any form of racial, tribalistic or ethnic exclusivism or chauvinism\".=== National Democratic Revolution ===The 1969 Morogoro Conference committed the ANC to a \"national democratic revolution which – destroying the existing social and economic relationship – will bring with it a correction of the historical injustices perpetrated against the indigenous majority and thus lay the basis for a new – and deeper internationalist – approach\".", "For the movement's intellectuals, the concept of the National Democratic Revolution (NDR) was a means of reconciling the anti-apartheid and anti-colonial project with a second goal, that of establishing domestic and international socialism – the ANC is a member of the Socialist International, and its close partner the SACP traditionally conceives itself as a vanguard party.", "Specifically, and as implied by the 1969 document, NDR doctrine entails that the transformation of the domestic political system (national struggle, in Joe Slovo's phrase) is a precondition for a socialist revolution (class struggle).", "The concept remained important to ANC intellectuals and strategists after the end of apartheid.", "Indeed, the pursuit of the NDR is one of the primary objectives of the ANC as set out in its constitution.", "As with the Freedom Charter, the ambiguity of the NDR has allowed it to bear varying interpretations.", "For example, whereas SACP theorists tend to emphasise the anti-capitalist character of the NDR, some ANC policymakers have construed it as implying the empowerment of the black majority even within a market-capitalist scheme.=== Economic interventionism ===Since 1994, consecutive ANC governments have held a strong preference for a significant degree of state intervention in the economy.", "The ANC's first comprehensive articulation of its post-apartheid economic policy framework was set out in the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) document of 1994, which became its electoral manifesto and also, under the same name, the flagship policy of Nelson Mandela's government.", "The RDP aimed both to redress the socioeconomic inequalities created by colonialism and apartheid, and to promote economic growth and development; state intervention was judged a necessary step towards both goals.", "Specifically, the state was to intervene in the economy through three primary channels: a land reform programme; a degree of economic planning, through industrial and trade policy; and state investments in infrastructure and the provision of basic services, including health and education.", "Although the RDP was abandoned in 1996, these three channels of state economic intervention have remained mainstays of subsequent ANC policy frameworks.==== Neoliberal turn ====In 1996, Mandela's government replaced the RDP with the Growth Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) programme, which was maintained under President Thabo Mbeki, Mandela's successor.", "GEAR has been characterised as a neoliberal policy, and it was disowned by both COSATU and the SACP.", "While some analysts viewed Mbeki's economic policy as undertaking the uncomfortable macroeconomic adjustments necessary for long-term growth, others – notably Patrick Bond – viewed it as a reflection of the ANC's failure to implement genuinely radical transformation after 1994.Debate about ANC commitment to redistribution on a socialist scale has continued: in 2013, the country's largest trade union, the National Union of Metalworkers of South Africa, withdrew its support for the ANC on the basis that \"the working class cannot any longer see the ANC or the SACP as its class allies in any meaningful sense\".", "It is evident, however, that the ANC never embraced free-market capitalism, and continued to favour a mixed economy: even as the debate over GEAR raged, the ANC declared itself (in 2004) a social-democratic party, and it was at that time presiding over phenomenal expansions of its black economic empowerment programme and the system of social grants.==== Developmental state ====As its name suggests, the RDP emphasised state-led development – that is, a developmental state – which the ANC has typically been cautious, at least in its rhetoric, to distinguish from the neighbouring concept of a welfare state.", "In the mid-2000s, during Mbeki's second term, the notion of a developmental state was revived in South African political discourse when the national economy worsened; and the 2007 National Conference whole-heartedly endorsed developmentalism in its policy resolutions, calling for a state \"at the centre of a mixed economy... which leads and guides that economy and which intervenes in the interest of the people as a whole\".", "The proposed developmental state was also central to the ANC's campaign in the 2009 elections, and it remains a central pillar of the policy of the current government, which seeks to build a \"capable and developmental\" state.", "In this regard, ANC politicians often cite China as an aspirational example.", "A discussion document ahead of the ANC's 2015 National General Council proposed that:Chinese economic reform|China's economic development trajectory remains a leading example of the triumph of humanity over adversity.", "The exemplary role of the collective leadership of the Communist Party of China in this regard should be a guiding lodestar of our own struggle.", "==== Radical economic transformation ====Towards the end of Jacob Zuma's presidency, an ANC faction aligned to Zuma pioneered a new policy platform referred to as radical economic transformation (RET).", "Zuma announced the new focus on RET during his February 2017 State of the Nation address, and later that year, explaining that it had been adopted as ANC policy and therefore as government policy, defined it as entailing \"fundamental change in the structures, systems, institutions and patterns of ownership and control of the economy, in favour of all South Africans, especially the poor\".", "Arguments for RET were closely associated with the rhetorical concept of white monopoly capital.", "At the 54th National Conference in 2017, the ANC endorsed a number of policy principles advocated by RET supporters, including their proposal to pursue land expropriation without compensation as a matter of national policy.=== Foreign policy and relations ===The ANC has long had close ties with China and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), with the CCP having supported ANC's struggle of apartheid since 1961.In 2008, the two parties signed a memorandum of understanding to train ANC members in China.", "President Cyril Ramaphosa and the ANC have not condemned the Russian invasion of Ukraine, and have faced criticism from opposition parties, public commentators, academics, civil society organisations, and former ANC members due to this.", "The ANC youth wing has meanwhile condemned sanctions against Russia and denounced NATO's eastward expansion as \"fascistic\".", "Officials representing the ANC Youth League acted as international observers for Russia's staged referendum to annex Ukrainian territory conquered during the war.", "In February 2024 ANC Secretary-General Fikile Mbalula attend a \"forum on combating Western neocolonialism\" hosted by Russia, thereby drawing further criticism for the party's perceived support for Russia's invasion." ], [ "Symbols and media", "The tricolour flag of the ANC.=== Flag and logo ===The logo of the ANC incorporates a spear and shield – symbolising the historical and ongoing struggle, armed and otherwise, against colonialism and racial oppression – and a wheel, which is borrowed from the 1955 Congress of the People campaign and therefore symbolises a united and non-racial movement for freedom and equality.", "The logo uses the same colours as the ANC flag, which comprises three horizontal stripes of equal width in black, green and gold.", "The black symbolises the native people of South Africa; the green represents the land of South Africa; and the gold represents the country's mineral and other natural wealth.", "The black, green and gold tricolour also appeared on the flag of the KwaZulu bantustan and appears on the flag of the ANC's rival, the IFP; and all three colours appear in the post-apartheid South African national flag.=== Publications ===Since 1996, the ANC Department of Political Education has published the quarterly ''Umrabulo'' political discussion journal; and ''ANC Today'', a weekly online newsletter, was launched in 2001 to offset the alleged bias of the press.", "In addition, since 1972, it has been traditional for the ANC president to publish annually a so-called January 8 Statement: a reflective letter sent to members on 8 January, the anniversary of the organisation's founding.", "In earlier years, the ANC published a range of periodicals, the most important of which was the monthly journal ''Sechaba'' (1967–1990), printed in the German Democratic Republic and banned by the apartheid government.", "The ANC's Radio Freedom also gained a wide audience during apartheid.=== Amandla ===\"Amandla ngawethu\", or the Sotho variant \"Matla ke arona\", is a common rallying call at ANC meetings, roughly meaning \"power to the people\".", "It is also common for meetings to sing so-called struggle songs, which were sung during anti-apartheid meetings and in MK camps.", "In the case of at least two of these songs – ''Dubula ibhunu'' and ''Umshini wami'' – this has caused controversy in recent years." ], [ "Criticism and controversy", "===Corruption controversies===The most prominent corruption case involving the ANC relates to a series of bribes paid to companies involved in the ongoing R55 billion Arms Deal saga, which resulted in a long term jail sentence to then Deputy President Jacob Zuma's legal adviser Schabir Shaik.", "Zuma, the former South African President, was charged with fraud, bribery and corruption in the Arms Deal, but the charges were subsequently withdrawn by the National Prosecuting Authority of South Africa due to their delay in prosecution.", "The ANC has also been criticised for its subsequent abolition of the Scorpions, the multidisciplinary agency that investigated and prosecuted organised crime and corruption, and was heavily involved in the investigation into Zuma and Shaik.", "Tony Yengeni, in his position as chief whip of the ANC and head of the Parliaments defence committee has recently been named as being involved in bribing the German company ThyssenKrupp over the purchase of four corvettes for the SANDF.Other recent corruption issues include the sexual misconduct and criminal charges of Beaufort West municipal manager Truman Prince, and the Oilgate scandal, in which millions of Rand in funds from a state-owned company were funnelled into ANC coffers.The ANC has also been accused of using government and civil society to fight its political battles against opposition parties such as the Democratic Alliance.", "The result has been a number of complaints and allegations that none of the political parties truly represent the interests of the poor.", "This has resulted in the \"No Land!", "No House!", "No Vote!\"", "Campaign which became very prominent during elections.In 2018, the ''New York Times'' reported on the killings of ANC corruption whistleblowers.During an address on 28 October 2021, former president Thabo Mbeki commented on the history of corruption within the ANC.", "He reflected that Mandela had already warned in 1997 that the ANC was attracting individuals who viewed the party as \"a route to power and self-enrichment.\"", "He added that the ANC leadership \"did not know how to deal with this problem.\"", "During a lecture on 10 December, Mbeki reiterated concerns about \"careerists\" within the party, and stressed the need to \"purge itself of such members\".===Condemnation over Secrecy Bill===In late 2011 the ANC was heavily criticised over the passage of the Protection of State Information Bill, which opponents claimed would improperly restrict the freedom of the press.", "Opposition to the bill included otherwise ANC-aligned groups such as COSATU.", "Notably, Nelson Mandela and other Nobel laureates Nadine Gordimer, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, and F. W. de Klerk have expressed disappointment with the bill for not meeting standards of constitutionality and aspirations for freedom of information and expression.===Role in the Marikana killings===The ANC have been criticised for its role in failing to prevent 16 August 2012 massacre of Lonmin miners at Marikana in the Northwest.", "Some allege that Police Commissioner Riah Phiyega and Police Minister Nathi Mthethwa may have given the go ahead for the police action against the miners on that day.Commissioner Phiyega of the ANC came under further criticism as being insensitive and uncaring when she was caught smiling and laughing during the Farlam Commission's video playback of the 'massacre'.", "Archbishop Desmond Tutu has announced that he no longer can bring himself to exercise a vote for the ANC as it is no longer the party that he and Nelson Mandela fought for, and that the party has now lost its way, and is in danger of becoming a corrupt entity in power.===Financial mismanagement===Since at least 2017, the ANC has encountered significant problems related to financial mismanagement.", "According to a report filed by the former treasurer-general Zweli Mkhize in December 2017, the ANC was technically insolvent as its liabilities exceeded its assets.", "These problems continued into the second half of 2021.By September 2021, the ANC had reportedly amassed a debt exceeding R200-million, including over R100-million owed to the South African Revenue Service.Beginning in May 2021, the ANC failed to pay monthly staff salaries on time.", "Having gone without pay for three consecutive months, workers planned a strike in late August 2021.In response, the ANC initiated a crowdfunding campaign to raise money for staff salaries.", "By November 2021, its Cape Town staff was approaching their fourth month without salaries, while medical aid and provident fund contributions had been suspended in various provinces.", "The party has countered that the Political Party Funding Act, which prohibits anonymous contributions, has dissuaded some donors who previously injected money for salaries.===State capture===In January 2018, then-President Jacob Zuma established the Zondo Commission to investigate allegations of state capture, corruption, and fraud in the public sector.", "Over the following four years, the Commission heard testimony from over 250 witnesses and collected more than 150,000 pages of evidence.", "After several extensions, the first part of the final three-part report was published on 4 January 2022.The report found that the ANC, including Zuma and his political allies, had benefited from the extensive corruption of state enterprises, including the South African Revenue Service.", "It also found that the ANC \"simply did not care that state entities were in decline during state capture or they slept on the job – or they simply didn't know what to do.\"" ], [ "Electoral history", "Proportion of votes cast for the ANC in the 2014 election, by ward.===National Assembly elections===ElectionParty leaderVotes%Seats+/–Position'''Result'''1994Nelson Mandela12,237,65562.65% 252 1st1999Thabo Mbeki10,601,33066.35% 14 1st200410,880,91569.69% 13 1st2009Jacob Zuma11,650,74865.90% 15 1st201411,436,92162.15% 15 1st2019Cyril Ramaphosa10,026,47557.50% 19 1st=== National Council of Provinces elections ===Election'''Party leader'''Seats+/–Position'''Result'''1994Nelson Mandela 60 1st1999Thabo Mbeki 3 1st2004 2 1st2009Jacob Zuma 3 1st2014 2 1st2019Cyril Ramaphosa 6 1st=== Provincial legislatures ===ElectionEastern CapeFree StateGautengKwaZulu-NatalLimpopoMpumalangaNorth-WestNorthern CapeWestern Cape%Seats%Seats%Seats%Seats%Seats%Seats%Seats%Seats%Seats199484.3548/5676.6524/3057.6050/8632.2326/8191.6338/4080.6925/3083.3326/3049.7415/3033.0114/42199973.8047/6380.7925/3067.8750/7339.3832/8088.2944/4984.8326/3078.9727/3364.3220/3042.0718/42200479.2751/6381.7825/3068.4051/7346.9838/8089.1845/4986.3027/3080.7127/3368.8321/3045.2519/42200968.8244/6371.1022/3064.0447/7362.9551/8084.8843/4985.5527/3072.8925/3360.7519/3031.5514/42201470.0945/6369.8522/3053.5940/7364.5252/8078.6039/4978.2324/3067.3923/3364.4020/3032.8914/42201968.7444/6361.1419/3050.1937/7354.2244/8075.4938/4970.5822/3061.8721/3357.5418/3028.6312/42=== Municipal elections ===ElectionVotes%Change1995–965,033,85558%2000None released59.4% 1.4%200617,466,94866.3% 6.9%201116,548,82661.9% 4.4%201621,450,33255.7% 6.2%202114,531,90847.5% 8.2%" ], [ "See also", "* :Category:Members of the African National Congress* Democratic Alliance* Solomon Mahlangu Freedom College* Step-aside rule* State v. Ebrahim* United Democratic Front" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * ''Sechaba'' archive* ''Mayibuye'' archive* Attacks attributed to the ANC on the START terrorism database* List of articles & videos about the ANC * Response by the ANC General Secretary to COSATU's assessment, 2004" ] ]

[ [ "Amphetamine" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Amphetamine''' (contracted from alpha-methylphenethylamine) is a central nervous system (CNS) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and obesity.", "Amphetamine was discovered as a chemical in 1887 by Lazăr Edeleanu, and then as a drug in the late 1920s.", "It exists as two enantiomers: levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine.", "''Amphetamine'' properly refers to a specific chemical, the racemic free base, which is equal parts of the two enantiomers in their pure amine forms.", "The term is frequently used informally to refer to any combination of the enantiomers, or to either of them alone.", "Historically, it has been used to treat nasal congestion and depression.", "Amphetamine is also used as an athletic performance enhancer and cognitive enhancer, and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant.", "It is a prescription drug in many countries, and unauthorized possession and distribution of amphetamine are often tightly controlled due to the significant health risks associated with recreational use.The first amphetamine pharmaceutical was Benzedrine, a brand which was used to treat a variety of conditions.", "Currently, pharmaceutical amphetamine is prescribed as racemic amphetamine, Adderall, dextroamphetamine, or the inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine.", "Amphetamine increases monoamine and excitatory neurotransmission in the brain, with its most pronounced effects targeting the norepinephrine and dopamine neurotransmitter systems.At therapeutic doses, amphetamine causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria, change in desire for sex, increased wakefulness, and improved cognitive control.", "It induces physical effects such as improved reaction time, fatigue resistance, and increased muscle strength.", "Larger doses of amphetamine may impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown.", "Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use, but is unlikely to occur from long-term medical use at therapeutic doses.", "Very high doses can result in psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) which rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long-term use.", "Recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses and carry a far greater risk of serious side effects.Amphetamine belongs to the phenethylamine class.", "It is also the parent compound of its own structural class, the substituted amphetamines, which includes prominent substances such as bupropion, cathinone, MDMA, and methamphetamine.", "As a member of the phenethylamine class, amphetamine is also chemically related to the naturally occurring trace amine neuromodulators, specifically phenethylamine and , both of which are produced within the human body.", "Phenethylamine is the parent compound of amphetamine, while is a positional isomer of amphetamine that differs only in the placement of the methyl group." ], [ "Uses", "===Medical===Amphetamine is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy (a sleep disorder), and obesity, and is sometimes prescribed for its past medical indications, particularly for depression and chronic pain.Long-term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage, but, in humans with ADHD, long-term use of pharmaceutical amphetamines at therapeutic doses appears to improve brain development and nerve growth.", "Reviews of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies suggest that long-term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD, and improves function in several parts of the brain, such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia.Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long-term continuous amphetamine use for the treatment of ADHD.", "Figure 3: Treatment benefit by treatment type and outcome group Randomized controlled trials of continuous stimulant therapy for the treatment of ADHD spanning 2 years have demonstrated treatment effectiveness and safety.", "Two reviews have indicated that long-term continuous stimulant therapy for ADHD is effective for reducing the core symptoms of ADHD (i.e., hyperactivity, inattention, and impulsivity), enhancing quality of life and academic achievement, and producing improvements in a large number of functional outcomes across 9 categories of outcomes related to academics, antisocial behavior, driving, non-medicinal drug use, obesity, occupation, self-esteem, service use (i.e., academic, occupational, health, financial, and legal services), and social function.", "One review highlighted a nine-month randomized controlled trial of amphetamine treatment for ADHD in children that found an average increase of 4.5 IQ points, continued increases in attention, and continued decreases in disruptive behaviors and hyperactivity.", "Another review indicated that, based upon the longest follow-up studies conducted to date, lifetime stimulant therapy that begins during childhood is continuously effective for controlling ADHD symptoms and reduces the risk of developing a substance use disorder as an adult.Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain's neurotransmitter systems; these functional impairments involve impaired dopamine neurotransmission in the mesocorticolimbic projection and norepinephrine neurotransmission in the noradrenergic projections from the locus coeruleus to the prefrontal cortex.", "Psychostimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine are effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems.", "Approximately 80% of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms.", "Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members, perform better in school, are less distractible and impulsive, and have longer attention spans.", "The Cochrane reviews on the treatment of ADHD in children, adolescents, and adults with pharmaceutical amphetamines stated that short-term studies have demonstrated that these drugs decrease the severity of symptoms, but they have higher discontinuation rates than non-stimulant medications due to their adverse side effects.", "A Cochrane review on the treatment of ADHD in children with tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome indicated that stimulants in general do not make tics worse, but high doses of dextroamphetamine could exacerbate tics in some individuals.===Enhancing performance=======Cognitive performance====In 2015, a systematic review and a meta-analysis of high quality clinical trials found that, when used at low (therapeutic) doses, amphetamine produces modest yet unambiguous improvements in cognition, including working memory, long-term episodic memory, inhibitory control, and some aspects of attention, in normal healthy adults; these cognition-enhancing effects of amphetamine are known to be partially mediated through the indirect activation of both dopamine receptor D1 and adrenoceptor α2 in the prefrontal cortex.", "A systematic review from 2014 found that low doses of amphetamine also improve memory consolidation, in turn leading to improved recall of information.", "Therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency, an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals.", "Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency (motivation to perform a task) and increase arousal (wakefulness), in turn promoting goal-directed behavior.", "Stimulants such as amphetamine can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks and are used by some students as a study and test-taking aid.", "Based upon studies of self-reported illicit stimulant use, of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants, which are primarily used for enhancement of academic performance rather than as recreational drugs.", "However, high amphetamine doses that are above the therapeutic range can interfere with working memory and other aspects of cognitive control.====Physical performance====Amphetamine is used by some athletes for its psychological and athletic performance-enhancing effects, such as increased endurance and alertness; however, non-medical amphetamine use is prohibited at sporting events that are regulated by collegiate, national, and international anti-doping agencies.", "In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses, amphetamine has been shown to increase muscle strength, acceleration, athletic performance in anaerobic conditions, and endurance (i.e., it delays the onset of fatigue), while improving reaction time.", "Amphetamine improves endurance and reaction time primarily through reuptake inhibition and release of dopamine in the central nervous system.", "Amphetamine and other dopaminergic drugs also increase power output at fixed levels of perceived exertion by overriding a \"safety switch\", allowing the core temperature limit to increase in order to access a reserve capacity that is normally off-limits.", "At therapeutic doses, the adverse effects of amphetamine do not impede athletic performance; however, at much higher doses, amphetamine can induce effects that severely impair performance, such as rapid muscle breakdown and elevated body temperature.===Recreational===Amphetamine, specifically the more dopaminergic dextrorotatory enantiomer (dextroamphetamine), is also used recreationally as a euphoriant and aphrodisiac, and like other amphetamines; is used as a club drug for its energetic and euphoric high.", "Dextroamphetamine (d-amphetamine) is considered to have a high potential for misuse in a recreational manner since individuals typically report feeling euphoric, more alert, and more energetic after taking the drug.", "A notable part of the 1960s mod subculture in the UK was recreational amphetamine use, which was used to fuel all-night dances at clubs like Manchester's Twisted Wheel.", "Newspaper reports described dancers emerging from clubs at 5 a.m. with dilated pupils.", "Mods used the drug for stimulation and alertness, which they viewed as different from the intoxication caused by alcohol and other drugs.", "Dr. Andrew Wilson argues that for a significant minority, \"amphetamines symbolised the smart, on-the-ball, cool image\" and that they sought \"stimulation not intoxication ... greater awareness, not escape\" and \"confidence and articulacy\" rather than the \"drunken rowdiness of previous generations.\"", "Dextroamphetamine's dopaminergic (rewarding) properties affect the mesocorticolimbic circuit; a group of neural structures responsible for incentive salience (i.e., \"wanting\"; desire or craving for a reward and motivation), positive reinforcement and positively-valenced emotions, particularly ones involving pleasure.", "Large recreational doses of dextroamphetamine may produce symptoms of dextroamphetamine overdose.", "Recreational users sometimes open dexedrine capsules and crush the contents in order to insufflate (snort) it or subsequently dissolve it in water and inject it.", "Immediate-release formulations have higher potential for abuse via insufflation (snorting) or intravenous injection due to a more favorable pharmacokinetic profile and easy crushability (especially tablets).", "Injection into the bloodstream can be dangerous because insoluble fillers within the tablets can block small blood vessels.", "Chronic overuse of dextroamphetamine can lead to severe drug dependence, resulting in withdrawal symptoms when drug use stops." ], [ "Contraindications", "According to the International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) and the United States Food and Drug Administration (USFDA), amphetamine is contraindicated in people with a history of drug abuse, cardiovascular disease, severe agitation, or severe anxiety.", "It is also contraindicated in individuals with advanced arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), glaucoma (increased eye pressure), hyperthyroidism (excessive production of thyroid hormone), or moderate to severe hypertension.", "These agencies indicate that people who have experienced allergic reactions to other stimulants or who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) should not take amphetamine, although safe concurrent use of amphetamine and monoamine oxidase inhibitors has been documented.", "These agencies also state that anyone with anorexia nervosa, bipolar disorder, depression, hypertension, liver or kidney problems, mania, psychosis, Raynaud's phenomenon, seizures, thyroid problems, tics, or Tourette syndrome should monitor their symptoms while taking amphetamine.", "Evidence from human studies indicates that therapeutic amphetamine use does not cause developmental abnormalities in the fetus or newborns (i.e., it is not a human teratogen), but amphetamine abuse does pose risks to the fetus.", "Amphetamine has also been shown to pass into breast milk, so the IPCS and the USFDA advise mothers to avoid breastfeeding when using it.", "Due to the potential for reversible growth impairments, the USFDA advises monitoring the height and weight of children and adolescents prescribed an amphetamine pharmaceutical." ], [ "Adverse effects", "The adverse side effects of amphetamine are many and varied, and the amount of amphetamine used is the primary factor in determining the likelihood and severity of adverse effects.", "Amphetamine products such as Adderall, Dexedrine, and their generic equivalents are currently approved by the USFDA for long-term therapeutic use.", "Recreational use of amphetamine generally involves much larger doses, which have a greater risk of serious adverse drug effects than dosages used for therapeutic purposes.===Physical===Cardiovascular side effects can include hypertension or hypotension from a vasovagal response, Raynaud's phenomenon (reduced blood flow to the hands and feet), and tachycardia (increased heart rate).", "Sexual side effects in males may include erectile dysfunction, frequent erections, or prolonged erections.", "Gastrointestinal side effects may include abdominal pain, constipation, diarrhea, and nausea.", "Other potential physical side effects include appetite loss, blurred vision, dry mouth, excessive grinding of the teeth, nosebleed, profuse sweating, rhinitis medicamentosa (drug-induced nasal congestion), reduced seizure threshold, tics (a type of movement disorder), and weight loss.", "Dangerous physical side effects are rare at typical pharmaceutical doses.Amphetamine stimulates the medullary respiratory centers, producing faster and deeper breaths.", "In a normal person at therapeutic doses, this effect is usually not noticeable, but when respiration is already compromised, it may be evident.", "Amphetamine also induces contraction in the urinary bladder sphincter, the muscle which controls urination, which can result in difficulty urinating.", "This effect can be useful in treating bed wetting and loss of bladder control.", "The effects of amphetamine on the gastrointestinal tract are unpredictable.", "If intestinal activity is high, amphetamine may reduce gastrointestinal motility (the rate at which content moves through the digestive system); however, amphetamine may increase motility when the smooth muscle of the tract is relaxed.", "Amphetamine also has a slight analgesic effect and can enhance the pain relieving effects of opioids.USFDA-commissioned studies from 2011 indicate that in children, young adults, and adults there is no association between serious adverse cardiovascular events (sudden death, heart attack, and stroke) and the medical use of amphetamine or other ADHD stimulants.", "However, amphetamine pharmaceuticals are contraindicated in individuals with cardiovascular disease.===Psychological===At normal therapeutic doses, the most common psychological side effects of amphetamine include increased alertness, apprehension, concentration, initiative, self-confidence and sociability, mood swings (elated mood followed by mildly depressed mood), insomnia or wakefulness, and decreased sense of fatigue.", "Less common side effects include anxiety, change in libido, grandiosity, irritability, repetitive or obsessive behaviors, and restlessness; these effects depend on the user's personality and current mental state.", "Amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia) can occur in heavy users.", "Although very rare, this psychosis can also occur at therapeutic doses during long-term therapy.", "According to the USFDA, \"there is no systematic evidence\" that stimulants produce aggressive behavior or hostility.Amphetamine has also been shown to produce a conditioned place preference in humans taking therapeutic doses, meaning that individuals acquire a preference for spending time in places where they have previously used amphetamine.===Reinforcement disorders=======Addiction====Addiction is a serious risk with heavy recreational amphetamine use, but is unlikely to occur from long-term medical use at therapeutic doses; in fact, lifetime stimulant therapy for ADHD that begins during childhood reduces the risk of developing substance use disorders as an adult.", "Pathological overactivation of the mesolimbic pathway, a dopamine pathway that connects the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus accumbens, plays a central role in amphetamine addiction.", "Individuals who frequently self-administer high doses of amphetamine have a high risk of developing an amphetamine addiction, since chronic use at high doses gradually increases the level of accumbal ΔFosB, a \"molecular switch\" and \"master control protein\" for addiction.", "Once nucleus accumbens ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed, it begins to increase the severity of addictive behavior (i.e., compulsive drug-seeking) with further increases in its expression.", "While there are currently no effective drugs for treating amphetamine addiction, regularly engaging in sustained aerobic exercise appears to reduce the risk of developing such an addiction.", "Exercise therapy improves clinical treatment outcomes and may be used as an adjunct therapy with behavioral therapies for addiction.====Biomolecular mechanisms====Chronic use of amphetamine at excessive doses causes alterations in gene expression in the mesocorticolimbic projection, which arise through transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms.", "The most important transcription factors that produce these alterations are ''Delta FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog B'' (ΔFosB), ''cAMP response element binding protein'' (CREB), and ''nuclear factor-kappa B'' (NF-κB).", "ΔFosB is the most significant biomolecular mechanism in addiction because ΔFosB overexpression (i.e., an abnormally high level of gene expression which produces a pronounced gene-related phenotype) in the D1-type medium spiny neurons in the nucleus accumbens is necessary and sufficient for many of the neural adaptations and regulates multiple behavioral effects (e.g., reward sensitization and escalating drug self-administration) involved in addiction.", "Once ΔFosB is sufficiently overexpressed, it induces an addictive state that becomes increasingly more severe with further increases in ΔFosB expression.", "It has been implicated in addictions to alcohol, cannabinoids, cocaine, methylphenidate, nicotine, opioids, phencyclidine, propofol, and substituted amphetamines, among others.ΔJunD, a transcription factor, and G9a, a histone methyltransferase enzyme, both oppose the function of ΔFosB and inhibit increases in its expression.", "Sufficiently overexpressing ΔJunD in the nucleus accumbens with viral vectors can completely block many of the neural and behavioral alterations seen in chronic drug abuse (i.e., the alterations mediated by ΔFosB).", "Similarly, accumbal G9a hyperexpression results in markedly increased histone 3 lysine residue 9 dimethylation (H3K9me2) and blocks the induction of ΔFosB-mediated neural and behavioral plasticity by chronic drug use, which occurs via H3K9me2-mediated repression of transcription factors for ΔFosB and H3K9me2-mediated repression of various ΔFosB transcriptional targets (e.g., CDK5).", "ΔFosB also plays an important role in regulating behavioral responses to natural rewards, such as palatable food, sex, and exercise.", "Since both natural rewards and addictive drugs induce the expression of ΔFosB (i.e., they cause the brain to produce more of it), chronic acquisition of these rewards can result in a similar pathological state of addiction.", "Consequently, ΔFosB is the most significant factor involved in both amphetamine addiction and amphetamine-induced sexual addictions, which are compulsive sexual behaviors that result from excessive sexual activity and amphetamine use.", "These sexual addictions are associated with a dopamine dysregulation syndrome which occurs in some patients taking dopaminergic drugs.The effects of amphetamine on gene regulation are both dose- and route-dependent.", "Most of the research on gene regulation and addiction is based upon animal studies with intravenous amphetamine administration at very high doses.", "The few studies that have used equivalent (weight-adjusted) human therapeutic doses and oral administration show that these changes, if they occur, are relatively minor.", "This suggests that medical use of amphetamine does not significantly affect gene regulation.=====Pharmacological treatments===== there is no effective pharmacotherapy for amphetamine addiction.", "Reviews from 2015 and 2016 indicated that TAAR1-selective agonists have significant therapeutic potential as a treatment for psychostimulant addictions; however, the only compounds which are known to function as TAAR1-selective agonists are experimental drugs.", "Amphetamine addiction is largely mediated through increased activation of dopamine receptors and NMDA receptors in the nucleus accumbens; magnesium ions inhibit NMDA receptors by blocking the receptor calcium channel.", "One review suggested that, based upon animal testing, pathological (addiction-inducing) psychostimulant use significantly reduces the level of intracellular magnesium throughout the brain.", "Supplemental magnesium treatment has been shown to reduce amphetamine self-administration (i.e., doses given to oneself) in humans, but it is not an effective monotherapy for amphetamine addiction.A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2019 assessed the efficacy of 17 different pharmacotherapies used in randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for amphetamine and methamphetamine addiction; it found only low-strength evidence that methylphenidate might reduce amphetamine or methamphetamine self-administration.", "There was low- to moderate-strength evidence of no benefit for most of the other medications used in RCTs, which included antidepressants (bupropion, mirtazapine, sertraline), antipsychotics (aripiprazole), anticonvulsants (topiramate, baclofen, gabapentin), naltrexone, varenicline, citicoline, ondansetron, prometa, riluzole, atomoxetine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil.=====Behavioral treatments=====A 2018 systematic review and network meta-analysis of 50 trials involving 12 different psychosocial interventions for amphetamine, methamphetamine, or cocaine addiction found that combination therapy with both contingency management and community reinforcement approach had the highest efficacy (i.e., abstinence rate) and acceptability (i.e., lowest dropout rate).", "Other treatment modalities examined in the analysis included monotherapy with contingency management or community reinforcement approach, cognitive behavioral therapy, 12-step programs, non-contingent reward-based therapies, psychodynamic therapy, and other combination therapies involving these.Additionally, research on the neurobiological effects of physical exercise suggests that daily aerobic exercise, especially endurance exercise (e.g., marathon running), prevents the development of drug addiction and is an effective adjunct therapy (i.e., a supplemental treatment) for amphetamine addiction.", "Exercise leads to better treatment outcomes when used as an adjunct treatment, particularly for psychostimulant addictions.", "In particular, aerobic exercise decreases psychostimulant self-administration, reduces the reinstatement (i.e., relapse) of drug-seeking, and induces increased dopamine receptor D2 (DRD2) density in the striatum.", "This is the opposite of pathological stimulant use, which induces decreased striatal DRD2 density.", "One review noted that exercise may also prevent the development of a drug addiction by altering ΔFosB or immunoreactivity in the striatum or other parts of the reward system.====Dependence and withdrawal====Drug tolerance develops rapidly in amphetamine abuse (i.e., recreational amphetamine use), so periods of extended abuse require increasingly larger doses of the drug in order to achieve the same effect.According to a Cochrane review on withdrawal in individuals who compulsively use amphetamine and methamphetamine, \"when chronic heavy users abruptly discontinue amphetamine use, many report a time-limited withdrawal syndrome that occurs within 24 hours of their last dose.\"", "This review noted that withdrawal symptoms in chronic, high-dose users are frequent, occurring in roughly 88% of cases, and persist for  weeks with a marked \"crash\" phase occurring during the first week.", "Amphetamine withdrawal symptoms can include anxiety, drug craving, depressed mood, fatigue, increased appetite, increased movement or decreased movement, lack of motivation, sleeplessness or sleepiness, and lucid dreams.", "The review indicated that the severity of withdrawal symptoms is positively correlated with the age of the individual and the extent of their dependence.", "Mild withdrawal symptoms from the discontinuation of amphetamine treatment at therapeutic doses can be avoided by tapering the dose." ], [ "Overdose", "An amphetamine overdose can lead to many different symptoms, but is rarely fatal with appropriate care.", "The severity of overdose symptoms increases with dosage and decreases with drug tolerance to amphetamine.", "Tolerant individuals have been known to take as much as 5 grams of amphetamine in a day, which is roughly 100 times the maximum daily therapeutic dose.", "Symptoms of a moderate and extremely large overdose are listed below; fatal amphetamine poisoning usually also involves convulsions and coma.", "In 2013, overdose on amphetamine, methamphetamine, and other compounds implicated in an \"amphetamine use disorder\" resulted in an estimated 3,788 deaths worldwide ( deaths, 95% confidence).+ Overdose symptoms by system System Minor or moderate overdose Severe overdose Cardiovascular* Abnormal heartbeat* High or low blood pressure* Cardiogenic shock (heart not pumping enough blood)* Cerebral hemorrhage (bleeding in the brain)* Circulatory collapse (partial or complete failure of the circulatory system) Central nervoussystem* Confusion* Abnormally fast reflexes* Severe agitation* Tremor (involuntary muscle twitching)* Acute amphetamine psychosis (e.g., delusions and paranoia)* Compulsive and repetitive movement* Serotonin syndrome (excessive serotonergic nerve activity)* Sympathomimetic toxidrome (excessive adrenergic nerve activity) Musculoskeletal* Muscle pain* Rhabdomyolysis (rapid muscle breakdown) Respiratory* Rapid breathing* Pulmonary edema (fluid accumulation in the lungs)* Pulmonary hypertension (high blood pressure in the arteries of the lung)* Respiratory alkalosis (reduced blood CO2) Urinary* Painful urination* Urinary retention (inability to urinate)* No urine production* Kidney failure Other* Elevated body temperature* Mydriasis (dilated pupils)* Elevated or low blood potassium* Hyperpyrexia (extremely elevated core body temperature)* Metabolic acidosis (excessively acidic bodily fluids)===Toxicity===In rodents and primates, sufficiently high doses of amphetamine cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity, or damage to dopamine neurons, which is characterized by dopamine terminal degeneration and reduced transporter and receptor function.", "There is no evidence that amphetamine is directly neurotoxic in humans.", "However, large doses of amphetamine may indirectly cause dopaminergic neurotoxicity as a result of hyperpyrexia, the excessive formation of reactive oxygen species, and increased autoxidation of dopamine.", "Animal models of neurotoxicity from high-dose amphetamine exposure indicate that the occurrence of hyperpyrexia (i.e., core body temperature ≥ 40 °C) is necessary for the development of amphetamine-induced neurotoxicity.", "Prolonged elevations of brain temperature above 40 °C likely promote the development of amphetamine-induced neurotoxicity in laboratory animals by facilitating the production of reactive oxygen species, disrupting cellular protein function, and transiently increasing blood–brain barrier permeability.===Psychosis===An amphetamine overdose can result in a stimulant psychosis that may involve a variety of symptoms, such as delusions and paranoia.", "A Cochrane review on treatment for amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, and methamphetamine psychosis states that about of users fail to recover completely.", "According to the same review, there is at least one trial that shows antipsychotic medications effectively resolve the symptoms of acute amphetamine psychosis.", "Psychosis rarely arises from therapeutic use." ], [ "Drug interactions{{anchor|Interactions}}", "Many types of substances are known to interact with amphetamine, resulting in altered drug action or metabolism of amphetamine, the interacting substance, or both.", "Inhibitors of enzymes that metabolize amphetamine (e.g., CYP2D6 and FMO3) will prolong its elimination half-life, meaning that its effects will last longer.", "Amphetamine also interacts with , particularly monoamine oxidase A inhibitors, since both MAOIs and amphetamine increase plasma catecholamines (i.e., norepinephrine and dopamine); therefore, concurrent use of both is dangerous.", "Amphetamine modulates the activity of most psychoactive drugs.", "In particular, amphetamine may decrease the effects of sedatives and depressants and increase the effects of stimulants and antidepressants.", "Amphetamine may also decrease the effects of antihypertensives and antipsychotics due to its effects on blood pressure and dopamine respectively.", "Zinc supplementation may reduce the minimum effective dose of amphetamine when it is used for the treatment of ADHD.In general, there is no significant interaction when consuming amphetamine with food, but the pH of gastrointestinal content and urine affects the absorption and excretion of amphetamine, respectively.", "Acidic substances reduce the absorption of amphetamine and increase urinary excretion, and alkaline substances do the opposite.", "Due to the effect pH has on absorption, amphetamine also interacts with gastric acid reducers such as proton pump inhibitors and H2 antihistamines, which increase gastrointestinal pH (i.e., make it less acidic)." ], [ "Pharmacology", "===Pharmacodynamics===Amphetamine exerts its behavioral effects by altering the use of monoamines as neuronal signals in the brain, primarily in catecholamine neurons in the reward and executive function pathways of the brain.", "The concentrations of the main neurotransmitters involved in reward circuitry and executive functioning, dopamine and norepinephrine, increase dramatically in a dose-dependent manner by amphetamine because of its effects on monoamine transporters.", "The reinforcing and motivational salience-promoting effects of amphetamine are due mostly to enhanced dopaminergic activity in the mesolimbic pathway.", "The euphoric and locomotor-stimulating effects of amphetamine are dependent upon the magnitude and speed by which it increases synaptic dopamine and norepinephrine concentrations in the striatum.Amphetamine has been identified as a potent full agonist of trace amine-associated receptor 1 (TAAR1), a and G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) discovered in 2001, which is important for regulation of brain monoamines.", "Activation of increases production via adenylyl cyclase activation and inhibits monoamine transporter function.", "Monoamine autoreceptors (e.g., D2 short, presynaptic α2, and presynaptic 5-HT1A) have the opposite effect of TAAR1, and together these receptors provide a regulatory system for monoamines.", "Notably, amphetamine and trace amines possess high binding affinities for TAAR1, but not for monoamine autoreceptors.", "Imaging studies indicate that monoamine reuptake inhibition by amphetamine and trace amines is site specific and depends upon the presence of TAAR1 in the associated monoamine neurons.In addition to the neuronal monoamine transporters, amphetamine also inhibits both vesicular monoamine transporters, VMAT1 and VMAT2, as well as SLC1A1, SLC22A3, and SLC22A5.SLC1A1 is excitatory amino acid transporter 3 (EAAT3), a glutamate transporter located in neurons, SLC22A3 is an extraneuronal monoamine transporter that is present in astrocytes, and SLC22A5 is a high-affinity carnitine transporter.", "Amphetamine is known to strongly induce cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript (CART) gene expression, a neuropeptide involved in feeding behavior, stress, and reward, which induces observable increases in neuronal development and survival ''in vitro''.", "The CART receptor has yet to be identified, but there is significant evidence that CART binds to a unique .", "Amphetamine also inhibits monoamine oxidases at very high doses, resulting in less monoamine and trace amine metabolism and consequently higher concentrations of synaptic monoamines.", "In humans, the only post-synaptic receptor at which amphetamine is known to bind is the receptor, where it acts as an agonist with low micromolar affinity.The full profile of amphetamine's short-term drug effects in humans is mostly derived through increased cellular communication or neurotransmission of dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine, CART peptides, endogenous opioids, adrenocorticotropic hormone, corticosteroids, and glutamate, which it affects through interactions with , , , , , , and possibly other biological targets.", "Amphetamine also activates seven human carbonic anhydrase enzymes, several of which are expressed in the human brain.Dextroamphetamine is a more potent agonist of than levoamphetamine.", "Consequently, dextroamphetamine produces greater stimulation than levoamphetamine, roughly three to four times more, but levoamphetamine has slightly stronger cardiovascular and peripheral effects.====Dopamine====In certain brain regions, amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft.", "Amphetamine can enter the presynaptic neuron either through or by diffusing across the neuronal membrane directly.", "As a consequence of DAT uptake, amphetamine produces competitive reuptake inhibition at the transporter.", "Upon entering the presynaptic neuron, amphetamine activates which, through protein kinase A (PKA) and protein kinase C (PKC) signaling, causes DAT phosphorylation.", "Phosphorylation by either protein kinase can result in DAT internalization ( reuptake inhibition), but phosphorylation alone induces the reversal of dopamine transport through DAT (i.e., dopamine efflux).", "Amphetamine is also known to increase intracellular calcium, an effect which is associated with DAT phosphorylation through an unidentified Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CAMK)-dependent pathway, in turn producing dopamine efflux.", "Through direct activation of G protein-coupled inwardly-rectifying potassium channels, reduces the firing rate of dopamine neurons, preventing a hyper-dopaminergic state.Amphetamine is also a substrate for the presynaptic vesicular monoamine transporter, .", "Following amphetamine uptake at VMAT2, amphetamine induces the collapse of the vesicular pH gradient, which results in the release of dopamine molecules from synaptic vesicles into the cytosol via dopamine efflux through VMAT2.Subsequently, the cytosolic dopamine molecules are released from the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic cleft via reverse transport at .====Norepinephrine====Similar to dopamine, amphetamine dose-dependently increases the level of synaptic norepinephrine, the direct precursor of epinephrine.", "Based upon neuronal expression, amphetamine is thought to affect norepinephrine analogously to dopamine.", "In other words, amphetamine induces TAAR1-mediated efflux and reuptake inhibition at phosphorylated , competitive NET reuptake inhibition, and norepinephrine release from .====Serotonin====Amphetamine exerts analogous, yet less pronounced, effects on serotonin as on dopamine and norepinephrine.", "Amphetamine affects serotonin via and, like norepinephrine, is thought to phosphorylate via .", "Like dopamine, amphetamine has low, micromolar affinity at the human 5-HT1A receptor.====Other neurotransmitters, peptides, hormones, and enzymes====+ Human carbonic anhydraseactivation potency Enzyme KA () Sources hCA4 94 hCA5A 810 hCA5B 2560 hCA7 910 hCA12 640 hCA13 24100 hCA14 9150 Acute amphetamine administration in humans increases endogenous opioid release in several brain structures in the reward system.", "Extracellular levels of glutamate, the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain, have been shown to increase in the striatum following exposure to amphetamine.", "This increase in extracellular glutamate presumably occurs via the amphetamine-induced internalization of EAAT3, a glutamate reuptake transporter, in dopamine neurons.", "Amphetamine also induces the selective release of histamine from mast cells and efflux from histaminergic neurons through .", "Acute amphetamine administration can also increase adrenocorticotropic hormone and corticosteroid levels in blood plasma by stimulating the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis.", "In December 2017, the first study assessing the interaction between amphetamine and human carbonic anhydrase enzymes was published; of the eleven carbonic anhydrase enzymes it examined, it found that amphetamine potently activates seven, four of which are highly expressed in the human brain, with low nanomolar through low micromolar activating effects.", "Based upon preclinical research, cerebral carbonic anhydrase activation has cognition-enhancing effects; but, based upon the clinical use of carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, carbonic anhydrase activation in other tissues may be associated with adverse effects, such as ocular activation exacerbating glaucoma.===Pharmacokinetics===The oral bioavailability of amphetamine varies with gastrointestinal pH; it is well absorbed from the gut, and bioavailability is typically 90%.", "Amphetamine is a weak base with a p''K''a of 9.9; consequently, when the pH is basic, more of the drug is in its lipid soluble free base form, and more is absorbed through the lipid-rich cell membranes of the gut epithelium.", "Conversely, an acidic pH means the drug is predominantly in a water-soluble cationic (salt) form, and less is absorbed.", "Approximately of amphetamine circulating in the bloodstream is bound to plasma proteins.", "Following absorption, amphetamine readily distributes into most tissues in the body, with high concentrations occurring in cerebrospinal fluid and brain tissue.The half-lives of amphetamine enantiomers differ and vary with urine pH.", "At normal urine pH, the half-lives of dextroamphetamine and levoamphetamine are  hours and  hours, respectively.", "Highly acidic urine will reduce the enantiomer half-lives to 7 hours; highly alkaline urine will increase the half-lives up to 34 hours.", "The immediate-release and extended release variants of salts of both isomers reach peak plasma concentrations at 3 hours and 7 hours post-dose respectively.", "Amphetamine is eliminated via the kidneys, with of the drug being excreted unchanged at normal urinary pH.", "When the urinary pH is basic, amphetamine is in its free base form, so less is excreted.", "When urine pH is abnormal, the urinary recovery of amphetamine may range from a low of 1% to a high of 75%, depending mostly upon whether urine is too basic or acidic, respectively.", "Following oral administration, amphetamine appears in urine within 3 hours.", "Roughly 90% of ingested amphetamine is eliminated 3 days after the last oral dose.CYP2D6, dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH), flavin-containing monooxygenase 3 (FMO3), butyrate-CoA ligase (XM-ligase), and glycine ''N''-acyltransferase (GLYAT) are the enzymes known to metabolize amphetamine or its metabolites in humans.", "Amphetamine has a variety of excreted metabolic products, including , , , benzoic acid, hippuric acid, norephedrine, and phenylacetone.", "Among these metabolites, the active sympathomimetics are , , and norephedrine.", "The main metabolic pathways involve aromatic para-hydroxylation, aliphatic alpha- and beta-hydroxylation, ''N''-oxidation, ''N''-dealkylation, and deamination.", "The known metabolic pathways, detectable metabolites, and metabolizing enzymes in humans include the following:===Pharmacomicrobiomics===The human metagenome (i.e., the genetic composition of an individual and all microorganisms that reside on or within the individual's body) varies considerably between individuals.", "Since the total number of microbial and viral cells in the human body (over 100 trillion) greatly outnumbers human cells (tens of trillions), there is considerable potential for interactions between drugs and an individual's microbiome, including: drugs altering the composition of the human microbiome, drug metabolism by microbial enzymes modifying the drug's pharmacokinetic profile, and microbial drug metabolism affecting a drug's clinical efficacy and toxicity profile.", "The field that studies these interactions is known as pharmacomicrobiomics.Similar to most biomolecules and other orally administered xenobiotics (i.e., drugs), amphetamine is predicted to undergo promiscuous metabolism by human gastrointestinal microbiota (primarily bacteria) prior to absorption into the blood stream.", "The first amphetamine-metabolizing microbial enzyme, tyramine oxidase from a strain of ''E.", "coli'' commonly found in the human gut, was identified in 2019.This enzyme was found to metabolize amphetamine, tyramine, and phenethylamine with roughly the same binding affinity for all three compounds.===Related endogenous compounds===Amphetamine has a very similar structure and function to the endogenous trace amines, which are naturally occurring neuromodulator molecules produced in the human body and brain.", "Among this group, the most closely related compounds are phenethylamine, the parent compound of amphetamine, and , a structural isomer of amphetamine (i.e., it has an identical molecular formula).", "In humans, phenethylamine is produced directly from by the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) enzyme, which converts into dopamine as well.", "In turn, is metabolized from phenethylamine by phenylethanolamine ''N''-methyltransferase, the same enzyme that metabolizes norepinephrine into epinephrine.", "Like amphetamine, both phenethylamine and regulate monoamine neurotransmission via ; unlike amphetamine, both of these substances are broken down by monoamine oxidase B, and therefore have a shorter half-life than amphetamine." ], [ "Chemistry", "Amphetamine is a methyl homolog of the mammalian neurotransmitter phenethylamine with the chemical formula .", "The carbon atom adjacent to the primary amine is a stereogenic center, and amphetamine is composed of a racemic 1:1 mixture of two enantiomers.", "This racemic mixture can be separated into its optical isomers: levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine.", "At room temperature, the pure free base of amphetamine is a mobile, colorless, and volatile liquid with a characteristically strong amine odor, and acrid, burning taste.", "Frequently prepared solid salts of amphetamine include amphetamine adipate, aspartate, hydrochloride, phosphate, saccharate, sulfate, and tannate.", "Dextroamphetamine sulfate is the most common enantiopure salt.", "Amphetamine is also the parent compound of its own structural class, which includes a number of psychoactive derivatives.", "In organic chemistry, amphetamine is an excellent chiral ligand for the stereoselective synthesis of .===Substituted derivatives===The substituted derivatives of amphetamine, or \"substituted amphetamines\", are a broad range of chemicals that contain amphetamine as a \"backbone\"; specifically, this chemical class includes derivative compounds that are formed by replacing one or more hydrogen atoms in the amphetamine core structure with substituents.", "The class includes amphetamine itself, stimulants like methamphetamine, serotonergic empathogens like MDMA, and decongestants like ephedrine, among other subgroups.===Synthesis===Since the first preparation was reported in 1887, numerous synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed.", "The most common route of both legal and illicit amphetamine synthesis employs a non-metal reduction known as the Leuckart reaction (method 1).", "In the first step, a reaction between phenylacetone and formamide, either using additional formic acid or formamide itself as a reducing agent, yields .", "This intermediate is then hydrolyzed using hydrochloric acid, and subsequently basified, extracted with organic solvent, concentrated, and distilled to yield the free base.", "The free base is then dissolved in an organic solvent, sulfuric acid added, and amphetamine precipitates out as the sulfate salt.A number of chiral resolutions have been developed to separate the two enantiomers of amphetamine.", "For example, racemic amphetamine can be treated with to form a diastereoisomeric salt which is fractionally crystallized to yield dextroamphetamine.", "Chiral resolution remains the most economical method for obtaining optically pure amphetamine on a large scale.", "In addition, several enantioselective syntheses of amphetamine have been developed.", "In one example, optically pure is condensed with phenylacetone to yield a chiral Schiff base.", "In the key step, this intermediate is reduced by catalytic hydrogenation with a transfer of chirality to the carbon atom alpha to the amino group.", "Cleavage of the benzylic amine bond by hydrogenation yields optically pure dextroamphetamine.A large number of alternative synthetic routes to amphetamine have been developed based on classic organic reactions.", "One example is the Friedel–Crafts alkylation of benzene by allyl chloride to yield beta chloropropylbenzene which is then reacted with ammonia to produce racemic amphetamine (method 2).", "Another example employs the Ritter reaction (method 3).", "In this route, allylbenzene is reacted acetonitrile in sulfuric acid to yield an organosulfate which in turn is treated with sodium hydroxide to give amphetamine via an acetamide intermediate.", "A third route starts with which through a double alkylation with methyl iodide followed by benzyl chloride can be converted into acid.", "This synthetic intermediate can be transformed into amphetamine using either a Hofmann or Curtius rearrangement (method 4).A significant number of amphetamine syntheses feature a reduction of a nitro, imine, oxime, or other nitrogen-containing functional groups.", "In one such example, a Knoevenagel condensation of benzaldehyde with nitroethane yields .", "The double bond and nitro group of this intermediate is reduced using either catalytic hydrogenation or by treatment with lithium aluminium hydride (method 5).", "Another method is the reaction of phenylacetone with ammonia, producing an imine intermediate that is reduced to the primary amine using hydrogen over a palladium catalyst or lithium aluminum hydride (method 6).+'''Amphetamine synthetic routes'''===Detection in body fluids===Amphetamine is frequently measured in urine or blood as part of a drug test for sports, employment, poisoning diagnostics, and forensics.", "Techniques such as immunoassay, which is the most common form of amphetamine test, may cross-react with a number of sympathomimetic drugs.", "Chromatographic methods specific for amphetamine are employed to prevent false positive results.", "Chiral separation techniques may be employed to help distinguish the source of the drug, whether prescription amphetamine, prescription amphetamine prodrugs, (e.g., selegiline), over-the-counter drug products that contain levomethamphetamine, or illicitly obtained substituted amphetamines.", "Several prescription drugs produce amphetamine as a metabolite, including benzphetamine, clobenzorex, famprofazone, fenproporex, lisdexamfetamine, mesocarb, methamphetamine, prenylamine, and selegiline, among others.", "These compounds may produce positive results for amphetamine on drug tests.", "Amphetamine is generally only detectable by a standard drug test for approximately 24 hours, although a high dose may be detectable for  days.For the assays, a study noted that an enzyme multiplied immunoassay technique (EMIT) assay for amphetamine and methamphetamine may produce more false positives than liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry.", "Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC–MS) of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the derivatizing agent chloride allows for the detection of methamphetamine in urine.", "GC–MS of amphetamine and methamphetamine with the chiral derivatizing agent Mosher's acid chloride allows for the detection of both dextroamphetamine and dextromethamphetamine in urine.", "Hence, the latter method may be used on samples that test positive using other methods to help distinguish between the various sources of the drug." ], [ "History, society, and culture", "Amphetamine was first synthesized in 1887 in Germany by Romanian chemist Lazăr Edeleanu who named it ''phenylisopropylamine''; its stimulant effects remained unknown until 1927, when it was independently resynthesized by Gordon Alles and reported to have sympathomimetic properties.", "Amphetamine had no medical use until late 1933, when Smith, Kline and French began selling it as an inhaler under the brand name Benzedrine as a decongestant.", "Benzedrine sulfate was introduced 3 years later and was used to treat a wide variety of medical conditions, including narcolepsy, obesity, low blood pressure, low libido, and chronic pain, among others.", "During World War II, amphetamine and methamphetamine were used extensively by both the Allied and Axis forces for their stimulant and performance-enhancing effects.", "As the addictive properties of the drug became known, governments began to place strict controls on the sale of amphetamine.", "For example, during the early 1970s in the United States, amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance under the Controlled Substances Act.", "In spite of strict government controls, amphetamine has been used legally or illicitly by people from a variety of backgrounds, including authors, musicians, mathematicians, and athletes.Amphetamine is still illegally synthesized today in clandestine labs and sold on the black market, primarily in European countries.", "Among European Union (EU) member states 11.9 million adults of ages have used amphetamine or methamphetamine at least once in their lives and 1.7 million have used either in the last year.", "During 2012, approximately 5.9 metric tons of illicit amphetamine were seized within EU member states; the \"street price\" of illicit amphetamine within the EU ranged from  per gram during the same period.", "Outside Europe, the illicit market for amphetamine is much smaller than the market for methamphetamine and MDMA.===Legal status===As a result of the United Nations 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, amphetamine became a schedule II controlled substance, as defined in the treaty, in all 183 state parties.", "Consequently, it is heavily regulated in most countries.", "Some countries, such as South Korea and Japan, have banned substituted amphetamines even for medical use.", "In other nations, such as Canada (schedule I drug), the Netherlands (List I drug), the United States (schedule II drug), Australia (schedule 8), Thailand (category 1 narcotic), and United Kingdom (class B drug), amphetamine is in a restrictive national drug schedule that allows for its use as a medical treatment.===Pharmaceutical products===Several currently marketed amphetamine formulations contain both enantiomers, including those marketed under the brand names Adderall, Adderall XR, Mydayis, Adzenys ER, , Dyanavel XR, Evekeo, and Evekeo ODT.", "Of those, Evekeo (including Evekeo ODT) is the only product containing only racemic amphetamine (as amphetamine sulfate), and is therefore the only one whose active moiety can be accurately referred to simply as \"amphetamine\".", "Dextroamphetamine, marketed under the brand names Dexedrine and Zenzedi, is the only enantiopure amphetamine product currently available.", "A prodrug form of dextroamphetamine, lisdexamfetamine, is also available and is marketed under the brand name Vyvanse.", "As it is a prodrug, lisdexamfetamine is structurally different from dextroamphetamine, and is inactive until it metabolizes into dextroamphetamine.", "The free base of racemic amphetamine was previously available as Benzedrine, Psychedrine, and Sympatedrine.", "Levoamphetamine was previously available as Cydril.", "Many current amphetamine pharmaceuticals are salts due to the comparatively high volatility of the free base.", "However, oral suspension and orally disintegrating tablet (ODT) dosage forms composed of the free base were introduced in 2015 and 2016, respectively.", "Some of the current brands and their generic equivalents are listed below.+ Amphetamine pharmaceuticals Brandname United StatesAdopted Name (D:L) ratio Dosageform Marketingstart date Sources Adderall – 3:1 (salts) tablet 1996 Adderall XR – 3:1 (salts) capsule 2001 Mydayis – 3:1 (salts) capsule 2017 Adzenys ER amphetamine 3:1 (base) suspension 2017 amphetamine 3:1 (base) ODT 2016 Dyanavel XR amphetamine 3.2:1 (base) suspension 2015 Evekeo amphetamine sulfate 1:1 (salts) tablet 2012 Evekeo ODT amphetamine sulfate 1:1 (salts) ODT 2019 Dexedrine dextroamphetamine sulfate 1:0 (salts) capsule 1976 Zenzedi dextroamphetamine sulfate 1:0 (salts) tablet 2013 Vyvanse lisdexamfetamine dimesylate 1:0 (prodrug) capsule 2007 tablet Xelstrym dextroamphetamine 1:0 (base) patch 2022" ], [ "Notes", ";Image legend" ], [ "Reference notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* *  – Dextroamphetamine*  – Levoamphetamine* Comparative Toxicogenomics Database entry: Amphetamine* Comparative Toxicogenomics Database entry: CARTPT" ] ]

[ [ "Asynchronous communication" ], [ "Introduction", "In telecommunications, '''asynchronous communication''' is transmission of data, generally without the use of an external clock signal, where data can be transmitted intermittently rather than in a steady stream.", "Any timing required to recover data from the communication symbols is encoded within the symbols.The most significant aspect of asynchronous communications is that data is not transmitted at regular intervals, thus making possible variable bit rate, and that the transmitter and receiver clock generators do not have to be exactly synchronized all the time.", "In asynchronous transmission, data is sent one byte at a time and each byte is preceded by start and stop bits." ], [ "Physical layer", "In asynchronous serial communication in the physical protocol layer, the data blocks are code words of a certain word length, for example octets (bytes) or ASCII characters, delimited by start bits and stop bits.", "A variable length space can be inserted between the code words.", "No bit synchronization signal is required.", "This is sometimes called character oriented communication.", "Examples include MNP2 and modems older than V.2." ], [ "Data link layer and higher", "Asynchronous communication at the data link layer or higher protocol layers is known as statistical multiplexing, for example Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).", "In this case, the asynchronously transferred blocks are called data packets, for example ATM cells.", "The opposite is circuit switched communication, which provides constant bit rate, for example ISDN and SONET/SDH.The packets may be encapsulated in a data frame, with a frame synchronization bit sequence indicating the start of the frame, and sometimes also a bit synchronization bit sequence, typically 01010101, for identification of the bit transition times.", "Note that at the physical layer, this is considered as synchronous serial communication.", "Examples of packet mode data link protocols that can be/are transferred using synchronous serial communication are the HDLC, Ethernet, PPP and USB protocols." ], [ "Application layer", "An asynchronous communication service or application does not require a constant bit rate.", "Examples are file transfer, email and the World Wide Web.", "An example of the opposite, a synchronous communication service, is realtime streaming media, for example IP telephony, IPTV and video conferencing." ], [ "Electronically mediated communication", "Electronically mediated communication often happens asynchronously in that the participants do not communicate concurrently.", "Examples include emailand bulletin-board systems, where participants send or post messages at different times than they read them.", "The term \"asynchronous communication\" acquired currency in the field of online learning, where teachers and students often exchange information asynchronously instead of synchronously (that is, simultaneously), as they would in face-to-face or in telephone conversations." ], [ "See also", "* Synchronization in telecommunications* Asynchronous serial communication* Asynchronous system* Asynchronous circuit* Anisochronous* Baud rate* Plesiochronous* Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH)" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Artillery" ], [ "Introduction", "US Artillerymen fire-off a artillery round with the newly fielded M777 Lightweight 155-millimeter Howitzer'''Artillery''' are ranged weapons that launch munitions far beyond the range and power of infantry firearms.", "Early artillery development focused on the ability to breach defensive walls and fortifications during sieges, and led to heavy, fairly immobile siege engines.", "As technology improved, lighter, more mobile field artillery cannons developed for battlefield use.", "This development continues today; modern self-propelled artillery vehicles are highly mobile weapons of great versatility generally providing the largest share of an army's total firepower.Originally, the word \"artillery\" referred to any group of soldiers primarily armed with some form of manufactured weapon or armour.", "Since the introduction of gunpowder and cannon, \"artillery\" has largely meant cannon, and in contemporary usage, usually refers to shell-firing guns, howitzers, and mortars (collectively called ''barrel artillery'', ''cannon artillery'' or ''gun artillery'') and rocket artillery.", "In common speech, the word \"artillery\" is often used to refer to individual devices, along with their accessories and fittings, although these assemblages are more properly called \"equipment\".", "However, there is no generally recognized generic term for a gun, howitzer, mortar, and so forth: the United States uses \"artillery piece\", but most English-speaking armies use \"gun\" and \"mortar\".", "The projectiles fired are typically either \"shot\" (if solid) or \"shell\" (if not solid).", "Historically, variants of solid shot including canister, chain shot and grapeshot were also used.", "\"Shell\" is a widely used generic term for a projectile, which is a component of munitions.By association, artillery may also refer to the arm of service that customarily operates such engines.", "In some armies, the artillery arm has operated field, coastal, anti-aircraft, and anti-tank artillery; in others these have been separate arms, and with some nations coastal has been a naval or marine responsibility.In the 20th century, target acquisition devices (such as radar) and techniques (such as sound ranging and flash spotting) emerged, primarily for artillery.", "These are usually utilized by one or more of the artillery arms.", "The widespread adoption of indirect fire in the early 20th century introduced the need for specialist data for field artillery, notably survey and meteorological, and in some armies, provision of these are the responsibility of the artillery arm.", "The majority of combat deaths in the Napoleonic Wars, World War I, and World War II were caused by artillery.", "In 1944, Joseph Stalin said in a speech that artillery was \"the god of war\"." ], [ "Artillery piece", "French soldiers in the Franco-Prussian War 1870–71British 64 Pounder Rifled Muzzle-Loaded (RML) Gun on a Moncrieff disappearing mount, at Scaur Hill Fort, Bermuda.", "This is a part of a fixed battery, meant to protect against over-land attack and to serve as coastal artillery.Although not called by that name, siege engines performing the role recognizable as artillery have been employed in warfare since antiquity.", "The first known catapult was developed in Syracuse in 399 BC.", "Until the introduction of gunpowder into western warfare, artillery was dependent upon mechanical energy which not only severely limited the kinetic energy of the projectiles, it also required the construction of very large engines to accumulate sufficient energy.", "A 1st-century BC Roman catapult launching stones achieved a kinetic energy of 16 kilojoules, compared to a mid-19th-century 12-pounder gun, which fired a round, with a kinetic energy of 240 kilojoules, or a 20th-century US battleship that fired a projectile from its main battery with an energy level surpassing 350 megajoules.From the Middle Ages through most of the modern era, artillery pieces on land were moved by horse-drawn gun carriages.", "In the contemporary era, artillery pieces and their crew relied on wheeled or tracked vehicles as transportation.", "These land versions of artillery were dwarfed by railway guns; the largest of these large-calibre guns ever conceived – Project Babylon of the Supergun affair – was theoretically capable of putting a satellite into orbit.", "Artillery used by naval forces has also changed significantly, with missiles generally replacing guns in surface warfare.Over the course of military history, projectiles were manufactured from a wide variety of materials, into a wide variety of shapes, using many different methods in which to target structural/defensive works and inflict enemy casualties.", "The engineering applications for ordnance delivery have likewise changed significantly over time, encompassing some of the most complex and advanced technologies in use today.In some armies, the weapon of artillery is the projectile, not the equipment that fires it.", "The process of delivering fire onto the target is called gunnery.", "The actions involved in operating an artillery piece are collectively called \"serving the gun\" by the \"detachment\" or gun crew, constituting either direct or indirect artillery fire.", "The manner in which gunnery crews (or formations) are employed is called artillery support.", "At different periods in history, this may refer to weapons designed to be fired from ground-, sea-, and even air-based weapons platforms.==Crew==Some armed forces use the term \"gunners\" for the soldiers and sailors with the primary function of using artillery.M777 Light Towed Howitzer, War in Afghanistan, 2009The gunners and their guns are usually grouped in teams called either \"crews\" or \"detachments\".", "Several such crews and teams with other functions are combined into a unit of artillery, usually called a battery, although sometimes called a company.", "In gun detachments, each role is numbered, starting with \"1\" the Detachment Commander, and the highest number being the Coverer, the second-in-command.", "\"Gunner\" is also the lowest rank, and junior non-commissioned officers are \"Bombardiers\" in some artillery arms.Batteries are roughly equivalent to a company in the infantry, and are combined into larger military organizations for administrative and operational purposes, either battalions or regiments, depending on the army.", "These may be grouped into brigades; the Russian army also groups some brigades into artillery divisions, and the People's Liberation Army has artillery corps.The term \"artillery\" also designates a combat arm of most military services when used organizationally to describe units and formations of the national armed forces that operate the weapons." ], [ "Tactics", "Artillery illuminating ammunition used in a shooting exercise on Simplon Pass, Switzerland.", "The illuminated mountain is Mount Fletschhorn, 9 km from the photographer's position.During military operations, field artillery has the role of providing support to other arms in combat or of attacking targets, particularly in-depth.", "Broadly, these effects fall into two categories, aiming either to suppress or neutralize the enemy, or to cause casualties, damage, and destruction.", "This is mostly achieved by delivering high-explosive munitions to suppress, or inflict casualties on the enemy from casing fragments and other debris and from blast, or by destroying enemy positions, equipment, and vehicles.", "Non-lethal munitions, notably smoke, can also suppress or neutralize the enemy by obscuring their view.Fire may be directed by an artillery observer or another observer, including crewed and uncrewed aircraft, or called onto map coordinates.Military doctrine has had a significant influence on the core engineering design considerations of artillery ordnance through its history, in seeking to achieve a balance between the delivered volume of fire with ordnance mobility.", "However, during the modern period, the consideration of protecting the gunners also arose due to the late-19th-century introduction of the new generation of infantry weapons using conoidal bullet, better known as the Minié ball, with a range almost as long as that of field artillery.The gunners' increasing proximity to and participation in direct combat against other combat arms and attacks by aircraft made the introduction of a gun shield necessary.", "The problems of how to employ a fixed or horse-towed gun in mobile warfare necessitated the development of new methods of transporting the artillery into combat.", "Two distinct forms of artillery were developed: the towed gun, used primarily to attack or defend a fixed-line; and the self-propelled gun, intended to accompany a mobile force and to provide continuous fire support and/or suppression.", "These influences have guided the development of artillery ordnance, systems, organizations, and operations until the present, with artillery systems capable of providing support at ranges from as little as 100 m to the intercontinental ranges of ballistic missiles.", "The only combat in which artillery is unable to take part is close-quarters combat, with the possible exception of artillery reconnaissance teams." ], [ "Etymology", "The word as used in the current context originated in the Middle Ages.", "One suggestion is that it comes from French ''atelier'', meaning the place where manual work is done.Another suggestion is that it originates from the 13th century and the Old French ''artillier'', designating craftsmen and manufacturers of all materials and warfare equipments (spears, swords, armor, war machines); and, for the next 250 years, the sense of the word \"artillery\" covered all forms of military weapons.", "Hence, the naming of the Honourable Artillery Company, which was essentially an infantry unit until the 19th century.Another suggestion is that it comes from the Italian ''arte de tirare'' (art of shooting), coined by one of the first theorists on the use of artillery, Niccolò Tartaglia." ], [ "History", "A bronze \"thousand ball thunder cannon\" from the ''Huolongjing''.Mechanical systems used for throwing ammunition in ancient warfare, also known as \"engines of war\", like the catapult, onager, trebuchet, and ballista, are also referred to by military historians as artillery.===Medieval===During medieval times, more types of artillery were developed, most notably the trebuchet.", "Traction trebuchets, using manpower to launch projectiles, have been used in ancient China since the 4th century as anti-personnel weapons.", "However, in the 12th century, the counterweight trebuchet was introduced, with the earliest mention of it being in 1187.===Invention of gunpowder===A depiction of an early vase-shaped cannon (shown here as the \"Long-range Awe-inspiring Cannon\"(威遠砲)) complete with a crude sight and an ignition port dated from around 1350 AD.", "The illustration is from the 14th century Ming Dynasty book ''Huolongjing''.Early Chinese artillery had vase-like shapes.", "This includes the \"long range awe inspiring\" cannon dated from 1350 and found in the 14th century Ming Dynasty treatise ''Huolongjing''.", "With the development of better metallurgy techniques, later cannons abandoned the vase shape of early Chinese artillery.", "This change can be seen in the bronze \"thousand ball thunder cannon\", an early example of field artillery.", "These small, crude weapons diffused into the Middle East (the ''madfaa'') and reached Europe in the 13th century, in a very limited manner.In Asia, Mongols adopted the Chinese artillery and used it effectively in the great conquest.", "By the late 14th century, Chinese rebels used organized artillery and cavalry to push Mongols out.As small smooth-bore barrels, these were initially cast in iron or bronze around a core, with the first drilled bore ordnance recorded in operation near Seville in 1247.They fired lead, iron, or stone balls, sometimes large arrows and on occasions simply handfuls of whatever scrap came to hand.", "During the Hundred Years' War, these weapons became more common, initially as the bombard and later the cannon.", "Cannon were always muzzle-loaders.", "While there were many early attempts at breech-loading designs, a lack of engineering knowledge rendered these even more dangerous to use than muzzle-loaders.===Expansion of use===French gunner in the 15th century, a 1904 illustrationFirst Battle of PanipatSiege of RanthamboreIn 1415, the Portuguese invaded the Mediterranean port town of Ceuta.", "While it is difficult to confirm the use of firearms in the siege of the city, it is known the Portuguese defended it thereafter with firearms, namely ''bombardas'', ''colebratas'', and ''falconetes''.", "In 1419, Sultan Abu Sa'id led an army to reconquer the fallen city, and Marinids brought cannons and used them in the assault on Ceuta.", "Finally, hand-held firearms and riflemen appear in Morocco, in 1437, in an expedition against the people of Tangiers.", "It is clear these weapons had developed into several different forms, from small guns to large artillery pieces.The artillery revolution in Europe caught on during the Hundred Years' War and changed the way that battles were fought.", "In the preceding decades, the English had even used a gunpowder-like weapon in military campaigns against the Scottish.", "However, at this time, the cannons used in battle were very small and not particularly powerful.", "Cannons were only useful for the defense of a castle, as demonstrated at Breteuil in 1356, when the besieged English used a cannon to destroy an attacking French assault tower.", "By the end of the 14th century, cannon were only powerful enough to knock in roofs, and could not penetrate castle walls.However, a major change occurred between 1420 and 1430, when artillery became much more powerful and could now batter strongholds and fortresses quite efficiently.", "The English, French, and Burgundians all advanced in military technology, and as a result the traditional advantage that went to the defense in a siege was lost.", "The cannon during this period were elongated, and the recipe for gunpowder was improved to make it three times as powerful as before.", "These changes led to the increased power in the artillery weapons of the time.The Austrian Pumhart von Steyr, the earliest extant large-calibre gunJoan of Arc encountered gunpowder weaponry several times.", "When she led the French against the English at the Battle of Tourelles, in 1430, she faced heavy gunpowder fortifications, and yet her troops prevailed in that battle.", "In addition, she led assaults against the English-held towns of Jargeau, Meung, and Beaugency, all with the support of large artillery units.", "When she led the assault on Paris, Joan faced stiff artillery fire, especially from the suburb of St. Denis, which ultimately led to her defeat in this battle.", "In April 1430, she went to battle against the Burgundians, whose support was purchased by the English.", "At this time, the Burgundians had the strongest and largest gunpowder arsenal among the European powers, and yet the French, under Joan of Arc's leadership, were able to beat back the Burgundians and defend themselves.", "As a result, most of the battles of the Hundred Years' War that Joan of Arc participated in were fought with gunpowder artillery.Dardanelles Gun.", "Very heavy 15th-C bronze muzzle-loading cannon of type used by Ottomans in siege of Constantinople (1453), showing ornate decoration.", "Taken by The Land Feb 07 at Fort Nelson, Hampshire.The army of Mehmet the Conqueror, which conquered Constantinople in 1453, included both artillery and foot soldiers armed with gunpowder weapons.", "The Ottomans brought to the siege sixty-nine guns in fifteen separate batteries and trained them at the walls of the city.", "The barrage of Ottoman cannon fire lasted forty days, and they are estimated to have fired 19,320 times.", "Artillery also played a decisive role in the Battle of St. Jakob an der Birs of 1444.Early cannon were not always reliable; King James II of Scotland was killed by the accidental explosion of one of his own cannon, imported from Flanders, at the siege of Roxburgh Castle in 1460.The able use of artillery supported to a large measure the expansion and defense of the Portuguese Empire, as it was a necessary tool that allowed the Portuguese to face overwhelming odds both on land and sea from Morocco to Asia.", "In great sieges and in sea battles, the Portuguese demonstrated a level of proficiency in the use of artillery after the beginning of the 16th century unequalled by contemporary European neighbours, in part due to the experience gained in intense fighting in Morocco, which served as a proving ground for artillery and its practical application, and made Portugal a forerunner in gunnery for decades.", "During the reign of King Manuel (1495–1521) at least 2017 cannon were sent to Morocco for garrison defense, with more than 3000 cannon estimated to have been required during that 26 year period.", "An especially noticeable division between siege guns and anti-personnel guns enhanced the use and effectiveness of Portuguese firearms above contemporary powers, making cannon the most essential element in the Portuguese arsenal.Portuguese artillery on display at the Military Museum of Lisbon, Portugal.The three major classes of Portuguese artillery were anti-personnel guns with a high borelength (including: ''rebrodequim'', ''berço'', ''falconete'', ''falcão'', ''sacre'', ''áspide'', ''cão'', ''serpentina'' and ''passavolante''); bastion guns which could batter fortifications (''camelete'', ''leão'', ''pelicano'', ''basilisco'', ''águia'', ''camelo'', ''roqueira'', ''urso''); and howitzers that fired large stone cannonballs in an elevated arch, weighted up to 4000 pounds and could fire incendiary devices, such as a hollow iron ball filled with pitch and fuse, designed to be fired at close range and burst on contact.", "The most popular in Portuguese arsenals was the ''berço'', a 5 cm, one pounder bronze breech-loading cannon that weighted 150 kg with an effective range of 600 meters.A tactical innovation the Portuguese introduced in fort defense was the use of combinations of projectiles against massed assaults.", "Although canister shot had been developed in the early 15th century, the Portuguese were the first to employ it extensively, and Portuguese engineers invented a canister round which consisted of a thin lead case filled with iron pellets, that broke up at the muzzle and scattered its contents in a narrow pattern.", "An innovation which Portugal adopted in advance of other European powers was fuse-delayed action shells, and were commonly used in 1505.Although dangerous, their effectiveness meant a sixth of all rounds used by the Portuguese in Morocco were of the fused-shell variety.Three of the large Korean artillery, Chongtong in the Jinju National Museum.", "These cannons were made in the mid 16th century.", "The closest is a \"Cheonja chongtong\"(천자총통, 天字銃筒), the second is a \"Jija chongtong\"(지자총통, 地字銃筒), and the third is a \"Hyeonja chongtong\"(현자총통, 玄字銃筒).The new Ming Dynasty established the \"Divine Engine Battalion\" (神机营), which specialized in various types of artillery.", "Light cannons and cannons with multiple volleys were developed.", "In a campaign to suppress a local minority rebellion near today's Burmese border, \"the Ming army used a 3-line method of arquebuses/muskets to destroy an elephant formation\".When the Portuguese and Spanish arrived at Southeast Asia, they found that the local kingdoms were already using cannons.", "Portuguese and Spanish invaders were unpleasantly surprised and even outgunned on occasion.", "Duarte Barbosa ca.", "1514 said that the inhabitants of Java were great masters in casting artillery and very good artillerymen.", "They made many one-pounder cannons (cetbang or rentaka), long muskets, ''spingarde'' (arquebus), ''schioppi'' (hand cannon), Greek fire, guns (cannons), and other fire-works.", "Every place was considered excellent in casting artillery, and in the knowledge of using it.", "In 1513, the Javanese fleet led by Pati Unus sailed to attack Portuguese Malacca \"with much artillery made in Java, for the Javanese are skilled in founding and casting, and in all works in iron, over and above what they have in India\".", "By the early 16th century, the Javanese already locally-producing large guns, some of them still survived until the present day and dubbed as \"sacred cannon\" or \"holy cannon\".", "These cannons varied between 180 and 260 pounders, weighing anywhere between 3–8 tons, measuring between 3–6 m.Between 1593 and 1597, about 200,000 Korean and Chinese troops which fought against Japan in Korea actively used heavy artillery in both siege and field combat.", "Korean forces mounted artillery in ships as naval guns, providing an advantage against Japanese navy which used ''Kunikuzushi'' (国崩し – Japanese breech-loading swivel gun) and ''Ōzutsu'' (大筒 – large size Tanegashima) as their largest firearms.===Smoothbores===Artillery with gabion fortificationBombards were of value mainly in sieges.", "A famous Turkish example used at the siege of Constantinople in 1453 weighed 19 tons, took 200 men and sixty oxen to emplace, and could fire just seven times a day.", "The Fall of Constantinople was perhaps \"the first event of supreme importance whose result was determined by the use of artillery\" when the huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached the city's walls, ending the Byzantine Empire, according to Sir Charles Oman.Bombards developed in Europe were massive smoothbore weapons distinguished by their lack of a field carriage, immobility once emplaced, highly individual design, and noted unreliability (in 1460 James II, King of Scots, was killed when one exploded at the siege of Roxburgh).", "Their large size precluded the barrels being cast and they were constructed out of metal staves or rods bound together with hoops like a barrel, giving their name to the gun barrel.The use of the word \"cannon\" marks the introduction in the 15th century of a dedicated field carriage with axle, trail and animal-drawn limber—this produced mobile field pieces that could move and support an army in action, rather than being found only in the siege and static defenses.", "The reduction in the size of the barrel was due to improvements in both iron technology and gunpowder manufacture, while the development of trunnions—projections at the side of the cannon as an integral part of the cast—allowed the barrel to be fixed to a more movable base, and also made raising or lowering the barrel much easier.The Tsar Cannon (caliber 890 mm), cast in 1586 in Moscow.", "It is the largest bombard in the world.The first land-based mobile weapon is usually credited to Jan Žižka, who deployed his oxen-hauled cannon during the Hussite Wars of Bohemia (1418–1424).", "However, cannons were still large and cumbersome.", "With the rise of musketry in the 16th century, cannon were largely (though not entirely) displaced from the battlefield—the cannon were too slow and cumbersome to be used and too easily lost to a rapid enemy advance.The combining of shot and powder into a single unit, a cartridge, occurred in the 1620s with a simple fabric bag, and was quickly adopted by all nations.", "It speeded loading and made it safer, but unexpelled bag fragments were an additional fouling in the gun barrel and a new tool—a worm—was introduced to remove them.", "Gustavus Adolphus is identified as the general who made cannon an effective force on the battlefield—pushing the development of much lighter and smaller weapons and deploying them in far greater numbers than previously.", "The outcome of battles was still determined by the clash of infantry.Shells, explosive-filled fused projectiles, were in use by the 15th century.", "The development of specialized pieces—shipboard artillery, howitzers and mortars—was also begun in this period.", "More esoteric designs, like the multi-barrel ''ribauldequin'' (known as \"organ guns\"), were also produced.The 1650 book by Kazimierz Siemienowicz ''Artis Magnae Artilleriae pars prima'' was one of the most important contemporary publications on the subject of artillery.", "For over two centuries this work was used in Europe as a basic artillery manual.One of the most significant effects of artillery during this period was however somewhat more indirect—by easily reducing to rubble any medieval-type fortification or city wall (some which had stood since Roman times), it abolished millennia of siege-warfare strategies and styles of fortification building.", "This led, among other things, to a frenzy of new bastion-style fortifications to be built all over Europe and in its colonies, but also had a strong integrating effect on emerging nation-states, as kings were able to use their newfound artillery superiority to force any local dukes or lords to submit to their will, setting the stage for the absolutist kingdoms to come.Modern rocket artillery can trace its heritage back to the Mysorean rockets of India.", "Their first recorded use was in 1780 during the battles of the Second, Third and Fourth Mysore Wars.", "The wars fought between the British East India Company and the Kingdom of Mysore in India made use of the rockets as a weapon.", "In the Battle of Pollilur, the Siege of Seringapatam (1792) and in Battle of Seringapatam in 1799, these rockets were used with considerable effect against the British.", "After the wars, several Mysore rockets were sent to England, but experiments with heavier payloads were unsuccessful.", "In 1804 William Congreve, considering the Mysorian rockets to have too short a range (less than 1,000 yards) developed rockets in numerous sizes with ranges up to 3,000 yards and eventually utilizing iron casing as the Congreve rocket which were used effectively during the Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812.===Napoleonic===Acre to commemorate the city's resistance to the 1799 siege by Napoleon's troops.With the Napoleonic Wars, artillery experienced changes in both physical design and operation.", "Rather than being overseen by \"mechanics\", artillery was viewed as its own service branch with the capability of dominating the battlefield.", "The success of the French artillery companies was at least in part due to the presence of specially trained artillery officers leading and coordinating during the chaos of battle.", "Napoleon, himself a former artillery officer, perfected the tactic of massed artillery batteries unleashed upon a critical point in his enemies' line as a prelude to a decisive infantry and cavalry assault.Physically, cannons continued to become smaller and lighter.", "During the Seven Years War, King Frederick II of Prussia used these advances to deploy horse artillery that could move throughout the battlefield.", "Frederick also introduced the reversible iron ramrod, which was much more resistant to breakage than older wooden designs.", "The reversibility aspect also helped increase the rate of fire, since a soldier would no longer have to worry about what end of the ramrod they were using.Jean-Baptiste de Gribeauval, a French artillery engineer, introduced the standardization of cannon design in the mid-18th century.", "He developed a 6-inch (150 mm) field howitzer whose gun barrel, carriage assembly and ammunition specifications were made uniform for all French cannons.", "The standardized interchangeable parts of these cannons down to the nuts, bolts and screws made their mass production and repair much easier.", "While the Gribeauval system made for more efficient production and assembly, the carriages used were heavy and the gunners were forced to march on foot (instead of riding on the limber and gun as in the British system).", "Each cannon was named for the weight of its projectiles, giving us variants such as 4, 8, and 12, indicating the weight in pounds.", "The projectiles themselves included solid balls or canister containing lead bullets or other material.", "These canister shots acted as massive shotguns, peppering the target with hundreds of projectiles at close range.", "The solid balls, known as round shot, was most effective when fired at shoulder-height across a flat, open area.", "The ball would tear through the ranks of the enemy or bounce along the ground breaking legs and ankles.===Modern===Prussian artillery at the Battle of Langensalza (1866)The development of modern artillery occurred in the mid to late 19th century as a result of the convergence of various improvements in the underlying technology.", "Advances in metallurgy allowed for the construction of breech-loading rifled guns that could fire at a much greater muzzle velocity.After the British artillery was shown up in the Crimean War as having barely changed since the Napoleonic Wars, the industrialist William Armstrong was awarded a contract by the government to design a new piece of artillery.", "Production started in 1855 at the Elswick Ordnance Company and the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich, and the outcome was the revolutionary Armstrong Gun, which marked the birth of modern artillery.", "Three of its features particularly stand out.Armstrong gun deployed by Japan during the leftFirst, the piece was rifled, which allowed for a much more accurate and powerful action.", "Although rifling had been tried on small arms since the 15th century, the necessary machinery to accurately rifle artillery was not available until the mid-19th century.", "Martin von Wahrendorff, and Joseph Whitworth independently produced rifled cannon in the 1840s, but it was Armstrong's gun that was first to see widespread use during the Crimean War.", "The cast iron shell of the Armstrong gun was similar in shape to a Minié ball and had a thin lead coating which made it fractionally larger than the gun's bore and which engaged with the gun's rifling grooves to impart spin to the shell.", "This spin, together with the elimination of windage as a result of the tight fit, enabled the gun to achieve greater range and accuracy than existing smooth-bore muzzle-loaders with a smaller powder charge.8-inch Armstrong gun during American Civil War, Fort Fisher, 1865His gun was also a breech-loader.", "Although attempts at breech-loading mechanisms had been made since medieval times, the essential engineering problem was that the mechanism could not withstand the explosive charge.", "It was only with the advances in metallurgy and precision engineering capabilities during the Industrial Revolution that Armstrong was able to construct a viable solution.", "The gun combined all the properties that make up an effective artillery piece.", "The gun was mounted on a carriage in such a way as to return the gun to firing position after the recoil.What made the gun really revolutionary lay in the technique of the construction of the gun barrel that allowed it to withstand much more powerful explosive forces.", "The \"built-up\" method involved assembling the barrel with wrought-iron (later mild steel was used) tubes of successively smaller diameter.", "The tube would then be heated to allow it to expand and fit over the previous tube.", "When it cooled the gun would contract although not back to its original size, which allowed an even pressure along the walls of the gun which was directed inward against the outward forces that the gun's firing exerted on the barrel.Another innovative feature, more usually associated with 20th-century guns, was what Armstrong called its \"grip\", which was essentially a squeeze bore; the 6 inches of the bore at the muzzle end was of slightly smaller diameter, which centered the shell before it left the barrel and at the same time slightly swaged down its lead coating, reducing its diameter and slightly improving its ballistic qualities.The French Canon de 75 modèle 1897, the first modern artillery pieceArmstrong's system was adopted in 1858, initially for \"special service in the field\" and initially he produced only smaller artillery pieces, 6-pounder (2.5 in/64 mm) mountain or light field guns, 9-pounder (3 in/76 mm) guns for horse artillery, and 12-pounder (3 inches /76 mm) field guns.The first cannon to contain all 'modern' features is generally considered to be the French 75 of 1897.The gun used cased ammunition, was breech-loading, had modern sights, and a self-contained firing mechanism.", "It was the first field gun to include a hydro-pneumatic recoil mechanism, which kept the gun's trail and wheels perfectly still during the firing sequence.", "Since it did not need to be re-aimed after each shot, the crew could fire as soon as the barrel returned to its resting position.", "In typical use, the French 75 could deliver fifteen rounds per minute on its target, either shrapnel or melinite high-explosive, up to about 5 miles (8,500 m) away.", "Its firing rate could even reach close to 30 rounds per minute, albeit only for a very short time and with a highly experienced crew.", "These were rates that contemporary bolt action rifles could not match.====Indirect fire====Indirect fire, the firing of a projectile without relying on direct line of sight between the gun and the target, possibly dates back to the 16th century.", "Early battlefield use of indirect fire may have occurred at Paltzig in July 1759, when the Russian artillery fired over the tops of trees, and at the Battle of Waterloo, where a battery of the Royal Horse Artillery fired shrapnel indirectly against advancing French troops.In 1882, Russian Lieutenant Colonel KG Guk published ''Indirect Fire for Field Artillery'', which provided a practical method of using aiming points for indirect fire by describing, \"all the essentials of aiming points, crest clearance, and corrections to fire by an observer\".A few years later, the Richtfläche (lining-plane) sight was invented in Germany and provided a means of indirect laying in azimuth, complementing the clinometers for indirect laying in elevation which already existed.", "Despite conservative opposition within the German army, indirect fire was adopted as doctrine by the 1890s.", "In the early 1900s, Goertz in Germany developed an optical sight for azimuth laying.", "It quickly replaced the lining-plane; in English, it became the 'Dial Sight' (UK) or 'Panoramic Telescope' (US).The British halfheartedly experimented with indirect fire techniques since the 1890s, but with the onset of the Boer War, they were the first to apply the theory in practice in 1899, although they had to improvise without a lining-plane sight.In the next 15 years leading up to World War I, the techniques of indirect fire became available for all types of artillery.", "Indirect fire was the defining characteristic of 20th-century artillery and led to undreamt of changes in the amount of artillery, its tactics, organisation, and techniques, most of which occurred during World War I.An implication of indirect fire and improving guns was increasing range between gun and target, this increased the time of flight and the vertex of the trajectory.", "The result was decreasing accuracy (the increasing distance between the target and the mean point of impact of the shells aimed at it) caused by the increasing effects of non-standard conditions.", "Indirect firing data was based on standard conditions including a specific muzzle velocity, zero wind, air temperature and density, and propellant temperature.", "In practice, this standard combination of conditions almost never existed, they varied throughout the day and day to day, and the greater the time of flight, the greater the inaccuracy.", "An added complication was the need for survey to accurately fix the coordinates of the gun position and provide accurate orientation for the guns.", "Of course, targets had to be accurately located, but by 1916, air photo interpretation techniques enabled this, and ground survey techniques could sometimes be used.15cm field howitzers during World War IIn 1914, the methods of correcting firing data for the actual conditions were often convoluted, and the availability of data about actual conditions was rudimentary or non-existent, the assumption was that fire would always be ranged (adjusted).", "British heavy artillery worked energetically to progressively solve all these problems from late 1914 onwards, and by early 1918, had effective processes in place for both field and heavy artillery.", "These processes enabled 'map-shooting', later called 'predicted fire'; it meant that effective fire could be delivered against an accurately located target without ranging.", "Nevertheless, the mean point of impact was still some tens of yards from the target-centre aiming point.", "It was not precision fire, but it was good enough for concentrations and barrages.", "These processes remain in use into the 21st century with refinements to calculations enabled by computers and improved data capture about non-standard conditions.The British major-general Henry Hugh Tudor pioneered armour and artillery cooperation at the breakthrough Battle of Cambrai.", "The improvements in providing and using data for non-standard conditions (propellant temperature, muzzle velocity, wind, air temperature, and barometric pressure) were developed by the major combatants throughout the war and enabled effective predicted fire.", "The effectiveness of this was demonstrated by the British in 1917 (at Cambrai) and by Germany the following year (Operation Michael).Major General J.B.A.", "Bailey, British Army (retired) wrote:An estimated 75,000 French soldiers were casualties of friendly artillery fire in the four years of World War I.===Precision-guidance===M982 Excalibur guided artillery shellModern artillery is most obviously distinguished by its long range, firing an explosive shell or rocket and a mobile carriage for firing and transport.", "However, its most important characteristic is the use of indirect fire, whereby the firing equipment is aimed without seeing the target through its sights.", "Indirect fire emerged at the beginning of the 20th century and was greatly enhanced by the development of predicted fire methods in World War I.", "However, indirect fire was area fire; it was and is not suitable for destroying point targets; its primary purpose is area suppression.", "Nevertheless, by the late 1970s precision-guided munitions started to appear, notably the US 155 mm Copperhead and its Soviet 152 mm Krasnopol equivalent that had success in Indian service.", "These relied on laser designation to 'illuminate' the target that the shell homed onto.", "However, in the early 21st century, the Global Positioning System (GPS) enabled relatively cheap and accurate guidance for shells and missiles, notably the US 155 mm Excalibur and the 227 mm GMLRS rocket.", "The introduction of these led to a new issue, the need for very accurate three dimensional target coordinates—the mensuration process.M1156 Precision Guidance Kit can be added to unguided projectilesWeapons covered by the term 'modern artillery' include \"cannon\" artillery (such as howitzer, mortar, and field gun) and rocket artillery.", "Certain smaller-caliber mortars are more properly designated small arms rather than artillery, albeit indirect-fire small arms.", "This term also came to include coastal artillery which traditionally defended coastal areas against seaborne attack and controlled the passage of ships.", "With the advent of powered flight at the start of the 20th century, artillery also included ground-based anti-aircraft batteries.The term \"artillery\" has traditionally not been used for projectiles with internal guidance systems, preferring the term \"missilery\", though some modern artillery units employ surface-to-surface missiles.", "Advances in terminal guidance systems for small munitions has allowed large-caliber guided projectiles to be developed, blurring this distinction.", "''See Long Range Precision Fires (LRPF), Joint terminal attack controller''" ], [ "Ammunition", "One of the most important roles of logistics is the supply of munitions as a primary type of artillery consumable, their storage (ammunition dump, arsenal, magazine) and the provision of fuzes, detonators and warheads at the point where artillery troops will assemble the charge, projectile, bomb or shell.A round of artillery ammunition comprises four components:# Fuze# Projectile# Propellant# Primer===Fuzes===Fuzes are the devices that initiate an artillery projectile, either to detonate its High Explosive (HE) filling or eject its cargo (illuminating flare or smoke canisters being examples).", "The official military spelling is \"fuze\".", "Broadly there are four main types:* impact (including graze and delay)* mechanical time including airburst* proximity sensor including airburst* programmable electronic detonation including airburstMost artillery fuzes are nose fuzes.", "However, base fuzes have been used with armor-piercing shells and for squash head (High-Explosive Squash Head (HESH) or High Explosive, Plastic (HEP) anti-tank shells).", "At least one nuclear shell and its non-nuclear spotting version also used a multi-deck mechanical time fuze fitted into its base.Impact fuzes were, and in some armies remain, the standard fuze for HE projectiles.", "Their default action is normally 'superquick', some have had a 'graze' action which allows them to penetrate light cover and others have 'delay'.", "Delay fuzes allow the shell to penetrate the ground before exploding.", "Armor or Concrete-Piercing (AP or CP) fuzes are specially hardened.", "During World War I and later, ricochet fire with delay or graze fuzed HE shells, fired with a flat angle of descent, was used to achieve airburst.HE shells can be fitted with other fuzes.", "Airburst fuzes usually have a combined airburst and impact function.", "However, until the introduction of proximity fuzes, the airburst function was mostly used with cargo munitions—for example, shrapnel, illumination, and smoke.", "The larger calibers of anti-aircraft artillery are almost always used airburst.", "Airburst fuzes have to have the fuze length (running time) set on them.", "This is done just before firing using either a wrench or a fuze setter pre-set to the required fuze length.Early airburst fuzes used igniferous timers which lasted into the second half of the 20th century.", "Mechanical time fuzes appeared in the early part of the century.", "These required a means of powering them.", "The Thiel mechanism used a spring and escapement (i.e.", "'clockwork'), Junghans used centrifugal force and gears, and Dixi used centrifugal force and balls.", "From about 1980, electronic time fuzes started replacing mechanical ones for use with cargo munitions.Proximity fuzes have been of two types: photo-electric or radar.", "The former was not very successful and seems only to have been used with British anti-aircraft artillery 'unrotated projectiles' (rockets) in World War II.", "Radar proximity fuzes were a big improvement over the mechanical (time) fuzes which they replaced.", "Mechanical time fuzes required an accurate calculation of their running time, which was affected by non-standard conditions.", "With HE (requiring a burst 20 to above the ground), if this was very slightly wrong the rounds would either hit the ground or burst too high.", "Accurate running time was less important with cargo munitions that burst much higher.The first radar proximity fuzes (perhaps originally codenamed 'VT' and later called Variable Time (VT)) were invented by the British and developed by the US and initially used against aircraft in World War II.", "Their ground use was delayed for fear of the enemy recovering 'blinds' (artillery shells which failed to detonate) and copying the fuze.", "The first proximity fuzes were designed to detonate about above the ground.", "These air-bursts are much more lethal against personnel than ground bursts because they deliver a greater proportion of useful fragments and deliver them into terrain where a prone soldier would be protected from ground bursts.However, proximity fuzes can suffer premature detonation because of the moisture in heavy rain clouds.", "This led to 'Controlled Variable Time' (CVT) after World War II.", "These fuzes have a mechanical timer that switched on the radar about 5 seconds before expected impact, they also detonated on impact.The proximity fuze emerged on the battlefields of Europe in late December 1944.They have become known as the U.S.", "Artillery's \"Christmas present\", and were much appreciated when they arrived during the Battle of the Bulge.", "They were also used to great effect in anti-aircraft projectiles in the Pacific against ''kamikaze'' as well as in Britain against V-1 flying bombs.Electronic multi-function fuzes started to appear around 1980.Using solid-state electronics they were relatively cheap and reliable, and became the standard fitted fuze in operational ammunition stocks in some western armies.", "The early versions were often limited to proximity airburst, albeit with height of burst options, and impact.", "Some offered a go/no-go functional test through the fuze setter.Later versions introduced induction fuze setting and testing instead of physically placing a fuze setter on the fuze.", "The latest, such as Junghan's DM84U provide options giving, superquick, delay, a choice of proximity heights of burst, time and a choice of foliage penetration depths.A new type of artillery fuze will appear soon.", "In addition to other functions these offer some course correction capability, not full precision but sufficient to significantly reduce the dispersion of the shells on the ground.===Projectiles===nuclear warheads, as seen in this 1953 nuclear test.The projectile is the munition or \"bullet\" fired downrange.", "This may be an explosive device.", "Projectiles have traditionally been classified as \"shot\" or \"shell\", the former being solid and the latter having some form of \"payload\".Shells can be divided into three configurations: bursting, base ejection or nose ejection.", "The latter is sometimes called the shrapnel configuration.", "The most modern is base ejection, which was introduced in World War I.", "Base and nose ejection are almost always used with airburst fuzes.", "Bursting shells use various types of fuze depending on the nature of the payload and the tactical need at the time.Payloads have included:* '''Bursting''': high-explosive, white phosphorus, coloured marker, chemical, nuclear devices; high-explosive anti-tank and canister may be considered special types of bursting shell.", "* '''Nose ejection''': shrapnel, star, incendiary and flechette (a more modern version of shrapnel).", "* '''Base ejection''': Dual-Purpose Improved Conventional Munition bomblets, which arm themselves and function after a set number of rotations after having been ejected from the projectile (this produces unexploded sub-munitions, or \"duds\", which remain dangerous), scatterable mines, illuminating, coloured flare, smoke, incendiary, propaganda, chaff (foil to jam radars) and modern exotics such as electronic payloads and sensor-fuzed munitions.===Stabilization===* '''Rifled''': Artillery projectiles have traditionally been spin-stabilised, meaning that they spin in flight so that gyroscopic forces prevent them from tumbling.", "Spin is induced by gun barrels having rifling, which engages a soft metal band around the projectile, called a \"driving band\" (UK) or \"rotating band\" (U.S.).", "The driving band is usually made of copper, but synthetic materials have been used.", "* '''Smoothbore/fin-stabilized''': In modern artillery, smoothbore barrels have been used mostly by mortars.", "These projectiles use fins in the airflow at their rear to maintain correct orientation.", "The primary benefits over rifled barrels is reduced barrel wear, longer ranges that can be achieved (due to the reduced loss of energy to friction and gas escaping around the projectile via the rifling) and larger explosive cores for a given caliber artillery due to less metal needing to be used to form the case of the projectile because of less force applied to the shell from the non-rifled sides of the barrel of smooth bore guns.", "* '''Rifled/fin-stabilized''': A combination of the above can be used, where the barrel is rifled, but the projectile also has deployable fins for stabilization, guidance or gliding.===Propellant===152 mm howitzer D-20 during the Iran–Iraq WarMost forms of artillery require a propellant to propel the projectile at the target.", "Propellant is always a low explosive, which means it deflagrates, rather than detonating like high explosives.", "The shell is accelerated to a high velocity in a very short time by the rapid generation of gas from the burning propellant.", "This high pressure is achieved by burning the propellant in a contained area, either the chamber of a gun barrel or the combustion chamber of a rocket motor.Until the late 19th century, the only available propellant was black powder.", "It had many disadvantages as a propellant; it has relatively low power, requiring large amounts of powder to fire projectiles, and created thick clouds of white smoke that would obscure the targets, betray the positions of guns, and make aiming impossible.", "In 1846, nitrocellulose (also known as guncotton) was discovered, and the high explosive nitroglycerin was discovered at nearly the same time.", "Nitrocellulose was significantly more powerful than black powder, and was smokeless.", "Early guncotton was unstable, however, and burned very fast and hot, leading to greatly increased barrel wear.", "Widespread introduction of smokeless powder would wait until the advent of the double-base powders, which combine nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin to produce powerful, smokeless, stable propellant.Many other formulations were developed in the following decades, generally trying to find the optimum characteristics of a good artillery propellant – low temperature, high energy, non-corrosive, highly stable, cheap, and easy to manufacture in large quantities.", "Modern gun propellants are broadly divided into three classes: single-base propellants that are mainly or entirely nitrocellulose based, double-base propellants consisting of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin, and triple base composed of a combination of nitrocellulose and nitroglycerin and nitroguanidine.Artillery shells fired from a barrel can be assisted to greater range in three ways:* Rocket-assisted projectiles enhance and sustain the projectile's velocity by providing additional 'push' from a small rocket motor that is part of the projectile's base.", "* Base bleed uses a small pyrotechnic charge at the base of the projectile to introduce sufficient combustion products into the low-pressure region behind the base of the projectile responsible for a large proportion of the drag.", "* Ramjet-assisted, similar to rocket-assisted, but using a ramjet instead of a rocket motor; it is anticipated that a ramjet-assisted 120-mm mortar shell could reach a range of .Propelling charges for barrel artillery can be provided either as cartridge bags or in metal cartridge cases.", "Generally, anti-aircraft artillery and smaller-caliber (up to 3\" or 76.2 mm) guns use metal cartridge cases that include the round and propellant, similar to a modern rifle cartridge.", "This simplifies loading and is necessary for very high rates of fire.", "Bagged propellant allows the amount of powder to be raised or lowered, depending on the range to the target.", "It also makes handling of larger shells easier.", "Cases and bags require totally different types of breech.", "A metal case holds an integral primer to initiate the propellant and provides the gas seal to prevent the gases leaking out of the breech; this is called obturation.", "With bagged charges, the breech itself provides obturation and holds the primer.", "In either case, the primer is usually percussion, but electrical is also used, and laser ignition is emerging.", "Modern 155 mm guns have a primer magazine fitted to their breech.Battleship ammunition: 16\" artillery shells aboard a United States Artillery ammunition has four classifications according to use:* '''Service''': ammunition used in live fire training or for wartime use in a combat zone.", "Also known as \"warshot\" ammunition.", "* '''Practice''': Ammunition with a non- or minimally-explosive projectile that mimics the characteristics (range, accuracy) of live rounds for use under training conditions.", "Practice artillery ammunition often utilizes a colored-smoke-generating bursting charge for marking purposes in place of the normal high-explosive charge.", "* '''Dummy''': Ammunition with an inert warhead, inert primer, and no propellant; used for training or display.", "* '''Blank''': Ammunition with live primer, greatly reduced propellant charge (typically black powder), and no projectile; used for training, demonstration or ceremonial use." ], [ "Field artillery system", "''Cyclone'' of the 320th French Artillery, in Hoogstade, Belgium, September 5, 1917Because modern field artillery mostly uses indirect fire, the guns have to be part of a system that enables them to attack targets invisible to them, in accordance with the combined arms plan.The main functions in the field artillery system are:* Communications* Command: authority to allocate resources;* Target acquisition: detect, identify and deduce the location of targets;* Control: authority to decide which targets to attack and allot fire units to the attack;* Computation of firing data – to deliver fire from a fire unit onto its target;* Fire units: guns, launchers or mortars grouped together;* Specialist services: produce data to support the production of accurate firing data;* Logistic services: to provide combat supplies, particularly ammunition, and equipment support.All these calculations to produce a quadrant elevation (or range) and azimuth were done manually using instruments, tabulated, data of the moment, and approximations until battlefield computers started appearing in the 1960s and 1970s.", "While some early calculators copied the manual method (typically substituting polynomials for tabulated data), computers use a different approach.", "They simulate a shell's trajectory by 'flying' it in short steps and applying data about the conditions affecting the trajectory at each step.", "This simulation is repeated until it produces a quadrant elevation and azimuth that lands the shell within the required 'closing' distance of the target coordinates.NATO has a standard ballistic model for computer calculations and has expanded the scope of this into the NATO Armaments Ballistic Kernel (NABK) within the SG2 Shareable (Fire Control) Software Suite (S4).===Logistics===Supply of artillery ammunition has always been a major component of military logistics.", "Up until World War I some armies made artillery responsible for all forward ammunition supply because the load of small arms ammunition was trivial compared to artillery.", "Different armies use different approaches to ammunition supply, which can vary with the nature of operations.", "Differences include where the logistic service transfers artillery ammunition to artillery, the amount of ammunition carried in units and extent to which stocks are held at unit or battery level.", "A key difference is whether supply is 'push' or 'pull'.", "In the former the 'pipeline' keeps pushing ammunition into formations or units at a defined rate.", "In the latter units fire as tactically necessary and replenish to maintain or reach their authorised holding (which can vary), so the logistic system has to be able to cope with surge and slack." ], [ "Classification", "The Finnish Defence Forces using 130 mm Gun M-46 during a direct fire mission in a live fire exercise in 2010.Artillery types can be categorised in several ways, for example by type or size of weapon or ordnance, by role or by organizational arrangements.===Types of ordnance===The types of cannon artillery are generally distinguished by the velocity at which they fire projectiles.Types of artillery:German Army PzH 2000 self-propelled artillery* Cannon: The oldest type of artillery with direct firing trajectory.", "* Bombard: A type of a large calibre, muzzle-loading artillery piece, a cannon or mortar used during sieges to shoot round stone projectiles at the walls of enemy fortifications.", "* Falconet was a type of light cannon developed in the late 15th century that fired a smaller shot than the similar falcon.", "* Swivel gun is a type of small cannon mounted on a swiveling stand or fork which allows a very wide arc of movement.", "Camel mounted swivel guns called as zamburak were used by the Gunpowder Empires as self-propelled artillery.", "* Siege artillery: Large-caliber artillery that have limited mobility with indirect firing trajectory, which was used to bombard targets at long distances.", "**Large-calibre artillery.", "* Field artillery: Mobile weapons used to support armies in the field.", "Subcategories include:** Infantry support guns: Directly support infantry units.", "** Mountain guns: Lightweight guns that can be disassembled and transported through difficult terrain.", "** Field guns: Capable of long-range direct fires.", "** Howitzers: Capable of high-angle fire, they are most often employed for indirect-fire.", "** Gun-howitzers: Capable of high or low-angle fire with a longer barrel.", "** Mortars: Typically muzzle-loaded, short-barreled, high-trajectory weapons designed primarily for an indirect-fire role.", "** Gun-mortars: Typically breech-loaded, capable of high or low-angle fire with a longer barrel.", "** Tank guns: Large-caliber guns mounted on tanks to provide mobile direct fire.", "** Anti-tank artillery: Guns, usually mobile, designed primarily for direct fire to destroy armored fighting vehicles with heavy armor.", "**Anti-tank gun: Guns designed for direct fire to destroy tanks and other armored fighting vehicles.", "** Anti-aircraft artillery: Guns, usually mobile, designed for attacking aircraft by land and/or at sea.", "Some guns were suitable for the dual roles of anti-aircraft and anti-tank warfare.", "** Rocket artillery: Launches rockets or missiles, instead of shot or shell.", "* Railway gun: Large-caliber weapons that are mounted on, transported by and fired from specially-designed railway wagons.Naval cannon, early 19th century* Naval artillery: Guns mounted on warships to be used either against other naval vessels or to bombard coastal targets in support of ground forces.", "The crowning achievement of naval artillery was the battleship, but the advent of air power and missiles have rendered this type of artillery largely obsolete.", "They are typically longer-barreled, low-trajectory, high-velocity weapons designed primarily for a direct-fire role.", "* Coastal artillery: Fixed-position weapons dedicated to defense of a particular location, usually a coast (for example, the Atlantic Wall in World War II) or harbor.", "Not needing to be mobile, coastal artillery used to be much larger than equivalent field artillery pieces, giving them longer range and more destructive power.", "Modern coastal artillery (for example, Russia's \"Bereg\" system) is often self-propelled, (allowing it to avoid counter-battery fire) and fully integrated, meaning that each battery has all of the support systems that it requires (maintenance, targeting radar, etc.)", "organic to its unit.", "* Aircraft artillery: Large-caliber guns mounted on attack aircraft, this is typically found on slow-flying gunships.", "* Nuclear artillery: Artillery which fires nuclear shells.Modern field artillery can also be split into two other subcategories: towed and self-propelled.", "As the name suggests, towed artillery has a prime mover, usually an artillery tractor or truck, to move the piece, crew, and ammunition around.", "Towed artillery is in some cases equipped with an APU for small displacements.", "Self-propelled artillery is permanently mounted on a carriage or vehicle with room for the crew and ammunition and is thus capable of moving quickly from one firing position to another, both to support the fluid nature of modern combat and to avoid counter-battery fire.", "It includes mortar carrier vehicles, many of which allow the mortar to be removed from the vehicle and be used dismounted, potentially in terrain in which the vehicle cannot navigate, or in order to avoid detection.===Organizational types===At the beginning of the modern artillery period, the late 19th century, many armies had three main types of artillery, in some case they were sub-branches within the artillery branch in others they were separate branches or corps.", "There were also other types excluding the armament fitted to warships:Horse-drawn artilleryMan-pulled artillerygas masks, operate a howitzer during World War I* Horse artillery, first formed as regular units in the late 18th century, with the role of supporting cavalry, they were distinguished by the entire crew being mounted.", "* Field or \"foot\" artillery, the main artillery arm of the field army, using either guns, howitzers, or mortars.", "In World War II this branch again started using rockets and later surface to surface missiles.", "* Fortress or garrison artillery, operated a nation's fixed defences using guns, howitzers or mortars, either on land or coastal frontiers.", "Some had deployable elements to provide heavy artillery to the field army.", "In some nations coast defence artillery was a naval responsibility.", "* Mountain artillery, a few nations treated mountain artillery as a separate branch, in others it was a speciality in another artillery branch.", "They used light guns or howitzers, usually designed for pack animal transport and easily broken down into small easily handled loads* Naval artillery, some nations carried pack artillery on some warships, these were used and manhandled by naval (or marine) landing parties.", "At times, part of a ship's armament would be unshipped and mated to makeshift carriages and limbers for actions ashore, for example during the Second Boer War, during the First World War the guns from the stricken SMS ''Königsberg'' formed the main artillery strength of the German forces in East Africa.Firing of an 18-pound gun, Louis-Philippe Crepin (1772–1851)After World War I many nations merged these different artillery branches, in some cases keeping some as sub-branches.", "Naval artillery disappeared apart from that belonging to marines.", "However, two new branches of artillery emerged during that war and its aftermath, both used specialised guns (and a few rockets) and used direct not indirect fire, in the 1950s and 1960s both started to make extensive use of missiles:* Anti-tank artillery, also under various organisational arrangements but typically either field artillery or a specialist branch and additional elements integral to infantry, etc., units.", "However, in most armies field and anti-aircraft artillery also had at least a secondary anti-tank role.", "After World War II anti-tank in Western armies became mostly the responsibility of infantry and armoured branches and ceased to be an artillery matter, with some exceptions.", "* Anti-aircraft artillery, under various organisational arrangements including being part of artillery, a separate corps, even a separate service or being split between army for the field and air force for home defence.", "In some cases infantry and the new armoured corps also operated their own integral light anti-aircraft artillery.", "Home defence anti-aircraft artillery often used fixed as well as mobile mountings.", "Some anti-aircraft guns could also be used as field or anti-tank artillery, providing they had suitable sights.However, the general switch by artillery to indirect fire before and during World War I led to a reaction in some armies.", "The result was accompanying or infantry guns.", "These were usually small, short range guns, that could be easily man-handled and used mostly for direct fire but some could use indirect fire.", "Some were operated by the artillery branch but under command of the supported unit.", "In World War II they were joined by self-propelled assault guns, although other armies adopted infantry or close support tanks in armoured branch units for the same purpose, subsequently tanks generally took on the accompanying role.===Equipment types===The three main types of artillery \"gun\" are guns, howitzers, and mortars.", "During the 20th century, guns and howitzers have steadily merged in artillery use, making a distinction between the terms somewhat meaningless.", "By the end of the 20th century, true guns with calibers larger than about 60 mm have become very rare in artillery use, the main users being tanks, ships, and a few residual anti-aircraft and coastal guns.", "The term \"cannon\" is a United States generic term that includes guns, howitzers, and mortars; it is not used in other English speaking armies.The traditional definitions differentiated between guns and howitzers in terms of maximum elevation (well less than 45° as opposed to close to or greater than 45°), number of charges (one or more than one charge), and having higher or lower muzzle velocity, sometimes indicated by barrel length.", "These three criteria give eight possible combinations, of which guns and howitzers are but two.", "However, modern \"howitzers\" have higher velocities and longer barrels than the equivalent \"guns\" of the first half of the 20th century.True guns are characterized by long range, having a maximum elevation significantly less than 45°, a high muzzle velocity and hence a relatively long barrel, smooth bore (no rifling) and a single charge.", "The latter often led to fixed ammunition where the projectile is locked to the cartridge case.", "There is no generally accepted minimum muzzle velocity or barrel length associated with a gun.", "A British 60-pounder () gun at full recoil, in action during the Battle of Gallipoli, 1915.Photo by Ernest Brooks.Howitzers can fire at maximum elevations at least close to 45°; elevations up to about 70° are normal for modern howitzers.", "Howitzers also have a choice of charges, meaning that the same elevation angle of fire will achieve a different range depending on the charge used.", "They have rifled bores, lower muzzle velocities and shorter barrels than equivalent guns.", "All this means they can deliver fire with a steep angle of descent.", "Because of their multi-charge capability, their ammunition is mostly separate loading (the projectile and propellant are loaded separately).That leaves six combinations of the three criteria, some of which have been termed gun howitzers.", "A term first used in the 1930s when howitzers with a relatively high maximum muzzle velocities were introduced, it never became widely accepted, most armies electing to widen the definition of \"gun\" or \"howitzer\".", "By the 1960s, most equipment had maximum elevations up to about 70°, were multi-charge, had quite high maximum muzzle velocities and relatively long barrels.Mortars are simpler.", "The modern mortar originated in World War I and there were several patterns.", "After that war, most mortars settled on the Stokes pattern, characterized by a short barrel, smooth bore, low muzzle velocity, elevation angle of firing generally greater than 45°, and a very simple and light mounting using a \"baseplate\" on the ground.", "The projectile with its integral propelling charge was dropped down the barrel from the muzzle to hit a fixed firing pin.", "Since that time, a few mortars have become rifled and adopted breech loading.There are other recognized typifying characteristics for artillery.", "One such characteristic is the type of obturation used to seal the chamber and prevent gases escaping through the breech.", "This may use a metal cartridge case that also holds the propelling charge, a configuration called \"QF\" or \"quickfiring\" by some nations.", "The alternative does not use a metal cartridge case, the propellant being merely bagged or in combustible cases with the breech itself providing all the sealing.", "This is called \"BL\" or \"breech loading\" by some nations.A second characteristic is the form of propulsion.", "Modern equipment can either be towed or self-propelled (SP).", "A towed gun fires from the ground and any inherent protection is limited to a gun shield.", "Towing by horse teams lasted throughout World War II in some armies, but others were fully mechanized with wheeled or tracked gun towing vehicles by the outbreak of that war.", "The size of a towing vehicle depends on the weight of the equipment and the amount of ammunition it has to carry.A variation of towed is portee, where the vehicle carries the gun which is dismounted for firing.", "Mortars are often carried this way.", "A mortar is sometimes carried in an armored vehicle and can either fire from it or be dismounted to fire from the ground.", "Since the early 1960s it has been possible to carry lighter towed guns and most mortars by helicopter.", "Even before that, they were parachuted or landed by glider from the time of the first airborne trials in the USSR in the 1930s.In SP equipment, the gun is an integral part of the vehicle that carries it.", "SPs first appeared during World War I, but did not really develop until World War II.", "They are mostly tracked vehicles, but wheeled SPs started to appear in the 1970s.", "Some SPs have no armor and carry few or no other weapons and ammunition.", "Armored SPs usually carry a useful ammunition load.", "Early armored SPs were mostly a \"casemate\" configuration, in essence an open top armored box offering only limited traverse.", "However, most modern armored SPs have a full enclosed armored turret, usually giving full traverse for the gun.", "Many SPs cannot fire without deploying stabilizers or spades, sometimes hydraulic.", "A few SPs are designed so that the recoil forces of the gun are transferred directly onto the ground through a baseplate.", "A few towed guns have been given limited self-propulsion by means of an auxiliary engine.Two other forms of tactical propulsion were used in the first half of the 20th century: Railways or transporting the equipment by road, as two or three separate loads, with disassembly and re-assembly at the beginning and end of the journey.", "Railway artillery took two forms, railway mountings for heavy and super-heavy guns and howitzers and armored trains as \"fighting vehicles\" armed with light artillery in a direct fire role.", "Disassembled transport was also used with heavy and super heavy weapons and lasted into the 1950s.===Caliber categories===A third form of artillery typing is to classify it as \"light\", \"medium\", \"heavy\" and various other terms.", "It appears to have been introduced in World War I, which spawned a very wide array of artillery in all sorts of sizes so a simple categorical system was needed.", "Some armies defined these categories by bands of calibers.", "Different bands were used for different types of weapons—field guns, mortars, anti-aircraft guns and coastal guns." ], [ "Modern operations", "ATAGS showcasing towing, turning and firing of roundsTwo French Army Giat GCT 155mm (155 mm AUF1) Self-propelled Guns, 40th Regiment d' Artillerie, with IFOR markings are parked at Hekon base, near Mostar, Bosnia-Herzegovina, in support of Operation Joint EndeavorList of countries in order of amount of artillery (only conventional barrel ordnance is given, in use with land forces):+ Country Number Ref Russia 26,121 North Korea 17,900+ China 17,700+ India 11,258+ South Korea 10,774+ United States 8,137 Turkey 7,450+ Israel 5,432 Egypt 4,480 Pakistan 4,291+ Syria 3,805+ Iran 3,668+ Algeria 3,465 Jordan 2,339 Iraq 2,300+ Finland 1,398 Brazil 900 Cameroon 883 Morocco 848 Hungary 835 France 758 Artillery is used in a variety of roles depending on its type and caliber.", "The general role of artillery is to provide ''fire support''—\"the application of fire, coordinated with the manoeuvre of forces to destroy, ''neutralize'' or ''suppress'' the enemy\".", "This NATO definition makes artillery a supporting arm although not all NATO armies agree with this logic.", "The ''italicised'' terms are NATO's.Unlike rockets, guns (or howitzers as some armies still call them) and mortars are suitable for delivering ''close supporting fire''.", "However, they are all suitable for providing ''deep supporting fire'' although the limited range of many mortars tends to exclude them from the role.", "Their control arrangements and limited range also mean that mortars are most suited to ''direct supporting fire''.", "Guns are used either for this or ''general supporting fire'' while rockets are mostly used for the latter.", "However, lighter rockets may be used for direct fire support.", "These rules of thumb apply to NATO armies.Modern mortars, because of their lighter weight and simpler, more transportable design, are usually an integral part of infantry and, in some armies, armor units.", "This means they generally do not have to ''concentrate'' their fire so their shorter range is not a disadvantage.", "Some armies also consider infantry operated mortars to be more responsive than artillery, but this is a function of the control arrangements and not the case in all armies.", "However, mortars have always been used by artillery units and remain with them in many armies, including a few in NATO.In NATO armies artillery is usually assigned a tactical mission that establishes its relationship and responsibilities to the formation or units it is assigned to.", "It seems that not all NATO nations use the terms and outside NATO others are probably used.", "The standard terms are: ''direct support'', ''general support'', ''general support reinforcing'' and ''reinforcing''.", "These tactical missions are in the context of the command authority: ''operational command'', ''operational control'', ''tactical command'' or ''tactical control''.In NATO direct support generally means that the directly supporting artillery unit provides observers and liaison to the manoeuvre troops being supported, typically an artillery battalion or equivalent is assigned to a brigade and its batteries to the brigade's battalions.", "However, some armies achieve this by placing the assigned artillery units under command of the directly supported formation.", "Nevertheless, the batteries' fire can be ''concentrated'' onto a single target, as can the fire of units in range and with the other tactical missions.===Application of fire===A 155 mm artillery shell fired by a United States 11th Marine Regiment M-198 howitzerThere are several dimensions to this subject.", "The first is the notion that fire may be against an ''opportunity'' target or may be ''arranged''.", "If it is the latter it may be either ''on-call'' or ''scheduled''.", "Arranged targets may be part of a ''fire plan''.", "Fire may be either ''observed'' or ''unobserved'', if the former it may be ''adjusted'', if the latter then it has to be ''predicted''.", "Observation of adjusted fire may be directly by a forward observer or indirectly via some other ''target acquisition'' system.NATO also recognises several different types of fire support for tactical purposes:* ''Counterbattery fire'': delivered for the purpose of destroying or ''neutralizing'' the enemy's fire support system.", "* ''Counterpreparation fire'': intensive prearranged fire delivered when the imminence of the enemy attack is discovered.", "* ''Covering fire'': used to protect troops when they are within range of enemy small arms.", "* ''Defensive fire'': delivered by supporting units to assist and protect a unit engaged in a defensive action.", "* ''Final Protective Fire'': an immediately available prearranged barrier of fire designed to impede enemy movement across defensive lines or areas.", "* ''Harassing fire'': a random number of shells are fired at random intervals, without any pattern to it that the enemy can predict.", "This process is designed to hinder enemy forces' movement, and, by the constantly imposed stress, threat of losses and inability of enemy forces to relax or sleep, lowers their morale.", "* ''Interdiction fire'': placed on an area or point to prevent the enemy from using the area or point.", "* ''Preparation fire'': delivered before an attack to weaken the enemy position.These purposes have existed for most of the 20th century, although their definitions have evolved and will continue to do so, lack of ''suppression'' in ''counterbattery'' is an omission.", "Broadly they can be defined as either:* ''Deep supporting fire'': directed at objectives not in the immediate vicinity of own force, for neutralizing or destroying enemy reserves and weapons, and interfering with enemy command, supply, communications and observation; or* ''Close supporting fire'': placed on enemy troops, weapons or positions which, because of their proximity present the most immediate and serious threat to the supported unit.USMC M-198 firing outside of Fallujah, Iraq in 2004Two other NATO terms also need definition:* ''Neutralization fire'': delivered to render a target temporarily ineffective or unusable; and* ''Suppression fire'': that degrades the performance of a target below the level needed to fulfill its mission.", "Suppression is usually only effective for the duration of the fire.The tactical purposes also include various \"mission verbs\", a rapidly expanding subject with the modern concept of \"effects based operations\".", "''Targeting'' is the process of selecting target and matching the appropriate response to them taking account of operational requirements and capabilities.", "It requires consideration of the type of fire support required and the extent of coordination with the supported arm.", "It involves decisions about:* what effects are required, for example, ''neutralization'' or ''suppression'';* the proximity of and risks to own troops or non-combatants;* what types of munitions, including their fuzing, are to be used and in what quantities;* when the targets should be attacked and possibly for how long;* what methods should be used, for example, ''converged'' or ''distributed'', whether adjustment is permissible or surprise essential, the need for special procedures such as precision or danger close* how many fire units are needed and which ones they should be from those that are available (in range, with the required munitions type and quantity, not allotted to another target, have the most suitable line of fire if there is a risk to own troops or non-combatants);The ''targeting'' process is the key aspect of tactical fire control.", "Depending on the circumstances and national procedures it may all be undertaken in one place or may be distributed.", "In armies practicing control from the front, most of the process may be undertaken by a forward observer or other target acquirer.", "This is particularly the case for a smaller target requiring only a few fire units.", "The extent to which the process is formal or informal and makes use of computer based systems, documented norms or experience and judgement also varies widely armies and other circumstances.Surprise may be essential or irrelevant.", "It depends on what effects are required and whether or not the target is likely to move or quickly improve its protective posture.", "During World War II UK researchers concluded that for impact fuzed munitions the relative risk were as follows:* men standing – 1* men lying – 1/3* men firing from trenches – 1/15–1/50* men crouching in trenches – 1/25–1/100Airburst munitions significantly increase the relative risk for lying men, etc.", "Historically most casualties occur in the first 10–15 seconds of fire, i.e.", "the time needed to react and improve protective posture, however, this is less relevant if airburst is used.There are several ways of making best use of this brief window of maximum vulnerability:* ordering the guns to fire together, either by executive order or by a \"fire at\" time.", "The disadvantage is that if the fire is ''concentrated'' from many dispersed ''fire units'' then there will be different times of flight and the first rounds will be spread in time.", "To some extent a large concentration offsets the problem because it may mean that only one round is required from each gun and most of these could arrive in the 15 second window.", "* burst fire, a rate of fire to deliver three rounds from each gun within 10 or 15 seconds, this reduces the number of guns and hence fire units needed, which means they may be less dispersed and have less variation in their times of flight.", "Smaller caliber guns, such as 105 mm, have always been able to deliver three rounds in 15 seconds, larger calibers firing fixed rounds could also do it but it was not until the 1970s that a multi-charge 155 mm howitzer, FH-70 first gained the capability.", "* multiple round simultaneous impact (MRSI), where a single weapon or multiple individual weapons fire multiple rounds at differing trajectories so that all rounds arrive on target at the same time.", "* ''time on target'', fire units fire at the time less their time of flight, this works well with prearranged scheduled fire but is less satisfactory for opportunity targets because it means delaying the delivery of fire by selecting a 'safe' time that all or most fire units can achieve.", "It can be used with both the previous two methods.===Counter-battery fire===Modern counter-battery fire developed in World War I, with the objective of defeating the enemy's artillery.", "Typically such fire was used to suppress enemy batteries when they were or were about to interfere with the activities of friendly forces (such as to prevent enemy defensive artillery fire against an impending attack) or to systematically destroy enemy guns.", "In World War I the latter required air observation.", "The first indirect counter-battery fire was in May 1900 by an observer in a balloon.Enemy artillery can be detected in two ways, either by direct observation of the guns from the air or by ground observers (including specialist reconnaissance), or from their firing signatures.", "This includes radars tracking the shells in flight to determine their place of origin, sound ranging detecting guns firing and resecting their position from pairs of microphones or cross-observation of gun flashes using observation by human observers or opto-electronic devices, although the widespread adoption of 'flashless' propellant limited the effectiveness of the latter.Once hostile batteries have been detected they may be engaged immediately by friendly artillery or later at an optimum time, depending on the tactical situation and the counter-battery policy.", "Air strike is another option.", "In some situations the task is to locate all active enemy batteries for attack using a counter-battery fire at the appropriate moment in accordance with a plan developed by artillery intelligence staff.", "In other situations counter-battery fire may occur whenever a battery is located with sufficient accuracy.Modern counter-battery target acquisition uses unmanned aircraft, counter-battery radar, ground reconnaissance and sound-ranging.", "Counter-battery fire may be adjusted by some of the systems, for example the operator of an unmanned aircraft can 'follow' a battery if it moves.", "Defensive measures by batteries include frequently changing position or constructing defensive earthworks, the tunnels used by North Korea being an extreme example.", "Counter-measures include air defence against aircraft and attacking counter-battery radars physically and electronically.Modern artillery ammunition.", "Caliber 155 mm as used by the PzH 2000===Field artillery team==='Field Artillery Team' is a US term and the following description and terminology applies to the US, other armies are broadly similar but differ in significant details.", "Modern field artillery (post–World War I) has three distinct parts: the Forward Observer (FO), the Fire Direction Center (FDC) and the actual guns themselves.", "The forward observer observes the target using tools such as binoculars, laser rangefinders, designators and call back fire missions on his radio, or relays the data through a portable computer via an encrypted digital radio connection protected from jamming by computerized frequency hopping.", "A lesser known part of the team is the FAS or Field Artillery Survey team which sets up the \"Gun Line\" for the cannons.", "Today most artillery battalions use a(n) \"Aiming Circle\" which allows for faster setup and more mobility.", "FAS teams are still used for checks and balances purposes and if a gun battery has issues with the \"Aiming Circle\" a FAS team will do it for them.The FO can communicate directly with the battery FDC, of which there is one per each battery of 4–8 guns.", "Otherwise the several FOs communicate with a higher FDC such as at a Battalion level, and the higher FDC prioritizes the targets and allocates fires to individual batteries as needed to engage the targets that are spotted by the FOs or to perform preplanned fires.The Battery FDC computes firing data—ammunition to be used, powder charge, fuse settings, the direction to the target, and the quadrant elevation to be fired at to reach the target, what gun will fire any rounds needed for adjusting on the target, and the number of rounds to be fired on the target by each gun once the target has been accurately located—to the guns.", "Traditionally this data is relayed via radio or wire communications as a warning order to the guns, followed by orders specifying the type of ammunition and fuse setting, direction, and the elevation needed to reach the target, and the method of adjustment or orders for fire for effect (FFE).", "However, in more advanced artillery units, this data is relayed through a digital radio link.Other parts of the field artillery team include meteorological analysis to determine the temperature, humidity and pressure of the air and wind direction and speed at different altitudes.", "Also radar is used both for determining the location of enemy artillery and mortar batteries and to determine the precise actual strike points of rounds fired by battery and comparing that location with what was expected to compute a registration allowing future rounds to be fired with much greater accuracy.=== Time on target ===A technique called time on target (TOT) was developed by the British Army in North Africa at the end of 1941 and early 1942 particularly for counter-battery fire and other concentrations, it proved very popular.", "It relied on BBC time signals to enable officers to synchronize their watches to the second because this avoided the need to use military radio networks and the possibility of losing surprise, and the need for field telephone networks in the desert.", "With this technique the time of flight from each fire unit (battery or troop) to the target is taken from the range or firing tables, or the computer and each engaging fire unit subtracts its time of flight from the TOT to determine the time to fire.", "An executive order to fire is given to all guns in the fire unit at the correct moment to fire.", "When each fire unit fires their rounds at their individual firing time all the opening rounds will reach the target area almost simultaneously.", "This is especially effective when combined with techniques that allow fires for effect to be made without preliminary adjusting fires.===Multiple round simultaneous impact===Illustration of different trajectories used in MRSI: For any muzzle velocity there is a steeper (> 45°, solid line) and a lower (<45°, dashed line) trajectory.", "On these different trajectories, the shells have different flight times.Multiple round simultaneous impact (MRSI) is a modern version of the earlier time on target concept.", "MRSI is when a single gun fires multiple shells so all arrive at the same target simultaneously.", "This is possible because there is more than one trajectory for a round to fly to any given target.", "Typically one is below 45 degrees from horizontal and the other is above it, and by using different sized propellant charges with each shell, it is possible to utilize more than two trajectories.", "Because the higher trajectories cause the shells to arc higher into the air, they take longer to reach the target.", "If shells are fired on higher trajectories for initial volleys (starting with the shell with the most propellant and working down) and later volleys are fired on the lower trajectories, with the correct timing the shells will all arrive at the same target simultaneously.", "This is useful because many more shells can land on the target with no warning.", "With traditional methods of firing, the target area may have time (however long it takes to reload and re-fire the guns) to take cover between volleys.", "However, guns capable of burst fire can deliver multiple rounds in a few seconds if they use the same firing data for each, and if guns in more than one location are firing on one target they can use Time on Target procedures so that all their shells arrive at the same time and target.MRSI has a few prerequisites.", "The first is guns with a high rate of fire.", "The second is the ability to use different sized propellant charges.", "Third is a fire control computer that has the ability to compute MRSI volleys and the capability to produce firing data, sent to each gun, and then presented to the gun commander in the correct order.", "The number of rounds that can be delivered in MRSI depends primarily on the range to the target and the rate of fire.", "To allow the most shells to reach the target, the target has to be in range of the lowest propellant charge.Examples of guns with a rate of fire that makes them suitable for MRSI includes UK's AS-90, South Africa's Denel G6-52 (which can land six rounds simultaneously at targets at least away), Germany's Panzerhaubitze 2000 (which can land five rounds simultaneously at targets at least away), Slovakia's 155 mm SpGH ZUZANA model 2000, and K9 Thunder.The Archer project (developed by BAE-Systems Bofors in Sweden) is a 155 mm howitzer on a wheeled chassis which is claimed to be able to deliver up to six shells on target simultaneously from the same gun.", "The 120 mm twin barrel AMOS mortar system, joint developed by Hägglunds (Sweden) and Patria (Finland), is capable of 7 + 7 shells MRSI.", "The United States Crusader program (now cancelled) was slated to have MRSI capability.", "It is unclear how many fire control computers have the necessary capabilities.Two-round MRSI firings were a popular artillery demonstration in the 1960s, where well trained detachments could show off their skills for spectators.===Air burst===The destructiveness of artillery bombardments can be enhanced when some or all of the shells are set for airburst, meaning that they explode in the air above the target instead of upon impact.", "This can be accomplished either through time fuzes or proximity fuzes.", "Time fuzes use a precise timer to detonate the shell after a preset delay.", "This technique is tricky and slight variations in the functioning of the fuze can cause it to explode too high and be ineffective, or to strike the ground instead of exploding above it.", "Since December 1944 (Battle of the Bulge), proximity fuzed artillery shells have been available that take the guesswork out of this process.", "These employ a miniature, low powered radar transmitter in the fuze to detect the ground and explode them at a predetermined height above it.", "The return of the weak radar signal completes an electrical circuit in the fuze which explodes the shell.", "The proximity fuze itself was developed by the British to increase the effectiveness of anti-aircraft warfare.This is a very effective tactic against infantry and light vehicles, because it scatters the fragmentation of the shell over a larger area and prevents it from being blocked by terrain or entrenchments that do not include some form of robust overhead cover.", "Combined with TOT or MRSI tactics that give no warning of the incoming rounds, these rounds are especially devastating because many enemy soldiers are likely to be caught in the open; even more so if the attack is launched against an assembly area or troops moving in the open rather than a unit in an entrenched tactical position." ], [ "Use in monuments", "An artillery piece in the monument commemorating the 1864 Battle of Tupelo (American Civil War)Numerous war memorials around the world incorporate an artillery piece that was used in the war or battle commemorated." ], [ "See also", "* List of artillery* Advanced Gun System* Artillery museums* Barrage (artillery)* Beehive anti-personnel round* Coilgun* Combustion light-gas gun* Cordite* Fuze* Gun laying* Light-gas gun* Paris Gun* Railgun* Shoot-and-scoot* Shrapnel shell* Suppressive fire* Improvised artillery in the Syrian Civil War" ], [ "References", "===Notes======Bibliography===* * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* *" ], [ "External links", "* Naval Weapons of the World* Cannon Artillery – The Voice of Freedom's Thunder* Modern Artillery * What sort of forensic information can be derived from the analysis of shell fragments * Evans, Nigel F. (2001–2007) \" British Artillery in World War 2\"* Artillery Tactics and Combat during the Napoleonic Wars* Artillery of Napoleon's Imperial Guard* French artillery and its ammunition.", "14th to the end of the 19th century* Historic films showing artillery in World War I at europeanfilmgateway.eu* Video: Inside shrieking shrapnel.", "Hear the great sound of shrapnel's – Finnish field artillery fire video year 2013* Video: Forensic and archaeological interpretation of artillery shell fragments and shrapnel" ] ]

[ [ "Arnulf of Carinthia" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Arnulf of Carinthia''' ( 850 – 8 December 899) was the duke of Carinthia who overthrew his uncle Emperor Charles the Fat to become the Carolingian king of East Francia from 887, the disputed king of Italy from 894 and the disputed emperor from February 22, 896, until his death at Regensburg, Bavaria." ], [ "Early life", "===Illegitimacy and early life===Arnulf was the illegitimate son of Carloman of Bavaria, and Liutswind, who may have been the sister of Ernst, Count of the Bavarian Nordgau Margraviate, in the area of the Upper Palatinate, or perhaps the burgrave of Passau, according to other sources.", "After Arnulf's birth, Carloman married, before 861, a daughter of that same Count Ernst, who died after 8 August 879.As it is mainly West-Franconian historiography that speaks of Arnulf's illegitimacy, it is quite possible that the two women are actually the same person, Liutswind, and that Carloman married Arnulf's mother, thus legitimizing his son.Arnulf was granted the rule over the Duchy of Carinthia, a Frankish vassal state and successor of the ancient Principality of Carantania by his father, after Carloman reconciled with his own father, King Louis the German, and was made king in the Duchy of Bavaria.Arnulf spent his childhood in ''Mosaburch'' or Mosapurc, which is widely believed to be Moosburg in Carinthia.", "Moosburg was a few miles away from one of the imperial residences, the Carolingian Kaiserpfalz at Karnburg, which had been the residence of the Carantanian princes.", "Arnulf kept his seat here, and from later events it may be inferred that the Carantanians, from an early time, treated him as their own duke.", "Later, after he had been crowned King of East Francia, Arnulf turned his old territory of Carinthia into the March of Carinthia, a part of the Duchy of Bavaria.===Regional ruler===After Carloman was incapacitated by a stroke in 879, Louis the Younger inherited Bavaria, Charles the Fat was given the Kingdom of Italy, and Arnulf was confirmed in Carinthia by an agreement with Carloman.", "However, Bavaria was more or less ruled by Arnulf during the summer and autumn of 879 while his father arranged his succession.", "He was also granted \"Pannonia,\" in the words of the ''Annales Fuldenses'', or \"Carantanum,\" in the words of Regino of Prüm.", "The division of the realm was confirmed in 880 after Carloman's death.When Engelschalk II of Pannonia in 882 rebelled against Margrave Aribo and ignited the Wilhelminer War, Arnulf supported him and accepted his and his brother's homage.", "This ruined Arnulf's relationship with his uncle, Emperor Charles the Fat, and put him at war with Svatopluk of Moravia.", "Pannonia was invaded, but Arnulf refused to give up the young Wilhelminers.", "Arnulf did not make peace with Svatopluk until late 885, by which time the Moravian ruler was loyal to the emperor.", "Some scholars see this war as destroying Arnulf's hopes of succeeding Charles the Fat." ], [ "King of East Francia", "A charter of donation by king Arnulf of Carinthia, issued on 15 April 890 at Regensburg.Arnulf took the leading role in the deposition of Charles the Fat.", "With the support of the Frankish nobles, Arnulf called a Diet at Tribur and deposed Charles in November 887, under threat of military action.", "Charles peacefully agreed to this involuntary retirement, but not without first chastising his nephew for his treachery and asking for a few royal villas in Swabia on which to live out his final months, which Arnulf granted him.", "Arnulf, having distinguished himself in the war against the Slavs, was then elected king by the nobles of East Francia (only the eastern realm, though Charles had ruled the whole of the Frankish Empire).", "West Francia, the Kingdom of Burgundy, and the Kingdom of Italy elected their own kings from the Carolingian family.Like many rulers of the period, Arnulf was heavily involved in ecclesiastical disputes.", "In 895, at the Diet of Tribur, he presided over a dispute between the Episcopal sees of Bremen, Hamburg and Cologne over jurisdictional authority, which saw Bremen and Hamburg remain a combined see, independent of the see of Cologne.Arnulf was more a fighter than a negotiator.", "In 890 he was successfully battling Slavs in Pannonia.", "In early/mid-891, Vikings invaded Lotharingia and crushed an East Frankish army at Maastricht.", "Terms such as \"Vikings\", \"Danes\", \"Northmen\" and \"Norwegians\" have been used loosely and interchangeably to describe these invaders.", "In September 891, Arnulf repelled the Vikings and essentially ended their attacks on that front.", "The ''Annales Fuldenses'' report that there were so many dead Northmen that their bodies blocked the run of the river.", "After this victory Arnulf built a castle on an island in the Dijle river.===Intervention in West Francia===Arnulf took advantage of the problems in West Francia after the death of Charles the Fat to secure the territory of Lotharingia, which he converted into a kingdom for his son Zwentibold.", "In 889 Arnulf supported the claim of Louis the Blind to the kingdom of Provence, after receiving a personal appeal from Louis' mother, Ermengard, who came to see Arnulf at Forchheim in May 889.Europe in AD 888; Arnulf's realms are marked \"K. of Germany.", "\"Recognising the superiority of Arnulf's position, in 888 king Odo of France formally accepted the suzerainty of Arnulf.", "In 893 Arnulf switched his support from Odo to Charles the Simple after being persuaded by Fulk, Archbishop of Reims, that it was in his best interests.", "Arnulf then took advantage of the following fighting between Odo and Charles in 894, harrying some territories of West Francia.", "At one point, Charles the Simple was forced to flee to Arnulf and ask for his protection.", "His intervention soon forced Pope Formosus to get involved, as he was worried that a divided and war weary West Francia would be easy prey for the Vikings.In 895 Arnulf summoned both Charles and Odo to his residence at Worms.", "Charles's advisers convinced him not to go, and he sent a representative in his place.", "Odo, on the other hand, personally attended, together with a large retinue, bearing many gifts for Arnulf.", "Angered by the non-appearance of Charles, he welcomed Odo at the Diet of Worms in May 895 and again supported Odo's claim to the throne of West Francia.", "In the same assembly he crowned his illegitimate son Zwentibold as the king of Lotharingia.===Wars with Moravia===As early as 880 Arnulf had designs on Great Moravia and had the Frankish bishop Wiching of Nitra interfere with the missionary activities of the Eastern Orthodox priest Methodius, with the aim of preventing any potential for creating a unified Moravian state.", "Arnulf had formal relations with the ruler of the Moravian Kingdom, Svatopluk, using them to learn the latter's military and political secrets.", "Later, these tactics were used to occupy the territory of the Greater Moravian state.Arnulf failed to conquer the whole of Great Moravia in wars of 892, 893, and 899.Yet Arnulf did achieve some successes, in particular in 895, when the Duchy of Bohemia broke away from Great Moravia and became his vassal state.", "An accord was reached between him and Duke of Bohemia Borivoj I. Bohemia was thus freed from the dangers of Frankish invasion.", "In 893 or 894 Great Moravia probably lost a part of its territory — present-day western Hungary — to him.", "As a reward, Wiching became Arnulf's chancellor in 892.In his attempts to conquer Moravia, in 899 Arnulf reached out to Magyars who had settled in the Carpathian Basin, and with their help he imposed a measure of control over Moravia." ], [ "King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor", "Arnulf of Carinthia, (from the Chronicle of Dalimil, early 14th-century)In Italy Guy III of Spoleto and Berengar of Friuli fought over the Iron Crown of Lombardy.", "Berengar had been crowned king in 887, but Guy was then crowned in 889.While Pope Stephen V supported Guy, even crowning him Roman Emperor in 891, Arnulf threw his support behind Berengar.In 893 the new Pope Formosus, not trusting the newly crowned co-emperors Guy and his son Lambert, sent an embassy to Omuntesberch, where Arnulf was meeting with Svatopluk, to request that Arnulf come and liberate Italy, where he would be crowned emperor in Rome.", "Arnulf met the ''Primores'' of the Kingdom of Italy, dismissed them with gifts and promised to assist the pope.", "Arnulf then sent Zwentibold with a Bavarian army to join Berengar.", "They defeated Guy but were bought off and left in autumn.When Pope Formosus again asked Arnulf to invade, the duke personally led an army across the Alps early in 894.In January 894 Bergamo fell, and Count Ambrose, Guy's representative in the city, was hung from a tree by the city's gates.", "Conquering all of the territory north of the Po River, Arnulf forced the surrender of Milan and then drove Guy out of Pavia, where he was crowned King of Italy.", "Arnulf went no further before Guy died suddenly in late autumn, and a fever incapacitated his troops.", "His march northward through the Alps was interrupted by Rudolph I of Burgundy, and it was only with great difficulty that Arnulf crossed the mountain range.", "In retaliation, Arnulf ordered Zwentibold to ravage Rudolph's kingdom.", "In the meantime, Lambert and his mother Ageltrude travelled to Rome to receive papal confirmation of his imperial succession, but when Pope Formosus, still desiring to crown Arnulf, refused, he was imprisoned in Castel Sant'Angelo.Arnulf of Carinthia and Louis the Child by Johann Jakob Jung (1840).In September 895 a new papal embassy arrived in Regensburg beseeching Arnulf's aid.", "In October Arnulf undertook his second campaign into Italy.", "He crossed the Alps quickly and again took Pavia, but then he continued slowly, garnering support among the nobility of Tuscany.", "Maginulf, Count of Milan, and Walfred of Friuli joined him.", "Eventually even Adalbert II of Tuscany abandoned Lambert.", "Finding Rome locked against him and held by Ageltrude, Arnulf had to take the city by force on 21 February, 896, freeing the pope.", "Arnulf was then greeted at the Ponte Milvio by the Roman Senate who escorted him into the Leonine City, where he was received by Pope Formosus on the steps of the Santi Apostoli.On 22 February 896 Formosus led the king into the church of St. Peter, anointed and crowned him as emperor, and saluted him as ''Augustus''.", "Arnulf then proceeded to the Basilica of Saint Paul Outside the Walls, where he received the homage of the Roman people, who swore \"never to hand over the city to Lambert or his mother Ageltrude\".", "Arnulf then proceeded to exile to Bavaria two leading senators, Constantine and Stephen, who had helped Ageltrude to seize Rome.Leaving one of his vassals, Farold, to hold Rome, two weeks later Arnulf marched on Spoleto, where Ageltrude had fled to join Lambert.", "However at this point, Arnulf had a stroke, forcing him to call off the campaign and return to Bavaria.", "Rumours of the time made Arnulf's condition to be a result of poisoning at the hand of Ageltrude.Arnulf retained power in Italy only as long as he was personally there.", "On his way north, he stopped at Pavia where he crowned his illegitimate son Ratold as sub-king of Italy, after which he left Ratold in Milan in an attempt to preserve his hold on Italy.", "That same year Pope Formosus died, leaving Lambert once again in power, and both he and Berengar proceeded to kill any officials who had been appointed by Arnulf, forcing Ratold to flee from Milan to Bavaria.", "For the rest of his life Arnulf exercised very little control in Italy, and his agents in Rome did not prevent the accession of Pope Stephen VI in 896.The pope initially gave his support to Arnulf but eventually became a supporter of Lambert." ], [ "Final years", "In addition to aftereffects from the stroke, Arnulf contracted morbus pediculosis (infestation of pubic lice on his eyelid), which prevented him from effectively dealing with the problems besetting his reign.", "Italy was lost, raiders from Moravia and Magyars were continually harassing his lands, and Lotharingia was in revolt against Zwentibold.", "He was also plagued by escalating violence and power struggles among the lower Frankish nobility.On December 8, 899, Arnulf died at Ratisbon in present-day Bavaria.", "He is entombed in St. Emmeram's Basilica at Regensburg, which is now known as Schloss Thurn und Taxis, the palace of the Princes of Thurn und Taxis.", "He was succeeded as the king of East Francia by his only legitimate son from Ota, Louis the Child.", "After Louis' death in 911 at age 17 or 18, the East Frankish branch of the Carolingian dynasty ceased to exist.", "Arnulf had had the nobility recognize the rights of his illegitimate sons, Zwentibold and Ratold, as his successors.", "Zwentibold continued to rule Lotharingia until his murder in 900." ], [ "See also", "*Family tree of German monarchs*List of Frankish kings" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Duckett, Eleanor (1968).", "''Death and Life in the Tenth Century''.", "Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.", "* Comyn, Robert.", "''History of the Western Empire, from its Restoration by Charlemagne to the Accession of Charles V, Vol.", "I''.", "1851* Bryce, James, ''The Holy Roman Empire'', MacMillan.", "1913* Mann, Horace, K. ''The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol III: The Popes During the Carolingian Empire, 858–891''.", "1925* Mann, Horace, K. ''The Lives of the Popes in the Early Middle Ages, Vol IV: The Popes in the Days of Feudal Anarchy, 891–999''.", "1925" ] ]

[ [ "Alexanderplatz" ], [ "Introduction", "Panoramic view of in 2015 at night in 2015Old Cölln 1 (with Museum Island 1a, Fisher Island 1b), 2 (with Nikolai Quarter 2a), 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, (with ) 8, area ( and ) 9, 10 (with 10a), 11, 12, 13 '''''' () () is a large public square and transport hub in the central Mitte district of Berlin.", "The square is named after the Russian Tsar Alexander I, which also denotes the larger neighbourhood stretching from in the north-east to and the in the south-west.", "is reputedly the most visited area of Berlin, beating Friedrichstrasse and City West.", "It is a popular starting point for tourists, with many attractions including the (TV tower), the Nikolai Quarter and the ('Red City Hall') situated nearby.", "is still one of Berlin's major commercial areas, housing various shopping malls, department stores and other large retail locations." ], [ "History", " in 1912World Clock in 2013===Early history to the 18th century===A hospital stood at the location of present-day since the 13th century.", "Named (St. George), the hospital gave its name to the nearby (George Gate) of the Berlin city wall.", "Outside the city walls, this area was largely undeveloped until around 1400, when the first settlers began building thatched cottages.", "As a gallows was located close by, the area earned the nickname the ('Devil's Pleasure Garden').", "from 1652 with The George Gate became the most important of Berlin's city gates during the 16th century, being the main entry point for goods arriving along the roads to the north and north-east of the city, for example from , and , and the big Hanseatic cities on the Baltic Sea.After the Thirty Years' War, the city wall was strengthened.", "From 1658 to 1683, a citywide fortress was constructed to plans by the Linz master builder, .", "The new fortress contained 13 bastions connected by ramparts and was preceded by a moat measuring up to wide.", "Within the new fortress, many of the historic city wall gates were closed.", "For example, the southeastern Gate was closed but the Georgian Gate remained open, making the Georgian Gate an even more important entrance to the city.In 1681, the trade of cattle and pig fattening was banned within the city.", "Frederick William, the Great Elector, granted cheaper plots of land, waiving the basic interest rate, in the area in front of the Georgian Gate.", "Settlements grew rapidly and a weekly cattle market was established on the square in front of the Gate.The area developed into a suburb – the – which continued to flourish into the late 17th century.", "Unlike the southwestern suburbs (, ) which were strictly and geometrically planned, the suburbs in the northeast (, and the ) proliferated without plan.", "Despite a building ban imposed in 1691, more than 600 houses existed in the area by 1700.At that time, the George Gate was a rectangular gatehouse with a tower.", "Next to the tower stood a remaining tower from the original medieval city walls.", "The upper floors of the gatehouse served as the city jail.", "A drawbridge spanned the moat and the gate was locked at nightfall by the garrison using heavy oak planks.A highway ran through the cattle market to the northeast towards .", "To the right stood the George chapel, an orphanage and a hospital that was donated by the Elector Sophie Dorothea in 1672.Next to the chapel stood a dilapidated medieval plague house which was demolished in 1716.Behind it was a rifleman's field and an inn, later named the .By the end of the 17th century, 600 to 700 families lived in this area.", "They included butchers, cattle herders, shepherds and dairy farmers.", "The George chapel was upgraded to the George church and received its own preacher.=== (1701–1805) ===City map showing the (1789).", "The is shown in red, the royal suburbs northeast brown., 1796 (in the middle the (King's Bridge) with its colonnades)After his coronation in on 6 May 1701 the Prussian King Frederick I entered Berlin through the George Gate.", "This led to the gate being renamed the King's Gate, and the surrounding area became known in official documents as (King's Gate Square).", "The suburb was renamed (or 'royal suburbs' short).In 1734, the Berlin Customs Wall, which initially consisted of a ring of palisade fences, was reinforced and grew to encompass the old city and its suburbs, including .", "This resulted in the King's Gate losing importance as an entry point for goods into the city.", "The gate was finally demolished in 1746.By the end of the 18th century, the basic structure of the royal suburbs of the had been developed.", "It consisted of irregular-shaped blocks of buildings running along the historic highways which once carried goods in various directions out of the gate.", "At this time, the area contained large factories (silk and wool), such as the (one of Berlin's first cloth factories, located in a former barn) and a workhouse established in 1758 for beggars and homeless people, where the inmates worked a man-powered treadmill to turn a mill.Soon, military facilities came to dominate the area, such as the 1799–1800 military parade grounds designed by David Gilly.", "At this time, the residents of the were mostly craftsmen, petty-bourgeois, retired soldiers and manufacturing workers.", "The southern part of the later was separated from traffic by trees and served as a parade ground, whereas the northern half remained a market.", "Beginning in the mid-18th century, the most important wool market in Germany was held in .Between 1752 and 1755, the writer lived in a house on Alexanderplatz.", "In 1771, a new stone bridge (the ) was built over the moat and in 1777 a colonnade-lined row of shops () was constructed by architect .", "Between 1783 and 1784, seven three-storey buildings were erected around the square by , including the famous , where lived as a permanent tenant and stayed in the days before his suicide.=== (1805–1900) ===On 25 October 1805 the Russian Tsar Alexander I was welcomed to the city on the parade grounds in front of the old King's Gate.", "To mark this occasion, on 2 November, King Frederick William III ordered the square to be renamed :In the southeast of the square, the cloth factory buildings were converted into the Theater by at a cost of 120,000 Taler.", "The foundation stone was laid on 31 August 1823 and the opening ceremony occurred on 4 August 1824.Sales were poor, forcing the theatre to close on 3 June 1851.Thereafter, the building was used for wool storage, then as a tenement building, and finally as an inn called until the building's demolition in 1932.During these years, was populated by fish wives, water carriers, sand sellers, rag-and-bone men, knife sharpeners and day laborers.Because of its importance as a transport hub, horse-drawn buses ran every 15 minutes between and in 1847.During the March Revolution of 1848, large-scale street fighting occurred on the streets of , where revolutionaries used barricades to block the route from to the city.", "First ever picture of the Alexanderplatz ever 1860Novelist and poet , who worked in the vicinity in a nearby pharmacy, participated in the construction of barricades and later described how he used materials from the Theater to barricade .The continued to grow throughout the 19th century, with three-storey developments already existing at the beginning of the century and fourth storeys being constructed from the middle of the century.", "By the end of the century, most of the buildings were already five storeys high.", "The large factories and military facilities gave way to housing developments (mainly rental housing for the factory workers who had just moved into the city) and trading houses.At the beginning of the 1870s, the Berlin administration had the former moat filled to build the Berlin city railway, which was opened in 1882 along with (' Railway Station').In 1883–1884, the Grand Hotel, a neo-Renaissance building with 185 rooms and shops beneath was constructed.", "From 1886 to 1890, built the police headquarters, a huge brick building whose tower on the northern corner dominated the building.", "In 1890, a district court at was also established.In 1886, the local authorities built a central market hall west of the rail tracks, which replaced the weekly market on the in 1896.During the end of the 19th century, the emerging private traffic and the first horse bus lines dominated the northern part of the square, the southern part (the former parade ground) remained quiet, having green space elements added by garden director in 1889.The northwest of the square contained a second, smaller green space where, in 1895, the copper Berolina statue by sculptor was erected.=== Between Empire and the Nazi era (1900–1940) ===At the beginning of the 20th century, experienced its heyday.", "In 1901, founded the first German cabaret, the , in the former ('Secession stage') at , initially under the name .", "It was announced as \" as upscale entertainment with artistic ambitions.", "Emperor-loyal and market-oriented stands the uncritical amusement in the foreground.", "\"The merchants , and opened large department stores on : (1904–1911), (1910–1911) and (1911).", "marketed itself as a department store for the Berlin people, whereas modelled itself as a department store for the world.In October 1905, the first section of the department store opened to the public.", "It was designed by architects and , who had already won second prize in the competition for the construction of the building.", "The department store underwent further construction phases and, in 1911, had a commercial space of and the longest department store façade in the world at in length.For the construction of the department store, by architects and , the were removed in 1910 and now stand in the Park in .In October 1908, the ('house of teachers') was opened next to the at .", "It was designed by and Henry Gross.", "The building belonged to the ('teachers’ association'), who rented space on the ground floor of the building out to a pastry shop and restaurant to raise funds for the association.", "The building housed the teachers' library which survived two world wars, and today is integrated into the library for educational historical research.", "The rear of the property contained the association's administrative building, a hotel for members and an exhibition hall.", "Notable events that took place in the hall include the funeral services for and on 2 February 1919 and, on 4 December 1920, the (Unification Party Congress) of the Communist Party and the USPD.The First Ordinary Congress of the Communist Workers Party of Germany was held in the nearby restaurant, 1–4 August 1920.", "'s position as a main transport and traffic hub continued to fuel its development.", "In addition to the three underground lines, long-distance trains and trains ran along the 's viaduct arches.", "Omnibuses, horse-drawn from 1877 and, after 1898, also electric-powered trams, ran out of in all directions in a star shape.", "The subway station was designed by Alfred Grenander and followed the colour-coded order of subway stations, which began with green at and ran through to dark red.In the Golden Twenties, was the epitome of the lively, pulsating cosmopolitan city of Berlin, rivalled in the city only by .", "Many of the buildings and rail bridges surrounding the platz bore large billboards that illuminated the night.", "The Berlin cigarette company Manoli had a famous billboard at the time which contained a ring of neon tubes that constantly circled a black ball.", "The proverbial \"\" of those years was characterized as \"\".", "Writer wrote a poem referencing the advert, and the composer Rudolf Nelson made the legendary with the dancer Lucie Berber.", "The writer named his novel, , after the square, and filmed parts of his 1927 film (''Berlin: The Symphony of the Big City'') at .=== Destruction of (1940–1945) ===The destroyed station, May 1945One of Berlin's largest air-raid shelters during the Second World War was situated under .", "It was built between 1941 and 1943 for the by .The war reached in early April 1945.The Berolina statue had already been removed in 1944 and probably melted down for use in arms production.", "During the Battle of Berlin, Red Army artillery bombarded the area around .", "The battles of the last days of the war destroyed considerable parts of the historic , as well as many of the buildings around .The had entrenched itself within the tunnels of the underground system.", "Hours before fighting ended in Berlin on 2 May 1945, troops of the SS detonated explosives inside the north–south tunnel under the Canal to slow the advance of the Red Army towards Berlin's city centre.", "The entire tunnel flooded, as well as large sections of the network via connecting passages at the underground station.", "Many of those seeking shelter in the tunnels were killed.", "Of the then of subway tunnel, around were flooded with more than one million cubic meters () of water.===Demolition and reconstruction (1945–1964)===Before a planned reconstruction of the entire could take place, all the war ruins needed to be demolished and cleared away.", "A popular black market emerged within the ruined area, which the police raided several times a day.One structure demolished after World War II was the 'Rote Burg', a red brick building with round arches, previously used as police and Gestapo headquarters.", "The huge construction project began in 1886 and was completed in 1890; it was one of Berlin's largest buildings.", "The 'castle' suffered extensive damage during 1944-45 and was demolished in 1957.The site on the southwest corner of Alexanderplatz remained largely unused as a carpark until the Alexa shopping centre opened in 2007.Reconstruction planning for post-war Berlin gave priority to the dedicated space to accommodate the rapidly growing motor traffic in inner-city thoroughfares.", "This idea of a traffic-orientated city was already based on considerations and plans by and from the 1930s.===East Germany===The Press Cafe in 1977.The mural displaying the Marxist view of the press has been covered over by commercial advertising.The seen from a distance has been subject to redevelopment several times in its history, most recently during the 1960s, when it was turned into a pedestrian zone and enlarged as part of the German Democratic Republic's redevelopment of the city centre.", "It is surrounded by several notable structures including the (TV Tower).During the Peaceful Revolution of 1989, the demonstration on 4 November 1989 was the largest demonstration in the history of the German Democratic Republic.", "Protests starting 15 October and peaked on 4 November with an estimated 200,000 participants who called on the government of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany to step down and demanded a free press, the opening of the borders and their right to travel.", "Speakers were , , , , , and .", "The protests continued and culminated in the unexpected Fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989.The 4 November 1989 Alexanderplatz demonstration===After German reunification (1989)===Ever since German reunification, has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated.", "After the political turnaround in the wake of the fall of the Berlin Wall, socialist urban planning and architecture of the 1970s no longer corresponded to the current ideas of an inner-city square.", "Investors demanded planning security for their construction projects.", "After initial discussions with the public, the goal quickly arose to reinstate 's tram network for better connections to surrounding city quarters.", "In 1993, an urban planning ideas competition for architects took place to redesign the square and its surrounding area.", "In the first phase, there were 16 submissions, five of which were selected for the second phase of the competition.", "These five architects had to adapt their plans to detailed requirements.", "For example, the return of the Alex's trams was planned, with the implementation to be made in several stages.The winner, who was determined on 17 September 1993, was the Berlin architect .", "'s plan was based on Behrens’ design, provided a horseshoe-shaped area of seven- to eight-storey buildings and high towers with 42 floors.", "The and the – both listed buildings – would form the southwestern boundary.", "Second place went to the design by and .", "The proposal of the architecture firm Kny & Weber, which was strongly based on the horseshoe shape of Wagner, finally won the third place.", "The design by was chosen on 7 June 1994 by the Berlin Senate as a basis for the further transformation of .In 1993, architect 's master plan for a major redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers was published.", "In 1995, completed the renovation of the .", "In 1998, the first tram returned to , and in 1999, the town planning contracts for the implementation of and 's plans were signed by the landowners and the investors.", "===21st century===Alexanderplatz from the leftU-Bahn station at the alexanderplatzOn 2 April 2000, the Senate finally fixed the development plan for .", "The purchase contracts between investors and the Senate Department for Urban Development were signed on 23 May 2002, thus laying the foundations for the development.Aerial view with the TV towerThe CUBIX multiplex cinema (CineStar Cubix am Alexanderplatz, styled CUBIX), which opened in November 2000, joined the team of Berlin International Film Festival cinemas in 2007, and the festival shows films on three of its screens.Renovation of the department store began in 2004, led by Berlin professor of architecture, and his son .", "The building was enlarged by about and has since operated under the name .", "Beginning with the reconstruction of the department store in 2004, and the biggest underground railway station of Berlin, some buildings were redesigned and new structures built on the square's south-eastern side.", "Sidewalks were expanded to shrink one of the avenues, a new underground garage was built, and commuter tunnels meant to keep pedestrians off the streets were removed.", "Between 2005 and 2006, was renovated and later became a branch of the clothing chain, C&A.In 2005, the began work to extend the tram line from to (Alex II).", "This route was originally to be opened in 2000 but was postponed several times.", "After further delays caused by the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the route opened on 30 May 2007.In February 2006, the redesign of the walk-in plaza began.", "The redevelopment plans were provided by the architecture firm Gerkan, Marg and Partners and the Hamburg-based company .", "The final plans emerged from a design competition launched by the state of Berlin in 2004.However, the paving work was temporarily interrupted a few months after the start of construction by the 2006 FIFA World Cup and all excavation pits had to be provisionally asphalted over.", "The construction work could only be completed at the end of 2007.The renovation of , the largest Berlin underground station, had been ongoing since the mid-1990s and was finally completed in October 2008.The was given a pavement of yellow granite, bordered by grey mosaic paving around the buildings.", "Wall AG modernized the 1920s-era underground toilets at a cost of 750,000 euros.", "The total redesign cost amounted to around 8.7 million euros.On 12 September 2007 the Alexa shopping centre opened.", "It is located in the immediate vicinity of the , on the site of the old Berlin police headquarters.", "With a sales area, it is one of the largest shopping centres in Berlin.In May 2007, the Texas property development company Hines began building a six-story commercial building named .", "The building was built on a plot of , which, according to the plans, closes the square to the east and thus reduces the area of the Platz.", "The building was opened on 25 March 2009.At the beginning of 2007, the construction company created an underground garage with three levels below the , located between the hotel tower and the building, which cost 25 million euros to build and provides space for around 700 cars.", "The opening took place on 26 November 2010.At the same time, the Senate narrowed from almost wide to wide (), thus reducing it to three lanes in each direction.Behind the station, next to the CUBIX cinema in the immediate vicinity of the TV tower, the high residential and commercial building, Alea 101, was built between 2012 and 2014.it was assessed that due to a lack of demand the skyscrapers planned in 1993 were unlikely to be constructed.", "In January 2014, a 39-story residential tower designed by Frank Gehry was announced, but this project was put on hold in 2018.The area is the largest area for crime in Berlin.", "As of October 2017, was classified a (\"crime-contaminated location\") by the (General Safety and Planning Laws)." ], [ "Today and future plans", "Despite the reconstruction of the tram line crossing, it has retained its socialist character, including the much-graffitied , a popular venue.", "is reputedly the most visited area of Berlin, beating Friedrichstrasse and City West.", "It is a popular starting point for tourists, with many attractions including the (TV tower), the Nikolai Quarter and the ('Red City Hall') situated nearby.", "is still one of Berlin's major commercial areas, housing various shopping malls, department stores and other large retail locations.", "Many historic buildings are located in the vicinity of .", "The traditional seat of city government, the , or 'Red City Hall', is located nearby, as was the former East German parliament building, the .", "The was demolished from 2006–2008 to make room for a full reconstruction of the Baroque Berlin Palace, or , which is set to open in 2019.is also the name of the S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations there.", "It is one of Berlin's largest and most important transportation hubs, being a meeting place of three subway () lines, three lines, and many tram and bus lines, as well as regional trains.It also accommodates the Park Inn Berlin and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe, the House of Travel, and 's (House of Teachers)'.COVID-19 lockdown in Berlin Long-term plans exist for the demolition of the high former (now the Hotel Park-Inn), with the site to be replaced by three skyscrapers.", "If and when this plan will be implemented is unclear, especially since the hotel tower received a new façade as recently as in 2005, and the occupancy rates of the hotel are very good.", "However, the plans could give way in the next few years to a suggested high new block conversion.", "The previous main tenant of the development, Saturn, moved into the building in March 2009.In 2014, Primark opened a branch inside the hotel building.The majority of the planned high skyscrapers will probably never be built.", "The state of Berlin has announced that it will not enforce the corresponding urban development contracts against the market.", "Of the 13 planned skyscrapers, 10 remained as of 2008, after modifications to the plans – eight of which had construction rights.", "Some investors in the Alexa shopping centre announced several times since 2007 that they would sell their respective shares in the plot to an investor interested in building a high-rise building.The first concrete plans for the construction of a high-rise were made by Hines, the investor behind die mitte.", "In 2009, the construction of a high tower to be built behind die mitte was announced.", "On 12 September 2011, a slightly modified development plan was presented, which provided for a residential tower housing 400 apartments.", "In early 2013, the development plan was opened to the public.In autumn 2015, the Berlin Senate organized two forums in which interested citizens could express their opinions on the proposed changes to the .", "Architects, city planners and Senate officials held open discussions.", "On that occasion, however, it was reiterated that the plans for high-rise developments were not up for debate.", "According to the master plan of the architect , up to eleven huge buildings will continue to be built, which will house a mixture of shops and apartments." ], [ "Roads and public transport", "Alexanderplatz U-bahn stationDuring the post-war reconstruction of the 1960s, was completely pedestrianized.", "Since then, trams were reintroduced to the area in 1998.station provides connections, access to the U2, U5 and U8 subway lines, regional train lines for DB Regio and ODEG services and, on weekends, the (HBX).", "Several tram and bus lines also service the area.The following main roads connect to :* Northwest: (federal highways B 2 and B 5)* Northeast: (B 2 and B 5)* Southeast: (B 1)* Southwest (in front of the station, in the pedestrian zone): Several arterial roads lead radially from to the outskirts of Berlin.", "These include (clockwise from north to south-east):* / – – (to Bundesstraße 96a)* – intersection – (main road 109 to the triangle at the )* / – (B 2) – (intersection ) – (B 2 via to the junction at ) (B 1 and B 5) – – / – (B 1 and B 5 to junction at )" ], [ "Structures", "=== World Clock ====== Berolina ===Fountain of Friendship=== Fountain of Friendship ===The Fountain of Friendship () was erected in 1970 during the redesign of and inaugurated on October 7.It was created by and his group of artists.", "Its water basin has a diameter of 23 meters, it is 6.20 meters high and is built from embossed copper, glass, ceramics and enamel.", "The water spurts from the highest point and then flows down in spirals over 17 shells, which each have a diameter between one and four meters.", "After German reunification, it was completely renovated in a metal art workshop during the reconstruction of the .=== Other ===Apart from , is the only existing square in front of one of the medieval gates of Berlin's city wall." ], [ "Image gallery", "File:Der Alexanderplatz um 1908.jpg|, 1908 (left to right: , , )File:Weltzeituhr.jpg|The World Clock with the in the backgroundFile:Bahnhof Berlin-Alexanderplatz.jpg|File:Berlin Alexanderplatz - Alexanderhaus 1.jpg|File:Project-blinkenlights-aerial-view.jpg|Project BlinkenlightsFile:Die mitte Alexanderplatz IMGP1725.jpg| shopping mallFile:Apstatue.jpg|File:Alexplatz1.jpg|Tram at File:Alexanderplatz 01.jpg| on File:Urania-Weltzeituhr auf dem Alexanderplatz in Berlin 2015 Weitwinkel.jpg|The World Clock and Park Inn hotel in the backgroundFile:Reloj Mundial, Berlín, Alemania, 2016-04-22, DD 46-48 HDR.jpg|Night view of the World ClockFile:Berlin Alexanderplatz abend.JPG| and the File:Berlin TV tower reflection.jpg|Park Inn with a reflection from the ." ], [ "Further reading", "* Weszkalnys, Gisa (2010).", "''Berlin, Alexanderplatz: Transforming Place in a Unified Germany''.", "Berghahn Books.", "* ''Alexanderplatz: Plenty of Space for Free Speech''.", "In: Sites of Unity (Haus der Geschichte), 2022." ], [ "External links", "* Alexanderplatz – Overview of the changes" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Asian Development Bank" ], [ "Introduction", "Asian Development Bank member states The '''Asian Development Bank''' ('''ADB''') is a regional development bank established on 19 December 1966, which is headquartered in 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong, Metro Manila 1550, Philippines.", "The bank also maintains 31 field offices around the world to promote social and economic development in Asia.", "The bank admits the members of the UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP, formerly the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East or ECAFE), and non-regional developed countries.", "Starting with 31 members at its establishment, ADB now has 68 members.The ADB was modeled closely on the World Bank and has a similar weighted voting system, where votes are distributed in proportion with members' capital subscriptions.", "ADB releases an annual report that summarizes its operations, budget, and other materials for review by the public.", "The ADB-Japan Scholarship Program (ADB-JSP) enrolls about 300 students annually in academic institutions located in 10 countries within the Region.", "After completing their study programs, scholars are expected to contribute to the economic and social development of their home countries.", "ADB holds the status of an official United Nations Observer.As of 31 December 2020, Japan and the United States each holds the largest proportion of shares at 15.571%.", "China holds 6.429%, India holds 6.317%, and Australia holds 5.773%." ], [ "Organization", "President Rodrigo Duterte pose for a photo with ADB President Takehiko Nakao and other officials of ADB during the 51st ADB Annual Meeting in Ortigas Center, Mandaluyong, Philippines on May 5, 2018.The highest policy-making body of the bank is the Board of Governors, composed of one representative from each member state.", "The Board of Governors, in turn, elect among themselves the twelve members of the board of directors and their deputies.", "Eight of the twelve members come from regional (Asia-Pacific) members while the others come from non-regional members.The Board of Governors also elect the bank's president, who is the chairperson of the board of directors and manages ADB.", "The president has a term of office lasting five years, and may be re-elected.", "Traditionally, and because Japan is one of the largest shareholders of the bank, the president has always been Japanese.The current president is Masatsugu Asakawa.", "He succeeded Takehiko Nakao on 17 January 2020, who succeeded Haruhiko Kuroda in 2013.The headquarters of the bank is at 6 ADB Avenue, Mandaluyong, Metro Manila, Philippines, and it has 42 field offices in Asia and the Pacific and representative offices in Washington, Frankfurt, Tokyo and Sydney.", "The bank employs about 3,000 people, representing 60 of its 68 members.===List of presidents=== Name Dates Nationality Takeshi Watanabe 1966–1972 ese Shiro Inoue 1972–1976 ese Taroichi Yoshida 1976–1981 ese Masao Fujioka 1981–1989 ese Kimimasa Tarumizu 1989–1993 ese Mitsuo Sato 1993–1999 ese Tadao Chino 1999–2005 ese Haruhiko Kuroda 2005–2013 ese Takehiko Nakao 2013–2020 ese Masatsugu Asakawa (*)2020–present ese(*) As from 17 January 2020, Masatsugu Asakawa was president of ADB." ], [ "History", "===1960s===As early as 1956, Japan Finance Minister Hisato Ichimada had suggested to United States Secretary of State John Foster Dulles that development projects in Southeast Asia could be supported by a new financial institution for the region.", "A year later, Japanese Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi announced that Japan intended to sponsor the establishment of a regional development fund with resources largely from Japan and other industrial countries.", "But the US did not warm to the plan and the concept was shelved.", "See full account in \" Banking the Future of Asia and the Pacific: 50 Years of the Asian Development Bank\", July 2017.The idea came up again late in 1962 when Kaoru Ohashi, an economist from a research institute in Tokyo, visited Takeshi Watanabe, then a private financial consultant in Tokyo, and proposed a study group to form a development bank for the Asian region.", "The group met regularly in 1963, examining various scenarios for setting up a new institution and drew on Watanabe's experiences with the World Bank.", "However, the idea received a cool reception from the World Bank itself and the study group became discouraged.In parallel, the concept was formally proposed at a trade conference organized by the Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East (ECAFE) in 1963 by a young Thai economist, Paul Sithi-Amnuai.", "(ESCAP, United Nations Publication March 2007, \"The first parliament of Asia\" pp. 65).", "Despite an initial mixed reaction, support for the establishment of a new bank soon grew.An expert group was convened to study the idea, with Japan invited to contribute to the group.", "When Watanabe was recommended, the two streams proposing a new bank—from ECAFE and Japan—came together.", "Initially, the US was on the fence, not opposing the idea but not ready to commit financial support.", "But a new bank for Asia was soon seen to fit in with a broader program of assistance to Asia planned by United States President Lyndon B. Johnson in the wake of the escalating U.S. military support for the government of South Vietnam.As a key player in the concept, Japan hoped that the ADB offices would be in Tokyo.", "However, eight other cities had also expressed an interest: Bangkok, Colombo, Kabul, Kuala Lumpur, Manila, Phnom Penh, Singapore, and Tehran.", "To decide, the 18 prospective regional members of the new bank held three rounds of votes at a ministerial conference in Manila in November/December 1965.In the first round on 30 November, Tokyo failed to win a majority, so a second ballot was held the next day at noon.", "Although Japan was in the lead, it was still inconclusive, so a final vote was held after lunch.", "In the third poll, Tokyo gained eight votes to Manila's nine, with one abstention.", "Therefore, Manila was declared the host of the new development bank; the Japanese were mystified and deeply disappointed.", "Watanabe later wrote in his personal history of ADB: \"I felt as if the child I had so carefully reared had been taken away to a distant country.\"", "(Asian Development Bank publication, \"Towards a New Asia\", 1977, p. 16)As intensive work took place during 1966 to prepare for the opening of the new bank in Manila, high on the agenda was choice of president.", "Japanese Prime Minister Eisaku Satō asked Watanabe to be a candidate.", "Although he initially declined, pressure came from other countries and Watanabe agreed.", "In the absence of any other candidates, Watanabe was elected first President of the Asian Development Bank at its Inaugural Meeting on 24 November 1966.By the end of 1972, Japan had contributed $173.7 million (22.6% of the total) to the ordinary capital resources and $122.6 million (59.6% of the total) to the special funds.", "In contrast, the United States contributed only $1.25 million to the special fund.After its creation in the 1960s, ADB focused much of its assistance on food production and rural development.", "At the time, Asia was one of the poorest regions in the world.Early loans went largely to Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, South Korea and the Philippines; these countries accounted for 78.48% of the total ADB loans between 1967 and 1972.Moreover, Japan received tangible benefits, 41.67% of the total procurements between 1967 and 1976.Japan tied its special funds contributions to its preferred sectors and regions and procurements of its goods and services, as reflected in its $100 million donation for the Agricultural Special Fund in April 1968.Watanabe served as the first ADB president to 1972.===1970s–1980s===In the 1970s, ADB's assistance to developing countries in Asia expanded into education and health, and then to infrastructure and industry.", "The gradual emergence of Asian economies in the latter part of the decade spurred demand for better infrastructure to support economic growth.", "ADB focused on improving roads and providing electricity.", "When the world suffered its first oil price shock, ADB shifted more of its assistance to support energy projects, especially those promoting the development of domestic energy sources in member countries.Following considerable pressure from the Reagan Administration in the 1980s, ADB reluctantly began working with the private sector in an attempt to increase the impact of its development assistance to poor countries in Asia and the Pacific.", "In the wake of the second oil crisis, ADB expanded its assistance to energy projects.", "In 1982, ADB opened its first field office, in Bangladesh, and later in the decade, it expanded its work with non-government organizations (NGOs).Japanese presidents Inoue Shiro (1972–76) and Yoshida Taroichi (1976–81) took the spotlight in the 1970s.", "Fujioka Masao, the fourth president (1981–90), adopted an assertive leadership style, launching an ambitious plan to expand the ADB into a high-impact development agency.On November 18, 1972, the Bank inaugurated its headquarters along Roxas Boulevard in Pasay City, Philippines.", "In the early 1990s, ADB moved its offices to Ortigas Center in Pasig City, with the Department of Foreign Affairs (Philippines) taking over its old Pasay premises.===1990s===In the 1990s, ADB began promoting regional cooperation by helping the countries on the Mekong River to trade and work together.", "The decade also saw an expansion of ADB's membership with the addition of several Central Asian countries following the end of the Cold War.In mid-1997, ADB responded to the financial crisis that hit the region with projects designed to strengthen financial sectors and create social safety nets for the poor.", "During the crisis, ADB approved its largest single loan – a $4 billion emergency loan to South Korea.", "In 1999, ADB adopted poverty reduction as its overarching goal.===2000s===The early 2000s saw a dramatic expansion of private sector finance.", "While the institution had such operations since the 1980s (under pressure from the Reagan Administration) the early attempts were highly unsuccessful with low lending volumes, considerable losses and financial scandals associated with an entity named AFIC.", "However, beginning in 2002, the ADB undertook a dramatic expansion of private sector lending under a new team.", "Over the course of the next six years, the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) grew by a factor of 41 times the 2001 levels of new financings and earnings for the ADB.", "This culminated with the Board's formal recognition of these achievements in March 2008, when the Board of Directors formally adopted the Long Term Strategic Framework (LTSF).", "That document formally stated that assistance to private sector development was the lead priority of the ADB and that it should constitute 50% of the bank's lending by 2020.In 2003, the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) epidemic hit the region and ADB responded with programs to help the countries in the region work together to address infectious diseases, including avian influenza and HIV/AIDS.", "ADB also responded to a multitude of natural disasters in the region, committing more than $850 million for recovery in areas of India, Indonesia, Maldives, and Sri Lanka which were impacted by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.", "In addition, $1 billion in loans and grants was provided to the victims of the October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan.In December 2005, China donated $20 million to the ADB for a regional poverty alleviation fund; China's first such fund set up at an international institution.In 2009, ADB's Board of Governors agreed to triple ADB's capital base from $55 billion to $165 billion, giving it much-needed resources to respond to the global economic crisis.", "The 200% increase is the largest in ADB's history, and was the first since 1994.===2010s===Asia moved beyond the economic crisis and by 2010 had emerged as a new engine of global economic growth though it remained home to two-thirds of the world's poor.", "In addition, the increasing prosperity of many people in the region created a widening income gap that left many people behind.", "ADB responded to this with loans and grants that encouraged economic growth.In early 2012, the ADB began to re-engage with Myanmar in response to reforms initiated by the government.", "In April 2014, ADB opened an office in Myanmar and resumed making loans and grants to the country.In 2017, ADB combined the lending operations of its Asian Development Fund (ADF) with its ordinary capital resources (OCR).", "The result was to expand the OCR balance sheet to permit increasing annual lending and grants to $20 billion by 2020 — 50% more than the previous level.In 2020, ADB gave a $2 million grant from the Asia Pacific Disaster Response Fund, to support the Armenian government in the fight against the spread of COVID-19 pandemic.", "In the same year, the ADB committed a $20 million loan to Electric Networks of Armenia, that will ensure electricity for the citizens during the pandemic, as well as approved $500,000 in regional technical assistance to procure personal protective equipment and other medical supplies." ], [ "Objectives and activities", "===Aim===The ADB defines itself as a social development organization that is dedicated to reducing poverty in Asia and the Pacific through inclusive economic growth, environmentally sustainable growth, and regional integration.", "This is carried out through investments – in the form of loans, grants and information sharing – in infrastructure, health care services, financial and public administration systems, helping countries prepare for the impact of climate change or better manage their natural resources, as well as other areas.===Focus areas===Eighty percent of ADB's lending is concentrated public sector lending in five operational areas.", "* Education – Most developing countries in Asia and the Pacific have earned high marks for a dramatic rise in primary education enrollment rates in the last three decades, but daunting challenges remain, threatening economic and social growth.", "* Environment, Climate Change, and Disaster Risk Management – Environmental sustainability is a prerequisite for economic growth and poverty reduction in Asia and the Pacific.", "* Finance Sector Development – The financial system is the lifeline of a country's economy.", "It creates prosperity that can be shared throughout society and benefit the poorest and most vulnerable people.", "Financial sector and capital market development, including microfinance, small and medium-sized enterprises, and regulatory reforms, is vital to decreasing poverty in Asia and the Pacific.", "This has been a key priority of the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) since 2002.One of the most active sub-sectors of finance is the PSOD's support for trade finance.", "Each year the PSOD finances billions of dollars in letters of credit across all of Asia and the rest of the world.", "* Infrastructure, including transport and communications, energy, water supply and sanitation, and urban development.", "* Regional Cooperation and Integration – Regional cooperation and integration (RCI) was introduced by President Kuroda when he joined the ADB in 2004.It was seen as a long-standing priority of the Japanese government as a process by which national economies become more regionally connected.", "It plays a critical role in accelerating economic growth, reducing poverty and economic disparity, raising productivity and employment, and strengthening institutions.", "* Private Sector Lending – This priority was introduced into the ADB's activities at the insistence of the Reagan Administration.", "However, that effort was never a true priority until the administration of President Tadeo Chino who in turn brought in a seasoned American banker – Robert Bestani.", "From then on, the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) grew at a very rapid pace, growing from the smallest financing unit of the ADB to the largest in terms of financing volume.", "As noted earlier, this culminated in the Long Term Strategic Framework (LTSF) which was adopted by the Board in March 2008." ], [ "Financings", "The ADB offers \"hard\" loans on commercial terms primarily to middle income countries in Asia and \"soft\" loans with lower interest rates to poorer countries in the region.", "Based on a new policy, both types of loans will be sourced starting January 2017 from the bank's ordinary capital resources (OCR), which functions as its general operational fund.The ADB's Private Sector Department (PSOD) can and does offer a broader range of financings beyond commercial loans.", "They also have the capability to provide guarantees, equity and mezzanine finance (a combination of debt and equity).In 2017, ADB lent $19.1 billion of which $3.2 billion went to private enterprises, as part of its \"non-sovereign\" operations.", "ADB's operations in 2017, including grants and co-financing, totaled $28.9 billion.ADB obtains its funding by issuing bonds on the world's capital markets.", "It also relies on the contributions of member countries, retained earnings from lending operations, and the repayment of loans.+Five largest borrowing countriesCountry 2018 2017 2016 2015$ million % $ million % $ million % $ million % 17,015 16.6 16,284 16.915,615 24.8 14,646 25.2 16,115 15.7 14,720 15.213,331 21.2 12,916 22.2 10,818 10.6 10,975 11.4 4,570 7.3 4,319 7.4 10,356 10.1 9,393 9.78,700 13.8 8,214 14.1 9,169 8.9 8,685 Others 38,998 38.1 36,519 37.8 14,831 23.5 12,486 21.6Total 102,470 100.0 96,577 100.0 62,983 100.0 58,106 100.0" ], [ "Private sector investments", "ADB provides direct financial assistance, in the form of debt, equity and mezzanine finance to private sector companies, for projects that have clear social benefits beyond the financial rate of return.", "ADB's participation is usually limited but it leverages a large amount of funds from commercial sources to finance these projects by holding no more than 25% of any given transaction." ], [ "Co-financing", "ADB partners with other development organizations on some projects to increase the amount of funding available.", "In 2014, $9.2 billion—or nearly half—of ADB's $22.9 billion in operations were financed by other organizations.", "According to Jason Rush, Principal Communication Specialist, the Bank communicates with many other multilateral organizations." ], [ "Funds and resources", "More than 50 financing partnership facilities, trust funds, and other funds – totaling several billion each year – are administered by ADB and put toward projects that promote social and economic development in Asia and the Pacific.", "ADB has raised Rupees 5 billion or around Rupees 500 crores from its issuance of 5-year offshore Indian rupee (INR) linked bonds.On 26 Feb 2020, ADB raises $118 million from rupee-linked bonds and supporting the development of India International Exchange in India, as it also contributes to an established yield curve which stretches from 2021 through 2030 with $1 billion of outstanding bonds." ], [ "Access to information", "ADB has an information disclosure policy that presumes all information that is produced by the institution should be disclosed to the public unless there is a specific reason to keep it confidential.", "The policy calls for accountability and transparency in operations and the timely response to requests for information and documents.", "ADB does not disclose information that jeopardizes personal privacy, safety and security, certain financial and commercial information, as well as other exceptions." ], [ "Notable projects and technical assistance", "* Afghanistan: Hairatan to Mazar-e-Sharif Railway Project* Armenia: Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project* Bhutan: Green Power Development Project* India: Rural Roads Sector II Investment Program; Agartala Municipal Infrastructure Development Project* Indonesia: Vocational Education Strengthening Project* Laos: Northern and Central Regions Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project* Mongolia: Food and Nutrition Social Welfare Program and Project* Philippines: North–South Commuter Railway Project (Malolos–Clark Railway Project and South Commuter Railway Project), jointly funded with Japan International Cooperation Agency* Solomon Islands: Pacific Private Sector Development Initiative" ], [ "Criticism", "Since the ADB's early days, critics have charged that the two major donors, Japan and the United States, have had extensive influence over lending, policy and staffing decisions.Oxfam Australia has criticized the Asian Development Bank for insensitivity to local communities.", "\"Operating at a global and international level, these banks can undermine people's human rights through projects that have detrimental outcomes for poor and marginalized communities.\"", "The bank also received criticism from the United Nations Environmental Program, stating in a report that \"much of the growth has bypassed more than 70 percent of its rural population, many of whom are directly dependent on natural resources for livelihoods and incomes.", "\"There had been criticism that ADB's large scale projects cause social and environmental damage due to lack of oversight.", "One of the most controversial ADB-related projects is Thailand's Mae Moh coal-fired power station.", "Environmental and human rights activists say ADB's environmental safeguards policy as well as policies for indigenous peoples and involuntary resettlement, while usually up to international standards on paper, are often ignored in practice, are too vague or weak to be effective, or are simply not enforced by bank officials.The bank has been criticized over its role and relevance in the food crisis.", "The ADB has been accused by civil society of ignoring warnings leading up the crisis and also contributing to it by pushing loan conditions that many say unfairly pressure governments to deregulate and privatize agriculture, leading to problems such as the rice supply shortage in Southeast Asia.Indeed, whereas the Private Sector Operations Department (PSOD) closed out that year with financings of $2.4 billion, the ADB has significantly dropped below that level in the years since and is clearly not on the path to achieving its stated goal of 50% of financings to the private sector by 2020.Critics also point out that the PSOD is the only Department that actually makes money for the ADB.", "Hence, with the vast majority of loans going to concessionary (sub-market) loans to the public sector, the ADB is facing considerable financial difficulty and continuous operating losses." ], [ "Countries with the largest subscribed capital and voting rights", "The following table are amounts for 20 largest countries by subscribed capital and voting power at the Asian Development Bank as of December 2021.+ The 20 countries with the largest capital contribution and voting rights in the Asian Development Bank Rank Country Subscribed capital(% of total) Voting power(% of total) '''''World''''' 100.000 100.000 1 15.571 12.751 1 15.571 12.751 3 6.429 5.437 4 6.317 5.347 5 5.773 4.913 6 5.434 4.641 7 5.219 4.469 8 5.026 4.315 9 4.316 3.747 10 2.717 2.468 11 2.377 2.196 12 2.322 2.152 13 2.174 2.033 14 2.038 1.924 15 1.803 1.737 16 1.532 1.520 17 1.358 1.381 18 1.087 1.164 19 1.023 1.113 20 1.019 1.109 10.894 22.832" ], [ "Members", "Developing Member Countries (DMC) graduation stages ADB has 68 members (as of 23 March 2019): 49 members from the Asian and Pacific Region, and 19 members from Other Regions.", "The year listed after a member's name indicates the year of their membership.", "When a country no longer remains a member, the Bank shall arrange for the repurchase of such country's shares by the Bank as a part of the settlement of accounts with such country in accordance with the provisions of paragraphs 3 and 4 of Article 43.Regional members Date of accession 1966 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1976 1978 1981 1973 1982 1986 1990 1991 1993 1994 1995 1998 1999 2000 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2019 Nonregional members Date of accession 1966 1967 1970 1986 1991 2002 2003 2006" ], [ "See also", "* African Development Bank* Asian Clearing Union* Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI)* Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB)* Asia Cooperation Dialogue* Asia Council* CAF – Development Bank of Latin America and the Caribbean* Caribbean Development Bank* Eurasian Development Bank* Inter-American Development Bank* International Monetary Fund* South Asia Subregional Economic Cooperation* World Bank" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Huang, P.W.", "1975.", "''The Asian Development Bank: Diplomacy and Development in Asia.''", "New York, NY: Vantage Press.", "* Krishnamurti, R.", "1977.", "''ADB: The Seeding Days.''", "Manila: Asian Development Bank.", "* McCawley, Peter.", "2017.''", "Banking on the Future of Asia and the Pacific: 50 Years of the Asian Development Bank.''", "Manila: Asian Development Bank, (print), (e-ISBN), (Japanese language edition).", "* McCawley, Peter.", "2020.''", "Indonesia and the Asian Development Bank: Fifty Years of Partnership'' Manila: Asian Development Bank, (print), (e-book).", "DOI: Indonesia and the Asian Development Bank: Fifty Years of Partnership* Watanabe, Takeshi.", "1977 (reprinted 2010).", "''Towards a New Asia''.", "Manila: Asian Development Bank.", "* Wihtol, Robert.", "1988.", "''The Asian Development Bank and Rural Development: Policy and Practice.''", "Hampshire, UK: Macmillan Press.", "* Wilson, Dick.", "1997.", "''A Bank for Half the World: The Story of the Asian Development Bank, 1966-1986.''", "Manila: Asian Development Bank.", "* Yasutomo, D.T.", "1983.", "''Japan and the Asian Development Bank.''", "New York, NY: Praeger." ], [ "External links", "* * Bank Information Center* ADB Institute* \"Inequality Worsens across Asia\", ''Dollars & Sense'' magazine, November/December 2007.Article discussing recent reports from the ADB.", "* \"The right business environment\" Youth unemployment in Asia.", "An interview with Jesus Felipe, advisor in the Economics and Research Department of ADB.", "* Free Futures Thinking Guidebooks" ] ]

[ [ "Aswan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aswan''' (, also ; ; ) is a city in Southern Egypt, and is the capital of the Aswan Governorate.Aswan is a busy market and tourist centre located just north of the Aswan Dam on the east bank of the Nile at the first cataract.", "The modern city has expanded and includes the formerly separate community on the island of Elephantine.Aswan includes five monuments within the UNESCO World Heritage Site of the Nubian Monuments from Abu Simbel to Philae; these are the Old and Middle Kingdom tombs of Qubbet el-Hawa, the town of Elephantine, the stone quarries and Unfinished Obelisk, the Monastery of St. Simeon and the Fatimid Cemetery.", "The city's Nubian Museum is an important archaeological center, containing finds from the International Campaign to Save the Monuments of Nubia before the Aswan Dam flooded all of Lower Nubia.The city is part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network in the category of craft and folk art.", "Aswan joined the UNESCO Global Network of Learning Cities in 2017." ], [ "Other spellings and variations", "Aswan was formerly spelled Assuan or Assouan.", "Names in other languages include (; Ancient Egyptian: ; ; ; proposed Biblical Hebrew: סְוֵנֵה ''Sǝwēnê'').", "The Nubians also call the city ''Dib'' which means \"''fortress, palace''\" and is derived from the Old Nubian name ⲇⲡ̅ⲡⲓ." ], [ "History", "Aswan is the ancient city of '''Swenett''', later known as '''Syene''', which in antiquity was the frontier town of Ancient Egypt facing the south.", "Swenett is supposed to have derived its name from an Egyptian goddess with the same name.", "This goddess later was identified as Eileithyia by the Greeks and Lucina by the Romans during their occupation of Ancient Egypt because of the similar association of their goddesses with childbirth, and of which the import is \"the opener\".", "The ancient name of the city also is said to be derived from the Egyptian symbol for \"trade\", or \"market\".Because the Ancient Egyptians oriented themselves toward the origin of the life-giving waters of the Nile in the south, and as Swenett was the southernmost town in the country, Egypt always was conceived to \"open\" or begin at Swenett.", "The city stood upon a peninsula on the right (east) bank of the Nile, immediately below (and north of) the first cataract of the flowing waters, which extended to it from Philae.", "Navigation to the delta was possible from this location without encountering a barrier.The stone quarries of ancient Egypt located here were celebrated for their stone, and especially for the granitic rock called syenite.", "They furnished the colossal statues, obelisks, and monolithic shrines that are found throughout Egypt, including the pyramids; and the traces of the quarrymen who worked in these 3,000 years ago are still visible in the native rock.", "They lie on either bank of the Nile, and a road, in length, was cut beside them from Syene to Philae.Swenett was equally important as a military station and for its position on a trade route.", "Under every dynasty it was a garrison town; and here tolls and customs were levied on all boats passing southwards and northwards.", "Around 330, the legion stationed here received a bishop from Alexandria; this later became the Coptic Diocese of Syene.", "The city is mentioned by numerous ancient writers, including Herodotus, Strabo, Stephanus of Byzantium, Ptolemy, Pliny the Elder, Vitruvius, and it appears on the Antonine Itinerary.", "It may also be mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel and the Book of Isaiah.View from the west bank of the Nile, islands, and AswanThe Nile is nearly wide above Aswan.", "From this frontier town to the northern extremity of Egypt, the river flows for more than without bar or cataract.", "The voyage from Aswan to Alexandria usually took 21 to 28 days in favorable weather.=== Archaeological findings ===In April 2018, the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced the discovery of the head of the bust of Roman Emperor Marcus Aurelius at the Temple of Kom Ombo during work to protect the site from groundwater.In September 2018, the Egyptian Antiquities Minister Khaled el-Enany announced that a sandstone sphinx statue had been discovered at the temple of Kom Ombo.", "The statue, measuring approximately in width and ) in height, probably dates to the Ptolemaic Dynasty.Archaeologists discovered 35 mummified remains of Egyptians in a tomb in Aswan in 2019.Italian archaeologist Patrizia Piacentini and El-Enany both reported that the tomb, where the remains of ancient men, women and children were found, dates back to the Greco-Roman period between 332 BC and 395 AD.", "While the findings assumed belonging to a mother and a child were well preserved, others had suffered major destruction.", "Other than the mummies, artifacts including painted funerary masks, vases of bitumen used in mummification, pottery and wooden figurines were revealed.", "Thanks to the hieroglyphics on the tomb, it was detected that the tomb belongs to a tradesman named Tjit.Piacentini commented \"It's a very important discovery because we have added something to the history of Aswan that was missing.", "We knew about tombs and necropoli dating back to the second and third millennium, but we didn't know where the people who lived in the last part of the Pharaonic era were.", "Aswan, on the southern border of Egypt, was also a very important trading city\".Stan Hendrick, John Coleman Darnell and Maria Gatto in 2012 excavated petroglyphic engravings from Nag el-Hamdulab in Aswan which featured representations of a boat procession, solar symbolism and the earliest depiction of the White Crown with an estimated dating range between 3200BC and 3100BC.In February 2021, archaeologists from the Egyptian Ministry of Antiquities announced significant discoveries at an archaeological site called Shiha Fort in Aswan, namely a Ptolemaic period temple, a Roman fort, an early Coptic church and an inscription in hieratic script.", "According to Mostafa Waziri, the crumbling temple was decorated with palm leaf carvings and an incomplete sandstone panel that described a Roman emperor.", "Researcher Abdel Badie states more generally that the church contained ovens used to bake pottery, four rooms, a long hall, stairs, and stone tiles." ], [ "Geography", "'''Northern Tropic boundary'''The latitude of the city that would become Aswan – located at 24° 5′ 23″ – was an object of great interest to the ancient geographers and mathematicians.", "They believed that it was seated immediately under the tropic, and that on the day of the summer solstice, a vertically positioned staff cast no shadow.", "They noted that the sun's disc was reflected in a deep well (or pit) at noon.", "This statement is only approximately correct; at the summer solstice, the shadow was only of the staff, and so could scarcely be discerned, and the northern limb of the Sun's disc would be nearly vertical.", "More than 2200 years ago, Greek polymath Eratosthenes used this information to calculate Earth's circumference.=== Climate ===Aswan has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification ''BWh'') like the rest of Egypt.", "Aswan and Luxor have the hottest summer days of any city in Egypt.", "Aswan is one of the hottest, sunniest and driest cities in the world.", "Average high temperatures are consistently above during summer (June, July, August and also September) while average low temperatures remain above .", "Average high temperatures remain above during the coldest month of the year while average low temperatures remain above .", "Summers are very prolonged and extremely hot with blazing sunshine although desert heat is dry.", "Winters are brief and pleasantly mild, though nights may be cool at times.The climate of Aswan is extremely dry year-round, with less than of average annual precipitation.", "The desert city is one of the driest ones in the world, and rainfall doesn't occur every year, as of early 2001, the last rain there was seven years earlier.", "When heavy precipitation does occur, as in a November 2021 rain and hail storm, flash flooding can drive scorpions from their lairs to deadly effects.", "Aswan is one of the least humid cities on the planet, with an average relative humidity of only 26%, with a maximum mean of 42% during winter and a minimum mean of 16% during summer.The weather of Aswan is extremely clear, bright and sunny year-round, in all seasons, with a low seasonal variation, with almost 4,000 hours of annual sunshine, very close to the maximum theoretical sunshine duration.", "Aswan is one of the sunniest places on Earth.The highest record temperature was on July 4, 1918, and the lowest record temperature was on January 6, 1989." ], [ "Education", "In 2012, the Aswan University was inaugurated, which is headquartered in the city.", "Aswan is also home to the Aswan Higher Institute of Social Work, which was established in 1975." ], [ "Transport", "The city is crossed by the Cape to Cairo Road, which connects it to Luxor and Cairo to the north, and Abu Simbel and Wadi Halfa to the south.", "Also important is the Aswan-Berenice highway, which connects with the ports of the Red Sea.Aswan is linked to Cairo by the Cape to Cairo Railway, which also connects it with Wadi Halfa.", "The railway is incomplete towards the south.Other key transport infrastructures are the Port of Aswan, the largest river port in the region, and Aswan International Airport." ], [ "International relations", "=== Twin towns/Sister cities ===Aswan is twinned with:* Sonoma, California, United States" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Archangel Michael's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, built in the Coptic style 2006-10-EGYPT-ASWAN.jpg|Archangel Michael's Coptic Orthodox Cathedral, built in the Coptic styleFile:El-Tabia Mosque, Aswan.jpg| El-Tabia Mosque in AswanFile:Lotus-tower near Aswan.jpg|The Lotus-Tower near Aswan, monument to Arab-Soviet Friendship.", "Near Aswan High Dam.File:Aswan Nubian Museum entrance.jpg|Nubia Museum entranceFile:Fatimid Cemetery at Aswan.jpg|Fatimid CemeteryFile:Unfinished Obelisk in Aswan.jpg|Unfinished Obelisk in AswanFile:Aswan street parallel to Corniche, Egypt, October 2004.jpg|A street parallel to Corniche in AswanFile:Al Khattarah Aswan Bridge.jpg|Aswan BridgeFile:Kitchener-Insel Aswan Botanical Garden.jpg|Aswan Botanical GardenFile:Aswan Souq (West Gate).jpg|Aswan souqFile:Market, Shopping street, Aswan, Egypt.jpg|Market in AswanFile:Aswan Railway station (Egypt).jpg|Aswan stationFile:Gharb Seheil by Hatem Moushir 1.JPG|Gharb SeheilFile:Assuao.jpg|Nubian village in Elephantine IslandFile:Cimetières des nobles Qubbet el-Hawa.jpg|Qubbet el-HawaFile:Nile River, Boats and feluccas, Aswan, Egypt.jpg|River Nile in AswanFile:Nile Feluccas in Aswan.jpg|Feluccas in Aswan" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Ancient Aswan City" ] ]

[ [ "Adelaide of Italy" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Adelaide of Italy''' (; 931 – 16 December 999 AD), also called '''Adelaide of Burgundy''', was Holy Roman Empress by marriage to Emperor Otto the Great.", "She was crowned with him by Pope John XII in Rome on 2 February 962.She was the first empress designated ''consors regni'', denoting a \"co-bearer of royalty\" who shared power with her husband.", "She was essential as a model for future consorts regarding both status and political influence.", "She was regent of the Holy Roman Empire as the guardian of her grandson in 991–995." ], [ "Life", "===Early life===Adelaide was born in Orbe Castle, Orbe, Kingdom of Upper Burgundy (now in modern-day Switzerland), to Rudolf II of Burgundy, a member of the Elder House of Welf, and Bertha of Swabia.Adelaide was involved from the outset in the complicated fight to control not only Burgundy but also Lombardy.", "The battle between her father Rudolf II and Berengar I to control northern Italy ended with Berengar's death, enabling Rudolf to claim the throne.Not happy with this, the inhabitants of Lombardy appealed to another ally, Hugh of Provence, who had long considered Rudolf an enemy.", "Although Hugh challenged Rudolf for the Burgundian throne, he only succeeded when Adelaide's father died in 937.So as to control Upper Burgundy, Hugh decided to marry his son Lothair II, the nominal King of Italy, to the 15-year-old Adelaide (in 947, before 27 June).The marriage produced a daughter, Emma of Italy, born about 948.Emma became Queen of West Francia by marrying King Lothair of France.===Marriage and alliance with Otto I===Adelaide and her second spouse Otto I; Meissen Cathedral, GermanyThe calendar of saints states that Lothair was poisoned on 22 November 950 in Turin by the holder of real power, his successor, Berengar II of Italy.There were some suspicions amongst the people of Lombardy that Adelaide wanted to rule the kingdom by herself.", "Berengar attempted to thwart this and cement his political power by forcing her to marry his son Adalbert.", "Adelaide refused and fled, taking refuge in the castle of Como.", "However, she was quickly tracked down and was imprisoned for four months at Garda.According to Adelaide's contemporary biographer, Odilo of Cluny, she managed to escape from captivity.", "After a time spent in the marshes nearby, she was rescued by a priest and taken to a \"certain impregnable fortress,\" likely the fortified town of Canossa Castle near Reggio.", "She was able to send an emissary to the East Frankish king Otto I asking for his protection.", "Adelaide met Otto at the old Lombard capital of Pavia and they married on 23 September 951.Early in their marriage, Adelaide and Otto had two children, Henry and Bruno, both of whom died before reaching adulthood.A few years later, in 953, Liudolf, Duke of Swabia, Otto's son by his first marriage, instigated a big revolt that was quelled by his father.", "As a consequence, Otto decided to dispossess Liudolf of his ducal title.", "This decision favoured the position of Adelaide and her descendants at court.", "Adelaide also managed to retain her entire territorial dowry.After returning to Germany with his new wife, Otto cemented the Holy Roman Empire by defeating the Hungarian invaders at the Battle of Lechfeld on 10 August 955.He then extended the boundaries of East Francia beyond the Elbe River, defeating the Obotrites and other Slavs of the Elbe at the battle of Recknitz on 16 October 955.That same year, Adelaide gave birth to Otto II.", "In 955 or 956, she gave birth to a daughter who would become Matilda, Abbess of Quedlinburg.===Holy Roman Empress===Adelaide accompanied her husband on his second expedition to Italy to subdue the revolt of Berengar II and to protect Pope John XII.", "In Rome, Otto the Great was crowned Holy Roman Emperor on 2 February 962 by Pope John XII.", "Breaking new ground, Pope John XII also crowned Adelaide as Holy Roman Empress.", "In 960, a new ''ordo'' was created for her coronation and anointing, including prayers to biblical female figures, especially Esther.", "The ''ordo'' presents a theological and political concept that legitimizes the empress's status as a divinely ordained component of the earthly rule.", "In 966, Adelaide and the eleven-year-old Otto II, travelled again with Otto on his third expedition to Italy, where the Emperor restored the newly elected Pope John XIII to his throne (and executed some of the Roman rioters who had deposed him).", "Crucial to Otto's establishing legitimacy in his conquest of Italy and in bringing the imperial crown to the couple, was the support of Adelaide and her extensive network of relations.", "As heir to the Italian throne, Adelaide established for late Carolingian traditions the legitimate claim over Italy by the imperial throne.Adelaide remained in Rome for six years while Otto ruled his kingdom from Italy.", "Otto II was crowned co-emperor in 967, then married the Byzantine princess Theophanu in April 972, resolving the conflict between the two empires in southern Italy and ensuring the imperial succession.", "Adelaide and her husband returned to Germany, where Otto died in May 973, at the same Memleben palace where his father had died 37 years earlier.After her coronation, which increased her power as she was now ''consors regni'' and able to receive people from the entire Empire, Adelaide's interventions in political decisions increased.", "According to Buchinger, \"Between 962 and 972 Adelheid appears as intervenient in seventy-five charters.", "Additionally Adelheid and Otto I are named together in Papal bulls\".", "She often protected the ecclesiastic institutions, seemingly to gain a sphere of influence separate from that of her husband.", "Between 991 and 993, the brothers of Feuchtwang wrote to her and requested to be \"protected by the shadow of your rule from now on, we may be safe from the tumults of secular attacks\".", "They promised they would pray for her so that her reign would be long and stable.Adelaide wielded a great amount of power during her husband's reign, as evidenced by the requests her made of her.", "A letter, written in the 980s by her daughter Emma demanded that Adelaide intervene against Emma's enemies and mobilize forces in the Ottonian Empire.", "She also asked that Adelaide capture Hugh Capet, who was already elected king of West Frankia in 987.Another enemy of Emma's was Charles, the brother of Emma's deceased consort Lothar, who had accused his sister-in-law of adultery.", "Another pleader was Gerbert of Aurillac, at that time archbishop of Reims (the later Pope Sylvester II), who wrote to Adelaide to ask for protection against his enemies.", "Buchinger remarks that, \"These examples are remarkable, because they imply that Adelheid had the possibilities to help in both cases or at least Emma and Gerbert do believe that she could have intervened and succeeded.", "Both are themselves important political figures in their realm and still they rely on Adelheid.", "Adelheid’s power and importance must have been extremely stable and reliable to do as wished by the pleaders.", "\"===Otto II's era===In the years following Otto's death, Adelaide exerted a powerful influence at court.", "However, Adelaide was in conflict with her daughter-in-law, the Byzantine princess Theophanu, as only one woman could be queen and hold the associated functions and powers at court.", "Adelaide was able to maintain the title ''imperatrix augusta'' even though Theophanu now also used it.", "Moreover, Theophanu opposed Adelaide in the use of her dowry lands, which Adelaide wanted to continue to use and donate to ecclesiastical institutions, ensuring her power base.", "Adelaide had the right to make transactions of her Italian lands as she pleased, but she needed the permission of the emperor to use her Ottonian lands.", "Adelaide also sided with her extended kin against Otto II.", "Wilson compares this action with those of other royal women: \"Royal women possessed agency and did not always do the bidding of male relatives.", "Engelberge greatly influenced her husband, Emperor Louis II, in his attempts to extend imperial control to southern Italy in the 870s.", "Matilda’s favouritism for her younger son Heinrich caused Otto I considerable trouble, while Adelaide sided with her extended kin against her own son, Otto II, until he temporarily exiled her to Burgundy in 978.Agency was clearest during regencies, because these lacked formal rules, offering scope for forceful personalities to assert themselves.\"", "After being expelled from court by Otto II in 978, she divided her time between living in Italy in the royal palace of Pavia and Arles with her brother Conrad I, King of Burgundy, through whom she was finally reconciled with her son.", "In 983 (shortly before his death) Otto II appointed her his viceroy in Italy.===Regency===In 983, her son Otto II died and was succeeded by Adelaide's grandson Otto III under the regency of Theophanu while Adelaide remained in Italy.", "For some time, Adelaide and Theophanu were able to put aside their separate interests and work together to ensure Otto III's succession.", "This is seen through their joint appearance in the charters.", "According to the ''Annales Quedlinburgenses'', after Otto II's death, Henry, duke of Bavaria kidnapped Otto III.", "The narrative claims that Adelaide returned from Lombardy to join with Theophanu, Matilda, and other leaders of Europe and reclaim the child.When Theophanu died in 990, Adelaide assumed regency on behalf for Otto III until he reached legal majority four years later.", "Adelaide's role in establishing Otto's position can be seen in a letter Otto III wrote to his grandmother in 996: \"According to your Adelheid’s wishes and desires, the divinity has conferred the rights of an empire on us Otto III with a happy outcome\".Troubles in the East continued under Adelaide, as Boleslaus of Bohemia wavered in his loyalty.", "In 992, there was war between Bohemia and Poland , and again like in Theophanu's time, the Ottonian regime sided with Poland.", "Jestice comments that, \"Christianity was not re-established in the land of the Liutizi during their lifetimes.", "But there were territorial gains, and by 987 it was possible to begin rebuilding destroyed fortresses along the Elbe\".", "A Saxon army, with Otto III's presence, took Brandenburg in 991.The reports that there was another expedition in 992.Thietmar of Merseburg reports that Otto III dismissed his grandmother after his mother's death, but Althoff doubts this story.", "Even after Otto attained majority, Adelaide often accompanied him in his travels and influenced him, along with other women.In Burgundy, Adelaide's homeland, the counts and castellans behaved increasingly independently from their king Rudolph III.", "Just before her death in 999, she had to intervene in Burgundy to restore peace.===Later years===Adelaide resigned as regent when Otto III was declared to be of the legal majority in 995.From then on, she devoted herself exclusively to her works of charity, in particular to the foundation and restoration of religious houses, i.e.", "monasteries, churches and abbeys.Chapel of St. Adelaide, Église Saint-Étienne de SeltzAdelaide had long entertained close relations with Cluny, then the center of the movement for ecclesiastical reform, and in particular with its abbots Majolus and Odilo.", "She retired to a nunnery she had founded in c. 991 at Selz in Alsace.On her way to Burgundy to support her nephew Rudolf III against a rebellion, she died at Selz Abbey on 16 December 999, days short of the millennium she thought would bring the Second Coming of Christ.", "She was buried in the Abbey and Pope Urban II canonized her in 1097.After serious flooding, which almost completely destroyed it in 1307, Adelaide's relics were moved elsewhere.", "A goblet reputed to have belonged to Saint Adelaide has long been preserved in Seltz.", "; it was used to give potions to people with fever and the healings were said to have been numerous.Relic attributed to St. Adelaide.Adelaide constantly devoted herself to the service of the church and peace, and to the empire as guardian of both; she also interested herself in the conversion of the Slavs.", "She was thus a principal agent — almost an embodiment — of the work of the pre-schism Church at the end of the Early Middle Ages in the construction of the religious culture of Central Europe.Some of her relics are preserved in a shrine in Hanover.", "Her feast day, 16 December, is still kept in many German dioceses." ], [ "Issue", "In 947, Adelaide was married to King Lothair II of Italy.", "The union produced one child:* Emma of Italy (948 – after 987), queen of France and wife of Lothair of FranceIn 951, Adelaide was married to King Otto I, the future Holy Roman Emperor.", "The union produced four children:* Henry (952 – 7 April 954)* Bruno (953 – 8 September 957)* Matilda (early 955 – † 6 February 999), the first Princess-Abbess of Quedlinburg* Otto II (end 955 – 7 December 983), later Holy Roman Emperor." ], [ "Historiography and cultural depictions", "===Historiography===Adelaide was one of the most important and powerful medieval female rulers.", "Historically, as empress and saint, she has been described as powerful, with both male attributes (like strength, justness and prudence) and female attributes (piety, self denying).", "Modern German historiography tends to focus on her contributions to the Ottonian dynasty and the development of the Holy Roman Empire.===Depictions in art===Adelaide is usually represented in the garb of an empress, with sceptre and crown.", "Since the 14th century, she is also given as an attribute a model church or a ship (by which she is said to have escaped from captivity).The most famous representation of Adelaide in German art belongs to a group of sandstone figures in the choir of Meissen Cathedral, which was created around 1260.She is shown here with her husband, who was not canonized, since he founded the diocese of Meissen with her.==== Operas ====* Adelaide of Burgundy is the main character of the opera ''l'Adelaide'' (1672) by Antonio Sartorio.", "* Adelaide is the subject of a 1723 opera by Nicola Porpora, where she was played by the great castrato Farinelli en travesti.", "* ''Lotario'' is a 1729 opera seria in three acts by George Frideric Handel.", "It is a fictionalisation of some events in the life of Adeläide.", "* Adelaide is the heroine of ''Adelaide di Borgogna'', an opera with two acts (1817) by Gioachino Rossini (music) and Giovanni Schmidt (libretto).", "* Adelaide is the heroine of William Bernard McCabe's 1856 novel ''Adelaide, Queen of Italy, or The Iron Crown''.==== Books and novels ====* ''Adelheid, Mutter der Königreiche (''Adelaide, Mother of Kingdoms) published in 1936 by Gertrud Bäumer.", "* ''Die fremde Königin'' (The Foreign Queen), published in 2017, Adelaide is one of the central characters in Rebecca Gablé's novel.", "* ''Empress Adelheid and Countess Matilda: medieval female rulership and the foundations of European society'' by Penelope Nash (2017).", "* ''Imperial ladies of the Ottonian Dynasty: women and rule in tenth-century Germany'' by Phyllis G. Jestice (2018)* ''God's Maidservant: The story of Adelaide of Italy (Women of the Dark Ages)'' by Anna Chant (2017)==== Artwork ====* ''San Giuseppe con Gesù Bambino tra Sant'Adelaide, Sant'Antonio da Padova, San Lupo e San Michele arcangelo'' by Francesco Coghetti, 1828* Adelaide is a featured figure on Judy Chicago's installation piece ''The Dinner Party'', being represented as one of the 999 names on the ''Heritage Floor,'' with the related place setting of Theodora (wife of Justinian I)." ], [ "See also", "* List of Eastern Orthodox saints* List of Holy Roman empresses* List of Catholic saints* Saint Adelaide, patron saint archive" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "***********" ], [ "Further reading", "* Genealogie-Mittelalter: \"Adelheid von Burgund\"." ], [ "Bibliography", "* * Friedrich Wilhelm Bautz: Adelheid of Burgundy.", "In: Biographical-Bibliographical Dictionary of Churches (BBKL).", "Volume 1, Bautz, Hamm 1975.2nd, unchanged edition Hamm 1990, , Sp.", "35–35.", "* Amalie Fößel: Adelheid.", "In: Amalie Fößel (Ed.", "): The Empresses of the Middle Ages.", "Pustet, Regensburg 2011, , p. 35-59.", "* Werner Goez: Empress Adelheid.", "In: Pictures of life from the Middle Ages.", "The time of the Ottonians, Salians and Staufers.", "Primus, Darmstadt 2010, , p. 66-82.", "* Bruno Keiser: Adelheid.", "Queen, empress, saint.", "Piper Verlag, Munich 2009, .", "* Walter Schlesinger: Adelheid.", "In: New German Biography (NDB).", "Volume 1, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1953, , p. 57 f. (digitized version).", "* Franz Staab: Thorsten Unger (Ed.", "): Empress Adelheid and her monastery foundation in Selz (= Publications of the Palatinate Society for the Advancement of Science in Speyer.", "Vol.", "99).", "Presentations at the scientific conference in Landau and Selz from 15 to 17 October 1999, published by the Society for the Advancement of Science, Speyer 2005, .", "* Ernst Steindorff: Adelheid (Empress).", "In: General German Biography (ADB).", "Volume 1, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1875, pp. 75–77.", "* Stefan Weinfurter: Empress Adelheid and the Ottonian Empire.", "In: Early Medieval Studies.", "Vol.", "33, 1999, pp.", "1–19, (digitised version)." ], [ "External links", "* ''Women's Biography: Adelaide of Burgundy, Ottonian empress''* Monks of Ramsgate.", "\"Adelaide\".", "Book of Saints, 1921.Saints.SQPN.com.", "1 May 2012.Web.", "{2012-9-20}." ] ]

[ [ "Airbus A300" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Airbus A300''' is Airbus' first production aircraft and the world's first twin-engine, double-aisle (wide-body) airliner, developed and manufactured by Airbus from 1971 to 2007.In September 1967, aircraft manufacturers in the United Kingdom, France, and West Germany signed an initial memorandum of understanding to collaborate to develop an innovative large airliner.", "West Germany and France reached a firm agreement on 29 May 1969, after the British withdrew from the project on 10 April 1969.The pan-European collaborative aerospace manufacturer Airbus Industrie was formally created on 18 December 1970 to develop and produce it.", "The A300 prototype first flew on 28 October 1972.The first twin-engine widebody airliner, the A300 typically seats 247 passengers in two classes over a range of 5,375 to 7,500 km (2,900 to 4,050 nmi; ).Initial variants are powered by General Electric CF6-50 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D turbofans and have a three-crew flight deck.", "The improved A300-600 has a two-crew cockpit and updated CF6-80C2 or PW4000 engines; it made its first flight on 8 July 1983 and entered service later that year.", "The A300 is the basis of the smaller A310 (first flown in 1982) and was adapted in a freighter version.", "Its cross section was retained for the larger four-engined A340 (1991) and the larger twin-engined A330 (1992).", "It is also the basis for the oversize Beluga transport (1994).Unlike most Airbus products, it has a yoke, not using a fly-by-wire system.", "Launch customer Air France introduced the type on 23 May 1974.After limited demand initially, sales took off as the type was proven in early service, beginning three decades of steady orders.", "It has a similar capacity to the Boeing 767-300, introduced in 1986, but lacked the 767-300ER range.", "During the 1990s, the A300 became popular with cargo aircraft operators, as both passenger airliner conversions and as original builds.", "Production ceased in July 2007 after 561 deliveries., there are 197 A300 family aircraft still in commercial service." ], [ "Development", "=== Origins ===In 1966, Hawker Siddeley, Nord Aviation, and Breguet Aviation proposed the 260-seat wide-body ''HBN 100'' with a similar configurationDuring the 1960s, European aircraft manufacturers such as Hawker Siddeley and the British Aircraft Corporation, based in the UK, and Sud Aviation of France, had ambitions to build a new 200-seat airliner for the growing civil aviation market.", "While studies were performed and considered, such as a stretched twin-engine variant of the Hawker Siddeley Trident and an expanded development of the British Aircraft Corporation (BAC) One-Eleven, designated the BAC Two-Eleven, it was recognized that if each of the European manufacturers were to launch similar aircraft into the market at the same time, neither would achieve sales volume needed to make them viable.", "In 1965, a British government study, known as the Plowden Report, had found British aircraft production costs to be between 10% and 20% higher than American counterparts due to shorter production runs, which was in part due to the fractured European market.", "To overcome this factor, the report recommended the pursuit of multinational collaborative projects between the region's leading aircraft manufacturers.European manufacturers were keen to explore prospective programmes; the proposed 260-seat wide-body ''HBN 100'' between Hawker Siddeley, Nord Aviation, and Breguet Aviation being one such example.", "National governments were also keen to support such efforts amid a belief that American manufacturers could dominate the European Economic Community; in particular, Germany had ambitions for a multinational airliner project to invigorate its aircraft industry, which had declined considerably following the Second World War.", "During the mid-1960s, both Air France and American Airlines had expressed interest in a short-haul twin-engine wide-body aircraft, indicating a market demand for such an aircraft to be produced.", "In July 1967, during a high-profile meeting between French, German, and British ministers, an agreement was made for greater cooperation between European nations in the field of aviation technology, and \"for the joint development and production of an airbus\".", "The word ''airbus'' at this point was a generic aviation term for a larger commercial aircraft, and was considered acceptable in multiple languages, including French.Technical director Roger Béteille (from behind) discussing with general manager Henri Ziegler beside the CF6 turbofan, which powered the A300 first flightShortly after the July 1967 meeting, French engineer Roger Béteille was appointed as the technical director of what would become the A300 programme, while Henri Ziegler, chief operating office of Sud Aviation, was appointed as the general manager of the organisation and German politician Franz Josef Strauss became the chairman of the supervisory board.", "Béteille drew up an initial work share plan for the project, under which French firms would produce the aircraft's cockpit, the control systems, and lower-centre portion of the fuselage, Hawker Siddeley would manufacture the wings, while German companies would produce the forward, rear and upper part of the center fuselage sections.", "Additional work included moving elements of the wings being produced in the Netherlands, and Spain producing the horizontal tail plane.An early design goal for the A300 that Béteille had stressed the importance of was the incorporation of a high level of technology, which would serve as a decisive advantage over prospective competitors.", "As such, the A300 would feature the first use of composite materials of any passenger aircraft, the leading and trailing edges of the tail fin being composed of glass fibre reinforced plastic.", "Béteille opted for English as the working language for the developing aircraft, as well against using Metric instrumentation and measurements, as most airlines already had US-built aircraft.", "These decisions were partially influenced by feedback from various airlines, such as Air France and Lufthansa, as an emphasis had been placed on determining the specifics of what kind of aircraft that potential operators were seeking.", "According to Airbus, this cultural approach to market research had been crucial to the company's long-term success.=== Workshare and redefinition ===On 26 September 1967, the British, French, and West German governments signed a Memorandum of Understanding to start development of the 300-seat Airbus A300.At this point, the A300 was only the second major joint aircraft programme in Europe, the first being the Anglo-French Concorde.", "Under the terms of the memorandum, Britain and France were each to receive a 37.5 per cent work share on the project, while Germany received a 25 per cent share.", "Sud Aviation was recognized as the lead company for A300, with Hawker Siddeley being selected as the British partner company.", "At the time, the news of the announcement had been clouded by the British Government's support for the Airbus, which coincided with its refusal to back BAC's proposed competitor, the BAC 2–11, despite a preference for the latter expressed by British European Airways (BEA).", "Another parameter was the requirement for a new engine to be developed by Rolls-Royce to power the proposed airliner; a derivative of the in-development Rolls-Royce RB211, the triple-spool RB207, capable of producing of .The programme cost was US$4.6 billion (in 1993 Dollars).LD3 containers below.", "This is part of the first A300 prototype, F-OCAZ, on display at Deutsches Museum in Munich.In December 1968, the French and British partner companies (Sud Aviation and Hawker Siddeley) proposed a revised configuration, the 250-seat Airbus A250.It had been feared that the original 300-seat proposal was too large for the market, thus it had been scaled down to produce the A250.The dimensional changes involved in the shrink reduced the length of the fuselage by and the diameter by , reducing the overall weight by .", "For increased flexibility, the cabin floor was raised so that standard LD3 freight containers could be accommodated side-by-side, allowing more cargo to be carried.", "Refinements made by Hawker Siddeley to the wing's design provided for greater lift and overall performance; this gave the aircraft the ability to climb faster and attain a level cruising altitude sooner than any other passenger aircraft.", "It was later renamed the A300B.Perhaps the most significant change of the A300B was that it would not require new engines to be developed, being of a suitable size to be powered by Rolls-Royce's RB211, or alternatively the American Pratt & Whitney JT9D and General Electric CF6 powerplants; this switch was recognized as considerably reducing the project's development costs.", "To attract potential customers in the US market, it was decided that General Electric CF6-50 engines would power the A300 in place of the British RB207; these engines would be produced in co-operation with French firm Snecma.", "By this time, Rolls-Royce had been concentrating their efforts upon developing their RB211 turbofan engine instead and progress on the RB207's development had been slow for some time, the firm having suffered due to funding limitations, both of which had been factors in the engine switch decision.On 10 April 1969, a few months after the decision to drop the RB207 had been announced, the British government announced that they would withdraw from the Airbus venture.", "In response, West Germany proposed to France that they would be willing to contribute up to 50% of the project's costs if France was prepared to do the same.", "Additionally, the managing director of Hawker Siddeley, Sir Arnold Alexander Hall, decided that his company would remain in the project as a favoured sub-contractor, developing and manufacturing the wings for the A300, which would later become pivotal in later versions' impressive performance from short domestic to long intercontinental flights.", "Hawker Siddeley spent £35 million of its own funds, along with a further £35 million loan from the West German government, on the machine tooling to design and produce the wings.=== Programme launch ===An A300 in vintage Airbus livery, it was rolled out on 28 September 1972On 29 May 1969, during the Paris Air Show, French transport minister Jean Chamant and German economics minister Karl Schiller signed an agreement officially launching the Airbus A300, the world's first twin-engine widebody airliner.", "The intention of the project was to produce an aircraft that was smaller, lighter, and more economical than its three-engine American rivals, the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar.", "In order to meet Air France's demands for an aircraft larger than 250-seat A300B, it was decided to stretch the fuselage to create a new variant, designated as the A300B2, which would be offered alongside the original 250-seat A300B, henceforth referred to as the A300B1.On 3 September 1970, Air France signed a letter of intent for six A300s, marking the first order to be won for the new airliner.In the aftermath of the Paris Air Show agreement, it was decided that, in order to provide effective management of responsibilities, a Groupement d'intérêt économique would be established, allowing the various partners to work together on the project while remaining separate business entities.", "On 18 December 1970, Airbus Industrie was formally established following an agreement between Aérospatiale (the newly merged Sud Aviation and Nord Aviation) of France and the antecedents to Deutsche Aerospace of Germany, each receiving a 50 per cent stake in the newly formed company.", "In 1971, the consortium was joined by a third full partner, the Spanish firm CASA, who received a 4.2 per cent stake, the other two members reducing their stakes to 47.9 per cent each.", "In 1979, Britain joined the Airbus consortium via British Aerospace, which Hawker Siddeley had merged into, which acquired a 20 per cent stake in Airbus Industrie with France and Germany each reducing their stakes to 37.9 per cent.=== Prototype and flight testing ===The 28 October 1972 maiden flightAirbus Industrie was initially headquartered in Paris, which is where design, development, flight testing, sales, marketing, and customer support activities were centred; the headquarters was relocated to Toulouse in January 1974.The final assembly line for the A300 was located adjacent to Toulouse Blagnac International Airport.", "The manufacturing process necessitated transporting each aircraft section being produced by the partner companies scattered across Europe to this one location.", "The combined use of ferries and roads were used for the assembly of the first A300, however this was time-consuming and not viewed as ideal by Felix Kracht, Airbus Industrie's production director.", "Kracht's solution was to have the various A300 sections brought to Toulouse by a fleet of Boeing 377-derived Aero Spacelines Super Guppy aircraft, by which means none of the manufacturing sites were more than two hours away.", "Having the sections airlifted in this manner made the A300 the first airliner to use just-in-time manufacturing techniques, and allowed each company to manufacture its sections as fully equipped, ready-to-fly assemblies.In September 1969, construction of the first prototype A300 began.", "On 28 September 1972, this first prototype was unveiled to the public, it conducted its maiden flight from Toulouse–Blagnac International Airport on 28 October that year.", "This maiden flight, which was performed a month ahead of schedule, lasted for one hour and 25 minutes; the captain was Max Fischl and the first officer was Bernard Ziegler, son of Henri Ziegler.", "In 1972, unit cost was US$17.5M.", "On 5 February 1973, the second prototype performed its maiden flight.", "The flight test programme, which involved a total of four aircraft, was relatively problem-free, accumulating 1,580 flight hours throughout.", "In September 1973, as part of promotional efforts for the A300, the new aircraft was taken on a six-week tour around North America and South America, to demonstrate it to airline executives, pilots, and would-be customers.", "Amongst the consequences of this expedition, it had allegedly brought the A300 to the attention of Frank Borman of Eastern Airlines, one of the \"big four\" U.S. airlines.=== Entry into service ===On 15 March 1974, type certificates were granted for the A300 from both German and French authorities, clearing the way for its entry into revenue service.", "On 23 May 1974, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) certification was received.", "The first production model, the A300B2, entered service in 1974, followed by the A300B4 one year later.", "Initially, the success of the consortium was poor, in part due to the economic consequences of the 1973 oil crisis, but by 1979 there were 81 A300 passenger liners in service with 14 airlines, alongside 133 firm orders and 88 options.", "Ten years after the official launch of the A300, the company had achieved a 26 per cent market share in terms of dollar value, enabling Airbus to proceed with the development of its second aircraft, the Airbus A310." ], [ "Design", "The A300 is a conventional low wing aircraft with twin underwing turbofans and a conventional tailThe Airbus A300 is a wide-body medium-to-long range airliner; it has the distinction of being the first twin-engine wide-body aircraft in the world.", "In 1977, the A300 became the first Extended Range Twin Operations (ETOPS)-compliant aircraft, due to its high performance and safety standards.", "Another world-first of the A300 is the use of composite materials on a commercial aircraft, which were used on both secondary and later primary airframe structures, decreasing overall weight and improving cost-effectiveness.", "Other firsts included the pioneering use of centre-of-gravity control, achieved by transferring fuel between various locations across the aircraft, and electrically signalled secondary flight controls.The A300 is powered by a pair of underwing turbofan engines, either General Electric CF6 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D engines; the sole use of underwing engine pods allowed for any suitable turbofan engine to be more readily used.", "The lack of a third tail-mounted engine, as per the trijet configuration used by some competing airliners, allowed for the wings to be located further forwards and to reduce the size of the vertical stabiliser and elevator, which had the effect of increasing the aircraft's flight performance and fuel efficiency.The initial A300 flight deck with analog flight instruments and a flight engineer station (not shown)Airbus partners had employed the latest technology, some of which having been derived from Concorde, on the A300.According to Airbus, new technologies adopted for the airliner were selected principally for increased safety, operational capability, and profitability.", "Upon entry into service in 1974, the A300 was a very advanced plane, which went on to influence later airliner designs.", "The technological highlights include advanced wings by de Havilland (later BAE Systems) with supercritical airfoil sections for economical performance and advanced aerodynamically efficient flight control surfaces.The diameter circular fuselage section allows an eight-abreast passenger seating and is wide enough for 2 LD3 cargo containers side by side.", "Structures are made from metal billets, reducing weight.", "It is the first airliner to be fitted with wind shear protection.", "Its advanced autopilots are capable of flying the aircraft from climb-out to landing, and it has an electrically controlled braking system.Later A300s incorporated other advanced features such as the Forward-Facing Crew Cockpit (FFCC), which enabled a two-pilot flight crew to fly the aircraft alone without the need for a flight engineer, the functions of which were automated; this two-man cockpit concept was a world-first for a wide-body aircraft.", "Glass cockpit flight instrumentation, which used cathode ray tube (CRT) monitors to display flight, navigation, and warning information, along with fully digital dual autopilots and digital flight control computers for controlling the spoilers, flaps, and leading-edge slats, were also adopted upon later-built models.", "Additional composites were also made use of, such as carbon-fibre-reinforced polymer (CFRP), as well as their presence in an increasing proportion of the aircraft's components, including the spoilers, rudder, air brakes, and landing gear doors.", "Another feature of later aircraft was the addition of wingtip fences, which improved aerodynamic performance and thus reduced cruise fuel consumption by about 1.5% for the A300-600.In addition to passenger duties, the A300 became widely used by air freight operators; according to Airbus, it is the best-selling freight aircraft of all time.", "Various variants of the A300 were built to meet customer demands, often for diverse roles such as aerial refueling tankers, freighter models (new-build and conversions), combi aircraft, military airlifter, and VIP transport.", "Perhaps the most visually unique of the variants is the A300-600ST Beluga, an oversized cargo-carrying model operated by Airbus to carry aircraft sections between their manufacturing facilities.", "The A300 was the basis for, and retained a high level of commonality with, the second airliner produced by Airbus, the smaller Airbus A310." ], [ "Operational history", "Air France introduced the A300 on 23 May 1974On 23 May 1974, the first A300 to enter service performed the first commercial flight of the type, flying from Paris to London, for Air France.Immediately after the launch, sales of the A300 were weak for some years, with most orders going to airlines that had an obligation to favor the domestically made product – notably Air France and Lufthansa, the first two airlines to place orders for the type.", "Following the appointment of Bernard Lathière as Henri Ziegler's replacement, an aggressive sales approach was adopted.", "Indian Airlines was the world's first domestic airline to purchase the A300, ordering three aircraft with three options.", "However, between December 1975 and May 1977, there were no sales for the type.", "During this period a number of \"whitetail\" A300s – completed but unsold aircraft – were completed and stored at Toulouse, and production fell to half an aircraft per month amid calls to pause production completely.Korean Air, the first non-European customer in September 1974During the flight testing of the A300B2, Airbus held a series of talks with Korean Air on the topic of developing a longer-range version of the A300, which would become the A300B4.In September 1974, Korean Air placed an order for four A300B4s with options for two further aircraft; this sale was viewed as significant as it was the first non-European international airline to order Airbus aircraft.", "Airbus had viewed South-East Asia as a vital market that was ready to be opened up and believed Korean Air to be the 'key'.Airlines operating the A300 on short-haul routes were forced to reduce frequencies to try and fill the aircraft.", "As a result, they lost passengers to airlines operating more frequent narrow-body flights.", "Eventually, Airbus had to build its own narrowbody aircraft (the A320) to compete with the Boeing 737 and McDonnell Douglas DC-9/MD-80.The saviour of the A300 was the advent of ETOPS, a revised FAA rule which allows twin-engine jets to fly long-distance routes that were previously off-limits to them.", "This enabled Airbus to develop the aircraft as a medium/long-range airliner.Eastern Air Lines introduced the A300 in the US market in 1977In 1977, US carrier Eastern Air Lines leased four A300s as an in-service trial.", "CEO Frank Borman was impressed that the A300 consumed 30% less fuel, even less than expected, than his fleet of L-1011s.", "Borman proceeded to order 23 A300s, becoming the first U.S. customer for the type.", "This order is often cited as the point at which Airbus came to be seen as a serious competitor to the large American aircraft-manufacturers Boeing and McDonnell Douglas.", "Aviation author John Bowen alleged that various concessions, such as loan guarantees from European governments and compensation payments, were a factor in the decision as well.", "The Eastern Air Lines breakthrough was shortly followed by an order from Pan Am.", "From then on, the A300 family sold well, eventually reaching a total of 561 delivered aircraft.In December 1977, Aerocondor Colombia became the first Airbus operator in Latin America, leasing one Airbus A300B4-2C, named ''Ciudad de Barranquilla''.During the late 1970s, Airbus adopted a so-called 'Silk Road' strategy, targeting airlines in the Far East.", "As a result, The aircraft found particular favor with Asian airlines, being bought by Japan Air System, Korean Air, China Eastern Airlines, Thai Airways International, Singapore Airlines, Malaysia Airlines, Philippine Airlines, Garuda Indonesia, China Airlines, Pakistan International Airlines, Indian Airlines, Trans Australia Airlines and many others.", "As Asia did not have restrictions similar to the FAA 60-minutes rule for twin-engine airliners which existed at the time, Asian airlines used A300s for routes across the Bay of Bengal and South China Sea.Garuda Indonesia Airbus A300B4-220 with the newly designed Forward Facing Crew Cockpit or FFCC Concept that operated only by two-man cockpit crew and was the first wide-body aircraft to be operated by two-man cockpit crew.In 1977, the A300B4 became the first ETOPS compliant aircraft, qualifying for Extended Twin Engine Operations over water, providing operators with more versatility in routing.", "In 1982 Garuda Indonesia became the first airline to fly the A300B4-200FFCC with the newly Forward-Facing Crew Cockpit concept, the world's first wide-body aircraft that only operated by two-man cockpit crew.", "By 1981, Airbus was growing rapidly, with over 400 aircraft sold to over forty airlines.In 1989, Chinese operator China Eastern Airlines received its first A300; by 2006, the airline operated around 18 A300s, making it the largest operator of both the A300 and the A310 at that time.", "On 31 May 2014, China Eastern officially retired the last A300-600 in its fleet, having begun drawing down the type in 2010.From 1997 to 2014, a single A300, designated A300 Zero-G, was operated by the European Space Agency (ESA), centre national d'études spatiales (CNES) and the German Aerospace Center (DLR) as a reduced-gravity aircraft for conducting research into microgravity; the A300 is the largest aircraft to ever have been used in this capacity.", "A typical flight would last for two and a half hours, enabling up to 30 parabolas to be performed per flight.freighter, was delivered to FedEx Express, as of May 2022 the largest operator with 65 aircraft still in serviceBy the 1990s, the A300 was being heavily promoted as a cargo freighter.", "The largest freight operator of the A300 is FedEx Express, which has 65 A300 aircraft in service as of May 2022.UPS Airlines also operates 52 freighter versions of the A300.The final version was the A300-600R and is rated for 180-minute ETOPS.", "The A300 has enjoyed renewed interest in the secondhand market for conversion to freighters; large numbers were being converted during the late 1990s.", "The freighter versions – either new-build A300-600s or converted ex-passenger A300-600s, A300B2s and B4s – account for most of the world's freighter fleet after the Boeing 747 freighter.The A300 provided Airbus the experience of manufacturing and selling airliners competitively.", "The basic fuselage of the A300 was later stretched (A330 and A340), shortened (A310), or modified into derivatives (A300-600ST ''Beluga'' Super Transporter).", "In 2006, unit cost of an −600F was $105 million.", "In March 2006, Airbus announced the impending closure of the A300/A310 final assembly line, making them the first Airbus aircraft to be discontinued.", "The final production A300, an A300F freighter, performed its initial flight on 18 April 2007, and was delivered to FedEx Express on 12 July 2007.Airbus has announced a support package to keep A300s flying commercially.Airbus offers the A330-200F freighter as a replacement for the A300 cargo variants.The life of UPS's fleet of 52 A300s, delivered from 2000 to 2006, will be extended to 2035 by a flight deck upgrade based around Honeywell Primus Epic avionics; new displays and flight management system (FMS), improved weather radar, a central maintenance system, and a new version of the current enhanced ground proximity warning system.With a light usage of only two to three cycles per day, it will not reach the maximum number of cycles by then.The first modification will be made at Airbus Toulouse in 2019 and certified in 2020.As of July 2017, there are 211 A300s in service with 22 operators, with the largest operator being FedEx Express with 68 A300-600F aircraft." ], [ "Variants", "=== A300B1 ===The two A300B1 prototypes were longThe A300B1 was the first variant to take flight.", "It had a maximum takeoff weight (MTOW) of , was long and was powered by two General Electric CF6-50A engines.", "Only two prototypes of the variant were built before it was adapted into the A300B2, the first production variant of the airliner.", "The second prototype was leased to Trans European Airways in 1974.=== A300B2 ===The A300B2 was long, longer than the A300B1==== A300B2-100 ====Responding to a need for more seats from Air France, Airbus decided that the first production variant should be larger than the original prototype A300B1.The CF6-50A powered A300B2-100 was longer than the A300B1 and had an increased MTOW of , allowing for 30 additional seats and bringing the typical passenger count up to 281, with capacity for 20 LD3 containers.", "Two prototypes were built and the variant made its maiden flight on 28 June 1973, became certified on 15 March 1974 and entered service with Air France on 23 May 1974.==== A300B2-200 ====For the A300B2-200, originally designated as the A300B2K, Krueger flaps were introduced at the leading-edge root, the slat angles were reduced from 20 degrees to 16 degrees, and other lift related changes were made in order to introduce a high-lift system.", "This was done to improve performance when operating at high-altitude airports, where the air is less dense and lift generation is reduced.", "The variant had an increased MTOW of and was powered by CF6-50C engines, was certified on 23 June 1976, and entered service with South African Airways in November 1976.CF6-50C1 and CF6-50C2 models were also later fitted depending on customer requirements, these became certified on 22 February 1978 and 21 February 1980 respectively.==== A300B2-320 ====The A300B2-320 introduced the Pratt & Whitney JT9D powerplant and was powered by JT9D-59A engines.", "It retained the MTOW of the B2-200, was certified on 4 January 1980, and entered service with Scandinavian Airlines on 18 February 1980, with only four being produced.", "Variant Produced B2-100 32 B2-200 25 B2-320 4Source: Production figures are listed up to 1 January 1999.=== A300B4 ===The A300B4-100 first took flight on 26 December 1974, kept the B2 length but featured a higher fuel capacity==== A300B4-100 ====The initial A300B4 variant, later named the A300B4-100, included a centre fuel tank for an increased fuel capacity of , and had an increased MTOW of .", "It also featured Krueger flaps and had a similar high-lift system to what was later fitted to the A300B2-200.The variant made its maiden flight on 26 December 1974, was certified on 26 March 1975, and entered service with Germanair in May 1975.==== A300B4-200 ====The A300B4-200 had an increased MTOW of and featured an additional optional fuel tank in the rear cargo hold, which would reduce the cargo capacity by two LD3 containers.", "The variant was certified on 26 April 1979.Variant Produced B4-100 47 B4-200 136Source: Production figures are listed up to 1 January 1999.=== A300-600 ===With small wingtip fences, the A300-600 entered service in June 1984 with Saudi Arabian AirlinesThe A300-600 shared the EFIS two-crew cockpit with the A310 (pictured below)The A300-600, officially designated as the A300B4-600, was slightly longer than the A300B2 and A300B4 variants and had an increased interior space from using a similar rear fuselage to the Airbus A310, this allowed it to have two additional rows of seats.", "It was initially powered by Pratt & Whitney JT9D-7R4H1 engines, but was later fitted with General Electric CF6-80C2 engines, with Pratt & Whitney PW4156 or PW4158 engines being introduced in 1986.Other changes include an improved wing featuring a recambered trailing edge, the incorporation of simpler single-slotted Fowler flaps, the deletion of slat fences, and the removal of the outboard ailerons after they were deemed unnecessary on the A310.The variant made its first flight on 8 July 1983, was certified on 9 March 1984, and entered service in June 1984 with Saudi Arabian Airlines.", "A total of 313 A300-600s (all versions) have been sold.", "The A300-600 uses the A310 cockpits, featuring digital technology and electronic displays, eliminating the need for a flight engineer.", "The FAA issues a single type rating which allows operation of both the A310 and A300-600.", "* A300-600: (Official designation: A300B4-600) The baseline model of the −600 series.", "* A300-620C: (Official designation: A300C4-620) A convertible-freighter version.", "Four delivered between 1984 and 1985.", "* A300-600F: (Official designation: A300F4-600) The freighter version of the baseline −600.", "* A300-600R: (Official designation: A300B4-600R) The increased-range −600, achieved by an additional trim fuel tank in the tail.", "First delivery in 1988 to American Airlines; all A300s built since 1989 (freighters included) are −600Rs.", "Japan Air System (later merged into Japan Airlines) took delivery of the last new-built passenger A300, an A300-622R, in November 2002.", "* A300-600RC: (Official designation: A300C4-600R) The convertible-freighter version of the −600R.", "Two were delivered in 1999.", "* A300-600RF: (Official designation: A300F4-600R) The freighter version of the −600R.", "All A300s delivered between November 2002 and 12 July 2007 (last ever A300 delivery) were A300-600RFs.=== A300B10 (A310) ===The longer-range Airbus A310, shorter, was introduced by Swissair in April 1983Airbus had demand for an aircraft smaller than the A300.On 7 July 1978, the A310 (initially the A300B10) was launched with orders from Swissair and Lufthansa.On 3 April 1982, the first prototype conducted its maiden flight and it received its type certification on 11 March 1983.Keeping the same eight-abreast cross-section, the A310 is shorter than the initial A300 variants, and has a smaller wing, down from .", "The A310 introduced a two-crew glass cockpit, later adopted for the A300-600 with a common type rating.", "It was powered by the same GE CF6-80 or Pratt & Whitney JT9D then PW4000 turbofans.", "It can seat 220 passengers in two classes, or 240 in all-economy, and can fly up to .It has overwing exits between the two main front and rear door pairs.In April 1983, the aircraft entered revenue service with Swissair and competed with the Boeing 767–200, introduced six months before.Its longer range and ETOPS regulations allowed it to be operated on transatlantic flights.", "Until the last delivery in June 1998, 255 aircraft were produced, as it was succeeded by the larger Airbus A330-200.It has cargo aircraft versions, and was derived into the Airbus A310 MRTT military tanker/transport.=== A300-600ST ===The Airbus Beluga is based on the A300 with an oversized cargo hold on topCommonly referred to as the Airbus Beluga or \"Airbus Super Transporter\", these five airframes are used by Airbus to ferry parts between the company's disparate manufacturing facilities, thus enabling workshare distribution.", "They replaced the four Aero Spacelines Super Guppys previously used by Airbus.ICAO code: A3ST" ], [ "Operators", ", there are 197 A300 family aircraft in commercial service.The five largest operators were FedEx Express (70), UPS Airlines (52), European Air Transport Leipzig (23), Iran Air (11), and Mahan Air (11).=== Deliveries === Total20072006200520042003200220012000199919981997199619951994199319921991Deliveries56169912891188136141723222225 19901989198819871986198519841983198219811980197919781977197619751974Deliveries19241711101619194638392615151384''Data through end of December 2007.''" ], [ "Accidents and incidents", "As of June 2021, the A300 has been involved in 77 occurrences including 24 hull-loss accidents causing 1133 fatalities, and criminal occurrences and hijackings causing fatalities.=== Accidents with fatalities ===American Airlines Flight 587 vertical stabiliserNose and forward section of UPS 1354 which crashed in August 2013* 21 September 1987: EgyptAir Airbus A300B4-203 touched down past the runway threshold.", "The right main gear hit runway lights and the aircraft collided with an antenna and fences.", "No passengers were on board the plane, but 5 crew members were killed.", "* 28 September 1992: PIA Flight 268, an A300B4 crashed on approach near Kathmandu, Nepal.", "All 12 crew and 155 passengers perished.", "* 26 April 1994: China Airlines Flight 140 (Taiwan) crashed at the end of runway at Nagoya, Japan, killing all 15 crew and 249 of 256 passengers on board.", "* 26 September 1997: Garuda Indonesia Flight 152 was on approach to Polonia International Airport in Medan.", "The plane later crashed into a ravine in Buah Nabar due to ATC error and apparent haze that covers the country which limits the visibility.", "All 234 passengers and crew aboard perished in Indonesia's deadliest crash.", "* 16 February 1998: China Airlines Flight 676 (Taiwan) crashed into a residential area close to CKS International Airport near Taipei, Taiwan.", "All 196 people on board were killed, including Taiwan's central bank president.", "Seven people on the ground were also killed.", "* 12 November 2001: American Airlines Flight 587 crashed into Belle Harbor—a neighbourhood in Queens, New York, United States—shortly after takeoff from John F. Kennedy International Airport.", "The vertical stabiliser ripped off the aircraft after the rudder was mishandled during wake turbulence.", "All 260 people on board were killed, along with 5 people on the ground.", "It is the second-deadliest incident involving an A300 to date and the second-deadliest aircraft incident on United States soil.", "* 14 April 2010: AeroUnion Flight 302, an A300B4-203F, crashed on a road short of the runway while attempting to land at Monterrey Airport in Mexico.", "Seven people (five crew members and two on the ground) were killed.", "* 14 August 2013: UPS Flight 1354, an Airbus A300F4-622R, crashed outside the perimeter fence on approach to Birmingham–Shuttlesworth International Airport in Birmingham, Alabama, United States.", "Both crew members died.=== Hull losses ===* 18 December 1983: Malaysian Airline System Flight 684, an Airbus A300B4 leased from Scandinavian Airlines System (SAS), registration OY-KAA, crashed short of the runway at Kuala Lumpur in bad weather while attempting to land on a flight from Singapore.", "All 247 persons aboard escaped unharmed but the aircraft was destroyed in the resulting fire.", "* 24 April 1993: an Air Inter Airbus A300B2-1C was written off after colliding with a light pole while being pushed back at Montpellier.", "* In November 1993, an Indian Airlines A300 plane crash landed near Hyderabad airport.", "There were no deaths but the aircraft was written off.", "* 10 August 1994 – Korean Air Flight 2033 (Airbus A300) from Seoul to Jeju, the flight approached faster than usual to avoid potential windshear.", "Fifty feet above the runway the co-pilot, who was not flying the aircraft, decided that there was insufficient runway left to land and tried to perform a go-around against the captain's wishes.18 The aircraft touched down 1,773 meters beyond the runway threshold.", "The aircraft could not be stopped on the remaining 1,227 meters of runway and overran at a speed of 104 knots.", "After striking the airport wall and a guard post at 30 knots, the aircraft burst into flames and was incinerated.", "The cabin crew was credited with safely evacuating all passengers although only half of the aircraft's emergency exits were usable}* 17 October 2001, Pakistan International Airlines flight PK231, registration AP-BCJ, from Islamabad via Peshawar to Dubai veered off the side of the runway after the right hand maingear collapsed as it touched down.", "The aircraft skidded and eventually came to rest in sand 50 meters from the runway.", "The aircraft sustained damage to its right wing structure and its no.", "2 engine, which partly broke off the wing.", "All 205 passengers and crew survived.", "* 1 March 2004, Pakistan International Airlines Flight 2002 burst 2 tyres whilst taking off from King Abdulaziz International Airport.", "Fragments of the tyre were ingested by the engines, this caused the engines to catch fire and an aborted takeoff was performed.", "Due to the fire substantial damage to the engine and the left wing caused the aircraft to be written off.", "All 261 passengers and 12 crew survived.", "* 16 November 2012: an Air Contractors Airbus A300B4-203(F) EI-EAC, operating flight QY6321 on behalf of EAT Leipzig from Leipzig (Germany) to Bratislava (Slovakia), suffered a nose wheel collapse during roll out after landing at Bratislava's M. R. Štefánik Airport.", "All three crew members survived unharmed, the aircraft was written off.", "As of December 2017, the aircraft still was parked at a remote area of the airport between runways 13 and 22.", "* 12 October 2015: An Airbus A300B4-200F Freighter operated by Egyptian Tristar cargo carrier crashed in Mogadishu, Somalia.", "All the passengers and crew members survived the crash.", "* 1 October 2016: An Airbus A300-B4 registration PR-STN on a cargo flight between São Paulo-Guarulhos and Recife suffered a runway excursion after landing and the aft gear collapsed upon touchdown.=== Violent incidents ===* 27 June 1976: Air France Flight 139, originating in Tel Aviv, Israel and carrying 248 passengers and a crew of 12 took off from Athens, Greece, headed for Paris, France.", "The flight was hijacked by terrorists, and was eventually flown to Entebbe Airport in Uganda.", "At the airport, Israeli commandos rescued 102 of the 106 hostages.", "* 26 October 1986: Thai Airways Flight 620, an Airbus A300B4-601, originating in Bangkok suffered an explosion mid-flight.", "The aircraft descended rapidly and was able to land safely at Osaka.", "The aircraft was later repaired and there were no fatalities.", "The cause was a hand grenade brought onto the plane by a Japanese gangster of the Yamaguchi-gumi.", "62 of the 247 people on board were injured.", "* 3 July 1988: Iran Air Flight 655 was shot down by USS ''Vincennes'' in the Persian Gulf after being mistaken for an attacking Iranian F-14 Tomcat, killing all 290 passengers and crew.", "* 15 February 1991: two Kuwait Airways A300C4-620s and two Boeing 767s that had been seized during Iraq's occupation of Kuwait were destroyed in coalition bombing of Mosul Airport.", "* 24 December 1994: Air France Flight 8969 was hijacked at Houari Boumedienne Airport in Algiers, by four terrorists who belonged to the Armed Islamic Group.", "The terrorists apparently intended to crash the plane over the Eiffel Tower on Boxing Day.", "After a failed attempt to leave Marseille following a confrontational firefight between the terrorists and the GIGN French Special Forces, the result was the death of all four terrorists.", "(Snipers on the terminal front's roof shot dead two of the terrorists.", "The other two terrorists died as a result of gunshots in the cabin after approximately 20 minutes.)", "Three hostages including a Vietnamese diplomat were executed in Algiers, 229 hostages survived, many of them wounded by shrapnel.", "The almost 15-year-old aircraft was written off.", "* 24 December 1999: Indian Airlines Flight IC 814 from Kathmandu, Nepal, to New Delhi was hijacked.", "After refuelling and offloading a few passengers, the flight was diverted to Kandahar, Afghanistan.", "A Nepalese man was murdered while the plane was in flight.", "* 22 November 2003: European Air Transport OO-DLL, operating on behalf of DHL Aviation, was hit by an SA-14 'Gremlin' missile after takeoff from Baghdad International Airport.", "The aeroplane lost hydraulic pressure and thus the controls.", "After extending the landing gear to create more drag, the crew piloted the plane using differences in engine thrust and landed the plane with minimal further damage.", "The plane was repaired and offered for sale, but in April 2011 it still remained parked at Baghdad Intl.", "* 25 August 2011: an A300B4-620 5A-IAY of Afriqiyah Airways and A300B4-622 5A-DLZ of Libyan Arab Airlines were both destroyed in fighting between pro- and anti-Gadaffi forces at Tripoli International Airport." ], [ "Aircraft on display", "Airbus A300B4 repainted in first A300B1 prototype colours, including original F-WUAB registration.Fifteen A300s are currently preserved:*F-BUAD Airbus A300 ZERO-G, since August 2015 preserved at Cologne Bonn Airport, Germany.", "*ex-HL7219 Korean Air Airbus A300B4 preserved at Korean Air Jeongseok Airfield.", "*ex-N11984 Continental Airlines Airbus A300B4 preserved in South Korea as a Night Flight Restaurant.", "*ex TC-ACD and TC-ACE Air ACT, preserved as coffee house at Uçak Cafe in Burhaniye, Turkey.", "*ex TC-MNJ MNG Airlines, preserved as Köfte Airlines restaurant at Tekirdağ, Turkey.", "*ex TC-FLA Fly Air, preserved as the Airbus Cafe & Restaurant at Kayseri, Turkey.", "*ex TC-ACC Air ACT, preserved as the Uçak Kütüphane library and education centre at Çankırı, Turkey.", "*ex EP-MHA Mahan Air, preserved as instructional airframe at the Botia Mahan Aviation College at Kerman, Iran.", "*ex TC-FLM Fly Air, preserved as a restaurant at Istanbul, Turkey.", "*ex B-18585 China Airlines, preserved as the Flight of Happiness restaurant at Taoyuan, Taiwan.", "*ex-PK-JID Sempati Air Airbus A300B4 repainted in first A300B1 prototype colours, including original F-WUAB registration, became an exhibit in 2014 at the Aeroscopia museum in Blagnac, near Toulouse, France.", "*ex TC-MCE MNG Airlines, preserved as a restaurant at the Danialand theme park at Agadir, Morocco.", "*ex HL7240 Korean Air, preserved as instructional airframe (gate guard) at the Korea Aerospace University at Goyang, South Korea.", "*ex HS-TAM Thai Airways A300-600R, preserved in a field near Doi Saket, Chiang Mai." ], [ "Specifications", "thumbModelA300B4-200A300-600RA300-600F Cockpit crew Three Two Main deck 281/309Y @ 34/31 in)max 345 247 (46F + 201Y)/285Y @ 34 inmax 345 (3-3-3 Y) 540 m3, 43 AYY ULD9 AMJ/LD7 + 16 AYY Lower deck 20 LD3 + bulk 22 LD3 + bulk / 158 m³ Length Height Wing span, area aspect ratio Width cabin, Fuselage, usually 2-4-2Y Pressurized volume 542 m3 (19,140 cu ft) 860 m3 (30,370 cu ft) MTOW Max payload Fuel capacity OEW Engines GE CF6-50C2 orPW JT9D-59A GE CF6-80C2 orPW4158 Takeoff thrust Takeoff (MTOW, SL, ISA) Speed at MMO: Mach 0.82 Range 5,375 km (2,900 nmi; ) 7,500 km (4,050 nmi; )=== Aircraft model designations ===+ Type Certificate Data Sheet Model Certification Date Engines A300B1 12 November 1974 GE CF6-50A GE CF6-50C A300B2-1A 15 March 1974 GE CF6-50A A300B2-1C 2 October 1974 GE CF6-50C GE CF6-50C2R A300B2K-3C 23 June 1976 GE CF6-50C GE CF6-50C2R A300B2-202 22 February 1978 GE CF6-50C1 A300B2-203 21 February 1980 GE CF6-50C2 GE CF6-50C2D A300B2-320 4 January 1980 PW JT9D-59A A300B4-2C 26 March 1975 GE CF6-50C GE CF6-50C2R A300B2-102 7 December 1977 GE CF6-50C1 A300B4-103 21 March 1979 GE CF6-50C2 GE CF6-50C2D A300B4-120 4 February 1981 PW JT9D-59A A300B4-203 26 April 1979 GE CF6-50C2 GE CF6-50C2D A300B4-220 8 January 1982 PW JT9D-59A A300C4-203 18 December 1979 GE CF6-50C2 A300C4-203 6 June 1986 GE CF6-50C2 A300B4-601 17 September 1985 GE CF6-80C2A1 A300B4-603 27 January 1987 GE CF6-80C2A3 A300B4-620 9 March 1984 PW JT9D-7R4H1 A300B4-622 6 March 1989 PW4158 A300C4-620 17 May 1984 PW JT9D-7R4H1 A300B4-605R 10 March 1988 GE CF6-80C2A3 GE CF6-80C2A5 GE CF6-80C2A5F A300B4-622R 25 November 1988 PW4158 A300C4-605R 2 July 1999 GE CF6-80C2A5 A300F4-605R 19 April 1994 GE CF6-80C2A5 GE CF6-80C2A5F A300F4-622R 20 June 2000 PW4158" ], [ "See also" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** *" ], [ "External links", "* *" ] ]

[ [ "Agostino Carracci" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Agostino Carracci''' (or '''Caracci'''; 16 August 1557 – 22 March 1602) was an Italian painter, printmaker, tapestry designer, and art teacher.", "He was, together with his brother, Annibale Carracci, and cousin, Ludovico Carracci, one of the founders of the Accademia degli Incamminati (Academy of the Progressives) in Bologna.", "Intended to devise alternatives to the Mannerist style favored in the preceding decades, this teaching academy helped propel painters of the School of Bologna to prominence." ], [ "Life", "''Bust-Length Portrait of a Woman''''The Lamentation'' (c. 1586)Agostino Carracci was born in Bologna as the son of a tailor.", "He was the elder brother of Annibale Carracci and the cousin of Ludovico Carracci.", "He initially trained as a goldsmith.", "He later studied painting, first with Prospero Fontana, who had been Lodovico's master, and later with Bartolomeo Passarotti.", "He traveled to Parma to study the works of Correggio.", "Accompanied by his brother Annibale, he spent a long time in Venice, where he trained as an engraver under the renowned Cornelis Cort.", "Starting from 1574 he worked as a reproductive engraver, copying works of 16th century masters such as Federico Barocci, Tintoretto, Antonio Campi, Veronese and Correggio.", "He also produced some original prints, including two etchings.He traveled to Venice (1582, 1587–1589) and Parma (1586–1587).", "Together with Annibale and Ludovico he worked in Bologna on the fresco cycles in Palazzo Fava (''Histories of Jason and Medea'', 1584) and Palazzo Magnani (''Histories of Romulus'', 1590–1592).", "In 1592 he also painted the ''Communion of St. Jerome'', now in the Pinacoteca di Bologna and considered his masterwork.", "In 1620, Giovanni Lanfranco, a pupil of the Carracci, famously accused another Carracci student, Domenichino, of plagiarizing this painting.", "From 1586 is his altarpiece of the ''Madonna with Child and Saints'', in the National Gallery of Parma.", "In 1598 Carracci joined his brother Annibale in Rome, to collaborate on the decoration of the Gallery in Palazzo Farnese.", "From 1598 to 1600 is a ''triple Portrait'', now in Naples, an example of genre painting.", "In 1600 he was called to Parma by Duke Ranuccio I Farnese to begin the decoration of the Palazzo del Giardino, but he died before it was finished.", "His friend the poet Claudio Achillini composed an epitaph, which was later published by Carlo Cesare Malvasia in the life of the Carracci.Agostino's son Antonio Carracci was also a painter, and attempted to compete with his father's Academy.An engraving by Agostino Carraci after the painting ''Love in the Golden Age'' by the 16th-century Flemish painter Paolo Fiammingo was the inspiration for Matisse's ''Le bonheur de vivre'' (Joy of Life)." ], [ "Critical evaluation", "While his undoubted value in the graphic field is widely recognised, Agostino, as a painter, although admired by his contemporaries, ended up being overshadowed by the fame of his brother Annibale.", "Perhaps even his long practice of engraving ended up putting him at disadvantage, since he might have been perceived as more inclined to copy than to create.Even Giovanni Pietro Bellori, who included Agostino Carracci in his selective collection of biographies of artists (''Vite de' pittori, scultori e architetti moderni'', 1672), described his activity as a painter, with the sole exception of the ''Communion of Saint Jerome'', a work that he praises, almost entirely limited to the role of supporting his younger brother Annibale, and reproaches him for having dedicated too much of his work to graphic production.The modern critical evaluation of the painter Agostino Carracci probably still suffers from the negative legacies of the past.", "The fact that there is still only one important monograph dedicated to him published (Stephen E. Ostrow, from the United States, 1966, never translated into Italian), and that an individual exhibition on this artist has yet to be held, are probably significant factors that show that he remains an underrated artist.However, there have been a positive critical reevaluation of the painter, since there is now a better awareness of his artistic role, alongside his more famous relatives, and the knowledge of his personal work is now greater." ], [ "Works", "''Oil on canvas unless otherwise noted''* 1573 – ''Pietà'' (Muscarelle Museum of Art, Williamsburg, Virginia)* 1586 – ''Madonna and Child with Saints'' (Galleria nazionale di Parma)* – ''Lamentation'' or ''Pietà'' (Hermitage, St. Petersburg)* – (engraving, Baltimore Museum of Art)* – ''Annunciation'' (Musée du Louvre, Paris)* 1590–1595 – ''Portrait of a Woman as Judith'' (private collection)* – ''Assumption'' (Ss.", "Salvatore church, Bologna)* 1592–1597 – ''The Last Communion of Saint Jerome'' (Pinacoteca Nazionale di Bologna)* – ''Head of a Faun in a Concave'' (drawing in roundel, National Gallery of Art, Washington DC)* 1598–1600 – ''Triple Portrait of Arrigo, Pietro and Amon'' (National Museum of Capodimonte, Naples)===Fresco collaborations with Annibale and Ludovico===*''Life of Aeneas'' (Palazzo Fava, Bologna)*''Lives of Jason and Medea'' (Palazzo Fava, Bologna)*''Scenes from the Foundation of Rome'' (Palazzo Magnani, Bologna)*''Life of Hercules'' (Palazzo Sampieri Talon, Bologna)===Undated===* ''The Penitent Magdalen'' (private collection)* Carracci's erotic work (prints)" ], [ "See also", "* The Carracci" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Stephen E. Ostrow, ''Agostino Carracci'' (1966), Thesis (Ph.", "D.) New York University, New York" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Adenylyl cyclase" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Adenylate cyclase''' (EC 4.6.1.1, also commonly known as '''adenyl cyclase''' and '''adenylyl cyclase''', abbreviated '''AC''') is an enzyme with systematic name '''ATP diphosphate-lyase (cyclizing; 3′,5′-cyclic-AMP-forming)'''.", "It catalyzes the following reaction::ATP = 3′,5′-cyclic AMP + diphosphateIt has key regulatory roles in essentially all cells.", "It is the most polyphyletic known enzyme: six distinct classes have been described, all catalyzing the same reaction but representing unrelated gene families with no known sequence or structural homology.", "The best known class of adenylyl cyclases is class III or AC-III (Roman numerals are used for classes).", "AC-III occurs widely in eukaryotes and has important roles in many human tissues.All classes of adenylyl cyclase catalyse the conversion of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to 3',5'-cyclic AMP (cAMP) and pyrophosphate.", "Magnesium ions are generally required and appear to be closely involved in the enzymatic mechanism.", "The cAMP produced by AC then serves as a regulatory signal via specific cAMP-binding proteins, either transcription factors, enzymes (e.g., cAMP-dependent kinases), or ion transporters.ATP to 3',5'-cyclic AMP." ], [ "Classes", "=== Class I ===The first class of adenylyl cyclases occur in many bacteria including ''E.", "coli'' (as CyaA unrelated to the Class II enzyme).", "This was the first class of AC to be characterized.", "It was observed that ''E.", "coli'' deprived of glucose produce cAMP that serves as an internal signal to activate expression of genes for importing and metabolizing other sugars.", "cAMP exerts this effect by binding the transcription factor CRP, also known as CAP.", "Class I AC's are large cytosolic enzymes (~100 kDa) with a large regulatory domain (~50 kDa) that indirectly senses glucose levels.", ", no crystal structure is available for class I AC.Some indirect structural information is available for this class.", "It is known that the N-terminal half is the catalytic portion, and that it requires two Mg2+ ions.", "S103, S113, D114, D116 and W118 are the five absolutely essential residues.", "The class I catalytic domain () belongs to the same superfamily () as the palm domain of DNA polymerase beta ().", "Aligning its sequence onto the structure onto a related archaeal CCA tRNA nucleotidyltransferase () allows for assignment of the residues to specific functions: γ-phosphate binding, structural stabilization, DxD motif for metal ion binding, and finally ribose binding.=== Class II ===These adenylyl cyclases are toxins secreted by pathogenic bacteria such as ''Bacillus anthracis'', ''Bordetella pertussis'', ''Pseudomonas aeruginosa'', and ''Vibrio vulnificus'' during infections.", "These bacteria also secrete proteins that enable the AC-II to enter host cells, where the exogenous AC activity undermines normal cellular processes.", "The genes for Class II ACs are known as cyaA, one of which is anthrax toxin.", "Several crystal structures are known for AC-II enzymes.=== Class III ===These adenylyl cyclases are the most familiar based on extensive study due to their important roles in human health.", "They are also found in some bacteria, notably ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' where they appear to have a key role in pathogenesis.", "Most AC-III's are integral membrane proteins involved in transducing extracellular signals into intracellular responses.", "A Nobel Prize was awarded to Earl Sutherland in 1971 for discovering the key role of AC-III in human liver, where adrenaline indirectly stimulates AC to mobilize stored energy in the \"fight or flight\" response.", "The effect of adrenaline is via a G protein signaling cascade, which transmits chemical signals from outside the cell across the membrane to the inside of the cell (cytoplasm).", "The outside signal (in this case, adrenaline) binds to a receptor, which transmits a signal to the G protein, which transmits a signal to adenylyl cyclase, which transmits a signal by converting adenosine triphosphate to cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP).", "cAMP is known as a second messenger.Cyclic AMP is an important molecule in eukaryotic signal transduction, a so-called second messenger.", "Adenylyl cyclases are often activated or inhibited by G proteins, which are coupled to membrane receptors and thus can respond to hormonal or other stimuli.", "Following activation of adenylyl cyclase, the resulting cAMP acts as a second messenger by interacting with and regulating other proteins such as protein kinase A and cyclic nucleotide-gated ion channels.Photoactivated adenylyl cyclase (PAC) was discovered in ''Euglena gracilis'' and can be expressed in other organisms through genetic manipulation.", "Shining blue light on a cell containing PAC activates it and abruptly increases the rate of conversion of ATP to cAMP.", "This is a useful technique for researchers in neuroscience because it allows them to quickly increase the intracellular cAMP levels in particular neurons, and to study the effect of that increase in neural activity on the behavior of the organism.", "A green-light activated rhodopsin adenylyl cyclase (CaRhAC) has recently been engineered by modifying the nucleotide binding pocket of rhodopsin guanylyl cyclase.==== Structure ====Structure of adenylyl cyclaseMost class III adenylyl cyclases are transmembrane proteins with 12 transmembrane segments.", "The protein is organized with 6 transmembrane segments, then the C1 cytoplasmic domain, then another 6 membrane segments, and then a second cytoplasmic domain called C2.The important parts for function are the N-terminus and the C1 and C2 regions.", "The C1a and C2a subdomains are homologous and form an intramolecular 'dimer' that forms the active site.", "In ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' and many other bacterial cases, the AC-III polypeptide is only half as long, comprising one 6-transmembrane domain followed by a cytoplasmic domain, but two of these form a functional homodimer that resembles the mammalian architecture with two active sites.", "In non-animal class III ACs, the catalytic cytoplasmic domain is seen associated with other (not necessarily transmembrane) domains.Class III adenylyl cyclase domains can be further divided into four subfamilies, termed class IIIa through IIId.", "Animal membrane-bound ACs belong to class IIIa.====Mechanism====The reaction happens with two metal cofactors (Mg or Mn) coordinated to the two aspartate residues on C1.They perform a nucleophilic attack of the 3'-OH group of the ribose on the α-phosphoryl group of ATP.", "The two lysine and aspartate residues on C2 selects ATP over GTP for the substrate, so that the enzyme is not a guanylyl cyclase.", "A pair of arginine and asparagine residues on C2 stabilizes the transition state.", "In many proteins, these residues are nevertheless mutated while retaining the adenylyl cyclase activity.==== Types ====There are ten known isoforms of adenylyl cyclases in mammals:These are also sometimes called simply AC1, AC2, etc., and, somewhat confusingly, sometimes Roman numerals are used for these isoforms that all belong to the overall AC class III.", "They differ mainly in how they are regulated, and are differentially expressed in various tissues throughout mammalian development.==== Regulation ====Adenylyl cyclase is regulated by G proteins, which can be found in the monomeric form or the heterotrimeric form, consisting of three subunits.", "Adenylyl cyclase activity is controlled by heterotrimeric G proteins.", "The inactive or inhibitory form exists when the complex consists of alpha, beta, and gamma subunits, with GDP bound to the alpha subunit.", "In order to become active, a ligand must bind to the receptor and cause a conformational change.", "This conformational change causes the alpha subunit to dissociate from the complex and become bound to GTP.", "This G-alpha-GTP complex then binds to adenylyl cyclase and causes activation and the release of cAMP.", "Since a good signal requires the help of enzymes, which turn on and off signals quickly, there must also be a mechanism in which adenylyl cyclase deactivates and inhibits cAMP.", "The deactivation of the active G-alpha-GTP complex is accomplished rapidly by GTP hydrolysis due to the reaction being catalyzed by the intrinsic enzymatic activity of GTPase located in the alpha subunit.", "It is also regulated by forskolin, as well as other isoform-specific effectors:* Isoforms I, III, and VIII are also stimulated by Ca2+/calmodulin.", "* Isoforms V and VI are inhibited by Ca2+ in a calmodulin-independent manner.", "* Isoforms II, IV and IX are stimulated by alpha subunit of the G protein.", "* Isoforms I, V and VI are most clearly inhibited by Gi, while other isoforms show less dual regulation by the inhibitory G protein.", "* Soluble AC (sAC) is not a transmembrane form and is not regulated by G proteins or forskolin, instead acts as a bicarbonate/pH sensor.", "It is anchored at various locations within the cell and, with phosphodiesterases, forms local cAMP signalling domains.In neurons, calcium-sensitive adenylyl cyclases are located next to calcium ion channels for faster reaction to Ca2+ influx; they are suspected of playing an important role in learning processes.", "This is supported by the fact that adenylyl cyclases are ''coincidence detectors'', meaning that they are activated only by several different signals occurring together.", "In peripheral cells and tissues adenylyl cyclases appear to form molecular complexes with specific receptors and other signaling proteins in an isoform-specific manner.==== Function ====Individual transmembrane adenylyl cyclase isoforms have been linked to numerous physiological functions.", "Soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC, AC10) has a critical role in sperm motility.", "Adenylyl cyclase has been implicated in memory formation, functioning as a coincidence detector.=== Class IV ===AC-IV was first reported in the bacterium ''Aeromonas hydrophila'', and the structure of the AC-IV from ''Yersinia pestis'' has been reported.", "These are the smallest of the AC enzyme classes; the AC-IV (CyaB) from ''Yersinia'' is a dimer of 19 kDa subunits with no known regulatory components ().", "AC-IV forms a superfamily with mammalian thiamine-triphosphatase called CYTH (CyaB, thiamine triphosphatase).=== Classes V and VI ===These forms of AC have been reported in specific bacteria (''Prevotella ruminicola'' and ''Rhizobium etli'' , respectively) and have not been extensively characterized.", "There are a few extra members (~400 in Pfam) known to be in class VI.", "Class VI enzymes possess a catalytic core similar to the one in Class III." ], [ "Additional images", " File:Beta adrenergic receptor kinase.JPG|Beta adrenergic receptor kinase pathway" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "**Interactive 3D views of Adenylate cyclase at" ] ]

[ [ "Alexandra" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Alexandra''' () is a female given name of Greek origin.", "It is the first attested form of its variants, including Alexander (, ).", "Etymologically, the name is a compound of the Greek verb (; meaning 'to defend') and (; GEN , ; meaning 'man').", "Thus it may be roughly translated as \"defender of man\" or \"protector of man\".", "The name Alexandra was one of the epithets given to the Greek goddess Hera and as such is usually taken to mean \"one who comes to save warriors\".", "The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek ( or //), written in the Linear B syllabic script.", "Alexandra and its masculine equivalent, Alexander, are both common names in Greece as well as countries where Germanic, Romance, and Slavic languages are spoken." ], [ "Variants", "* Alejandra, Alejandrina (diminutive) (Spanish)* Aleksandra (Александра) (Albanian, Bulgarian, Estonian, Latvian, Lithuanian, Macedonian, Polish, Russian, Serbo-Croatian)* Alessandra (Italian)* Alessia (Italian)* Alex (various languages)* Alexa (English, Romanian, Spanish)* Alexandra (English, German, Dutch, French, Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Icelandic, Greek, Portuguese, Romanian, Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Catalan, Spanish, Italian, Russian, Ukrainian, Ancient Greek, Greek Mythology)* Alexis, English* Alexandra, Sandra, Sandy, Sasha (Indonesian)* Aliaksandra (Belarusian)* Alikhandra /اليخاندرا (Egyptian)* Alissandra/Alyssandra (Sicilian, Greek)* Allie (English)* Ally (English)* Alya (Russian)* Ālēkjāndrā / আলেকজান্দ্রা (Bengali)* Αλεξάνδρα (Greek)* Leska (Czech)* Lesya (Ukrainian)* Lexa (English)* Lexie (English)* Lexine (English)* Lexi (English)* Lexy (English)* Oleksandra (Ukrainian)* Sacha (French)* Sanda (Romanian)* Sandie (English)* Sandra (Danish, Dutch, English, Polish, Estonian, Italian, Finnish, German, Icelandic, Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Serbo-Croatian, Slovene, Swedish)* Sandy (English)* Sascha (German)* Sasha (Russian, Belarusian, Ukrainian, English, Spanish)* Saskia (Slavic)* Saundra (English, Scottish)* Saša (Czech, Serbo-Croatian, Slovak, Slovene)* Saška (Serbian)* Shura (Russian)* Sondra (English)* Szandra (Hungarian)" ], [ "People with the name", "===Royalty===* Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse) (1872–1918), last Empress consort of Russia and the wife of Nicholas II of Russia.", "* Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia) (1798–1860), Empress consort of Russia and the wife of Nicholas I of Russia* Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925), Queen consort of the United Kingdom and the wife of Edward VII* Alexandra of Yugoslavia (1921–1993), last Queen consort of Yugoslavia and the wife of Peter II of Yugoslavia* Grand Duchess Alexandra Alexandrovna of Russia (1842 – 1849), Grand Duchess of Russia* Princess Alexandra of Greece and Denmark (1870 – 1891), Princess of Greece and Denmark, and Grand Duchess of Russia* Grand Duchess Alexandra Mikhailovna of Russia (1831– 1832), Grand Dychess of Russia* Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (1783 – 1801), Grand Duchess of Russia, Archduchess of Austria, and Palatina of Hungary* Princess Alexandra of Kent (1936- present), Grand Daughter of King George V, Daughter of Prince George, Duke of Kent and Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark.", "Styled Princess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy after her marriage.", "* Princess Alexandra of Luxembourg (1991 – present), Daughter of Henri, Grand Duke of Luxembourg=== Saints ===* Saint Alexandra, martyr of the Diocletianic persecutions===Alexandra===* Alexandra (singer) (1942–1969), German singer* Alexandra of Antioch, Greek noblewoman and the sister of Calliopius of Antioch* Alexandra Aikhenvald (born 1957), Russian–Australian linguist* Alexandra Aldridge (born 1994), American ice dancer* Alexandra Allred (born 1965), American author and fitness instructor* Alexandra Anghel (born 1997), Romanian freestyle wrestler* Alexandra Ansanelli, American ballet dancer* Alexandra Anstrell (born 1974), Swedish politician* Alexandra Antonova (born 1991), Russian water polo player* Alexandra Araújo (born 1972), Brazilian–born Italian water polo player* Alexandra Arce (born 1977), Ecuadorian engineer and politician* Alexandra Aristoteli (born 1997), Australian rhythmic gymnast* Alexandra Asimaki (born 1988), Greek water polo player* Alexandra Bachzetsis (born 1974), Greek–Swiss choreographer and visual artist* Alexandra Backford (1942–2010), Aleut–American painter* Alexandra Badea (born 1998), Romanian handballer* Alexandra Balashova (1942–1969), Russian ballet dancer and choreographer* Alexandra Barré (born 1958), Hungarian–born Canadian sprint kayaker* Alexandra Barreto (born 1975), American actress* Alexandra Bastedo (1946–2014), English actress* Alexandra Beaton (born 1994/1995), Canadian actress* Alexandra Bellow (born 1935), Romanian–American mathematician* Alexandra Benado (born 1976), Chilean politician and football player* Alexandra Béres (born 1976), Hungarian bodybuilder and curler* Alexandra Berzon (born 1979), American investigative reporter and journalist* Alexandra Beukes, South African politician* Alexandra Beverfjord (born 1977), Norwegian journalist, crime fiction writer and newspaper editor* Alexandra Bezeková (born 1992), Slovakian sprinter* Alexandra Boltasseva (born 1978), Russian engineer and physicist* Alexandra Borbély (born 1986), Slovakian–Hungarian actress* Alexandra Botez (born 1995), American–Canadian chess player and Twitch streamer* Alexandra Bounxouei (born 1987), Laotian–Bulgarian actress, model, and singer* Alexandra Boyko (1916–1996), Russian tank commander* Alexandra Bracken (born 1987), American author* Alexandra Bradshaw (1888–1981), Canadian–American art professor and watercolor artist* Alexandra Branitskaya (1754–1838), Russian courtier* Alexandra Braun (born 1983), Venezuelan actress, model, and beauty queen* Alexandra Breckenridge (born 1982), American actress, model, and photographer* Alexandra Brooks (born 1995), English footballer* Alexandra Bruce (born 1990), Canadian badminton player* Alexandra Brushtein (1884–1968), Russian and Soviet writer, playwright, and memoirist* Alexandra Buch (born 1979), German mixed martial artist* Alexandra Bugailiskis (born 1956), Canadian diplomat* Alexandra Bujdoso (born 1990), Hungarian–German sabre fencer* Alexandra Bunton (born 1993), Australian basketball player* Alexandra Burghardt (born 1994), German bobsledder and sprinter* Alexandra Burke (born 1988), British singer* Alexandra W. Busch (born 1975), German Roman archaeologist* Alexandra Byrne (born 1962), English costume designer* Alexandra Cardenas, Colombian composer* Alexandra Carlisle (1886–1936), English actress and suffragist* Alexandra Carpenter (born 1994), American ice hockey player* Alexandra Caso (born 1987), Dominican volleyball player* Alexandra Cassavetes, American actress and filmmaker* Alexandra Castillo (born 1971), Chilean–Canadian actress and dancer* Alexandra Chalupa, American lawyer and pro–Ukrainian activist* Alexandra Chambon (born 2000), French rugby player* Alexandra Chando (born 1986), American actress* Alexandra Charles (born 1946), Swedish nightclub owner* Alexandra Chasin (born 1961), American experimental writer* Alexandra Chaves (born 2001), Canadian actress and dancer* Alexandra Chekina (born 1993), Russian cyclist* Alexandra Cheron (1983–2011), Dominican–American actress, businesswoman, model, and socialite* Alexandra Chidiac (born 1999), Australian footballer* Alexandra Chong, Jamaican entrepreneur* Alexandra Chreiteh (born 1987), Lebanese author* Alexandra Coletti (born 1983), Monégasque alpine skier* Alexandra Cousteau (born 1976), French environmental activist and filmmaker* Alexandra Cunha (born 1962), Mozambican–born Portuguese marine biologist* Alexandra Cunningham (born 1972/73), American playwright, screenwriter, and television producer* Alexandra Curtis (born 1991), American beauty queen* Alexandra Čvanová (1897–1939), Ukrainian–born Czech operatic soprano* Alexandra Daddario (born 1986), American actress* Alexandra Dahlström (born 1984), Swedish actress* Alexandra Dane (born 1940), South African–born English actress* Alexandra Danilova (1903–1997), Russian ballet dancer* Alexandra Dariescu (born 1985), Romanian pianist* Alexandra Dascalu (born 1991), French volleyball player* Alexandra Daum (born 1986), Austrian alpine skier* Alexandra David-Néel (1868–1969), French explorer and spiritualist* Alexandra Davies (born 1977), English–born Australian actress* Alexandra de la Mora (born 1979), Mexican actress* Alexandra Dementieva (born 1960), Russian artist* Alexandra Denisova (1922–2018), Canadian ballet dancer* Alexandra Deshorties (born 1975), French–Canadian operatic soprano* Alexandra Dimoglou (born 1981), Greek Paralympic track and field athlete* Alexandra Dindiligan (born 1997), Romanian handballer* Alexandra DiNovi (born 1989), American actress* Alexandra Dinu (born 1981), Romanian actress and television presenter* Alexandra Diplarou (born 1981), Greek volleyball player* Alexandra Dobolyi (born 1971), Hungarian politician* Alexandra Dowling (born 1990), English actress* Alexandra Duckworth (born 1987), Canadian snowboarder* Alexandra Duel-Hallen, American electrical engineer* Alexandra Dulgheru (born 1989), Romanian tennis player* Alexandra Dunn (born 1967), American lawyer* Alexandra von Dyhrn (1873–1945), German author and genealogist* Alexandra Eade (born 1998), Australian artistic gymnast* Alexandra Elbakyan (born 1988), Kazakhstani computer programmer* Alexandra Eldridge (born 1948), American painter* Alexandra Engen (born 1988), Swedish cross country cyclist* Alexandra Eremia (born 1987), Romanian rhythmic gymnast* Alexandra Ermakova (born 1992), Russian rhythmic gymnast* Alexandra Escobar (born 1980, Ecuadorian weightlifter* Alexandra Feigin (born 2002), Bulgarian figure skater* Alexandra Feracci (born 1992), French karateka* Alexandra Finder (born 1977), German actress* Alexandra Fisher (born 1988), Kazakhstani athlete* Alexandra Flood (born 1990), Australian operatic soprano* Alexandra Fomina (born 1975), Ukrainian volleyball player* Alexandra Försterling (born 1999), German amateur golfer* Alexandra Föster (born 2002), German rower* Alexandra Fouace (born 1979), French archer* Alexandra Fuentes (born 1978), Puerto Rican actress and radio host* Alexandra von Fürstenberg (born 1972), Hong Kong–born American entrepreneur, heiress, and socialite* Alexandra Fusai (born 1973), French tennis player* Alexandra Gage, Viscountess Gage (born 1969), British lecturer* Alexandra Gallagher (born 1980), English artist* Alexandra Gardner (born 1967), American composer* Alexandra Daisy Ginsberg (born 1982), English–South African artist* Alexandra Goujon (born 1972), French political scientist* Alexandra Gowie (born 1990), South African–born Hungarian–Canadian ice hockey player* Alexandra Grande (born 1990), Peruvian karateka* Alexandra Grant (born 1973), American visual artist* Alexandra Gripenberg (1857–1913), Finnish activist, author, and newspaper publisher* Alexandra Gummer (born 1992), Australian soccer player* Alexandra Hagan (born 1991), Australian rower* Alexandra Hargreaves (born 1980), Australian rugby player* Alexandra Harrison (born 2002), French ice hockey player* Alexandra Hasluck (1908–1993), Australian author and historian* Alexandra Hedison (born 1969), American actress, director, and photographer* Alexandra Heidrich, German canoeist* Alexandra Helbling (born 1993), Sri Lankan–born Swiss Paralympic athlete* Alexandra Heminsley (born 1976), British journalist and writer* Alexandra Henao, Venezuelan cinematographer and director* Alexandra Herbríková (born 1992), Slovakian–Czech ice dancer* Alexandra Hernandez (born 1981), French singer and songwriter* Alexandra Hidalgo, Venezuelan–American documentarian* Alexandra Hildebrandt (born 1959), German human rights activist* Alexandra Mary Hirschi (born 1985), Australian social media personality and vlogger* Alexandra Hoffman (born 1987), American beauty queen* Alexandra Hoffmeyer (born 1988), American ice hockey player* Alexandra Höglund (born 1990), Swedish football player* Alexandra Holden (born 1977), American actress* Alexandra Hollá (born 1994), Slovakian football player* Alexandra Ashley Hughes (born 1985), Canadian singer and songwriter* Alexandra Hulley (born 1997), Australian athlete* Alexandra Hurst (born 1994), Northern Irish soccer player* Alexandra Huynh (born 1994), Australian soccer player* Alexandra Ianculescu (born 1991), Romanian–Canadian speed skater* Alexandra Ievleva (born 1987), Russian figure skater* Alexandra Issayeva (born 1982), Kazakhstani volleyball player* Alexandra Ivanovskaya (born 1989), Russian beauty queen and model* Alexandra Jackson (born 1952), Irish–English swimmer* Alexandra Jiménez (born 1980), Spanish actress* Alexandra Jóhannsdóttir (born 2000), Icelandic football player* Alexandra Johnes (born 1976), American documentary film producer* Alexandra Joner (born 1990), Norwegian dancer and singer* Alexandra Jupiter (born 1990), French volleyball player* Alexandra Kalinovská (born 1974), Czech modern pentathlete* Alexandra Kamieniecki (born 1996), Polish figure skater* Alexandra Kamp (born 1966), German actress and model* Alexandra Kapustina (born 1984), Russian ice hockey player* Alexandra Kasser (born 1967), American attorney and politician* Alexandra Kavadas (born 1983), Greek football player* Alexandra Kehayoglou (born 1981), Argentine textile artist* Alexandra Kenworthy (born 1932), American voice actress* Alexandra Keresztesi (born 1983), Hungarian–born Argentine sprint canoer* Alexandra Kerry (born 1973), American filmmaker* Alexandra Killewald (born 1983), American sociology professor* Alexandra Kim (1885–1918), Russian–Korean revolutionary political activist* Alexandra Kleeman (born 1986), American writer* Alexandra Kluge (1937–2017), German actress* Alexandra Koefoed (born 1978), Norwegian sailor* Alexandra Kolesnichenko (born 1992), Uzbekistani tennis player* Alexandra Kollontai (1872–1952), Russian politician* Alexandra Konofalskaya (born 1986), Belarusian sand animation artist* Alexandra Korelova (born 1977), Russian equestrian* Alexandra Korolkova (born 1984), Russian typeface designer* Alexandra Kosinski (born 1989), American long-distance runner* Alexandra Kosteniuk (born 1984), Russian chess grandmaster* Alexandra Kotur, American fashion journalist* Alexandra Kropotkin (1887–1966), Russian–American writer* Alexandra Krosney, American actress* Alexandra Kunová (born 1992), Slovakian figure skater* Alexandra Kutas (born 1993), Ukrainian model* Alexandra Lacrabère (born 1987), French handballer* Alexandra Lamy (born 1971), French actress* Alexandra Langley (born 1992), English badminton player* Alexandra Lapierre, French author* Alexandra Maria Lara (born 1978), Romanian–German actress* Alexandra Larochelle (born 1993), Canadian writer* Alexandra Larsson (born 1986), Swedish–Argentine model* Alexandra Lazarowich, Cree–Canadian director and producer* Alexandra Lebenthal (born 1964), American businesswoman* Alexandra Leclère, French director and screenwriter* Alexandra Lehti (born 1996), Finnish singer, known as Lxandra* Alexandra Leitão (born 1973), Portuguese law professor and politician* Alexandra Lemoine (born 1928), French artistic gymnast* Alexandra Lencastre (born 1965), Portuguese actress* Alexandra Lethbridge (born 1987), Hong Kong–born English photographer* Alexandra Levit (born 1976), American writer* Alexandra Lisney (born 1987), Australian cyclist and rower* Alexandra London (born 1973), French actress* Alexandra Longová (born 1994), Slovakian archer* Alexandra López (born 1989), Spanish soccer player* Alexandra Louis (born 1983), French lawyer and politician* Alexandra Lúgaro (born 1981), Puerto Rican attorney, businesswoman, and politician* Alexandra Lukin (born 1998), New Zealand field hockey player* Alexandra Lunca (born 1995), Romanian soccer player* Alexandra Lydon, American actress* Alexandra Măceșanu (2003–2019), Romanian murder victim* Alexandra Makovskaya (1837–1915), Russian landscape painter* Alexandra Manly (born 1998), Australian cyclist* Alexandra Mařasová (born 1965), Czech alpine skier* Alexandra Mardell (born 1993), English actress* Alexandra Marinescu (born 1982), Romanian artistic gymnast* Alexandra Marinina (born 1957), Russian writer* Alexandra Martin (born 1968), French politician* Alexandra Marzo (born 1968), Brazilian actress and screenwriter* Alexandra Mavrokordatou (1605–1684), Greek intellectual* Alexandra Mazur (born 1986), Russian beauty queen* Alexandra Meissnitzer (born 1973), Austrian alpine ski racer* Alexandra Mendès (born 1963), Canadian politician* Alexandra Merkulova (born 1995), Russian rhythmic gymnast* Alexandra Micu, Romanian fashion model* Alexandra Miller (born 1973), American businesswoman and politician* Alexandra Milton (born 1967), French artist and illustrator* Alexandra Mîrca (born 1993), Moldovan archer* Alexandra Mitroshina (born 1994), Russian journalist* Alexandra Mitsotaki, Greek activist and entrepreneur* Alexandra Moreno (born 2000), Spanish racing cyclist* Alexandra Morgenrood (born 1940), Zimbabwean diver* Alexandra Morrison, Canadian photographer* Alexandra Morton (born 1957), American conservation activist and marine biologist* Alexandra Mousavizadeh (born 1970), Danish economist* Alexandra Mueller (born 1988), American tennis player* Alexandra Muñoz (born 1992), Peruvian volleyball player* Alexandra Munteanu (born 1980), Romanian alpine skier* Alexandra Najarro (born 1993), Canadian figure skater* Alexandra Nancarrow (born 1993), Australian tennis player* Alexandra Ndolo (born 1986), German–born Kenyan épée fencer* Alexandra Nechita (born 1985), Romanian–American cubist painter and philanthropist* Alexandra Nekvapilová (1919–2014), Czech alpine skier* Alexandra Neldel (born 1976), German actress* Alexandra Nereïev (born 1976), French painter and sculptor* Alexandra Nemich (born 1995), Kazakhstani synchronized swimmer* Alexandra Nessmar (born 1994), Swedish racing cyclist* Alexandra Newton, South African pharmacology professor* Alexandra Niepel (born 1970), British tennis player* Alexandra Nikiforova (born 1993), Russian actress* Alexandra Norman (born 1983), Canadian squash player* Alexandra Obolentseva (born 2001), Russian chess player* Alexandra Ocles (born 1979), Ecuadorian educator and politician* Alexandra Oliver (born 1970), Canadian poet* Alexandra Olsson (born 1998), Finnish handballer* Alexandra Opachanova (born 1989), Kazakh rower* Alexandra Oquendo (born 1984), Puerto Rican volleyball player* Alexandra Ordolis (born 1986), Greek–Canadian actress* Alexandra Osborne (born 1995), Australian tennis player* Alexandra Panova (born 1989), Russian tennis player* Alexandra Papageorgiou (born 1980), Greek hammer thrower* Alexandra Park (born 1989), Australian actress* Alexandra Pascalidou (born 1970), Greek–Swedish author and columnist* Alexandra Paschalidou-Moreti (1912–2010), Greek architect* Alexandra Patsavas (born 1968), Greek–American music supervisor* Alexandra Pelosi (born 1970), American documentarian and journalist* Alexandra Penney, American artist, author, and journalist* Alexandra Perper (born 1991), Moldovan tennis player* Alexandra Petkovski, Canadian composer* Alexandra Petrova (1980–2000), Russian beauty queen and model* Alexandra Picatto (born 1983), American accountant and child actress* Alexandra Pierce (1934–2021), American composer and pianist* Alexandra Piscupescu (born 1994), Romanian rhythmic gymnast* Alexandra Podkolzina (born 1985), Russian–American tennis player* Alexandra Podryadova (born 1989), Kazakhstani judoka* Alexandra Polivanchuk (born 1990), Swedish deaf swimmer* Alexandra Pomales (born 1995), American actress* Alexandra Popp (born 1991), German soccer player* Alexandra Potter (born 1970), English author* Alexandra Poulovassilis, Greek–English computer scientist* Alexandra Powers, American actress* Alexandra Pringle (born 1952/1953), British publisher* Alexandra Quinn (born 1973), Canadian pornographic actress* Alexandra Radius (born 1942), Dutch ballet dancer* Alexandra Raeva (born 1992), Russian curler* Alexandra Raffé, Canadian film and television producer* Alexandra Ramniceanu (born 1976), French film producer and screenwriter* Alexandra Rapaport, Swedish actress* Alexandra Razarenova (born 1990), Russian triathlete* Alexandra Recchia (born 1988), French karateka* Alexandra Reid (born 1989), American rapper and singer* Alexandra Rexová (born 2005), Slovakian blind alpine skier* Alexandra Richards (born 1986), American artist and model* Alexandra Rickham (born 1981), Jamaican–born English Paralympic sailor* Alexandra Richter (born 1967), Brazilian actress* Alexandra Ridout (born 1998/99), English jazz trumpeter* Alexandra Ripley (1934–2004), American writer* Alexandra Roach (born 1987), Welsh actress* Alexandra Robbins, American author, journalist, and lecturer* Alexandra Roche, Lady Roche (born 1934), British philanthropist* Alexandra Rochelle (born 1983), French volleyball player* Alexandra Rodionova (born 1984), Russian bobsledder* Alexandra Rojas (born 1995), American activist and political commentator* Alexandra Rosenfeld (born 1986), French beauty queen and model* Alexandra Rotan (born 1996), Norwegian singer and songwriter* Alexandra Rout (born 1993), New Zealand figure skater* Alexandra Rozenman (born 1971), Russian–born American graphic designer, illustrator, and painter* Alexandra Rutherford, Canadian psychology professor* Alexandra Rutlidge (born 1988), English water polo player* Alexandra Saduakassova (born 2002), Kazakh sport shooter* Alexandra Sahlen (born 1982), American soccer player* Alexandra Salmela (born 1980), Slovakian author* Alexandra Salvador (born 1995), Canadian–born Ecuadorian soccer player* Alexandra Savior (born 1995), American singer and songwriter* Alexandra Sharp (born 1997), Australian basketball player* Alexandra Shevchenko (born 1988), Ukrainian radical feminist activist* Alexandra Shimo, Canadian writer* Alexandra Shipp, American actress and singer* Alexandra Shiryayeva (born 1983), Russian beach volleyball player* Alexandra Shiva, American documentarian* Alexandra Shulman (born 1957), English journalist* Alexandra Sicoe (1932–2019), Romanian sprinter* Alexandra Sidorovici (1906–2000), Romanian politician* Alexandra Silber, American actress, educator, singer, and writer* Alexandra Silk (born 1963), American pornographic actress* Alexandra Silocea (born 1984), Romanian–born French pianist* Alexandra Silva (born 1984), Portuguese computer scientist* Alexandra Slade, American actress* Alexandra Smirnoff (1838–1913) Finnish pomologist* Alexandra Sobo (born 1987), Romanian volleyball player* Alexandra Socha (born 1990), American actress* Alexandra Soler (born 1983), French artistic gymnast* Alexandra Solnado, Portuguese writer* Alexandra Sokoloff, American novelist and screenwriter* Alexandra Sorina (1899–1973), Belarusian actress* Alexandra Soumm (born 1989), Russian–born French violinist* Alexandra Sourla (born 1973), Greek equestrian* Alexandra Stan (born 1989), Romanian singer* Alexandra Stepanova (born 1995), Russian ice dancer* Alexandra Stevenson (born 1980), American tennis player* Alexandra Stewart (born 1939), Canadian actress* Alexandra Stréliski (born 1985), Canadian composer and pianist* Alexandra Styron, American author and professor* Alexandra Subțirică (born 1987), Romanian handballer* Alexandra Suda (born 1981), Canadian art historian* Alexandra Takounda (born 2000), Cameroonian soccer player* Alexandra Talomaa (born 1975), Swedish songwriter* Alexandra Tavernier (born 1993), French hammer thrower* Alexandra Teague, American poet* Alexandra Techet, American marine engineer* Alexandra Tegleva (1894–1955), Russian nursemaid to the children of the Imperial family* Alexandra Tessier (born 1993), Canadian rugby player* Alexandra Thein (born 1963), German politician* Alexandra Tilley (born 1993), Scottish alpine ski racer* Alexandra Timoshenko (born 1972), Ukrainian rhythmic gymnast* Alexandra Tolstaya (1884–1979), Russian secretary and the youngest daughter of Leo Tolstoy* Alexandra Touretski (born 1994), Swiss freestyle swimmer* Alexandra Trică (born 1985), Romanian volleyball player* Alexandra Trofimov (born 1999), Romanian soccer player* Alexandra Trusova (born 2004), Russian figure skater* Alexandra Tsiavou (born 1985), Greek rower* Alexandra Tüchi (born 1983), Austrian bobsledder* Alexandra Tydings (born 1972), American actress* Alexandra Udženija (born 1975), Serbian–Czech politician* Alexandra Vafina (born 1990), Russian ice hockey player* Alexandra Valetta-Ardisson (born 1976), French politician* Alexandra Vandernoot (born 1965), Belgian actress* Alexandra Vasilieva (born 1995), Russian figure skater* Alexandra Vela, Ecuadorian lawyer and politician* Alexandra Verbeek (born 1973), Dutch sailor* Alexandra Viney (born 1992), Australian Paralympic rower* Alexandra Vinogradova, Russian volleyball player* Alexandra Völker (born 1989), Swedish politician* Alexandra Voronin (1905–1993), Russian wife of Vidkun Quisling* Alexandra Vydrina (1988–2021), Russian linguist* Alexandra Wager, American child actress and the daughter of Michael Wager* Alexandra Wallace (born 1975/76), American news media executive* Alexandra Walsham (born 1966), English–Australian historian* Alexandra Waluszewski (born 1956), Swedish professor and organizational theorist* Alexandra Waterbury, American ballet dancer and model* Alexandra Wedgwood (born 1938), English architectural historian* Alexandra Wejchert (1921–1995), Polish–Irish sculptor* Alexandra Wenk (born 1995), German swimmer* Alexandra Wescourt (born 1975), English actress* Alexandra Wester (born 1994), Gambian–born German long jumper* Alexandra von der Weth (born 1968), German operatic soprano* Alexandra Williams, American rugby player* Alexandra Wong (born 1956), Hong Kong activist* Alexandra Worden, American genome scientist and microbial ecologist* Alexandra Worisch (born 1965), Austrian synchronized swimmer* Alexandra Zabelina (1937–2022), Soviet fencer* Alexandra Zaharias (born 1929), American ballet teacher* Alexandra Zapruder (born 1969), American author and editor* Alexandra Zaretsky (born 1987), Israeli ice dancer* Alexandra Zarini, Italian–American daughter of Patricia Gucci* Alexandra Zazzi (born 1966), Italian–born Swedish chef, journalist, and television presenter* Alexandra Zertsalova (born 1982), Kyrgyz swimmer* Alexandra Zhukovskaya (1842–1899), Russian–German lady-in-waiting* Alexandra Zimmermann, English conservation scientist* Alexandra Zvorigina (born 1991), Russian ice dancer=== Aleksandra ===* Aleksandra Andreevna Antonova (1932–2014), Russian, Kildin Sámi teacher, writer, poet and translator* Aleksandra Avramović (born 1982), Serbian volleyball player* Aleksandra Crnčević (born 1987), Serbian volleyball player* Aleksandra Crvendakić (born 1996), Serbian basketball player* Aleksandra Cvetićanin (born 1993), Serbian volleyball player* Aleksandra Dimitrova (born 2000), Russian chess master* Aleksandra Dulkiewicz (born 1979), Polish lawyer* Aleksandra von Engelhardt (1754–1838), Russian lady-in-waiting* Aleksandra Klepaczka (born 2000), Polish beauty pageant titleholder* Aleksandra Adamovna Kolemina-Bacheracht (1854–1941), Polish novelist* Aleksandra Krunić (born 1993), Serbian tennis player* Aleksandra Maltsevskaya (born 2002), Russian chess master* Aleksandra Przegalińska (born 1982), Polish futurist* Aleksandra Ranković (born 1980), Serbian volleyball player* Aleksandra Stepanović (born 1994), Serbian volleyball player* Aleksandra Vukajlović (born 1997), Serbian handball player* Aleksandra Wozniak (born 1987), Canadian tennis player* Aleksandra Ziółkowska-Boehm (born 1949), Polish writer=== Fictional characters ===* Alexandra Brooks DiMera, a.k.a.", "Lexie Carver, character in the NBC soap opera ''Days of Our Lives''* Alexandra Cross, a.k.a.", "Lexy Cross, a character in the USA/Syfy TV series, ''Chucky'' , based on the ''Child's Play'' media franchise* Alexandra Dunphy, a.k.a.", "Alex Dunphy, character in the popular television series ''Modern Family''* Alexandra Mack, a.k.a.", "Alex Mack, titular lead character in the popular television series ''The Secret World of Alex Mack''* Alexandra Nuñez, a.k.a.", "Alex Nuñez, character in the Canadian television drama ''Degrassi: The Next Generation''* Alexandra the Royal Baby Fairy, character in the British book series ''Rainbow Magic''* Alexandra Margarita Russo, a.k.a.", "Alex Russo, character in the Disney Channel television series ''Wizards of Waverly Place'', played by Selena Gomez* Alexandra, ''Nikita'' character* Alexandra Grey, a.k.a.", "Lexie Grey, character in the ABC medical drama ''Grey's Anatomy''* Alexandra \"Alex\" Cahill, character in the 1990s television series ''Walker, Texas Ranger''* Alexandra Borgia, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order, played by Annie Parisse* Alexandra Cabot, an Assistant District Attorney in Law & Order: Special Victims Unit, played by Stephanie March* Alexandra Eames, a detective in Law & Order Criminal Intent, played by Kathryn Erbe* Alexandra Garcia, a character in the anime and manga series ''Kuroko's Basketball''* Aleksandra Billewicz, a character in ''Deluge'' by Henryk Sienkiewicz* Alexandra Vladimirovna Litvyak, a.k.a.", "Sanya V. Litvyak, a character from the anime/manga franchise ''Strike Witches'' * Aleksandra 'Zarya' Zaryanova, a Russian weightlifter turned soldier in the video game ''Overwatch''* Alexandra Vause, a.k.a.", "Alex Vause, imprisoned drug dealer and love interest to protagonist to Piper Chapman in Netflix's ''Orange Is The New Black''* Alexandra Danvers, a.k.a.", "Alex Danvers, Kara Danvers' sister in ''Supergirl''* Alexandra, the main antagonist in ''The Wildwood Chronicles''* Alexandra Finch, sister of Atticus Finch in the 1960 novel ''To Kill A Mockingbird''" ], [ "See also", "* Alexandra Park (disambiguation)* Alexandria (given name)* Alexander" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Articolo 31" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Articolo 31''' is a band from Milan, Italy, formed in 1990 by J-Ax and DJ Jad, combining hip hop, funk, pop and traditional Italian musical forms.", "They are one of the most popular Italian hip hop groups." ], [ "Band history", "Articolo 31 were formed by rapper J-Ax (real name Alessandro Aleotti) and DJ Jad (Vito Luca Perrini).In the spoken intro of the album ''Strade di Città'' (\"City Streets\"), it is stated that the band is named after the article of the Irish constitution guaranteeing freedom of the press, although article 31 of the Irish constitution is not about the freedom of the press.", "They probably meant the Section 31 of the Broadcasting Authority Act.Articolo 31 released one of the first Italian hip hop records, ''Strade di città'', in 1993.Soon, they signed with BMG Ricordi and started to mix rap with pop music – a move that earned them great commercial success but that alienated the underground hip hop scene, who perceived them as traitors.In 1997, DJ Gruff dissed Articolo 31 in a track titled ''1 vs 2'' on the first album of the beatmaker Fritz da Cat, starting a feud that would go on for years.", "In 2001, Articolo 31 collaborated with the American old school rapper Kurtis Blow on the album ''XChé SI!''.", "In the same year, they made the film ''Senza filtro'' (in English, ''\"Without filter\"'').", "Their producer was Franco Godi, who also produced the music for the ''Signor Rossi'' animated series.Their 2002 album ''Domani smetto'' represented a further departure from hip hop, increasingly relying on the formula of rapping over pop music samples.", "Several of their songs rotate around the theme of soft drugs legalization in Italy (pointing strongly in favour).Following their 2003 album \"Italiano medio\", the band took a break.", "Both J-Ax and DJ Jad have been involved with solo projects.", "In 2006, the group declared an indefinite hiatus.Their posse, ''Spaghetti Funk'', includes other popular performers like Space One and pop rappers Gemelli DiVersi.On 4 December 2022, it was officially announced Articolo 31 participation in the Sanremo Music Festival 2023.", "\"Un bel viaggio\" was later announced as their entry for the Sanremo Music Festival 2023." ], [ "Band members", "*J-Ax – vocals*DJ Jad – turntables" ], [ "Discography", " Year Title Label 1993 ''Strade di città'' Best Sound 1994 ''Messa di vespiri'' Best Sound 1996 ''Così com'è'' Best Sound 1998 ''Nessuno'' Best Sound 2001 ''Xché sì!''", "Best Sound 2002 ''Domani smetto'' Best Sound 2003 ''Italiano medio'' Best Sound" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Alexander Kerensky" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Alexander Fyodorovich Kerensky''' ( – 11 June 1970) was a Russian lawyer and revolutionary who led the Russian Provisional Government and the short-lived Russian Republic for three months from late July to early November 1917 (N.S.", ")After the February Revolution of 1917, he joined the newly formed provisional government, first as Minister of Justice, then as Minister of War, and after July as the government's second Minister-Chairman.", "He was the leader of the social-democratic Trudovik faction of the Socialist Revolutionary Party.", "Kerensky was also a vice-chairman of the Petrograd Soviet, a position that held a sizable amount of power.", "Kerensky became the prime minister of the Provisional Government, and his tenure was consumed with World War I.", "Despite mass opposition to the war, Kerensky chose to continue Russia's participation.", "His government cracked down on anti-war sentiment and dissent in 1917, which made his administration even more unpopular.Kerensky remained in power until the October Revolution.", "This revolution saw the Bolsheviks create a Leninist government, led by Vladimir Lenin, to replace his government.", "Kerensky fled Russia and lived the remainder of his life in exile.", "He divided his time between Paris and New York City.", "Kerensky worked for the Hoover Institution at Stanford University." ], [ "Biography", "=== Early life and activism ===Alexander Kerensky was born in Simbirsk (now Ulyanovsk) on the Volga river on 4 May 1881 and was the eldest son in the family.", "His father, Fyodor Mikhailovich Kerensky, was a teacher and director of the local gymnasium and was later promoted to be an inspector of public schools.", "His paternal grandfather Mikhail Ivanovich served as a priest in the village of Kerenka in the Gorodishchensky district of the Penza Governorate from 1830.The surname Kerensky comes from the name of this village.", "His maternal grandfather was head of the Topographical Bureau of the Kazan Military District.", "His mother, Nadezhda Aleksandrovna (née Adler), was the granddaughter of a former serf who had managed to purchase his freedom before serfdom was abolished in 1861.He subsequently embarked upon a mercantile career, in which he prospered.", "This allowed him to move his business to Moscow, where he continued his success and became a wealthy Moscow merchant.Members of the Kerensky and Ulyanov families were friends; Kerensky's father was the teacher of Vladimir Ulyanov (Lenin) and had even secured him acceptance into the University of Kazan.", "In 1889, when Kerensky was eight, the family moved to Tashkent, where his father had been appointed the main inspector of public schools (superintendent).", "Alexander graduated with honours in 1899.The same year he entered St. Petersburg University, where he studied history and philology.", "The next year he switched to law.", "He earned his law degree in 1904 and married Olga Lvovna Baranovskaya, the daughter of a Russian general, the same year.", "Kerensky joined the Narodnik movement and worked as a legal counsel to victims of the Revolution of 1905.At the end of 1904, he was jailed on suspicion of belonging to a militant group.", "Afterwards, he gained a reputation for his work as a defence lawyer in a number of political trials of revolutionaries.In 1912, Kerensky became widely known when he visited the goldfields at the Lena River and published material about the Lena massacre.", "In the same year, Kerensky was elected to the Fourth Duma as a member of the Trudoviks, a socialist, non-Marxist labour party founded by Alexis Aladin that was associated with the Socialist-Revolutionary Party, and joined a Freemason society uniting the anti-monarchy forces that strived for democratic renewal of Russia.", "In fact, the Socialist Revolutionary Party bought Kerensky a house, as he otherwise would not be eligible for election to the Duma, according to the Russian property-laws.", "During the 4th Session of the Fourth Duma in spring 1915, Kerensky appealed to Mikhail Rodzianko with a request from the Council of elders to inform the tsar that to succeed in the war he must:1) change his domestic policy,2) proclaim a General Amnesty for political prisoners,3) restore the Constitution of Finland,4) declare autonomy of Poland,5) provide national minorities autonomy in the field of culture,6) abolish restrictions against Jews,7) end religious intolerance,8) stop the harassment of legal trade union organizations.In August he became a significant member of the Progressive Bloc, which included several socialist parties, Mensheviks, and Liberals – but not Bolsheviks.", "He was a brilliant orator and skilled parliamentary leader of the socialist opposition to the government of Tsar Nicholas II.Kerensky was an active member of the irregular Freemasonic lodge, the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples, which derived from the Grand Orient of France.", "Kerensky was Secretary-General of the Grand Orient of Russia's Peoples and stood down following his ascent to the government in July 1917.He was succeeded by a Menshevik, Alexander Halpern.=== Rasputin ===In response to bitter resentments held against the imperial favourite Grigori Rasputin in the midst of Russia's failing effort in World War I, Kerensky, at the opening of the Duma on 2 November 1916, called the imperial ministers \"hired assassins\" and \"cowards\", and alleged that they were \"guided by the contemptible Grishka Rasputin!\"", "Grand Duke Nicholas Mikhailovich, Prince Georgy Lvov, and General Mikhail Alekseyev attempted to persuade the Emperor Nicholas II to send away the Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, Rasputin's steadfast patron, either to the Livadia Palace in Yalta or to Britain.", "Mikhail Rodzianko, Zinaida Yusupova (the mother of Felix Yusupov), Alexandra's sister Elisabeth, Grand Duchess Victoria and the empress's mother-in-law Maria Feodorovna also tried to influence and pressure the imperial couple to remove Rasputin from his position of influence within the imperial household, but without success.", "According to Kerensky, Rasputin had terrorised the empress by threatening to return to his native village.Members of the nobility murdered Rasputin in December 1916, and he was buried near the imperial residence in Tsarskoye Selo.", "Shortly after the February Revolution of 1917, Kerensky ordered soldiers to re-bury the corpse at an unmarked spot in the countryside.", "However, the truck broke down or was forced to stop because of the snow on Lesnoe Road outside of St. Petersburg.", "It is likely the corpse was incinerated (between 3 and 7 in the morning) in the cauldrons of the nearby boiler shop of the Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University, including the coffin, without leaving a single trace.=== Russian Provisional Government of 1917 ===Kerensky as Minister of War (sitting second from the right)When the February Revolution broke out in 1917, Kerensky – together with Pavel Milyukov – was one of its most prominent leaders.", "As one of the Duma's most well-known speakers against the monarchy and as a lawyer and defender of many revolutionaries, Kerensky became a member of the Provisional Committee of the State Duma and was elected vice-chairman of the newly formed Petrograd Soviet.", "These two bodies, the Duma and the Petrograd Soviet, or – rather – their respective executive committees, soon became each other's antagonists on most matters except regarding the end of the tsar's autocracy.The Petrograd Soviet grew to include 3000 to 4000 members, and their meetings could drown in a blur of everlasting orations.", "At the meeting of to the Executive Committee of the Petrograd Soviet, or Ispolkom, formed a self-appointed committee, with (eventually) three members from each of the parties represented in the Soviet.", "Kerensky became one of the members representing the Socialist Revolutionary Party (the SRs).On , without any consultation with the government, the Ispolkom of the Soviet issued the infamous Order No.", "1, intended only for the 160,000-strong Petrograd garrison, but soon interpreted as applicable to all soldiers at the front.", "The order stipulated that all military units should form committees like the Petrograd Soviet.", "This led to confusion and \"stripping of officers' authority\"; further, \"Order No.", "3\" stipulated that the military was subordinate to Ispolkom in the political hierarchy.", "The ideas came from a group of socialists and aimed to limit the officers' power to military affairs.", "The socialist intellectuals believed the officers to be the most likely counterrevolutionary elements.", "Kerensky's role in these orders is unclear, but he participated in the decisions.", "But just as before the revolution he had defended many who disliked the tsar, he now saved the lives of many of the tsar's civil servants about to be lynched by mobs.Additionally, the Duma formed an executive committee which eventually became the Russian Provisional Government.", "As there was little trust between Ispolkom and this government (and as he was about to accept the office of Attorney General in the Provisional Government), Kerensky gave a most passionate speech, not just to the Ispolkom, but to the entire Petrograd Soviet.", "He then swore, as minister, never to violate democratic values, and ended his speech with the words \"I cannot live without the people.", "In the moment you begin to doubt me, then kill me.\"", "The huge majority (workers and soldiers) gave him great applause, and Kerensky now became the first and ''the only one'' who participated in both the Provisional Government and the Ispolkom.", "As a link between Ispolkom and the Provisional Government, the quite ambitious Kerensky stood to benefit from this position.", "After the first government crisis over Pavel Milyukov's secret note re-committing Russia to its original war-aims on 2–4 May, Kerensky became the Minister of War and the dominant figure in the newly formed socialist-liberal coalition government.", "On 10 May (Julian calendar), Kerensky started for the front and visited one division after another, urging the men to do their duty.", "His speeches were impressive and convincing for the moment, but had little lasting effect.", "Under Allied pressure to continue the war, he launched what became known as the Kerensky Offensive against the Austro-Hungarian/German South Army on .", "At first successful, the offensive soon met strong resistance and the Central Powers riposted with a strong counter-attack.", "The Russian army retreated and suffered heavy losses, and it became clear from many incidents of desertion, sabotage, and mutiny that the army was no longer willing to attack.Kerensky in May 1917The military heavily criticised Kerensky for his liberal policies, which included stripping officers of their mandates and handing over control to revolutionary-inclined \"soldier committees\" () instead; abolition of the death penalty; and allowing revolutionary agitators to be present at the front.", "Many officers jokingly referred to commander-in-chief Kerensky as the \"persuader-in-chief\".On 2 July 1917 the Provisional Government's first coalition collapsed over the question of Ukraine's autonomy.", "Following the July Days unrest in Petrograd (3–7 July 16–20 July, N.S.", "1917) and the official suppression of the Bolsheviks, Kerensky succeeded Prince Georgy Lvov as Russia's prime minister on .", "Following the Kornilov Affair, an attempted military coup d'état at the end of August, and the resignation of the other ministers, he appointed himself Supreme Commander-in-Chief, as well.On 15 September Kerensky proclaimed Russia a republic, which was contrary to the non-socialists' understanding that the Provisional Government should hold power only until a Constituent Assembly should meet to decide Russia's form of government, but which was in line with the long-proclaimed aim of the Socialist Revolutionary Party.", "He formed a five-member Directory, which consisted of himself, Minister of Foreign Affairs Mikhail Tereshchenko, Minister of War General Aleksandr Verkhovsky, Minister of the Navy Admiral Dmitry Verderevsky and Minister of Posts and Telegraphs .", "He retained his post in the final coalition government in October 1917 until the Bolsheviks overthrew it on .Kerensky in officeKerensky faced a major challenge: three years of participation in World War had exhausted Russia, while the provisional government offered little motivation for a victory outside of continuing Russia's obligations towards its allies.", "Russia's continued involvement in the war was not popular among the lower and middle classes, and especially not popular among the soldiers.", "They had all believed that Russia would stop fighting when the Provisional Government took power, and subsequently felt deceived.", "Furthermore, Vladimir Lenin and his Bolshevik party were promising \"peace, land, and bread\" under a communist system.", "The Russian army, war-weary, ill-equipped, dispirited and ill-disciplined, was disintegrating, with soldiers deserting in large numbers.", "By autumn 1917, an estimated two million men had unofficially left the army.Kerensky and other political leaders continued Russia's involvement in World War I, thinking that a glorious victory was the only road forward, and fearing that the economy, already under huge stress from the war effort, might become increasingly unstable if vital supplies from France and from the United Kingdom ceased flowing.", "The dilemma of whether to withdraw was a great one, and Kerensky's inconsistent and impractical policies further destabilised the army and the country at large.Furthermore, Kerensky adopted a policy that isolated the right-wing conservatives, both democratic and monarchist-oriented.", "His philosophy of \"no enemies to the left\" greatly empowered the Bolsheviks and gave them a free hand, allowing them to take over the military arm or \"voyenka\" () of the Petrograd and Moscow Soviets.", "His arrest of Lavr Kornilov and other officers left him without strong allies against the Bolsheviks, who ended up being Kerensky's strongest and most determined adversaries, as opposed to the right wing, which evolved into the White movement.Autochrome portrait by Georges Chevalier, 1921=== October Revolution of 1917 ===During the Kornilov Affair, Kerensky had distributed arms to the Petrograd workers, and by November most of these armed workers had gone over to the Bolsheviks.", "On 1917, the Bolsheviks launched the second Russian revolution of the year.", "Kerensky's government in Petrograd had almost no support in the city.", "Only one small force, a subdivision of the 2nd company of the First Petrograd Women's Battalion, also known as The Women's Death Battalion, was willing to fight for the government against the Bolsheviks, but this force was overwhelmed by the numerically superior pro-Bolshevik forces, defeated, and captured.", "The Bolsheviks overthrew the government rapidly by seizing governmental buildings and the Winter Palace.Kerensky escaped the Bolsheviks and fled to Pskov, where he rallied some loyal troops for an attempt to re-take the city.", "His troops managed to capture Tsarskoye Selo but were beaten the next day at Pulkovo.", "Kerensky narrowly escaped, and he spent the next few weeks in hiding before fleeing the country, eventually arriving in France.", "During the Russian Civil War, he supported neither side, as he opposed both the Bolshevik regime and the White Movement.=== Personal life ===National Press Club in 1938Kerensky was married to Olga Lvovna Baranovskaya and they had two sons, Oleg (1905–1984) and Gleb (1907–1990), who both went on to become engineers.", "Kerensky's grandson (also named Oleg), according to the Internet Movie Database, played his grandfather's role in the 1981 film ''Reds''.", "Kerensky and Olga were divorced in 1939 soon after he settled in Paris, and, in 1939, while visiting the United States he met and married Lydia Ellen \"Nell\" Tritton (1899–1946) in a secret wedding, the Australian former journalist who had become his press secretary and translator.", "The marriage took place in Martins Creek, Pennsylvania.When Germany invaded France in 1940, they emigrated to the United States.", "After the Axis invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, Kerensky offered his support to Joseph Stalin.", "When his wife Nell became terminally ill in 1945, Kerensky travelled with her to Brisbane, Australia, and lived there with her family.", "She suffered a stroke in February 1946, and he remained there until her death on 10 April 1946.Kerensky then returned to the United States, where he spent the rest of his life.Kerensky eventually settled in New York City, living on the Upper East Side on 91st Street near Central Park but spent much of his time at the Hoover Institution at Stanford University in California, where he both used and contributed to the Institution's huge archive on Russian history, and where he taught graduate courses.", "He wrote and broadcast extensively on Russian politics and history.", "His last public lecture was delivered at Kalamazoo College in Kalamazoo, Michigan, in October 1967." ], [ "Death", "The graves of Alexander Kerensky (left), and of his first wife, Olga, and his son Gleb and Gleb's wife, Mary, at Putney Vale Cemetery, London, 2014Kerensky died of arteriosclerotic heart disease at St. Luke's Hospital in New York City on 11 June 1970 after being initially admitted from injuries sustained in a fall.", "At 89, he was one of the last surviving major participants in the turbulent events of 1917.The local Russian Orthodox Churches in New York City refused to grant Kerensky burial rites because of his association with Freemasonry, and because they saw him as largely responsible for the Bolsheviks seizing power.", "A Serbian Orthodox Church also refused burial rites.", "Kerensky's body was flown to London, where he was buried at the non-denominational Putney Vale Cemetery." ], [ "Works", "* ''The Prelude to Bolshevism'' (1919).", ".", "* ''The Catastrophe'' (1927)* ''The Crucifixion of Liberty'' (1934)* ''Russia and History's Turning Point'' (1965)* ''Memoirs'' (1966)" ], [ "Archives", "Papers of the Kerensky family are held at the Cadbury Research Library, University of Birmingham." ], [ "See also", "* Jailbirds of Kerensky" ], [ "Explanatory notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * Alexander Kerensky Archive at marxists.org* An account of Kerensky at Stanford in the 1950s**" ] ]

[ [ "Ansgar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ansgar''' (8 September 801 – 3 February 865), also known as '''Anskar''', '''Saint Ansgar''', '''Saint Anschar''' or '''Oscar''', was Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen in the northern part of the Kingdom of the East Franks.", "Ansgar became known as the \"Apostle of the North\" because of his travels and the See of Hamburg received the missionary mandate to bring Christianity to Northern Europe." ], [ "Life", "Ansgar was the son of a noble Frankish family, born near Amiens (present day France).", "After his mother's early death, Ansgar was brought up in Benedictine monastery of Corbie in Picardy.", "According to the ''Vita Ansgarii'' (\"Life of Ansgar\"), when the little boy learned in a vision that his mother was in the company of Mary, mother of Jesus, his careless attitude toward spiritual matters changed to seriousness.", "His pupil, successor, and eventual biographer Rimbert considered the visions (of which this was the first) to have been Ansgar's main life motivator.Ansgar acted in the context of the phase of Christianization of Saxony (present day Northern Germany) begun by Charlemagne and continued by Charlemagne's son and successor, Louis the Pious.", "In 822 Ansgar became one of many missionaries sent to found the abbey of Corvey (New Corbie) in Westphalia, where he became a teacher and preacher.", "A group of monks including Ansgar were sent further north to Jutland with the king Harald Klak, who had received baptism during his exile.", "With Harald's downfall in 827 and Ansgar's companion Autbert having died, their school for the sons of courtiers closed and Ansgar returned to Germany.", "Then in 829, after the Swedish king Björn at Hauge requested missionaries for his Swedes, King Louis sent Ansgar, now accompanied by friar Witmar from New Corbie as his assistant.", "Ansgar preached and made converts, particularly during six months at Birka, on Lake Mälaren, where the wealthy widow Mor Frideborg extended hospitality.", "Ansgar organized a small congregation with her and the king's steward, Hergeir, as its most prominent members.In 831 Ansgar returned to Louis' court at Worms and was appointed to the Archbishopric of Hamburg-Bremen.", "This was a new archbishopric, incorporating the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden and with the right to send missions into all the northern lands, as well as to consecrate bishops for them.", "Ansgar received the mission of evangelizing pagan Denmark, Norway and Sweden.", "The King of Sweden decided to cast lots as to whether to admit the Christian missionaries into his kingdom.", "Ansgar recommended the issue to the care of God, and the lot was favorable.", "Ansgar was consecrated as a bishop in November 831, with the approval of Gregory IV.", "Before traveling north once again, Ansgar traveled to Rome to receive the pallium directly from the pope's hands, and was formally named legate for the northern lands.", "Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims had previously received a similar commission, but would be deposed twice before his death in 851, and never actually traveled so far north, so the jurisdiction was divided by agreement, with Ebbo retaining Sweden for himself.", "For a time Ansgar devoted himself to the needs of his own diocese, which was still a missionary territory and had few churches.", "He founded a monastery and a school in Hamburg.", "Although intended to serve the Danish mission further north, it accomplished little.After Louis the Pious died in 840, his empire was divided and Ansgar lost the abbey of Turholt, which Louis had given to endow Ansgar's work.", "Then in 845, the Danes unexpectedly raided Hamburg, destroying all the church's treasures and books.", "Ansgar now had neither see nor revenue, and many helpers deserted him.", "The new king, Louis' third son, Louis the German, did not re-endow Turholt to Ansgar, but in 847 he named the missionary to the vacant diocese of Bremen, where Ansgar moved in 848.However, since Bremen had been suffragan to the Bishop of Cologne, combining the sees of Bremen and Hamburg presented canonical difficulties.", "After prolonged negotiations, Pope Nicholas I would approve the union of the two dioceses in 864.Through this political turmoil, Ansgar continued his northern mission.", "The Danish civil war compelled him to establish good relations with two kings, Horik the Elder and his son, Horik II.", "Both assisted him until his death; Ansgar was able to secure permission to build a church in Sleswick north of Hamburg and recognition of Christianity as a tolerated religion.", "Ansgar did not forget the Swedish mission, and spent two years there in person (848–850), averting a threatened pagan reaction.", "In 854, Ansgar returned to Sweden when king Olof ruled in Birka.", "According to Rimbert, he was well disposed to Christianity.", "On a Viking raid to Apuole (current village in Lithuania) in Courland, the Swedes plundered the Curonians." ], [ "Death and legacy", "Ansgar was buried in Bremen in 865.His successor as archbishop, Rimbert, wrote the ''Vita Ansgarii''.", "He noted that Ansgar wore a rough hair shirt, lived on bread and water, and showed great charity to the poor.", "Adam of Bremen attributed the ''Vita et miracula of Willehad'' (first bishop of Bremen) to Ansgar in ''Gesta Hammenburgensis ecclesiæ''; Ansgar is also the reputed author of a collection of brief prayers ''Pigmenta'' (ed.", "J. M. Lappenberg, Hamburg, 1844).", "Pope Nicholas I declared Ansgar a saint shortly after the missionary's death.", "The first actual missionary in Sweden and the Nordic countries (and organizer of the Catholic church therein), Ansgar was later declared \"Patron of Scandinavia\".Relics are located in Hamburg in two places: St. Mary's Cathedral (Ger.", ": Domkirche St. Marien) and St. Ansgar's and St. Bernard's Church (Ger.", ": St. Ansgar und St. Bernhard Kirche).Statues of Bishop Ansgar stand in Hamburg, Copenhagen and Ribe, as well as a stone cross at Birka.", "His feast day (Lesser Festival) is 3 February, as it is in the Church of England, the Episcopal Church, and the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America." ], [ "Visions", "Saint Ansgar statue in HamburgAlthough a historical document and primary source written by a man whose existence can be proven historically, the ''Vita Ansgarii'' (\"The Life of Ansgar\") aims above all to demonstrate Ansgar's sanctity.", "It is partly concerned with Ansgar's visions, which, according to the author Rimbert, encouraged and assisted Ansgar's remarkable missionary feats.Through the course of this work, Ansgar repeatedly embarks on a new stage in his career following a vision.", "According to Rimbert, his early studies and ensuing devotion to the ascetic life of a monk were inspired by a vision of his mother in the presence of Mary, mother of Jesus.", "Again, when the Swedish people were left without a priest for some time, he begged King Horik to help him with this problem; then after receiving his consent, consulted with Bishop Gautbert to find a suitable man.", "The two together sought the approval of King Louis, which he granted when he learned that they were in agreement on the issue.", "Ansgar was convinced he was commanded by heaven to undertake this mission and was influenced by a vision he received when he was concerned about the journey, in which he met a man who reassured him of his purpose and informed him of a prophet that he would meet, the abbot Adalhard, who would instruct him in what was to happen.", "In the vision, he searched for and found Adalhard, who commanded, \"Islands, listen to me, pay attention, remotest peoples\", which Ansgar interpreted as God's will that he go to the Scandinavian countries as \"most of that country consisted of islands, and also, when 'I will make you the light of the nations so that my salvation may reach to the ends of the earth' was added, since the end of the world in the north was in Swedish territory\"." ], [ "See also", "*List of Eastern Orthodox saints*Calendar of saints (Episcopal Church)* Hochkirchlicher Apostolat St. Ansgar* Priory of St. Ansgar* Sankt-Ansgar-Schule*''Vita Ansgarii''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Jakobsson, Sverrir.", "''Mission Miscarried: The Narrators of the Ninth-Century Missions to Scandinavia and Central Europe''.", "Bulgaria Medievalis 2 (2011), 49–69.", "* Palmer, James T., ''Rimbert's Vita Anskarii and the Scandinavian Mission in the Ninth Century''.", "Journal of Ecclesiastical History 55/2 (2004), 235–56.", "* Pryce, Mark.", "''Literary Companion to the Festivals: A Poetic Gathering to Accompany Liturgical Celebrations of Commemorations and Festivals.''", "Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2003.", "* Tschan, Francis J.", "''History of the Archbishops of Hamburg-Bremen''.", "New York: Columbia University Press, 1959." ], [ "External links", "* Ansgar at Birka History of Birka*Vita Ansgari, English translation from Medieval sourcebook* German History Forum* ANSKAR The Apostle of the North (801–865).", "Translated from the Vita Anskarii by Bishop Rimbert his fellow missionary and successor.", "BY CHARLES H. ROBINSON.", "Im BTM format" ] ]

[ [ "Automated theorem proving" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Automated theorem proving''' (also known as '''ATP''' or '''automated deduction''') is a subfield of automated reasoning and mathematical logic dealing with proving mathematical theorems by computer programs.", "Automated reasoning over mathematical proof was a major impetus for the development of computer science." ], [ "Logical foundations", "While the roots of formalised logic go back to Aristotle, the end of the 19th and early 20th centuries saw the development of modern logic and formalised mathematics.", "Frege's ''Begriffsschrift'' (1879) introduced both a complete propositional calculus and what is essentially modern predicate logic.", "His ''Foundations of Arithmetic'', published in 1884, expressed (parts of) mathematics in formal logic.", "This approach was continued by Russell and Whitehead in their influential ''Principia Mathematica'', first published 1910–1913, and with a revised second edition in 1927.Russell and Whitehead thought they could derive all mathematical truth using axioms and inference rules of formal logic, in principle opening up the process to automatisation.", "In 1920, Thoralf Skolem simplified a previous result by Leopold Löwenheim, leading to the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and, in 1930, to the notion of a Herbrand universe and a Herbrand interpretation that allowed (un)satisfiability of first-order formulas (and hence the validity of a theorem) to be reduced to (potentially infinitely many) propositional satisfiability problems.In 1929, Mojżesz Presburger showed that the first-order theory of the natural numbers with addition and equality (now called Presburger arithmetic in his honor) is decidable and gave an algorithm that could determine if a given sentence in the language was true or false.However, shortly after this positive result, Kurt Gödel published ''On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems'' (1931), showing that in any sufficiently strong axiomatic system there are true statements that cannot be proved in the system.", "This topic was further developed in the 1930s by Alonzo Church and Alan Turing, who on the one hand gave two independent but equivalent definitions of computability, and on the other gave concrete examples of undecidable questions." ], [ "First implementations", "Shortly after World War II, the first general-purpose computers became available.", "In 1954, Martin Davis programmed Presburger's algorithm for a JOHNNIAC vacuum-tube computer at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey.", "According to Davis, \"Its great triumph was to prove that the sum of two even numbers is even\".", "More ambitious was the Logic Theorist in 1956, a deduction system for the propositional logic of the ''Principia Mathematica'', developed by Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon and J. C. Shaw.", "Also running on a JOHNNIAC, the Logic Theorist constructed proofs from a small set of propositional axioms and three deduction rules: modus ponens, (propositional) variable substitution, and the replacement of formulas by their definition.", "The system used heuristic guidance, and managed to prove 38 of the first 52 theorems of the ''Principia''.The \"heuristic\" approach of the Logic Theorist tried to emulate human mathematicians, and could not guarantee that a proof could be found for every valid theorem even in principle.", "In contrast, other, more systematic algorithms achieved, at least theoretically, completeness for first-order logic.", "Initial approaches relied on the results of Herbrand and Skolem to convert a first-order formula into successively larger sets of propositional formulae by instantiating variables with terms from the Herbrand universe.", "The propositional formulas could then be checked for unsatisfiability using a number of methods.", "Gilmore's program used conversion to disjunctive normal form, a form in which the satisfiability of a formula is obvious." ], [ "Decidability of the problem", "Depending on the underlying logic, the problem of deciding the validity of a formula varies from trivial to impossible.", "For the common case of propositional logic, the problem is decidable but co-NP-complete, and hence only exponential-time algorithms are believed to exist for general proof tasks.", "For a first-order predicate calculus, Gödel's completeness theorem states that the theorems (provable statements) are exactly the semantically valid well-formed formulas, so the valid formulas are computably enumerable: given unbounded resources, any valid formula can eventually be proven.", "However, ''invalid'' formulas (those that are ''not'' entailed by a given theory), cannot always be recognized.The above applies to first-order theories, such as Peano arithmetic.", "However, for a specific model that may be described by a first-order theory, some statements may be true but undecidable in the theory used to describe the model.", "For example, by Gödel's incompleteness theorem, we know that any consistent theory whose axioms are true for the natural numbers cannot prove all first-order statements true for the natural numbers, even if the list of axioms is allowed to be infinite enumerable.", "It follows that an automated theorem prover will fail to terminate while searching for a proof precisely when the statement being investigated is undecidable in the theory being used, even if it is true in the model of interest.", "Despite this theoretical limit, in practice, theorem provers can solve many hard problems, even in models that are not fully described by any first-order theory (such as the integers)." ], [ "Related problems", "A simpler, but related, problem is ''proof verification'', where an existing proof for a theorem is certified valid.", "For this, it is generally required that each individual proof step can be verified by a primitive recursive function or program, and hence the problem is always decidable.Since the proofs generated by automated theorem provers are typically very large, the problem of proof compression is crucial, and various techniques aiming at making the prover's output smaller, and consequently more easily understandable and checkable, have been developed.Proof assistants require a human user to give hints to the system.", "Depending on the degree of automation, the prover can essentially be reduced to a proof checker, with the user providing the proof in a formal way, or significant proof tasks can be performed automatically.", "Interactive provers are used for a variety of tasks, but even fully automatic systems have proved a number of interesting and hard theorems, including at least one that has eluded human mathematicians for a long time, namely the Robbins conjecture.", "However, these successes are sporadic, and work on hard problems usually requires a proficient user.Another distinction is sometimes drawn between theorem proving and other techniques, where a process is considered to be theorem proving if it consists of a traditional proof, starting with axioms and producing new inference steps using rules of inference.", "Other techniques would include model checking, which, in the simplest case, involves brute-force enumeration of many possible states (although the actual implementation of model checkers requires much cleverness, and does not simply reduce to brute force).There are hybrid theorem proving systems that use model checking as an inference rule.", "There are also programs that were written to prove a particular theorem, with a (usually informal) proof that if the program finishes with a certain result, then the theorem is true.", "A good example of this was the machine-aided proof of the four color theorem, which was very controversial as the first claimed mathematical proof that was essentially impossible to verify by humans due to the enormous size of the program's calculation (such proofs are called non-surveyable proofs).", "Another example of a program-assisted proof is the one that shows that the game of Connect Four can always be won by the first player." ], [ "Applications", "Commercial use of automated theorem proving is mostly concentrated in integrated circuit design and verification.", "Since the Pentium FDIV bug, the complicated floating point units of modern microprocessors have been designed with extra scrutiny.", "AMD, Intel and others use automated theorem proving to verify that division and other operations are correctly implemented in their processors.Other uses of theorem provers include program synthesis, constructing programs that satisfy a formal specification.", "Automated theorem provers have been integrated with proof assistants, including Isabelle/HOL." ], [ "First-order theorem proving", "In the late 1960s agencies funding research in automated deduction began to emphasize the need for practical applications.", "One of the first fruitful areas was that of program verification whereby first-order theorem provers were applied to the problem of verifying the correctness of computer programs in languages such as Pascal, Ada, etc.", "Notable among early program verification systems was the Stanford Pascal Verifier developed by David Luckham at Stanford University.", "This was based on the Stanford Resolution Prover also developed at Stanford using John Alan Robinson's resolution principle.", "This was the first automated deduction system to demonstrate an ability to solve mathematical problems that were announced in the ''Notices of the American Mathematical Society'' before solutions were formally published.First-order theorem proving is one of the most mature subfields of automated theorem proving.", "The logic is expressive enough to allow the specification of arbitrary problems, often in a reasonably natural and intuitive way.", "On the other hand, it is still semi-decidable, and a number of sound and complete calculi have been developed, enabling ''fully'' automated systems.", "More expressive logics, such as higher-order logics, allow the convenient expression of a wider range of problems than first-order logic, but theorem proving for these logics is less well developed.===Relationship with SMT===There is substantial overlap between first-order automated theorem provers and SMT solvers.", "Generally, automated theorem provers focus on supporting full first-order logic with quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers focus more on supporting various theories (interpreted predicate symbols).", "ATPs excel at problems with lots of quantifiers, whereas SMT solvers do well on large problems without quantifiers.", "The line is blurry enough that some ATPs participate in SMT-COMP, while some SMT solvers participate in CASC." ], [ "Benchmarks, competitions, and sources", "The quality of implemented systems has benefited from the existence of a large library of standard benchmark examples—the Thousands of Problems for Theorem Provers (TPTP) Problem Library—as well as from the CADE ATP System Competition (CASC), a yearly competition of first-order systems for many important classes of first-order problems.Some important systems (all have won at least one CASC competition division) are listed below.", "* E is a high-performance prover for full first-order logic, but built on a purely equational calculus, originally developed in the automated reasoning group of Technical University of Munich under the direction of Wolfgang Bibel, and now at Baden-Württemberg Cooperative State University in Stuttgart.", "* Otter, developed at the Argonne National Laboratory, is based on first-order resolution and paramodulation.", "Otter has since been replaced by Prover9, which is paired with Mace4.", "* SETHEO is a high-performance system based on the goal-directed model elimination calculus, originally developed by a team under direction of Wolfgang Bibel.", "E and SETHEO have been combined (with other systems) in the composite theorem prover E-SETHEO.", "* Vampire was originally developed and implemented at Manchester University by Andrei Voronkov and Kryštof Hoder.", "It is now developed by a growing international team.", "It has won the FOF division (among other divisions) at the CADE ATP System Competition regularly since 2001.", "* Waldmeister is a specialized system for unit-equational first-order logic developed by Arnim Buch and Thomas Hillenbrand.", "It won the CASC UEQ division for fourteen consecutive years (1997–2010).", "* SPASS is a first-order logic theorem prover with equality.", "This is developed by the research group Automation of Logic, Max Planck Institute for Computer Science.The Theorem Prover Museum is an initiative to conserve the sources of theorem prover systems for future analysis, since they are important cultural/scientific artefacts.", "It has the sources of many of the systems mentioned above." ], [ "Popular techniques", "*First-order resolution with unification*Model elimination*Method of analytic tableaux*Superposition and term rewriting*Model checking*Mathematical induction*Binary decision diagrams*DPLL*Higher-order unification*Quantifier elimination" ], [ "Software systems{{anchor|Comparison}}", "+ Comparison Name License type Web service Library Standalone Last update ACL2 3-clause BSD Prover9/Otter Public Domain Jape GPLv2 PVS GPLv2 EQP PhoX E GPL SNARK Mozilla Public License 1.1 Vampire Vampire License Theorem Proving System (TPS) TPS Distribution Agreement SPASS FreeBSD license IsaPlanner GPL KeY GPL Z3 Theorem Prover MIT License === Free software ===* Alt-Ergo* Automath* CVC* E* IsaPlanner* LCF* Mizar* NuPRL* Paradox* Prover9* PVS* SPARK (programming language)* Twelf* Z3 Theorem Prover=== Proprietary software ===* CARINE* Wolfram Mathematica* ResearchCyc" ], [ "See also", "* Curry–Howard correspondence* Symbolic computation* Ramanujan machine* Computer-aided proof* Formal verification* Logic programming* Proof checking* Model checking* Proof complexity* Computer algebra system* Program analysis (computer science)* General Problem Solver* Metamath language for formalized mathematics* De Bruijn factor" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * ** * * * II .", "*" ], [ "External links", "* A list of theorem proving tools" ] ]

[ [ "Agent Orange" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Agent Orange''' is a chemical herbicide and defoliant, one of the tactical use Rainbow Herbicides.It was used by the U.S. military as part of its herbicidal warfare program, Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War from 1961 to 1971.It is a mixture of equal parts of two herbicides, 2,4,5-T and 2,4-D.", "In addition to its damaging environmental effects, traces of dioxin (mainly TCDD, the most toxic of its type) found in the mixture have caused major health problems for many individuals who were exposed, and their offspring.Agent Orange was produced in the United States from the late 1940s and was used in industrial agriculture, and was also sprayed along railroads and power lines to control undergrowth in forests.", "During the Vietnam War, the U.S. military procured over , consisting of a fifty-fifty mixture of 2,4-D and dioxin-contaminated 2,4,5-T. Nine chemical companies produced it: Dow Chemical Company, Monsanto Company, Diamond Shamrock Corporation, Hercules Inc., Thompson Hayward Chemical Co., United States Rubber Company (Uniroyal), Thompson Chemical Co., Hoffman-Taff Chemicals, Inc., and Agriselect.The government of Vietnam says that up to four million people in Vietnam were exposed to the defoliant, and as many as three million people have suffered illness because of Agent Orange, while the Vietnamese Red Cross estimates that up to one million people were disabled or have health problems as a result of exposure to Agent Orange.", "The United States government has described these figures as unreliable, while documenting cases of leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and various kinds of cancer in exposed U.S. military veterans.", "An epidemiological study done by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention showed that there was an increase in the rate of birth defects of the children of military personnel as a result of Agent Orange.", "Agent Orange has also caused enormous environmental damage in Vietnam.", "Over or of forest were defoliated.", "Defoliants eroded tree cover and seedling forest stock, making reforestation difficult in numerous areas.", "Animal species diversity is sharply reduced in contrast with unsprayed areas.", "The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide.The use of Agent Orange in Vietnam resulted in numerous legal actions.", "The United Nations ratified United Nations General Assembly Resolution 31/72 and the Environmental Modification Convention.", "Lawsuits filed on behalf of both U.S. and Vietnamese veterans sought compensation for damages.Agent Orange was first used by the British Armed Forces in Malaya during the Malayan Emergency.", "It was also used by the U.S. military in Laos and Cambodia during the Vietnam War because forests near the border with Vietnam were used by the Viet Cong." ], [ "Chemical composition", "2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD)2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D)2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T)The active ingredient of Agent Orange was an equal mixture of two phenoxy herbicides – 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) and 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4,5-T) – in iso-octyl ester form, which contained traces of the dioxin 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-''p''-dioxin (TCDD).", "TCDD was a trace (typically 2-3 ppm, ranging from 50 ppb to 50 ppm) - but significant - contaminant of Agent Orange.===Toxicology===TCDD is the most toxic of the dioxins and is classified as a human carcinogen by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA).", "The fat-soluble nature of TCDD causes it to enter the body readily through physical contact or ingestion.", "Dioxins accumulate easily in the food chain.", "Dioxin enters the body by attaching to a protein called the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), a transcription factor.", "When TCDD binds to AhR, the protein moves to the nucleus, where it influences gene expression.According to U.S. government reports, if not bound chemically to a biological surface such as soil, leaves or grass, Agent Orange dries quickly after spraying and breaks down within hours to days when exposed to sunlight and is no longer harmful." ], [ "Development", "Several herbicides were developed as part of efforts by the United States and the United Kingdom to create herbicidal weapons for use during World War II.", "These included 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, MCPA (2-methyl-4-chlorophenoxyacetic acid, 1414B and 1414A, recoded LN-8 and LN-32), and isopropyl phenylcarbamate (1313, recoded LN-33).In 1943, the United States Department of the Army contracted botanist (and later bioethicist) Arthur Galston, who discovered the defoliants later used in Agent Orange, and his employer University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign to study the effects of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T on cereal grains (including rice) and broadleaf crops.", "While a graduate and post-graduate student at the University of Illinois, Galston's research and dissertation focused on finding a chemical means to make soybeans flower and fruit earlier.", "He discovered both that 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) would speed up the flowering of soybeans and that in higher concentrations it would defoliate the soybeans.", "From these studies arose the concept of using aerial applications of herbicides to destroy enemy crops to disrupt their food supply.", "In early 1945, the U.S. Army ran tests of various 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T mixtures at the Bushnell Army Airfield in Florida.", "As a result, the U.S. began a full-scale production of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T and would have used it against Japan in 1946 during Operation Downfall if the war had continued.In the years after the war, the U.S. tested 1,100 compounds, and field trials of the more promising ones were done at British stations in India and Australia, in order to establish their effects in tropical conditions, as well as at the U.S. testing ground in Florida.", "Between 1950 and 1952, trials were conducted in Tanganyika, at Kikore and Stunyansa, to test arboricides and defoliants under tropical conditions.", "The chemicals involved were 2,4-D, 2,4,5-T, and endothall (3,6-endoxohexahydrophthalic acid).", "During 1952–53, the unit supervised the aerial spraying of 2,4,5-T in Kenya to assess the value of defoliants in the eradication of tsetse fly." ], [ "Early use", "In Malaya, the local unit of Imperial Chemical Industries researched defoliants as weed killers for rubber plantations.", "Roadside ambushes by the Malayan National Liberation Army were a danger to the British military during the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960), several trials were made to defoliate vegetation that might hide ambush sites, but hand removal was found cheaper.", "A detailed account of how the British experimented with the spraying of herbicides was written by two scientists, E.K.", "Woodford of Agricultural Research Council's Unit of Experimental Agronomy and H.G.H.", "Kearns of the University of Bristol.After the Malayan Emergency ended in 1960, the U.S. considered the British precedent in deciding that the use of defoliants was a legal tactic of warfare.", "Secretary of State Dean Rusk advised President John F. Kennedy that the British had established a precedent for warfare with herbicides in Malaya." ], [ "Use in the Vietnam War", "Map showing locations of U.S. Army aerial herbicide spray missions in South Vietnam taking place from 1965 to 1971In mid-1961, President Ngo Dinh Diem of South Vietnam asked the United States to help defoliate the lush jungle that was providing cover to his Communist enemies.", "In August of that year, the Republic of Vietnam Air Force conducted herbicide operations with American help.", "Diem's request launched a policy debate in the White House and the State and Defense Departments.", "Many U.S. officials supported herbicide operations, pointing out that the British had already used herbicides and defoliants in Malaya during the 1950s.", "In November 1961, Kennedy authorized the start of Operation Ranch Hand, the codename for the United States Air Force's herbicide program in Vietnam.", "The herbicide operations were formally directed by the government of South Vietnam.During the Vietnam War, between 1962 and 1971, the United States military sprayed nearly of various chemicals – the \"rainbow herbicides\" and defoliants – in Vietnam, eastern Laos, and parts of Cambodia as part of Operation Ranch Hand, reaching its peak from 1967 to 1969.For comparison purposes, an olympic size pool holds approximately .", "As the British did in Malaya, the goal of the U.S. was to defoliate rural/forested land, depriving guerrillas of food and concealment and clearing sensitive areas such as around base perimeters and possible ambush sites along roads and canals.", "Samuel P. Huntington argued that the program was also a part of a policy of forced draft urbanization, which aimed to destroy the ability of peasants to support themselves in the countryside, forcing them to flee to the U.S.-dominated cities, depriving the guerrillas of their rural support base.Military film footage of U.S. troops spraying Agent Orange from a riverboat in Vietnam in February 1969Agent Orange was usually sprayed from helicopters or from low-flying C-123 Provider aircraft, fitted with sprayers and \"MC-1 Hourglass\" pump systems and chemical tanks.", "Spray runs were also conducted from trucks, boats, and backpack sprayers.", "Altogether, over of Agent Orange were applied.The first batch of herbicides was unloaded at Tan Son Nhut Air Base in South Vietnam, on January 9, 1962.U.S.", "Air Force records show at least 6,542 spraying missions took place over the course of Operation Ranch Hand.", "By 1971, 12 percent of the total area of South Vietnam had been sprayed with defoliating chemicals, at an average concentration of 13 times the recommended U.S. Department of Agriculture application rate for domestic use.", "In South Vietnam alone, an estimated of agricultural land was ultimately destroyed.", "In some areas, TCDD concentrations in soil and water were hundreds of times greater than the levels considered safe by the EPA.The campaign destroyed of upland and mangrove forests and thousands of square kilometres of crops.", "Overall, more than 20% of South Vietnam's forests were sprayed at least once over the nine-year period.", "3.2% of South Vietnam's cultivated land was sprayed at least once between 1965 and 1971.90% of herbicide use was directed at defoliation.The U.S. military began targeting food crops in October 1962, primarily using Agent Blue; the American public was not made aware of the crop destruction programs until 1965 (and it was then believed that crop spraying had begun that spring).", "In 1965, 42% of all herbicide spraying was dedicated to food crops.", "In 1965, members of the U.S. Congress were told, \"crop destruction is understood to be the more important purpose ... but the emphasis is usually given to the jungle defoliation in public mention of the program.\"", "The first official acknowledgment of the programs came from the State Department in March 1966.When crops were destroyed, the Viet Cong would compensate for the loss of food by confiscating more food from local villages.", "Some military personnel reported being told they were destroying crops used to feed guerrillas, only to later discover, most of the destroyed food was actually produced to support the local civilian population.", "For example, according to Wil Verwey, 85% of the crop lands in Quang Ngai province were scheduled to be destroyed in 1970 alone.", "He estimated this would have caused famine and left hundreds of thousands of people without food or malnourished in the province.", "According to a report by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the herbicide campaign had disrupted the food supply of more than 600,000 people by 1970.Many experts at the time, including Arthur Galston, opposed herbicidal warfare because of concerns about the side effects to humans and the environment by indiscriminately spraying the chemical over a wide area.", "As early as 1966, resolutions were introduced to the United Nations charging that the U.S. was violating the 1925 Geneva Protocol, which regulated the use of chemical and biological weapons in international conflicts.", "The U.S. defeated most of the resolutions, arguing that Agent Orange was not a chemical or a biological weapon as it was considered a herbicide and a defoliant and it was used in effort to destroy plant crops and to deprive the enemy of concealment and not meant to target human beings.", "The U.S. delegation argued that a weapon, by definition, is any device used to injure, defeat, or destroy living beings, structures, or systems, and Agent Orange did not qualify under that definition.", "It also argued that if the U.S. were to be charged for using Agent Orange, then the United Kingdom and its Commonwealth nations should be charged since they also used it widely during the Malayan Emergency in the 1950s.", "In 1969, the United Kingdom commented on the draft Resolution 2603 (XXIV): \"The evidence seems to us to be notably inadequate for the assertion that the use in war of chemical substances specifically toxic to plants is prohibited by international law.\"", "The environmental destruction caused by this defoliation has been described by Swedish Prime Minister Olof Palme, lawyers, historians and other academics as an ecocide.A study carried out by the Bionetic Research Laboratories between 1965 and 1968 found malformations in test animals caused by 2,4,5-T, a component of Agent Orange.", "The study was later brought to the attention of the White House in October 1969.Other studies reported similar results and the Department of Defense began to reduce the herbicide operation.", "On April 15, 1970, it was announced that the use of Agent Orange was suspended.", "Two brigades of the Americal Division in the summer of 1970 continued to use Agent Orange for crop destruction in violation of the suspension.", "An investigation led to disciplinary action against the brigade and division commanders because they had falsified reports to hide its use.", "Defoliation and crop destruction were completely stopped by June 30, 1971.File:Agent-Orange--stack-of-55-gallon-drums.jpg|Stacks of drums containing Agent Orange.File:'Ranch Hand' run.jpg|Defoliant spray run, part of Operation Ranch Hand, during the Vietnam War by UC-123B Provider aircraft.File:US-Army-APC-spraying-Agent-Orange-in-Vietnam.jpg|U.S.", "Army armored personnel carrier (APC) spraying Agent Orange over Vietnamese rice fields during the Vietnam War.File:Defoliation agent spraying.jpg|A UH-1D helicopter from the 336th Aviation Company sprays a defoliation agent over farmland in the Mekong Delta.File:VA042083 River Bank Defoliation.jpg|U.S.", "Army Operations In Vietnam: River bank defoliationFile:Agent Orange Cropdusting.jpg|A U.S. Air Force Fairchild C-123 Provider aircraft crop-dusting in Vietnam during Operation Ranch Hand.", "File:UC-123B Ranch Hand spraying 1962.jpg|A Fairchild C-123 Provider aircraft spraying defoliant in South Vietnam in 1962.File:Ranch Hand UC-123 clearing a roadside in central South Vietnam in 1966.JPG|Ranch Hand UC-123 clearing a roadside in central South Vietnam in 1966.File:110303-F-XN622-007 U.S. Air Force aircraft spraying defoliant.JPG|U.S.", "Air Force aircraft spraying defoliantFile:VA002930 Spraying Agent Orange in Mekong Delta near Can Tho.jpg|Spraying Agent Orange in Mekong Delta near Can Tho, 1969" ], [ "Health effects", "There are various types of cancer associated with Agent Orange, including chronic B-cell leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma, multiple myeloma, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, prostate cancer, respiratory cancer, lung cancer, and soft tissue sarcomas.===Vietnamese people===The government of Vietnam states that 4 million of its citizens were exposed to Agent Orange, and as many as 3 million have suffered illnesses because of it; these figures include their children who were exposed.", "The Red Cross of Vietnam estimates that up to 1 million people are disabled or have health problems due to Agent Orange contamination.", "The United States government has challenged these figures as being unreliable.According to a study by Dr. Nguyen Viet Nhan, children in the areas where Agent Orange was used have been affected and have multiple health problems, including cleft palate, mental disabilities, hernias, and extra fingers and toes.", "In the 1970s, high levels of dioxin were found in the breast milk of South Vietnamese women, and in the blood of U.S. military personnel who had served in Vietnam.", "The most affected zones are the mountainous area along Truong Son (Long Mountains) and the border between Vietnam and Cambodia.", "The affected residents are living in substandard conditions with many genetic diseases.In 2006, Anh Duc Ngo and colleagues of the University of Texas Health Science Center published a meta-analysis that exposed a large amount of heterogeneity (different findings) between studies, a finding consistent with a lack of consensus on the issue.", "Despite this, statistical analysis of the studies they examined resulted in data that the increase in birth defects/relative risk (RR) from exposure to agent orange/dioxin \"appears\" to be on the order of 3 in Vietnamese-funded studies, but 1.29 in the rest of the world.", "There is data near the threshold of statistical significance suggesting Agent Orange contributes to still-births, cleft palate, and neural tube defects, with spina bifida being the most statistically significant defect.", "The large discrepancy in RR between Vietnamese studies and those in the rest of the world has been ascribed to bias in the Vietnamese studies.Twenty-eight of the former U.S. military bases in Vietnam where the herbicides were stored and loaded onto airplanes may still have high levels of dioxins in the soil, posing a health threat to the surrounding communities.", "Extensive testing for dioxin contamination has been conducted at the former U.S. airbases in Da Nang, Phù Cát District and Biên Hòa.", "Some of the soil and sediment on the bases have extremely high levels of dioxin requiring remediation.", "The Da Nang Air Base has dioxin contamination up to 350 times higher than international recommendations for action.", "The contaminated soil and sediment continue to affect the citizens of Vietnam, poisoning their food chain and causing illnesses, serious skin diseases and a variety of cancers in the lungs, larynx, and prostate.File:Agent Orange Deformities (3786919757).jpg|A person with birth deformities associated with prenatal exposure to Agent OrangeFile:Agent-Orange-dioxin-skin-damage-Vietnam.jpg|Major Tự Đức Phang was exposed to dioxin-contaminated Agent Orange.File:A vietnamese Professor is pictured with a group of handicapped children.jpg|A group of handicapped children in Ho Chi Minh, some of them affected by Agent OrangeFile:Two Vietnameses pose in front of the billboard.jpg|Kan Lay, 55 years old, and her son, Ke Van Bec, 14 years old, ''A Luoi'' Valley, Vietnam, December 2004.===Vietnam veterans===A United States disinformation propaganda poster in Vietnamese describing how 'safe' Agent Orange is, intended to refute the \"communist's propaganda\".", "However, scientists within the United States had been protesting the use of Agent Orange since 1966, on the basis that it was a chemical weapon used indiscriminately, even before its toxic effects to humans were established in print.While in Vietnam, U.S and Free World Military Assistance Forces soldiers were told not to worry about Agent Orange and were persuaded the chemical was harmless.", "After returning home, Vietnam veterans from all countries that served began to suspect their ill health or the instances of their wives having miscarriages or children born with birth defects might be related to Agent Orange and the other toxic herbicides to which they had been exposed in Vietnam.", "====U.S veterans====U.S Veterans began to file claims in 1977 to the Department of Veterans Affairs for disability payments for health care for conditions they believed were associated with exposure to Agent Orange, or more specifically, dioxin, but their claims were denied unless they could prove the condition began when they were in the service or within one year of their discharge.In order to qualify for compensation, U.S veterans must have served on or near the perimeters of military bases in Thailand during the Vietnam Era, where herbicides were tested and stored outside of Vietnam, veterans who were crew members on C-123 planes flown after the Vietnam War, or were associated with Department of Defense (DoD) projects to test, dispose of, or store herbicides in the U.S.By April 1993, the Department of Veterans Affairs had compensated only 486 victims, although it had received disability claims from 39,419 soldiers who had been exposed to Agent Orange while serving in Vietnam.In a November 2004 Zogby International poll of 987 people, 79% of respondents thought the U.S. chemical companies which produced Agent Orange defoliant should compensate U.S. soldiers who were affected by the toxic chemical used during the war in Vietnam and 51% said they supported compensation for Vietnamese Agent Orange victims.====Australian and New Zealand veterans====Attempts by Vietnam veterans from Australia and New Zealand to have their governments recognize and acknowledge that their forces had been exposed to Agent Orange during the Vietnam War were ignored by both countries for decades based on the belief that Australian and New Zealand forces were not present in areas of Vietnam where Agent Orange had been sprayed.", "Several official investigations in Australia failed to prove otherwise even though extant American investigations had already established that defoliants were sprayed at U.S airbases including Bien Hoa Air Base where Australian and New Zealand forces first served before being given their own Tactical area of responsibility (TAOR.)", "Even then, Australian and New Zealand non-military and military contributions saw personnel from both countries spread over Vietnam such as the hospitals at Bong Son and Qui Nhon, on secondments at various bases, and as flight crew and ground crew for flights into and out of Da Nang Air Base - all areas that were well-documented as having been sprayed.It wasn't until a group of Australian veterans produced official military records, maps, and mission data as proof that the TAOR controlled by Australian and New Zealand forces in Vietnam had been sprayed with the chemicals in the presence of personnel that the Australian government was forced to change their stance.", "Only in 1994 did the Australian government finally admit that it was true that defoliants had been used in areas of Vietnam where Australian forces operated and the effects of these may have been detrimental to some Vietnam veterans and their children.", "It was only in 2015 that the official Australian War Memorial accepted rewriting the official history of Australia's involvement in the Vietnam War to acknowledge that Australian soldiers were exposed to defoliants used in Vietnam.", "New Zealand was even slower to correct their error, with the government going as far as to deny the legitimacy of the Australian reports in a report called the \"McLeod Report\" published by Veterans Affairs NZ in 2001 thus infuriating New Zealand veterans and those associated with their cause.", "In 2006 progress was made in the form of a Memorandum of Understanding signed between the New Zealand government, representatives of New Zealand Vietnam veterans, and the Royal New Zealand Returned and Services' Association (RSA) for monetary compensation for New Zealand Vietnam veterans who have conditions as evidence of association with exposure to Agent Orange, as determined by the United States National Academy of Sciences.", "In 2008 the New Zealand government finally admitted that New Zealanders had in fact been exposed to Agent Orange while serving in Vietnam and the experience was responsible for detrimental health conditions in veterans and their children.", "Amendments to the memorandum made in 2021 meant that more veterans were eligible for an ex gratia payment of NZ$40,000.====National Academy of Medicine====Starting in the early 1990s, the federal government directed the Institute of Medicine (IOM), now known as the National Academy of Medicine, to issue reports every 2 years on the health effects of Agent Orange and similar herbicides.", "First published in 1994 and titled Veterans and Agent Orange, the IOM reports assess the risk of both cancer and non-cancer health effects.", "Each health effect is categorized by evidence of association based on available research data.", "The last update was published in 2016, entitled \"Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2014.", "\"The report shows sufficient evidence of an association with soft tissue sarcoma; non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL); Hodgkin disease; Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL); including hairy cell leukemia and other chronic B-cell leukemias.", "Limited or suggested evidence of an association was linked with respiratory cancers (lung, bronchus, trachea, larynx); prostate cancer; multiple myeloma; and bladder cancer.", "Numerous other cancers were determined to have inadequate or insufficient evidence of links to Agent Orange.The National Academy of Medicine has repeatedly concluded that any evidence suggestive of an association between Agent Orange and prostate cancer is, \"limited because chance, bias, and confounding could not be ruled out with confidence.", "\"At the request of the Veterans Administration, the Institute Of Medicine evaluated whether service in these C-123 aircraft could have plausibly exposed soldiers and been detrimental to their health.", "Their report \"Post-Vietnam Dioxin Exposure in Agent Orange-Contaminated C-123 Aircraft\" confirmed it.====U.S.", "Public Health Service====Publications by the United States Public Health Service have shown that Vietnam veterans, overall, have increased rates of cancer, and nerve, digestive, skin, and respiratory disorders.", "The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention notes that in particular, there are higher rates of acute/chronic leukemia, Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, throat cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, Ischemic heart disease, soft tissue sarcoma, and liver cancer.", "With the exception of liver cancer, these are the same conditions the U.S. Veterans Administration has determined may be associated with exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin and are on the list of conditions eligible for compensation and treatment.Military personnel who were involved in storage, mixture and transportation (including aircraft mechanics), and actual use of the chemicals were probably among those who received the heaviest exposures.", "Military members who served on Okinawa also claim to have been exposed to the chemical, but there is no verifiable evidence to corroborate these claims.Some studies have suggested that veterans exposed to Agent Orange may be more at risk of developing prostate cancer and potentially more than twice as likely to develop higher-grade, more lethal prostate cancers.", "However, a critical analysis of these studies and 35 others consistently found that there was no significant increase in prostate cancer incidence or mortality in those exposed to Agent Orange or 2,3,7,8-tetracholorodibenzo-''p''-dioxin.====U.S.", "Veterans of Laos and Cambodia====During the Vietnam War, the United States fought the North Vietnamese, and their allies, in Laos and Cambodia, including heavy bombing campaigns.", "They also sprayed large quantities of Agent Orange in each of those countries.", "According to one estimate, the U.S. dropped in Laos and in Cambodia.", "Because Laos and Cambodia were both officially neutral during the Vietnam War, the U.S. attempted to keep secret its military operations in those countries, from the American population and has largely avoided compensating American veterans and CIA personnel stationed in Cambodia and Laos who suffered permanent injuries as a result of exposure to Agent Orange there.One noteworthy exception, according to the U.S. Department of Labor, is a claim filed with the CIA by an employee of \"a self-insured contractor to the CIA that was no longer in business.\"", "The CIA advised the Department of Labor that it \"had no objections\" to paying the claim and Labor accepted the claim for payment:" ], [ "Ecological impact", "About 17.8% or of the total forested area of Vietnam was sprayed during the war, which disrupted the ecological equilibrium.", "The persistent nature of dioxins, erosion caused by loss of tree cover, and loss of seedling forest stock meant that reforestation was difficult (or impossible) in many areas.", "Many defoliated forest areas were quickly invaded by aggressive pioneer species (such as bamboo and cogon grass), making forest regeneration difficult and unlikely.", "Animal species diversity was also impacted; in one study a Harvard biologist found 24 species of birds and 5 species of mammals in a sprayed forest, while in two adjacent sections of unsprayed forest there were, respectively, 145 and 170 species of birds and 30 and 55 species of mammals.Dioxins from Agent Orange have persisted in the Vietnamese environment since the war, settling in the soil and sediment and entering the food chain through animals and fish which feed in the contaminated areas.", "The movement of dioxins through the food web has resulted in bioconcentration and biomagnification.", "The areas most heavily contaminated with dioxins are former U.S. air bases." ], [ "Sociopolitical impact", "American policy during the Vietnam War was to destroy crops, accepting the sociopolitical impact that that would have.", "The RAND Corporation's ''Memorandum 5446-ISA/ARPA'' states: \"the fact that the VC the Vietcong obtain most of their food from the neutral rural population dictates the destruction of civilian crops ... if they are to be hampered by the crop destruction program, it will be necessary to destroy large portions of the rural economy – probably 50% or more\".", "Crops were deliberately sprayed with Agent Orange and areas were bulldozed clear of vegetation forcing many rural civilians to cities." ], [ "Legal and diplomatic proceedings", "=== International ===The extensive environmental damage that resulted from usage of the herbicide prompted the United Nations to pass Resolution 31/72 and ratify the Environmental Modification Convention.", "Many states do not regard this as a complete ban on the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare, but it does require case-by-case consideration.", "Article 2(4) of Protocol III of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons contains the \"Jungle Exception\", which prohibits states from attacking forests or jungles \"except if such natural elements are used to cover, conceal or camouflage combatants or military objectives or are military objectives themselves\".", "This exception voids any protection of any military and civilian personnel from a napalm attack or something like Agent Orange, and it has been argued that it was clearly designed to cover situations like U.S. tactics in Vietnam.=== Class action lawsuit ===Since at least 1978, several lawsuits have been filed against the companies which produced Agent Orange, among them Dow Chemical, Monsanto, and Diamond Shamrock.", "Attorney Hy Mayerson was an early pioneer in Agent Orange litigation, working with environmental attorney Victor Yannacone in 1980 on the first class-action suits against wartime manufacturers of Agent Orange.", "In meeting Dr. Ronald A. Codario, one of the first civilian doctors to see affected patients, Mayerson, so impressed by the fact a physician would show so much interest in a Vietnam veteran, forwarded more than a thousand pages of information on Agent Orange and the effects of dioxin on animals and humans to Codario's office the day after he was first contacted by the doctor.", "The corporate defendants sought to escape culpability by blaming everything on the U.S. government.In 1980, Mayerson, with Sgt.", "Charles E. Hartz as their principal client, filed the first U.S.", "Agent Orange class-action lawsuit in Pennsylvania, for the injuries military personnel in Vietnam suffered through exposure to toxic dioxins in the defoliant.", "Attorney Mayerson co-wrote the brief that certified the Agent Orange Product Liability action as a class action, the largest ever filed as of its filing.", "Hartz's deposition was one of the first ever taken in America, and the first for an Agent Orange trial, for the purpose of preserving testimony at trial, as it was understood that Hartz would not live to see the trial because of a brain tumor that began to develop while he was a member of Tiger Force, special forces, and LRRPs in Vietnam.", "The firm also located and supplied critical research to the veterans' lead expert, Dr. Codario, including about 100 articles from toxicology journals dating back more than a decade, as well as data about where herbicides had been sprayed, what the effects of dioxin had been on animals and humans, and every accident in factories where herbicides were produced or dioxin was a contaminant of some chemical reaction.The chemical companies involved denied that there was a link between Agent Orange and the veterans' medical problems.", "However, on May 7, 1984, seven chemical companies settled the class-action suit out of court just hours before jury selection was to begin.", "The companies agreed to pay $180 million as compensation if the veterans dropped all claims against them.", "Slightly over 45% of the sum was ordered to be paid by Monsanto alone.", "Many veterans who were victims of Agent Orange exposure were outraged the case had been settled instead of going to court and felt they had been betrayed by the lawyers.", "\"Fairness Hearings\" were held in five major American cities, where veterans and their families discussed their reactions to the settlement and condemned the actions of the lawyers and courts, demanding the case be heard before a jury of their peers.", "Federal Judge Jack B. Weinstein refused the appeals, claiming the settlement was \"fair and just\".", "By 1989, the veterans' fears were confirmed when it was decided how the money from the settlement would be paid out.", "A totally disabled Vietnam veteran would receive a maximum of $12,000 spread out over the course of 10 years.", "Furthermore, by accepting the settlement payments, disabled veterans would become ineligible for many state benefits that provided far more monetary support than the settlement, such as food stamps, public assistance, and government pensions.", "A widow of a Vietnam veteran who died of Agent Orange exposure would receive $3,700.In 2004, Monsanto spokesman Jill Montgomery said Monsanto should not be liable at all for injuries or deaths caused by Agent Orange, saying: \"We are sympathetic with people who believe they have been injured and understand their concern to find the cause, but reliable scientific evidence indicates that Agent Orange is not the cause of serious long-term health effects.", "\"===New Jersey Agent Orange Commission===In 1980, New Jersey created the New Jersey Agent Orange Commission, the first state commission created to study its effects.", "The commission's research project in association with Rutgers University was called \"The Pointman Project\".", "It was disbanded by Governor Christine Todd Whitman in 1996.During the first phase of the project, commission researchers devised ways to determine trace dioxin levels in blood.", "Prior to this, such levels could only be found in the adipose (fat) tissue.", "The project studied dioxin (TCDD) levels in blood as well as in adipose tissue in a small group of Vietnam veterans who had been exposed to Agent Orange and compared them to those of a matched control group; the levels were found to be higher in the exposed group.", "The second phase of the project continued to examine and compare dioxin levels in various groups of Vietnam veterans, including Soldiers, Marines, and Brownwater Naval personnel.===U.S.", "Congress===In 1991, Congress enacted the Agent Orange Act, giving the Department of Veterans Affairs the authority to declare certain conditions \"presumptive\" to exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin, making these veterans who served in Vietnam eligible to receive treatment and compensation for these conditions.", "The same law required the National Academy of Sciences to periodically review the science on dioxin and herbicides used in Vietnam to inform the Secretary of Veterans Affairs about the strength of the scientific evidence showing association between exposure to Agent Orange/dioxin and certain conditions.", "The authority for the National Academy of Sciences reviews and addition of any new diseases to the presumptive list by the VA expired in 2015 under the sunset clause of the Agent Orange Act of 1991.Through this process, the list of 'presumptive' conditions has grown since 1991, and currently the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs has listed prostate cancer, respiratory cancers, multiple myeloma, type II diabetes mellitus, Hodgkin's disease, non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, soft tissue sarcoma, chloracne, porphyria cutanea tarda, peripheral neuropathy, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, and spina bifida in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange as conditions associated with exposure to the herbicide.", "This list now includes B cell leukemias, such as hairy cell leukemia, Parkinson's disease and ischemic heart disease, these last three having been added on August 31, 2010.Several highly placed individuals in government are voicing concerns about whether some of the diseases on the list should, in fact, actually have been included.In 2011, an appraisal of the 20-year long ''Air Force Health Study'' that began in 1982 indicates that the results of the AFHS as they pertain to Agent Orange, do not provide evidence of disease in the Operation Ranch Hand veterans caused by \"their elevated levels of exposure to Agent Orange\".The VA initially denied the applications of post-Vietnam C-123 aircrew veterans because as veterans without \"boots on the ground\" service in Vietnam, they were not covered under VA's interpretation of \"exposed\".", "In June 2015, the Secretary of Veterans Affairs issued an Interim final rule providing presumptive service connection for post-Vietnam C-123 aircrews, maintenance staff and aeromedical evacuation crews.", "The VA now provides medical care and disability compensation for the recognized list of Agent Orange illnesses.===U.S.–Vietnamese government negotiations===In 2002, Vietnam and the U.S. held a joint conference on Human Health and Environmental Impacts of Agent Orange.", "Following the conference, the U.S. National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS) began scientific exchanges between the U.S. and Vietnam, and began discussions for a joint research project on the human health impacts of Agent Orange.", "These negotiations broke down in 2005, when neither side could agree on the research protocol and the research project was canceled.", "More progress has been made on the environmental front.", "In 2005, the first U.S.-Vietnam workshop on remediation of dioxin was held.Starting in 2005, the EPA began to work with the Vietnamese government to measure the level of dioxin at the Da Nang Air Base.", "Also in 2005, the Joint Advisory Committee on Agent Orange, made up of representatives of Vietnamese and U.S. government agencies, was established.", "The committee has been meeting yearly to explore areas of scientific cooperation, technical assistance and environmental remediation of dioxin.A breakthrough in the diplomatic stalemate on this issue occurred as a result of United States President George W. Bush's state visit to Vietnam in November 2006.In the joint statement, President Bush and President Triet agreed \"further joint efforts to address the environmental contamination near former dioxin storage sites would make a valuable contribution to the continued development of their bilateral relationship.\"", "On May 25, 2007, President Bush signed the U.S. Troop Readiness, Veterans' Care, Katrina Recovery, and Iraq Accountability Appropriations Act, 2007 into law for the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan that included an earmark of $3 million specifically for funding for programs for the remediation of dioxin 'hotspots' on former U.S. military bases, and for public health programs for the surrounding communities; some authors consider this to be completely inadequate, pointing out that the Da Nang Airbase alone will cost $14 million to clean up, and that three others are estimated to require $60 million for cleanup.", "The appropriation was renewed in the fiscal year 2009 and again in FY 2010.An additional $12 million was appropriated in the fiscal year 2010 in the Supplemental Appropriations Act and a total of $18.5 million appropriated for fiscal year 2011.Secretary of State Hillary Clinton stated during a visit to Hanoi in October 2010 that the U.S. government would begin work on the clean-up of dioxin contamination at the Da Nang Airbase.", "In June 2011, a ceremony was held at Da Nang airport to mark the start of U.S.-funded decontamination of dioxin hotspots in Vietnam.", "Thirty-two million dollars has so far been allocated by the U.S. Congress to fund the program.", "A $43 million project began in the summer of 2012, as Vietnam and the U.S. forge closer ties to boost trade and counter China's rising influence in the disputed South China Sea.===Vietnamese victims class action lawsuit in U.S. courts===On January 31, 2004, a victim's rights group, the Vietnam Association for Victims of Agent Orange/dioxin (VAVA), filed a lawsuit in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of New York in Brooklyn, against several U.S. companies for liability in causing personal injury, by developing, and producing the chemical, and claimed that the use of Agent Orange violated the 1907 Hague Convention on Land Warfare, 1925 Geneva Protocol, and the 1949 Geneva Conventions.", "Dow Chemical and Monsanto were the two largest producers of Agent Orange for the U.S. military and were named in the suit, along with the dozens of other companies (Diamond Shamrock, Uniroyal, Thompson Chemicals, Hercules, etc.).", "On March 10, 2005, Judge Jack B. Weinstein of the Eastern District – who had presided over the 1984 U.S. veterans class-action lawsuit – dismissed the lawsuit, ruling there was no legal basis for the plaintiffs' claims.", "He concluded Agent Orange was not considered a poison under international humanitarian law at the time of its use by the U.S.; the U.S. was not prohibited from using it as a herbicide; and the companies which produced the substance were not liable for the method of its use by the government.", "In the dismissal statement issued by Weinstein, he wrote \"The prohibition extended only to gases deployed for their asphyxiating or toxic effects on man, not to herbicides designed to affect plants that may have unintended harmful side-effects on people.", "\"Author and activist George Jackson had written previously that \"if the Americans were guilty of war crimes for using Agent Orange in Vietnam, then the British would be also guilty of war crimes as well since they were the first nation to deploy the use of herbicides and defoliants in warfare and used them on a large scale throughout the Malayan Emergency.", "Not only was there no outcry by other states in response to the United Kingdom's use, but the U.S. viewed it as establishing a precedent for the use of herbicides and defoliants in jungle warfare.\"", "The U.S. government was also not a party in the lawsuit because of sovereign immunity, and the court ruled the chemical companies, as contractors of the U.S. government, shared the same immunity.", "The case was appealed and heard by the Second Circuit Court of Appeals in Manhattan on June 18, 2007.Three judges on the court upheld Weinstein's ruling to dismiss the case.", "They ruled that, though the herbicides contained a dioxin (a known poison), they were not intended to be used as a poison on humans.", "Therefore, they were not considered a chemical weapon and thus not a violation of international law.", "A further review of the case by the entire panel of judges of the Court of Appeals also confirmed this decision.", "The lawyers for the Vietnamese filed a petition to the U.S. Supreme Court to hear the case.", "On March 2, 2009, the Supreme Court denied certiorari and declined to reconsider the ruling of the Court of Appeals.===Help for those affected in Vietnam===To assist those who have been affected by Agent Orange/dioxin, the Vietnamese have established \"peace villages\", which each host between 50 and 100 victims, giving them medical and psychological help.", "As of 2006, there were 11 such villages, thus granting some social protection to fewer than a thousand victims.", "U.S. veterans of the war in Vietnam and individuals who are aware and sympathetic to the impacts of Agent Orange have supported these programs in Vietnam.", "An international group of veterans from the U.S. and its allies during the Vietnam War working with their former enemy—veterans from the Vietnam Veterans Association—established the Vietnam Friendship Village outside of Hanoi.The center provides medical care, rehabilitation and vocational training for children and veterans from Vietnam who have been affected by Agent Orange.", "In 1998, The Vietnam Red Cross established the Vietnam Agent Orange Victims Fund to provide direct assistance to families throughout Vietnam that have been affected.", "In 2003, the Vietnam Association of Victims of Agent Orange (VAVA) was formed.", "In addition to filing the lawsuit against the chemical companies, VAVA provides medical care, rehabilitation services and financial assistance to those injured by Agent Orange.The Vietnamese government provides small monthly stipends to more than 200,000 Vietnamese believed affected by the herbicides; this totaled $40.8 million in 2008.The Vietnam Red Cross has raised more than $22 million to assist the ill or disabled, and several U.S. foundations, United Nations agencies, European governments and nongovernmental organizations have given a total of about $23 million for site cleanup, reforestation, health care and other services to those in need.Vuong Mo of the Vietnam News Agency described one of the centers:May is 13, but she knows nothing, is unable to talk fluently, nor walk with ease due to for her bandy legs.", "Her father is dead and she has four elder brothers, all mentally retarded ...", "The students are all disabled, retarded and of different ages.", "Teaching them is a hard job.", "They are of the 3rd grade but many of them find it hard to do the reading.", "Only a few of them can.", "Their pronunciation is distorted due to their twisted lips and their memory is quite short.", "They easily forget what they've learned ...", "In the Village, it is quite hard to tell the kids' exact ages.", "Some in their twenties have a physical statures as small as the 7- or 8-years-old.", "They find it difficult to feed themselves, much less have mental ability or physical capacity for work.", "No one can hold back the tears when seeing the heads turning round unconsciously, the bandy arms managing to push the spoon of food into the mouths with awful difficulty ...", "Yet they still keep smiling, singing in their great innocence, at the presence of some visitors, craving for something beautiful.On June 16, 2010, members of the U.S.-Vietnam Dialogue Group on Agent Orange/Dioxin unveiled a comprehensive 10-year Declaration and Plan of Action to address the toxic legacy of Agent Orange and other herbicides in Vietnam.", "The Plan of Action was released as an Aspen Institute publication and calls upon the U.S. and Vietnamese governments to join with other governments, foundations, businesses, and nonprofits in a partnership to clean up dioxin \"hot spots\" in Vietnam and to expand humanitarian services for people with disabilities there.", "On September 16, 2010, Senator Patrick Leahy acknowledged the work of the Dialogue Group by releasing a statement on the floor of the United States Senate.", "The statement urges the U.S. government to take the Plan of Action's recommendations into account in developing a multi-year plan of activities to address the Agent Orange/dioxin legacy." ], [ "Use outside of Vietnam", "===Australia===In 2008, Australian researcher Jean Williams claimed that cancer rates in Innisfail, Queensland, were 10 times higher than the state average because of secret testing of Agent Orange by the Australian military scientists during the Vietnam War.", "Williams, who had won the Order of Australia medal for her research on the effects of chemicals on U.S. war veterans, based her allegations on Australian government reports found in the Australian War Memorial's archives.", "A former soldier, Ted Bosworth, backed up the claims, saying that he had been involved in the secret testing.", "Neither Williams nor Bosworth have produced verifiable evidence to support their claims.", "The Queensland health department determined that cancer rates in Innisfail were no higher than those in other parts of the state.===Canada===The U.S. military, with the permission of the Canadian government, tested herbicides, including Agent Orange, in the forests near Canadian Forces Base Gagetown in New Brunswick.", "In 2007, the government of Canada offered a one-time ex gratia payment of $20,000 as compensation for Agent Orange exposure at CFB Gagetown.", "On July 12, 2005, Merchant Law Group, on behalf of over 1,100 Canadian veterans and civilians who were living in and around CFB Gagetown, filed a lawsuit to pursue class action litigation concerning Agent Orange and Agent Purple with the Federal Court of Canada.", "On August 4, 2009, the case was rejected by the court, citing lack of evidence.In 2007, the Canadian government announced that a research and fact-finding program initiated in 2005 had found the base was safe.On February 17, 2011, the ''Toronto Star'' revealed that Agent Orange had been employed to clear extensive plots of Crown land in Northern Ontario.", "The ''Toronto Star'' reported that, \"records from the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s show forestry workers, often students and junior rangers, spent weeks at a time as human markers holding red, helium-filled balloons on fishing lines while low-flying planes sprayed toxic herbicides including an infamous chemical mixture known as Agent Orange on the brush and the boys below.\"", "In response to the ''Toronto Star'' article, the Ontario provincial government launched a probe into the use of Agent Orange.===Guam===An analysis of chemicals present in the island's soil, together with resolutions passed by Guam's legislature, suggest that Agent Orange was among the herbicides routinely used on and around Andersen Air Force Base and Naval Air Station Agana.", "Despite the evidence, the Department of Defense continues to deny that Agent Orange was stored or used on Guam.", "Several Guam veterans have collected evidence to assist in their disability claims for direct exposure to dioxin containing herbicides such as 2,4,5-T which are similar to the illness associations and disability coverage that has become standard for those who were harmed by the same chemical contaminant of Agent Orange used in Vietnam.===South Korea===Agent Orange was used in South Korea in the late 1960s and in 1999, about 20,000 South Koreans filed two separated lawsuits against U.S. companies, seeking more than $5 billion in damages.", "After losing a decision in 2002, they filed an appeal.", "In January 2006, the South Korean Appeals Court ordered Dow Chemical and Monsanto to pay $62 million in compensation to about 6,800 people.", "The ruling acknowledged that \"the defendants failed to ensure safety as the defoliants manufactured by the defendants had higher levels of dioxins than standard\", and, quoting the U.S. National Academy of Science report, declared that there was a \"causal relationship\" between Agent Orange and a range of diseases, including several cancers.", "The judges failed to acknowledge \"the relationship between the chemical and peripheral neuropathy, the disease most widespread among Agent Orange victims\".In 2011, the United States local press KPHO-TV in Phoenix, Arizona, alleged that in 1978 that the United States Army had buried 250 55-gallon drums () of Agent Orange in Camp Carroll, the U.S. Army base located in Gyeongsangbuk-do, South Korea.Currently, veterans who provide evidence meeting VA requirements for service in Vietnam and who can medically establish that anytime after this 'presumptive exposure' they developed any medical problems on the list of presumptive diseases, may receive compensation from the VA. Certain veterans who served in South Korea and are able to prove they were assigned to certain specified around the Korean Demilitarized Zone, during a specific time frame are afforded similar presumption.===New Zealand===The Ivon Watkins-Dow factory in New Plymouth, New Zealand, 1968The use of Agent Orange has been controversial in New Zealand, because of the exposure of New Zealand troops in Vietnam and because of the production of herbicide used in Agent Orange which has been alleged at various times to have been exported for use in the Vietnam War and to other users by the Ivon Watkins-Dow chemical plant in Paritutu, New Plymouth.", "What is fact is that from 1962 until 1987, 2,4,5T herbicide was manufactured at the Ivon Watkins-Dow plant for domestic use in New Zealand.", "It was widely used by farmers and in New Zealand agriculture as a weed killer.", "This fact was the basis of a 2005 New Zealand Media story that claimed that the herbicide had been allegedly exported to U.S. military bases in South East Asia.", "However the claim was not proven, a fact which the Media did not subsequently report.", "There have been continuing claims, as yet unproven, that the suburb of Paritutu has also been polluted.", "However, the agriscience company Corteva (which split from DowDupont in 2019) agreed to clean up the Paritutu site in September 2022.===Philippines===Herbicide persistence studies of Agents Orange and White were conducted in the Philippines.===Johnston Atoll===Leaking Agent Orange barrels at Johnston Atoll circa 1973.Rusting Agent Orange barrels at Johnston Atoll, circa 1976.The U.S. Air Force operation to remove Herbicide Orange from Vietnam in 1972 was named Operation Pacer IVY, while the operation to destroy the Agent Orange stored at Johnston Atoll in 1977 was named Operation Pacer HO.", "Operation Pacer IVY collected Agent Orange in South Vietnam and removed it in 1972 aboard the ship MV Transpacific for storage on Johnston Atoll.", "The EPA reports that of Herbicide Orange was stored at Johnston Island in the Pacific and at Gulfport, Mississippi.Research and studies were initiated to find a safe method to destroy the materials, and it was discovered they could be incinerated safely under special conditions of temperature and dwell time.", "However, these herbicides were expensive, and the Air Force wanted to resell its surplus instead of dumping it at sea.", "Among many methods tested, a possibility of salvaging the herbicides by reprocessing and filtering out the TCDD contaminant with carbonized (charcoaled) coconut fibers.", "This concept was then tested in 1976 and a pilot plant constructed at Gulfport.From July to September 1977 during Operation Pacer HO, the entire stock of Agent Orange from both Herbicide Orange storage sites at Gulfport and Johnston Atoll was subsequently incinerated in four separate burns in the vicinity of Johnston Island aboard the Dutch-owned waste incineration ship .As of 2004, some records of the storage and disposition of Agent Orange at Johnston Atoll have been associated with the historical records of Operation Red Hat.===Okinawa, Japan===There have been dozens of reports in the press about use and/or storage of military formulated herbicides on Okinawa that are based upon statements by former U.S. service members that had been stationed on the island, photographs, government records, and unearthed storage barrels.", "The U.S. Department of Defense has denied these allegations with statements by military officials and spokespersons, as well as a January 2013 report authored by Dr. Alvin Young that was released in April 2013.A scientific study of the effects military contamination at Johnston Atoll included a statement confirming records of Agent Orange storage in Okinawa.In particular, the 2013 report rebuts articles written by journalist Jon Mitchell as well as a statement from \"An Ecological Assessment of Johnston Atoll\" a 2003 publication produced by the United States Army Chemical Materials Agency that states, \"in 1972, the U.S. Air Force also brought about 25,000 200L drums () of the chemical, Herbicide Orange (HO) to Johnston Island that originated from Vietnam and was stored on Okinawa.\"", "The 2013 report states: \"The authors of the 2003 report were not DoD employees, nor were they likely familiar with the issues surrounding Herbicide Orange or its actual history of transport to the Island.\"", "and detailed the transport phases and routes of Agent Orange from Vietnam to Johnston Atoll, none of which included Okinawa.Excerpt of U.S. Army 1971 Fort Detrick report describes Tactical Herbicide stockpiles of U.S. Government restricted materials on Okinawa at Kadena AFB, in Thailand, and Vietnam.Further official confirmation of restricted (dioxin containing) herbicide storage on Okinawa appeared in a 1971 Fort Detrick report titled \"Historical, Logistical, Political and Technical Aspects of the Herbicide/Defoliant Program\", which mentions that the environmental statement should consider \"Herbicide stockpiles elsewhere in PACOM (Pacific Command) U.S. Government restricted materials Thailand and Okinawa (Kadena AFB).\"", "The 2013 DoD report says that the environmental statement urged by the 1971 report was published in 1974 as \"The Department of Air Force Final Environmental Statement\", and that the latter did not find Agent Orange was held in either Thailand or Okinawa.===Thailand===Agent Orange was tested by the United States in Thailand during the Vietnam War.", "In 1999, buried drums were uncovered and confirmed to be Agent Orange.", "Workers who uncovered the drums fell ill while upgrading the airport near Hua Hin District, 100 km south of Bangkok.", "Vietnam-era veterans whose service involved duty on or near the perimeters of military bases in Thailand anytime between February 28, 1961, and May 7, 1975, may have been exposed to herbicides and may qualify for VA benefits.A declassified Department of Defense report written in 1973, suggests that there was a significant use of herbicides on the fenced-in perimeters of military bases in Thailand to remove foliage that provided cover for enemy forces.", "In 2013, the VA determined that herbicides used on the Thailand base perimeters may have been tactical and procured from Vietnam, or a strong, commercial type resembling tactical herbicides.===United States===The University of Hawaii has acknowledged extensive testing of Agent Orange on behalf of the United States Department of Defense in Hawaii along with mixtures of Agent Orange on Hawaii Island in 1966 and on Kaua'i Island in 1967–1968; testing and storage in other U.S. locations has been documented by the United States Department of Veterans Affairs.In 1971, the C-123 aircraft used for spraying Agent Orange were returned to the United States and assigned various East Coast USAF Reserve squadrons, and then employed in traditional airlift missions between 1972 and 1982.In 1994, testing by the Air Force identified some former spray aircraft as \"heavily contaminated\" with dioxin residue.", "Inquiries by aircrew veterans in 2011 brought a decision by the U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs opining that not enough dioxin residue remained to injure these post-Vietnam War veterans.", "On 26 January 2012, the U.S. Center For Disease Control's Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry challenged this with their finding that former spray aircraft were indeed contaminated and the aircrews exposed to harmful levels of dioxin.", "In response to veterans' concerns, the VA in February 2014 referred the C-123 issue to the Institute of Medicine for a special study, with results released on January 9, 2015.In 1978, the EPA suspended spraying of Agent Orange in national forests.Agent Orange was sprayed on thousands of acres of brush in the Tennessee Valley for 15 years before scientists discovered the herbicide was dangerous.", "Monroe County, Tennessee, is one of the locations known to have been sprayed according to the Tennessee Valley Authority.", "Forty-four remote acres were sprayed with Agent Orange along power lines throughout the National Forest.In 1983, New Jersey declared a Passaic River production site to be a state of emergency.", "The dioxin pollution in the Passaic River dates back to the Vietnam era, when Diamond Alkali manufactured it in a factory along the river.", "The tidal river carried dioxin upstream and down, contaminating a stretch of riverbed in one of New Jersey's most populous areas.A December 2006 Department of Defense report listed Agent Orange testing, storage, and disposal sites at 32 locations throughout the United States, Canada, Thailand, Puerto Rico, Korea, and in the Pacific Ocean.", "The Veteran Administration has also acknowledged that Agent Orange was used domestically by U.S. forces in test sites throughout the United States.", "Eglin Air Force Base in Florida was one of the primary testing sites throughout the 1960s." ], [ "Cleanup programs", "In February 2012, Monsanto agreed to settle a case covering dioxin contamination around a plant in Nitro, West Virginia, that had manufactured Agent Orange.", "Monsanto agreed to pay up to $9 million for cleanup of affected homes, $84 million for medical monitoring of people affected, and the community's legal fees.On 9 August 2012, the United States and Vietnam began a cooperative cleaning up of the toxic chemical on part of Da Nang International Airport, marking the first time the U.S. government has been involved in cleaning up Agent Orange in Vietnam.", "Danang was the primary storage site of the chemical.", "Two other cleanup sites the United States and Vietnam are looking at is Biên Hòa, in the southern province of Đồng Nai is a hotspot for dioxin and so is Phù Cát airport in the central province of Bình Định, says U.S.", "Ambassador to Vietnam David Shear.", "According to the Vietnamese newspaper ''Nhân Dân'', the U.S. government provided $41 million to the project.", "As of 2017, some of soil have been cleaned.The Seabee's Naval Construction Battalion Center at Gulfport, Mississippi was the largest storage site in the United States for agent orange.", "It was about in size and was still being cleaned up in 2013.In 2016, the EPA laid out its plan for cleaning up an stretch of the Passaic River in New Jersey, with an estimated cost of $1.4 billion.", "The contaminants reached to Newark Bay and other waterways, according to the EPA, which has designated the area a Superfund site.", "Since destruction of the dioxin requires high temperatures over , the destruction process is energy intensive." ], [ "See also", "* Environmental impact of war* Orange Crush (song)* Rainbow herbicides* Scorched earth* Teratology* Vietnam Syndrome" ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== General and cited references ===* * * * * * * * * * * * * NTP (National Toxicology Program); \"Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD) in Female Harlan Sprague-Dawley Rats (Gavage Studies)\", CASRN 1746-01-6, April 2006.", "* * * * * * * * – both of Young's books were commissioned by the U.S. Department of Defense, Office of the Deputy Under Secretary of Defense (Installations and Environment)" ], [ "Further reading", "===Books===* see pages 245–252.", "* with a foreword by Howard Zinn.", "* * * * * * * * * * * * ===Government/NGO reports===* \"Agent Orange in Vietnam: Recent Developments in Remediation: Testimony of Ms. Tran Thi Hoan\", ''Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific and the Global Environment'', U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs.", "July 15, 2010* \"Agent Orange in Vietnam: Recent Developments in Remediation: Testimony of Dr. Nguyen Thi Ngoc Phuong\", ''Subcommittee on Asia, the Pacific and the Global Environment'', U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Foreign Affairs.", "July 15, 2010* Agent Orange Policy, ''American Public Health Association'', 2007* \"Assessment of the health risk of dioxins\", World Health Organization/International Programme on Chemical Safety, 1998* Operation Ranch Hand: Herbicides In Southeast Asia History of Operation Ranch Hand, 1983* \"Agent Orange Dioxin Contamination in the Environment and Food Chain at Key Hotspots in Viet Nam\" Boivin, TG, ''et al.", "'', 2011* ===News===* Fawthrop, Tom; Agent of suffering, ''Guardian'', February 10, 2008* Cox, Paul; \"The Legacy of Agent Orange is a Continuing Focus of VVAW\", ''The Veteran'', Vietnam Veterans Against the War, Volume 38, No.", "2, Fall 2008.", "* Barlett, Donald P. and Steele, James B.; \"Monsanto's Harvest of Fear\", ''Vanity Fair'' May 2008* Quick, Ben \"The Boneyard\" ''Orion Magazine'', March/April 2008* Cheng, Eva; \"Vietnam's Agent Orange victims call for solidarity\", ''Green Left Weekly'', September 28, 2005* Children and the Vietnam War 30–40 years after the use of Agent Orange* Tokar, Brian; \"Monsanto: A Checkered History\", ''Z Magazine'', March 1999===Video===* ''Agent Orange: The Last Battle''.", "Dir.", "Stephanie Jobe, Adam Scholl.", "DVD.", "2005* ''HADES''.", "Dir.", "Caroline Delerue, screenplay by Mauro Bellanova, 2011* Short film by James Nguyen.", "* ''Vietnam: The Secret Agent''.", "Dir.", "Jacki Ochs, 1984===Photojournalism===* CNN * Al Jazeera America" ], [ "External links", "* U.S. Environmental Protection Agency – Dioxin Web site* Agent Orange ''Office of Public Health and Environmental Hazards'', U.S. Department of Veteran Affairs* Report from the National Birth Defects Registry - Birth Defects in Vietnam Veterans' Children* \"An Ecological Assessment of Johnston Atoll\"" ] ]

[ [ "Astronomical year numbering" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Astronomical year numbering''' is based on AD/CE year numbering, but follows normal decimal integer numbering more strictly.", "Thus, it has a year 0; the years before that are designated with negative numbers and the years after that are designated with positive numbers.", "Astronomers use the Julian calendar for years before 1582, including the year 0, and the Gregorian calendar for years after 1582, as exemplified by Jacques Cassini (1740), Simon Newcomb (1898) and Fred Espenak (2007).The prefix AD and the suffixes CE, BC or BCE (Common Era, Before Christ or Before Common Era) are dropped.", "The year 1 BC/BCE is numbered 0, the year 2 BC is numbered −1, and in general the year ''n'' BC/BCE is numbered \"−(''n'' − 1)\" (a negative number equal to 1 − ''n'').", "The numbers of AD/CE years are not changed and are written with either no sign or a positive sign; thus in general ''n'' AD/CE is simply ''n'' or +''n''.", "For normal calculation a number zero is often needed, here most notably when calculating the number of years in a period that spans the epoch; the end years need only be subtracted from each other.The system is so named due to its use in astronomy.", "Few other disciplines outside history deal with the time before year 1, some exceptions being dendrochronology, archaeology and geology, the latter two of which use 'years before the present'.", "Although the absolute numerical values of astronomical and historical years only differ by one before year 1, this difference is critical when calculating astronomical events like eclipses or planetary conjunctions to determine when historical events which mention them occurred." ], [ "Usage of the year zero", "In his Rudolphine Tables (1627), Johannes Kepler used a prototype of year zero which he labeled ''Christi'' (Christ's) between years labeled ''Ante Christum'' (Before Christ) and ''Post Christum'' (After Christ) on the mean motion tables for the Sun, Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus and Mercury.", "In 1702, the French astronomer Philippe de la Hire used a year he labeled at the end of years labeled ''ante Christum'' (BC), and immediately before years labeled ''post Christum'' (AD) on the mean motion pages in his ''Tabulæ Astronomicæ'', thus adding the designation ''0'' to Kepler's ''Christi''.", "Finally, in 1740 the French astronomer Jacques Cassini , who is traditionally credited with the invention of year zero, completed the transition in his ''Tables astronomiques'', simply labeling this year ''0'', which he placed at the end of Julian years labeled ''avant Jesus-Christ'' (before Jesus Christ or BC), and immediately before Julian years labeled ''après Jesus-Christ'' (after Jesus Christ or AD).Cassini gave the following reasons for using a year 0: Fred Espenak of NASA lists 50 phases of the Moon within year 0, showing that it is a full year, not an instant in time.", "Jean Meeus gives the following explanation:" ], [ "Signed years without the year zero", "Although he used the usual French terms \"avant J.-C.\" (before Jesus Christ) and \"après J.-C.\" (after Jesus Christ) to label years elsewhere in his book, the Byzantine historian Venance Grumel (1890–1967) used negative years (identified by a minus sign, −) to label BC years and unsigned positive years to label AD years in a table.", "He may have done so to save space and he put no year 0 between them.Version 1.0 of the XML Schema language, often used to describe data interchanged between computers in XML, includes built-in primitive datatypes '''date''' and '''dateTime'''.", "Although these are defined in terms of ISO 8601 which uses the proleptic Gregorian calendar and therefore should include a year 0, the XML Schema specification states that there is no year zero.", "Version 1.1 of the defining recommendation realigned the specification with ISO 8601 by including a year zero, despite the problems arising from the lack of backward compatibility." ], [ "See also", "* Julian day, another calendar commonly used by astronomers* Astronomical chronology* Holocene calendar* ISO 8601" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Adam of Bremen" ], [ "Introduction", "A facsimile of Adam of Bremen's magnum opus.", "'''Adam of Bremen''' (; ; before 1050 – 12 October 1081/1085) was a German medieval chronicler.", "He lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century.", "Adam is most famous for his chronicle ''Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum'' (''Deeds of Bishops of the Hamburg Church'').", "He was \"one of the foremost historians and early ethnographers of the medieval period\".In his chronicle, he included a chapter mentioning the Norse outpost of Vinland, and was thus the first continental European to write about the New World." ], [ "Life", "Little is known of his life other than hints from his own chronicles.", "He is believed to have come from Meissen, then its own margravate.", "The dates of his birth and death are uncertain, but he was probably born before 1050 and died on 12 October of an unknown year (possibly 1081, at the latest 1085).", "From his chronicles, it is apparent that he was familiar with a number of authors.", "The honorary name of ''Magister Adam'' shows that he had passed through all the stages of a higher education.", "It is probable that he was taught at the ''Magdeburger Domschule''.In 1066 or 1067, he was invited by Archbishop Adalbert von Hamburg-Bremen to join the Church of Bremen.", "Adam was accepted among the capitulars of Bremen, and by 1069 he appeared as director of the Bremen Cathedral's school.", "Soon thereafter he began to write the history of Bremen/Hamburg and of the northern lands in his ''Gesta''.His position and the missionary activity of the church of Bremen allowed him to gather information on the history and the geography of Northern Germany.", "A stay at the court of Sweyn II of Denmark gave him the opportunity to find information about the history and geography of Denmark and the other Scandinavian countries.", "Among other things he wrote about in Scandinavia were the sailing passages across Øresund such as today's Helsingør–Helsingborg ferry route." ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*Chłopacka Hanna: Adam Bremeński.", "In: Słownik Starożytności Słowiańskich.", "Vol.", "1.1961, p. 3-4." ], [ "External links", "* * Adamus Bremensis: '' Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum'' (Lat.", ")*" ] ]

[ [ "Ab urbe condita" ], [ "Introduction", "Antoninianus of Pacatian, usurper of Roman emperor Philip in 248.It reads ''ROMAE AETERNAE ANNO MILLESIMO ET PRIMO'', 'To eternal Rome, in its one thousand and first year.", "'rubricated and with a decorated initial, from the medieval ''Chronicle of Saint Pantaleon'''''''Ab urbe condita''''' (; 'from the founding of the City'), or '''''' (; 'in the year since the city's founding'), abbreviated as '''AUC''' or '''AVC''', expresses a date in years since 753 BC, the traditional founding of Rome.", "It is an expression used in antiquity and by classical historians to refer to a given year in Ancient Rome.", "In reference to the traditional year of the foundation of Rome, the year 1 BC would be written AUC 753, whereas AD 1 would be AUC 754.The foundation of the Roman Empire in 27 BC would be AUC 727.The current year AD  would be AUC .Usage of the term was more common during the Renaissance, when editors sometimes added AUC to Roman manuscripts they published, giving the false impression that the convention was commonly used in antiquity.", "In reality, the dominant method of identifying years in Roman times was to name the two consuls who held office that year.", "In late antiquity, regnal years were also in use, as in Roman Egypt during the Diocletian era after AD 293, and in the Byzantine Empire from AD 537, following a decree by Justinian." ], [ "Significance", "Prior to the Roman state's adoption of the Varronian chronology – created by Titus Pomponius Atticus and Marcus Terentius Varro – there were many different dates posited for when the city was founded.", "This state of confusion required, for one to use an AUC date, one to pick a date as canonical.", "The Varronian chronology, constructed from fragmentary sources and demonstrably about four years off of absolute events , placed the founding of the city on 21 April 753 BC.", "This date, likely arrived at by mechanical calculation but accepted by the Augustan-era , has become the traditional date.From the time of Claudius () onward, this calculation superseded other contemporary calculations.", "Celebrating the anniversary of the city became part of imperial propaganda.", "Claudius was the first to hold magnificent celebrations in honor of the anniversary of the city, in AD 47, the eight hundredth year from the founding of the city.", "Hadrian, in AD 121, and Antoninus Pius, in AD 147 and AD 148, held similar celebrations respectively.In AD 248, Philip the Arab celebrated Rome's first millennium, together with Ludi saeculares for Rome's alleged tenth saeculum.", "Coins from his reign commemorate the celebrations.", "A coin by a contender for the imperial throne, Pacatianus, explicitly states \"year one thousand and first,\" which is an indication that the citizens of the empire had a sense of the beginning of a new era, a ''Sæculum Novum''." ], [ "Calendar era", "The Anno Domini (AD) year numbering was developed by a monk named Dionysius Exiguus in Rome in , as a result of his work on calculating the date of Easter.", "Dionysius did not use the AUC convention, but instead based his calculations on the Diocletian era.", "This convention had been in use since AD 293, the year of the tetrarchy, as it became impractical to use regnal years of the current emperor.", "In his Easter table, the year was equated with the 248th regnal year of Diocletian.", "The table counted the years starting from the presumed birth of Christ, rather than the accession of the emperor Diocletian on 20 November AD 284 or, as stated by Dionysius: ''\"sed magis elegimus ab incarnatione Domini nostri Jesu Christi annorum tempora praenotare\"'' (\"but rather we choose to name the times of the years from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ\").", "Blackburn and Holford-Strevens review interpretations of Dionysius which place the Incarnation in 2 BC, 1 BC, or AD 1.The year AD 1 corresponds to AUC 754, based on the epoch of Varro.", "Thus: AUC Year Event 1 753 BC Foundation of the Kingdom of Rome 244 510 BC Overthrow of the Roman monarchy 259 495 BC Death in exile of King Lucius Tarquinius Superbus 490 264 BC Punic Wars 709 45 BC First year of the Julian calendar 710 44 BC The assassination of Julius Caesar 727 27 BC Augustus became the first Roman emperor, starting the Principate 753 1 BC Astronomical Year 0 754 AD 1 Approximate birth date of Jesus, approximated by Dionysius Exiguus in AD 525 (AUC 1278) 1000 AD 247 1,000th Anniversary of the City of Rome 1037 AD 284 Diocletian became Roman emperor, starting the Dominate 1229 AD 476 Fall of the Western Roman Empire to the armies of Odoacer 1246 AD 493 Establishment of the Ostrogothic Kingdom 1306 AD 553 Italy under Eastern Roman control 1507 AD 754 Foundation of the Papal States 1553 AD 800 Creation of the Holy Roman Empire 1824 AD 1071 Defeat of the Eastern Romans at the Battle of Manzikert 1957 AD 1204 Sack of Constantinople by the Crusaders 2000 AD 1247 2,000th Anniversary of the City of Rome 2206 AD 1453 Fall of the Eastern Roman Empire2336AD 1582First year of the Gregorian calendar 2559 AD 1806 Abolition of the Holy Roman Empire 2675 AD 1922 End of the Ottoman Sultanate AD '''Last year''' AD '''Current year''' AD '''Next year'''" ], [ "See also", "* Calendar era* History of Italy* List of Latin phrases* Roman calendar" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Arapaoa Island" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Arapaoa Island''' (formerly spelled '''Arapawa Island''') is the second-largest island in the Marlborough Sounds, at the north-east tip of the South Island of New Zealand.", "The island has a land area of .", "Queen Charlotte Sound defines its western side, while to the south lies Tory Channel, which is on the sea route between Wellington in the North Island to Picton.", "Cook Strait's narrowest point is between Arapaoa Island's Perano Head and Cape Terawhiti in the North Island." ], [ "History", "According to Māori oral tradition, the island was where the great navigator Kupe killed the octopus Te Wheke-a-Muturangi.It was from a hill on Arapaoa Island in 1770 that Captain James Cook first saw the sea passage from the Pacific Ocean to the Tasman Sea, and confirmed that what the indigenous people had told him was correct – Aotearoa is composed of two main islands.", "Cook is not known for naming places after himself, and it is speculated that Joseph Banks bestowed the name Cook Strait.", "This discovery banished the fond notion of geographers that there existed a great southern continent, Terra Australis.", "A monument at Cook's Lookout was erected in 1970.From the late 1820s until the mid-1960s, Arapaoa Island was a base for whaling in the Sounds.", "John Guard established a shore station at Te Awaiti in 1827, however initially could only salvage baleen until the station was equipped to process whale oil from 1830 onwards, targeting right whales.", "Later, the station at Perano Head on the east coast of the island was used to hunt humpback whales from 1911 to 1964 (see Whaling in New Zealand).", "The houses built by the Perano family are now operated as tourist accommodation.", "In the 2000s the former whalers from the Perano and Heberley families, who live on Arapawa, joined a Department of Conservation whale spotting programme to assess how the humpback whale population has recovered since the end of whaling.An Air Albatross Cessna 402 commuter aircraft struck the 11,000-volt power lines linking the island and the mainland over Tory Channel in 1985.The crash was witnessed by many passengers on an inter-island Cook Strait ferry.", "The ferry immediately stopped to dispatch a rescue lifeboat.", "Along with the two pilots, one entire family died, and all but a young girl from the other.", "No bodies were ever found.", "The sole survivor (Cindy Mosey) was travelling with her family and the other family from Nelson to Wellington to attend a gymnastics competition.", "The Arapaoa Island crash caused public confidence in Air Albatross to falter, contributing to the company going into liquidation in December of that year.In August 2014, the spelling of the island's name was officially changed from ''Arapawa'' to ''Arapaoa''." ], [ "Conservation", "Parts of the island have been heavily cleared of native vegetation in the past through burning and logging, A number of pine forests were planted on the island.", "Wilding pines, an invasive species in some parts of New Zealand, are being poisoned on the island to allow the regenerating native vegetation to grow.", "About at Ruaomoko Point on the south-eastern portion of the island will be killed by drilling holes into the trees and injecting poison.Arapaoa Island is known for the breeds of domestic animals found only on the island – the Arapawa pig, Arapawa sheep and Arapawa goat.", "They became established in the 19th century, but the origin of the breeds is uncertain, and a matter of some speculation.", "Common suggestions are that they are old English breeds introduced by the early whalers, or by Captain Cook or other early explorers.", "These breeds are now extinct in England, and the goats surviving in a sanctuary on the island are now also bred in other parts of New Zealand and in the northern hemisphere.The small Brothers Islands, which lie off the northeast coast of Arapaoa Island, are a sanctuary for the rare Brothers Island tuatara." ], [ "See also", "* List of islands of New Zealand" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Philp, Matt.", "2011.The Sound of the Sea.", "''New Zealand Geographic,'' 110.", "* Heberley, Heather.", "1996.", "''Weather permitting''.", "Whatamango Bay, N.Z.", ": Cape Catley.", "* Heberley, Heather.", "1997.", "''Flood tide.''", "Whatamango Bay, N.Z.", ": Cape Catley." ] ]

[ [ "Administrative law" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Administrative law''' is a division of law governing the activities of executive branch agencies of government.", "Administrative law includes executive branch rule making (executive branch rules are generally referred to as \"regulations\"), adjudication, and the enforcement of laws.", "Administrative law is considered a branch of public law.Administrative law deals with the decision-making of such administrative units of government that are part of the executive branch in such areas as international trade, manufacturing, the environment, taxation, broadcasting, immigration, and transport.Administrative law expanded greatly during the 20th century, as legislative bodies worldwide created more government agencies to regulate the social, economic and political spheres of human interaction.Civil law countries often have specialized administrative courts that review these decisions.In the last fifty years, administrative law, in many countries of the civil law tradition, has opened itself to the influence of rules posed by supranational legal orders, in which judicial principles have a strong importance: it has led, for one, to changes in some traditional concepts of the administrative law model, as has happened with the public procurements or with judicial control of administrative activity and, for another, has built a supranational or international public administration, as in the environmental sector or with reference to education, for which, within the United Nations' system, it has been possible to assist to a further increase of administrative structure devoted to coordinate the States' activity in that sector." ], [ "In civil law countries", "Unlike most common law jurisdictions, most civil law jurisdictions have specialized courts or sections to deal with administrative cases that as a rule apply procedural rules that are specifically designed for such cases and distinct from those applied in private law proceedings, such as contract or tort claims.=== Brazil ===In Brazil, administrative cases are typically heard either by the Federal Courts (in matters concerning the Federal Union) or by the Public Treasury divisions of State Courts (in matters concerning the States).", "In 1998 a constitutional reform led by the government of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso introduced regulatory agencies as a part of the executive branch.", "Since 1988, Brazilian administrative law has been strongly influenced by the judicial interpretations of the constitutional principles of public administration (Art.", "37 of Federal Constitution): legality, impersonality, publicity of administrative acts, morality and efficiency.", "President Fernando Henrique Cardoso in 1999=== Chile ===In Chile the President of the Republic exercises the administrative function, in collaboration with several ministries or other authorities with ''ministerial rank''.", "Each ministry has one or more under-secretaries that act through public service to meet public needs.", "There is no single specialized court to deal with actions against the administrative entities, but there are several specialized courts and procedures of review.=== China ===Administrative law in the China was virtually non-existent before the economic reform era initiated by Deng Xiaoping.", "Since the 1980s China has constructed a new legal framework for administrative law, establishing control mechanisms for overseeing the bureaucracy, and disciplinary committees for the Chinese Communist Party.", "However, many have argued that the usefulness of these laws is vastly inadequate in terms of controlling government actions, largely because of institutional and systemic obstacles like a weak judiciary, poorly trained judges and lawyers, and corruption.In 1990, the Administrative Supervision Regulations (行政检查条例) and the Administrative Reconsideration Regulations (行政复议条例) were passed.", "The 1993 State Civil Servant Provisional Regulations (国家公务员暂行条例) changed the way government officials were selected and promoted, requiring that they pass exams and yearly appraisals, and introducing a rotation system.", "The three regulations have been amended and upgraded into laws.", "In 1994, the State Compensation Law (国家赔偿法) was passed, followed by the Administrative Penalties Law (行政处罚法) in 1996.Administrative Compulsory Law was enforced in 2012.Administrative Litigation Law was amended in 2014.The General Administrative Procedure Law is underway.=== France ===The French Enlightenment political philosopher MontesquieuIn France, there is a dual jurisdictional system with the judiciary branch responsible for civil law and criminal law, and the administrative branch having jurisdiction when a government institution is involved.", "Most claims against the national or local governments as well as claims against private bodies providing public services are handled by administrative courts, which use the ''Conseil d'État'' (Council of State) as a court of last resort for both ordinary and special courts.", "The main administrative courts are the ''tribunaux administratifs'' and appeal courts are the ''cours administratives d'appel''.", "Special administrative courts include the National Court of Asylum Right as well as military, medical and judicial disciplinary bodies.", "The French body of administrative law is called \"''droit administratif''\".Over the course of their history, France's administrative courts have developed an extensive and coherent case law (''jurisprudence constante'') and legal doctrine ('''' and ''''), often before similar concepts were enshrined in constitutional and legal texts.", "These principes include:*Right to fair trial (''droit à la défense''), including for internal disciplinary bodies*Right to challenge any administrative decision before an administrative court (''droit au recours'')*Equal treatment of public service users (''égalité devant le service public'')*Equal access to government employment (''égalité d'accès à la fonction publique'') without regard for political opinions*Freedom of association (''liberté d'association'')*Right to entrepreneurship (''Liberté du Commerce et de l'industrie'', lit.", "freedom of commerce and industry)*Right to legal certainty (''Droit à la sécurité juridique'')French administrative law, the basis of continental administrative law, has had a strong influence on administrative laws in several other countries such as Belgium, Greece, Turkey and Tunisia.=== Germany ===In Germany administrative law is called \"'''Verwaltungsrecht'''\", which generally governs the relationship between authorities and citizens.", "It establishes citizens' rights and obligations.", "It is part of the public law, which deals with the organization, the tasks and the acting of the public administration.", "It also contains rules, regulations, orders and decisions created by and related to administrative agencies, such as federal agencies, federal state authorities, urban administrations, but also admissions offices and fiscal authorities etc.", "Administrative law in Germany follows three basic principles.", "* Principle of the legality of the authority, which means that there is no acting against the law and no acting without a law.", "* Principle of legal security, which includes a principle of legal certainty and the principle of non-retroactivity.", "* Principle of proportionality, which means that an act of an authority has to be suitable, necessary and appropriate.Administrative law in Germany can be divided into '''general administrative law''' and '''special administrative law'''.==== General administrative law ====The general administration law is basically ruled in the administrative procedures law (''Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz'' VwVfG).", "Other legal sources are the Rules of the Administrative Courts (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung VwGO), the social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch SGB) and the general fiscal law (Abgabenordnung AO).===== Administrative procedures law =====The Verwaltungsverfahrensgesetz (VwVfG) was enacted in 1977, where it regulates the main administrative procedures of the federal government.", "Its purpose is to ensure that the public authority's laws remain in order.", "The VwVfG contains the regulations for mass processes and gives legal power against the authorities.", "The VwVfG applies for public administrative activities of federal agencies as well as federal state authorities—in where federal laws are made.", "Paragraph 35 of the VwVfG defines the administrative act as the most common form of action in which the public administration occurs against a citizen.", "It states that an administration act is characterized by the following features:It is an official act of an authority in the field of public law to resolve an individual case with effect to the outside.Paragraph 36–39, 58–59, and 80 show the organization and structure of the administrative act.", "Paragraphs 48 and 49 state the prerequisites for redemption of an unlawful administration act (§ 48) and withdrawal of a lawful administration act (§ 49 VwVfG).===== Other legal sources =====Administration procedural law (Verwaltungsgerichtsordnung VwGO), which was enacted in 1960, rules the court procedures at the administrative court.", "The VwGO is divided into five parts, which are the constitution of the courts, action, remedies and retrial, costs and enforcement15 and final clauses and temporary arrangements.In absence of a rule, the VwGO is supplemented by the code of civil procedure (Zivilprozessordnung ZPO) and the judicature act (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz GVG).", "In addition to the regulation of the administrative procedure, the VwVfG also constitutes the legal protection in administrative law beyond the court procedure.", "§ 68 VwVGO rules the preliminary proceeding, called \"Vorverfahren\" or \"Widerspruchsverfahren\", which is a stringent prerequisite for the administrative procedure, if an action for rescission or a writ of mandamus against an authority is aimed.", "The preliminary proceeding gives each citizen, feeling unlawfully mistreated by an authority, the possibility to object and to force a review of an administrative act without going to court.", "The prerequisites to open the public law remedy are listed in § 40 I VwGO.", "Therefore, it is necessary to have the existence of a conflict in public law without any constitutional aspects and no assignment to another jurisdiction.The social security code (Sozialgesetzbuch SGB) and the general fiscal law are less important for the administrative law.", "They supplement the VwVfG and the VwGO in the fields of taxation and social legislation, such as social welfare or financial support for students (BaFÖG) etc.==== Special administrative law ====The special administrative law consists of various laws.", "Each special sector has its own law.", "The most important ones are the* Town and Country Planning Code (Baugesetzbuch BauGB)* Federal Control of Pollution Act (Bundesimmissionsschutzgesetz BImSchG)* Industrial Code (Gewerbeordnung GewO)* Police Law (Polizei- und Ordnungsrecht)* Statute Governing Restaurants (Gaststättenrecht GastG).In Germany, the highest administrative court for most matters is the federal administrative court .", "There are federal courts with special jurisdiction in the fields of social security law () and tax law ().=== Italy ===In Italy administrative law is known as , a branch of public law whose rules govern the organization of the public administration and the activities of the pursuit of the public interest of the public administration and the relationship between this and the citizens.Its genesis is related to the principle of division of powers of the State.", "The administrative power, originally called \"executive\", is to organize resources and people whose function is devolved to achieve the public interest objectives as defined by the law.=== Netherlands ===In the Netherlands administrative law provisions are usually contained in the various laws about public services and regulations.", "There is however also a single General Administrative Law Act ( or Awb), which is a rather good sample of procedural laws in Europe.", "It applies both to the making of administrative decisions and the judicial review of these decisions in courts.", "Another act about judicial procedures in general is the (General time provisions act), with general provisions about time schedules in procedures.On the basis of the Awb, citizens can oppose a decision () made by an administrative agency () within the administration and apply for judicial review in courts if unsuccessful.", "Before going to court, citizens must usually first object to the decision with the administrative body who made it.", "This is called .", "This procedure allows for the administrative body to correct possible mistakes themselves and is used to filter cases before going to court.", "Sometimes, instead of , a different system is used called (administrative appeal).", "The difference with is that is filed with a different administrative body, usually a higher ranking one, than the administrative body that made the primary decision.", "is available only if the law on which the primary decision is based specifically provides for it.", "An example involves objecting to a traffic ticket with the district attorney (), after which the decision can be appealed in court.Unlike France or Germany, there are no special administrative courts of first instance in the Netherlands, but regular courts have an administrative \"chamber\" which specializes in administrative appeals.", "The courts of appeal in administrative cases however are specialized depending on the case, but most administrative appeals end up in the judicial section of the Council of State (Raad van State).=== Sweden ===The Stenbockska Palace is the former seat of the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden.In Sweden, there is a system of administrative courts that considers only administrative law cases, and is completely separate from the system of general courts.", "This system has three tiers, with 12 county administrative courts () as the first tier, four administrative courts of appeal () as the second tier, and the Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden () as the third tier.Migration cases are handled in a two-tier system, effectively within the system general administrative courts.", "Three of the administrative courts serve as migration courts () with the Administrative Court of Appeal in Stockholm serving as the Migration Court of Appeal ().===Taiwan (ROC)===In Taiwan the recently enacted ''Constitutional Procedure Act'' (憲法訴訟法) in 2019 (former ''Constitutional Interpretation Procedure Act, 1993''), the '''Justices of the Constitutional Court''' of Judicial Yuan of Taiwan is in charge of judicial interpretation.", "As of 2019, this council has made 757 interpretations.=== Turkey ===In Turkey, the lawsuits against the acts and actions of the national or local governments and public bodies are handled by administrative courts which are the main administrative courts.", "The decisions of the administrative courts are checked by the Regional Administrative Courts and Council of State.", "Council of State as a court of last resort is exactly similar to Conseil d'État in France.=== Ukraine ===Administrative law in Ukraine is a homogeneous legal substance isolated in a system of jurisprudence characterized as: (1) a branch of law; (2) a science; (3) a discipline." ], [ "In common law countries", "Generally speaking, most countries that follow the principles of common law have developed procedures for judicial review that limit the reviewability of decisions made by administrative law bodies.", "Often these procedures are coupled with legislation or other common law doctrines that establish standards for proper rulemaking.", "Administrative law may also apply to review of decisions of so-called semi-public bodies, such as non-profit corporations, disciplinary boards, and other decision-making bodies that affect the legal rights of members of a particular group or entity.While administrative decision-making bodies are often controlled by larger governmental units, their decisions could be reviewed by a court of general jurisdiction under some principle of judicial review based upon due process (United States) or fundamental justice (Canada).", "Judicial review of administrative decisions is different from an administrative appeal.", "When sitting in review of a decision, the Court will only look at the method in which the decision was arrived at, whereas in an administrative appeal the correctness of the decision itself will be examined, usually by a higher body in the agency.", "This difference is vital in appreciating administrative law in common law countries.The scope of judicial review may be limited to certain questions of fairness, or whether the administrative action is ''ultra vires''.", "In terms of ultra vires actions in the broad sense, a reviewing court may set aside an administrative decision if it is unreasonable (under Canadian law, following the rejection of the \"Patently Unreasonable\" standard by the Supreme Court in Dunsmuir v New Brunswick), ''Wednesbury'' unreasonable (under British law), or arbitrary and capricious (under U.S.", "Administrative Procedure Act and New York State law).", "Administrative law, as laid down by the Supreme Court of India, has also recognized two more grounds of judicial review which were recognized but not applied by English Courts, namely legitimate expectation and proportionality.The powers to review administrative decisions are usually established by statute, but were originally developed from the royal prerogative writs of English law, such as the writ of mandamus and the writ of certiorari.", "In certain common law jurisdictions, such as India or Pakistan, the power to pass such writs is a Constitutionally guaranteed power.", "This power is seen as fundamental to the power of judicial review and an aspect of the independent judiciary.=== Australia ====== Canada ====== Singapore ====== United Kingdom ====== United States ===American administrative law often involves the regulatory activities of so-called \"independent agencies\", such as the Federal Trade Commission, whose headquarters is shown above.In the United States, many government agencies are organized under the executive branch of government, although a few are part of the judicial or legislative branches.In the federal government, the executive branch, led by the president, controls the federal executive departments, which are led by secretaries who are members of the United States Cabinet.", "The many independent agencies of the United States government created by statutes enacted by Congress exist outside of the federal executive departments but are still part of the executive branch.Congress has also created some special judicial bodies known as Article I tribunals to handle some areas of administrative law.The actions of executive agencies and independent agencies are the main focus of American administrative law.", "In response to the rapid creation of new independent agencies in the early twentieth century (see discussion below), Congress enacted the Administrative Procedure Act ('''APA''') in 1946.Many of the independent agencies operate as miniature versions of the tripartite federal government, with the authority to \"legislate\" (through rulemaking; see Federal Register and Code of Federal Regulations), \"adjudicate\" (through administrative hearings), and to \"execute\" administrative goals (through agency enforcement personnel).", "Because the United States Constitution sets no limits on this tripartite authority of administrative agencies, Congress enacted the APA to establish fair administrative law procedures to comply with the constitutional requirements of due process.", "Agency procedures are drawn from four sources of authority: the APA, organic statutes, agency rules, and informal agency practice.", "It is important to note, though, that agencies can only act within their congressionally delegated authority, and must comply with the requirements of the APA.At state level the first version of the Model State Administrative Procedure Act was promulgated and published in 1946 by the Uniform Law Commission (ULC), in which year the Federal Administrative Procedure Act was drafted.", "It is incorporated basic principles with only enough elaboration of detail to support essential features, therefore it is a \"model\", and not a \"uniform\", act.", "A model act is needed because state administrative law in the states is not uniform, and there are a variety of approaches used in the various states.", "Later it was modified in 1961 and 1981.The present version is the 2010 Model State Administrative Procedure Act ('''MSAPA''') which maintains the continuity with earlier ones.", "The reason of the revision is that, in the past two decades state legislatures, dissatisfied with agency rule-making and adjudication, have enacted statutes that modify administrative adjudication and rule-making procedure.The American Bar Association's official journal concerning administrative law is the ''Administrative Law Review'', a quarterly publication that is managed and edited by students at the Washington College of Law.==== Historical development ====Stephen Breyer, a U.S. Supreme Court Justice from 1994 to 2022, divides the history of administrative law in the United States into six discrete periods, in his book, ''Administrative Law & Regulatory Policy'' (3d Ed., 1992):* English antecedents & the American experience to 1875* 1875 – 1930: the rise of regulation & the traditional model of administrative law* 1930 – 1945: the New Deal* 1945 – 1965: the Administrative Procedure Act & the maturation of the traditional model of administrative law* 1965 – 1985: critique and transformation of the administrative process* 1985 – ?", ": retreat or consolidation==== Agriculture ====The agricultural sector is one of the most heavily regulated sectors in the U.S. economy, as it is regulated in various ways at the international, federal, state, and local levels.", "Consequently, administrative law is a significant component of the discipline of agricultural law.", "The United States Department of Agriculture and its myriad agencies such as the Agricultural Marketing Service are the primary sources of regulatory activity, although other administrative bodies such as the Environmental Protection Agency play a significant regulatory role as well." ], [ "See also", "* Constitutionalism* Rule of law* Rechtsstaat" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "** ." ] ]

[ [ "Arthur Phillip" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Arthur Phillip''' (11 October 1738 – 31 August 1814) was a British Royal Navy officer who served as the first governor of the Colony of New South Wales.Phillip was educated at Greenwich Hospital School from June 1751 until December 1753.He then became an apprentice on the whaling ship ''Fortune''.", "With the outbreak of the Seven Years' War against France, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain's servant to Michael Everitt aboard .", "With Everitt, Phillip also served on and .", "Phillip was promoted to lieutenant on 7 June 1761, before being put on half-pay at the end of hostilities on 25 April 1763.Seconded to the Portuguese Navy in 1774, he served in the war against Spain.", "Returning to Royal Navy service in 1778, in 1782 Phillip, in command of , was to capture Spanish colonies in South America, but an armistice was concluded before he reached his destination.", "In 1784, Phillip was employed by Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean, to survey French defences in Europe.In 1786 Phillip was appointed by Lord Sydney as the commander of the First Fleet, a fleet of 11 ships whose crew were to establish a penal colony and a settlement at Botany Bay, New South Wales.", "On arriving at Botany Bay, Phillip found the site unsuitable and searched for a more habitable site for a settlement, which he found in Port Jackson – the site of Sydney, Australia, today.", "Phillip was a far-sighted governor who soon realised that New South Wales would need a civil administration and a system for emancipating convicts.", "However, his plan to bring skilled tradesmen on the First Fleet's voyage had been rejected.", "Consequently, he faced immense problems with labour, discipline, and supply.", "Phillip wanted harmonious relations with the local indigenous peoples, in the belief that everyone in the colony was a British citizen and was protected by the law as such, therefore the indigenous peoples had the same rights as everyone under Phillip's command.", "Eventually, cultural differences between the two groups of people led to conflict.", "The arrival of more convicts with the Second and Third Fleets placed new pressures on scarce local resources.", "By the time Phillip sailed home in December 1792, the colony was taking shape, with official land grants, systematic farming, and a water supply in place.On 11 December 1792, Phillip left the colony to return to Britain to receive medical treatment for kidney stones.", "He had planned to return to Australia, but medical advisors recommended he resign from the governorship.", "His health recovered and he returned to active duty in the Navy in 1796, holding a number of commands in home waters before being put in command of the Hampshire Sea Fencibles.", "He eventually retired from active naval service in 1805.He spent his final years of retirement in Bath, Somerset, before his death on 31 August 1814.As the first Governor of New South Wales, a number of places in Australia are named after him, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island, Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district, the suburb of Phillip in Canberra and the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, as well as many streets, parks, and schools." ], [ "Early life", "Arthur Phillip was born on 11 October 1738, in the Parish of All Hallows, in Bread Street, London.", "He was the son of Jacob Phillip, an immigrant from Frankfurt, who by various accounts was a language teacher, a merchant vessel owner, a merchant captain, or a common seaman.", "His mother, Elizabeth Breach, was the widow of a common seaman by the name of John Herbert, who had died of disease in Jamaica aboard on 13 August 1732.At the time of Arthur Phillip's birth, his family maintained a modest existence as tenants near Cheapside in the City of London.There are no surviving records of Phillip's early childhood.", "His father, Jacob, died in 1739, after which the Phillip family would have a low income.", "Arthur went to sea on a British naval vessel aged nine.", "On 22 June 1751, he was accepted into the Greenwich Hospital School, a charity school for the sons of indigent seafarers.", "In accordance with the school's curriculum, his education focused on literacy, arithmetic, and navigational skills, including cartography.", "His headmaster, Reverend Francis Swinden, observed that in personality, Phillip was \"unassuming, reasonable, business-like to the smallest degree in everything he undertakes\".Phillip remained at the Greenwich Hospital School for two and a half years, longer than the average student stay of one year.", "At the end of 1753, he was granted a seven-year indenture as an apprentice aboard ''Fortune'', a 210-ton whaling vessel commanded by merchant mariner William Readhead.", "Phillip left the Greenwich Hospital School on 1 December, and spent the next few months aboard the ''Fortune'', awaiting the start of the 1754 whaling season.Contemporary portraits depict Phillip as shorter than average, with an olive complexion and dark eyes.", "A long nose and a pronounced lower lip dominated his \"smooth pear of a skull\" as quoted by Robert Hughes." ], [ "Early maritime career", "===Whaling and merchant expeditions===In April 1754 ''Fortune'' headed out to hunt whales near Svalbard in the Barents Sea.", "As an apprentice Phillip's responsibilities included stripping blubber from whale carcasses and helping to pack it into barrels.", "Food was scarce, and ''Fortune''s 30 crew members supplemented their diet with bird's eggs, scurvy grass, and, where possible, reindeer.", "The ship returned to England on 20 July 1754.The whaling crew were paid and replaced with twelve sailors for a winter voyage to the Mediterranean.", "Phillip remained aboard as ''Fortune'' undertook an outward trading voyage to Barcelona and Livorno carrying salt and raisins, returning via Rotterdam with a cargo of grains and citrus.", "The ship returned to England in April 1755 and sailed immediately for Svalbard for that year's whale hunt.", "Phillip was still a member of the crew but abandoned his apprenticeship when the ship returned to England on 27 July.===Royal Navy and the Seven Years' War===HMS ''Buckingham'', Phillip's first posting after joining the Navy in 1755.Vessel pictured on the stocks at Deptford Dockyard, c. 1751.Painting by John Cleveley the Elder.", "National Maritime Museum, London.On 16 October 1755, Phillip enlisted in the Royal Navy as captain's servant aboard the 68-gun , commanded by his mother's cousin, Captain Michael Everitt.", "As a member of ''Buckingham''s crew, Phillip served in home waters until April 1756 and then joined Admiral John Byng's Mediterranean fleet.", "The ''Buckingham'' was Rear-Admiral Temple West's flagship at the Battle of Minorca on 20 May 1756.Phillip moved on 1 August 1757, with Everitt, to the 90-gun , which took part in the Raid on St Malo on 5–12 June 1758.Phillip, again with Captain Everitt, transferred on 28 December 1758 to the 64-gun , which went to the West Indies to serve at the Siege of Havana.", "On 7 June 1761, Phillip was commissioned as a lieutenant in recognition for his active service.", "With the coming of peace on 25 April 1763, he was retired on half-pay.===Retirement and the Portuguese Navy===In July 1763, Phillip married Margaret Charlotte Denison (), known as Charlott, a widow 16 years his senior, and moved to Glasshayes in Lyndhurst, Hampshire, establishing a farm there.", "The marriage was unhappy, and the couple separated in 1769 when Phillip returned to the Navy.", "The following year, he was posted as second lieutenant aboard , a newly built 74-gun ship of the line.In 1774, Phillip was seconded to the Portuguese Navy as a captain, serving in the war against Spain.", "While with the Portuguese Navy, Phillip commanded a 26-gun frigate, ''Nossa Senhora do Pilar''.", "On that ship, he took a detachment of troops from Rio de Janeiro to Colonia do Sacramento on the Río de la Plata (opposite Buenos Aires) to relieve the garrison there.", "The voyage also conveyed a consignment of convicts assigned to carry out work at Colonia.", "During a storm encountered in the course of the voyage, the convicts assisted in working the ship, and on arriving at Colonia, Phillip recommended that they be rewarded for saving the ship by remission of their sentences.", "A garbled version of this recommendation eventually found its way into the English press in 1786, when Phillip was appointed to lead the expedition to Sydney.", "Phillip played a leading role in the capture of the Spanish ship ''San Agustín'', on 19 April 1777, off Santa Catarina.", "The Portuguese Navy commissioned her as the ''Santo Agostinho'', under Phillip's command.", "The action was reported in the English press: Madrid, 28 Aug.", "Letters from Lisbon bring the following Account from Rio Janeiro: That the St. Augustine, of 70 Guns, having been separated from the Squadron of M. Casa Tilly, was attacked by two Portugueze Ships, against which they defended themselves for a Day and a Night, but being next Day surrounded by the Portugueze Fleet, was obliged to surrender.===Recommissioned into Royal Navy===In 1778, with Britain again at war, Phillip was recalled to Royal Navy service and on 9 October was appointed first lieutenant of the 74-gun as part of the Channel fleet.", "Promoted to commander on 2 September 1779 and given command of the 8-gun fireship HMS ''Basilisk''.", "With Spain's entry into the conflict, Phillip had a series of private meetings with the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Earl of Sandwich, sharing his charts and knowledge about the South American coastlines.", "Phillip was promoted to post-captain on 30 November 1781 and given command of the 20-gun .", "''Ariadne'' was sent to the Elbe to escort a transport ship carrying a detachment of Hanoverian troops, arriving at the port of Cuxhaven on 28 December, the estuary froze over trapping ''Ariadne'' in the harbour.", "In March 1782, Phillip arrived in England with the Hanoverian troops.", "In the following months ''Ariadne'' got a new lieutenant, Philip Gidley King, whom Phillip took under his wing.", "''Ariadne'' was used to patrol the Channel where on 30 June, she captured the French frigate ''Le Robecq''.With a change of government on 27 March 1782, Sandwich retired from the Admiralty, Lord Germain was replaced as Secretary of State for Home and American Affairs by Earl of Shelburne, before 10 July 1782, in another change of government Thomas Townshend replaced him, and assumed responsibility for organising an expedition against Spanish America.", "Like Sandwich and Germain, he turned to Phillip for planning advice.", "The plan was for a squadron of three ships of the line and a frigate to mount a raid on Buenos Aires and Monte Video, then to proceed to the coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico to maraud, and ultimately to cross the Pacific to join the British Navy's East India squadron for an attack on Manila.", "On 27 December 1782, Phillip, took charge of the 64-gun .", "The expedition, consisting of the 70-gun , the 74-gun , ''Europa'', and the 32-gun frigate , sailed on 16 January 1783 under the command of Commodore Robert Kingsmill.", "Shortly after the ships' departure, an armistice was concluded between Great Britain and Spain.", "Phillip learnt of this in April when he put in for storm repairs at Rio de Janeiro.", "Phillip wrote to Townshend from Rio de Janeiro on 25 April 1783, expressing his disappointment that the ending of the American War had robbed him of the opportunity for naval glory in South America.===Survey work in Europe===After his return to England in April 1784, Phillip remained in close contact with Townshend, now Lord Sydney, and Home Office Under Secretary Evan Nepean.", "From October 1784 to September 1786, Nepean, who was in charge of the Secret Service relating to the Bourbon Powers, France, and Spain, employed him to spy on the French naval arsenals at Toulon and other ports.", "There was fear that Britain would soon be at war with these powers as a consequence of the Batavian Revolution in the Netherlands." ], [ "Colonial service", "Lord Sandwich, together with the president of the Royal Society, Sir Joseph Banks, the scientist who had accompanied Lieutenant James Cook on his 1770 voyage, was advocating the establishment of a British colony in Botany Bay, New South Wales.", "Banks accepted an offer of assistance from the American loyalist James Matra in July 1783.Under Banks' guidance, Matra rapidly produced \"A Proposal for Establishing a Settlement in New South Wales\" (24 August 1783), with a fully developed set of reasons for a colony composed of American loyalists, Chinese, and South Sea Islanders (but not convicts).", "Thomas Townshend, Lord Sydney, as Secretary of State for the Home Office and minister in charge, decided to establish the proposed colony in Australia.", "This decision was taken for two reasons: the ending of the option to transport criminals to North America following the American Revolution, and the need for a base in the Pacific to counter French expansion.In September 1786, Phillip was appointed commodore of the fleet, which came to be known as the First Fleet.", "His assignment was to transport convicts and soldiers to establish a colony at Botany Bay.", "Upon arriving there, Phillip was to assume the powers of captain general and governor in chief of the new colony.", "A subsidiary colony was to be founded on Norfolk Island, as recommended by Sir John Call and Sir George Young, to take advantage of that island's native flax (harakeke) and timber for naval purposes.===Voyage to Colony of New South Wales===On 25 October 1786, the 20-gun , lying in the dock at Deptford, was commissioned, with the command given to Phillip.", "The armed tender , under the command of Lieutenant Henry Lidgbird Ball, was also commissioned to join the expedition.", "On 15 December, Captain John Hunter was assigned as second captain to ''Sirius'' to command in the absence of Phillip, who as governor of the colony, would be where the seat of government was to be fixed.Phillip had a difficult time assembling the fleet, which was to make an eight-month sea voyage and then establish a colony.", "Everything a new colony might need had to be taken, since Phillip had no real idea of what he might find when he got there.", "There were few funds available for equipping the expedition.", "His suggestion that people with experience in farming, building, and crafts be included was rejected by the Home Office.", "Most of the 772 convicts were petty thieves from the London slums.", "A contingent of marines and a handful of other officers who were to administer the colony accompanied Phillip.The fleet of 11 ships and about 1,500 people, under Phillip's command, sailed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787; provided an escort out of British waters.", "On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz, Tenerife.", "On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents.", "The Fleet reached Rio de Janeiro on 5 August and stayed for a month to resupply.", "The Fleet left Rio de Janeiro on 4 September to run before the westerlies to Table Bay in Southern Africa, which it reached on 13 October; this was the last port of call before Botany Bay.", "On 25 November, Phillip transferred from the ''Sirius'' to the faster ''Supply'', and with the faster ships of the fleet hastened ahead to prepare for the arrival of the rest of the fleet.", "However, this \"flying squadron\", as Frost called it, reached Botany Bay only hours before the rest of the Fleet, so no preparatory work was possible.", "''Supply'' reached Botany Bay on 18 January 1788; the three fastest transports in the advance group arrived on 19 January; slower ships, including ''Sirius'', arrived on 20 January.The landing of the First Fleet in Port Jackson in 1788Phillip soon decided that the site, chosen on the recommendation of Sir Joseph Banks, who had accompanied James Cook in 1770, was not suitable, since it had poor soil, no secure anchorage, and no reliable water source.", "Cook was an explorer and Banks had a scientific interest, whereas Phillip's differing assessment of the site came from his perspective as, quoted by Tyrrell, \"custodian of over a thousand convicts\" for whom he was responsible.", "After some exploration, Phillip decided to go on to Port Jackson, and on 26 January, the marines and the convicts landed at a cove, which Phillip named for Lord Sydney.", "This date later became Australia's national day, Australia Day.", "Governor Phillip formally proclaimed the colony on 7 February 1788 in Sydney.", "Sydney Cove offered a fresh water supply and a safe harbour, which Phillip famously described as: \"being with out exception the finest Harbour in the World ...", "Here a Thousand Sail of the Line may ride in the most perfect Security.", "\"===Establishing a settlement===''The Founding of Australia By Capt.", "Arthur Phillip R.N., Sydney Cove, Jan. 1788''.Painting by Algernon Talmage, 1937.On 26 January, the Union Jack was raised, and possession of the land was taken formally in the name of King George III.", "The next day, sailors from ''Sirius'', a party of marines, and a number of male convicts were disembarked to fell timber and clear the ground for the erection of tents.", "The remaining large company of male convicts disembarked from the transports over the following days.", "Phillip himself structured the ordering of the camp.", "His own tent as governor and those of his attendant staff and servants were set on the east side of Tank Stream, with the tents of the male convicts and marines on the west.", "During this time, priority was given to building permanent storehouses for the settlement's provisions.", "On 29 January, the governor's portable house was placed, and livestock were landed the next day.", "The female convicts disembarked on 6 February; the general camp for the women was to the north of the governor's house and separated from the male convicts by the houses of chaplain Richard Johnson and the Judge Advocate, Marine Captain David Collins.", "On 7 February 1788, Phillip and his government were formally inaugurated.On 15 February 1788, Phillip sent Lieutenant Philip Gidley King with a party of 23, including 15 convicts, to establish the colony at Norfolk Island, partly in response to a perceived threat of losing the island to the French, and partly to establish an alternative food source for the mainland colony.===Governor of New South Wales===When Phillip was appointed as governor-designate of the colony and began to plan the expedition, he requested that the convicts that were being sent be trained; only twelve carpenters and a few men who knew anything about agriculture were sent.", "Seamen with technical and building skills were commandeered immediately.", "The colony's isolation meant that it took almost two years for Phillip to receive replies to his dispatches from his superiors in London.Phillip established a civil administration, with courts of law, that applied to everyone living in the settlement.", "Two convicts, Henry and Susannah Kable, sought to sue Duncan Sinclair, the captain of the ''Alexander'', for stealing their possessions during the voyage.", "Sinclair, believing that as convicts they had no protection from the law, as was the case in Britain, boasted that he could not be sued.", "Despite this, the court found for the plaintiffs and ordered the captain to make restitution for the theft of the Kables' possessions.Phillip had drawn up a detailed memorandum of his plans for the proposed new colony.", "In one paragraph he wrote: \"The laws of this country England will of course, be introduced in New South Wales, and there is one that I would wish to take place from the moment his Majesty's forces take possession of the country: That there can be no slavery in a free land, and consequently no slaves.\"", "Nevertheless, Phillip believed in severe discipline; floggings and hangings were commonplace, although Phillip commuted many death sentences.", "The settlement's supplies were rationed equally to convicts, officers, and marines, and females were given two-thirds of the weekly males' rations.", "In late February, six convicts were brought before the criminal court for stealing supplies.", "They were sentenced to death; the ringleader, Thomas Barrett, was hanged that day.", "Phillip gave the rest a reprieve.", "They were banished to an island in the harbour and given only bread and water.The governor also expanded the settlement's knowledge of the landscape.", "Two officers from ''Sirius'', Captain John Hunter and Lieutenant William Bradley, conducted a thorough survey of the harbour at Sydney Cove.", "Phillip later joined them on an expedition to survey Broken Bay.The fleet's ships left over the next months, with ''Sirius'' and ''Supply'' remaining in the colony under command of the governor.", "They were used to survey and map the coastlines and waterways.", "Scurvy broke out, so ''Sirius'' left Port Jackson for Cape Town under the command of Hunter in October 1788, having been sent for supplies.", "The voyage, which completed a circumnavigation, returned to Sydney Cove in April, just in time to save the near-starving colony.Statue of Arthur Phillip in the Royal Botanic Gardens, SydneyAs an experienced farmhand, Phillip's appointed servant Henry Edward Dodd, served as farm superintendent at Farm Cove, where he successfully cultivated the first crops, later moving to Rose Hill, where the soil was better.", "James Ruse, a convict, was later appointed to the position after Dodd died in 1791.When Ruse succeeded in the farming endeavours, he received the colony's first land grant.In June 1790, more convicts arrived with the Second Fleet, but , carrying more supplies, was disabled en route after hitting an iceberg, leaving the colony low on provisions again.", "''Supply'', the only ship left under colonial command after ''Sirius'' was wrecked 19 March 1790 trying to land men and supplies on Norfolk Island, was sent to Batavia for supplies.In late 1792, Phillip, whose health was suffering, relinquished the governorship to Major Francis Grose, lieutenant-governor and commander of New South Wales Corps.", "On 11 December 1792, Phillip left for Britain, on the ''Atlantic'', which had arrived with convicts of the Third Fleet.", "Phillip was unable to follow his original intention of returning to Port Jackson once his health was restored, as medical advice compelled him to resign formally on 23 July 1793.===Military personnel in colony===The main challenge for order and harmony in the settlement came not from the convicts secured there on terms of good behaviour, but from the attitude of officers from the New South Wales Marine Corps.", "As Commander in Chief, Phillip was in command of both the naval and marine forces; his naval officers readily obeyed his commands, but a measure of co-operation from the marine officers ran against their tradition.", "Major Robert Ross and his officers (with the exception of a few such as David Collins, Watkin Tench, and William Dawes) refused to do anything other than guard duty, claiming that they were neither gaolers, supervisors, nor policemen.Four companies of marines, consisting of 160 privates with 52 officers and NCO's, accompanied the First Fleet to Botany Bay.", "In addition, there were 34 officers and men serving in the Ship's Complement of Marines aboard ''Sirius'' and ''Supply'', bringing the total to 246 who departed England.Ross supported and encouraged his fellow officers in their conflicts with Phillip, engaged in clashes of his own, and complained of the governor's actions to the Home Office.", "Phillip, more placid and forbearing in temperament, was anxious in the interests of the community as a whole to avoid friction between the civil and military authorities.", "Though firm in his attitude, he endeavoured to placate Ross, but to little effect.", "In the end, he solved the problem by ordering Ross to Norfolk Island on 5 March 1790 to replace the commandant there.Beginning with guards arriving with the Second and Third fleets, but officially with the arrival of on 22 September 1791, the New South Wales Marines were relieved by a newly formed British Army regiment of foot, the New South Wales Corps.", "On 18 December 1791, ''Gorgon'' left Port Jackson, taking home the larger part of the still-serving New South Wales Marines.", "There remained in New South Wales a company of active marines serving under Captain George Johnston, who had been Phillip's aide-de-camp, that transferred to the New South Wales Corps.", "Also remaining in the colony were discharged marines, many of whom became settlers.", "The official departure of the last serving marines from the colony was in December 1792, with Governor Phillip on ''Atlantic''.Major Francis Grose, commander of the New South Wales Corps, had replaced Ross as the Lieutenant-Governor and took over command of the colony when Phillip returned to Britain.===Relations with indigenous peoples===Phillip's official orders with regard to Aboriginal people were to \"conciliate their affections\", to \"live in amity and kindness with them\", and to punish anyone who should \"wantonly destroy them, or give them any unnecessary interruption in the exercise of their several occupations\".", "The first meeting between the colonists and the Eora, Aboriginal people, happened in Botany Bay.", "When Phillip went ashore, gifts were exchanged, thus Phillip and the officers began their relationship with the Eora through gift-giving, hilarity, and dancing, but also by showing them what their guns could do.", "Anyone found harming or killing Aboriginal people without provocation would be severely punished.After the early meetings, dancing, and musket demonstrations, the Eora avoided the settlement in Sydney Cove for the first year, but they warned and then attacked whenever colonists trespassed on their lands away from the settlement.", "Part of Phillip's early plan for peaceful cohabitation had been to persuade some Eora, preferably a family, to come and live in the town with the British so that the colonists could learn about the Eora's language, beliefs, and customs.By the end of the first year, as none of the Eora had come to live in the settlement, Phillip decided on a more ruthless strategy, and ordered the capture of some Eora warriors.", "The man who was captured was Arabanoo, from whom Phillip and his officers started to learn language and customs.", "Arabanoo died in April 1789 of smallpox, which also ravaged the rest of the Eora population.", "Phillip again ordered the boats to Manly Cove, where two more warriors were captured, Coleby and Bennelong; Coleby soon escaped, but Bennelong remained.", "Bennelong and Phillip formed a kind of friendship, before he too escaped.Four months after Bennelong escaped from Sydney, Phillip was invited to a whale feast at Manly.", "Bennelong greeted him in a friendly and jovial way.", "Phillip was suddenly surrounded by warriors and speared in the shoulder by a man called Willemering.", "He ordered his men not to retaliate.", "Phillip, perhaps realising that the spearing was in retaliation for the kidnapping, ordered no actions to be taken over it.", "Friendly relations were reestablished afterwards, with Bennelong even returning to Sydney with his family.Even though there were now friendly relations with the Indigenous people around Sydney Cove, the same couldn't be said about the ones around Botany Bay, who had killed or wounded 17 colonists.", "Phillip despatched orders, as quoted by Tench, \"to put to death ten... and cut off the heads of the slain... to infuse a universal terror, which might operate to prevent further mischief\".", "Even though two expeditions were despatched under command of Watkin Tench, no one was apprehended.On 11 December 1792, when Phillip returned to Britain, Bennelong and another Aboriginal man named Yemmerrawanne (or Imeerawanyee) travelled with him on the ''Atlantic''." ], [ "Later life and death", "Phillip's estranged wife, Charlott, died 3 August 1792 and was buried in St Beuno's Churchyard, Llanycil, Bala, Merionethshire.", "Phillip, a resident in Marylebone, married Isabella Whitehead of Bath in St Marylebone Church of England on 8 May 1794.His health recovered, he was recommissioned in March 1796 to the 74-gun as part of the Channel fleet.", "In October, his command was switched to the 74-gun .", "In September 1797, Phillip was transferred again to the 90-gun , command of which he held until December of that year.", "During 1798–99, Phillip commanded the Hampshire Sea Fencibles, then appointed inspector of the Impress Service, in which capacity he and a secretary toured the outposts of Britain to report on the strengths of the various posts.In the ordinary course of events he was promoted to Rear-Admiral on 1 January 1801.Phillip retired in 1805 from active service in the Navy, was promoted to Vice-Admiral on 13 December 1806, and received a final promotion to Admiral of the Blue on 4 June 1814.Phillip suffered a stroke in 1808, which left him partially paralysed.", "He died 31 August 1814 at his residence, 19 Bennett Street, Bath.", "He was buried nearby at St Nicholas's Church, Bathampton.", "His Last Will and Testament has been transcribed and is online.", "Forgotten for many years, the grave was discovered in November 1897 by a young woman cleaning the church, who found the name after lifting matting from the floor; the historian James Bonwick had been searching Bath records for its location.", "An annual service of remembrance is held at the church around Phillip's birthdate by the Britain–Australia Society.In 2007, Geoffrey Robertson QC alleged that Phillip's remains were no longer in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, and had been lost: \"Captain Arthur Phillip is not where the ledger stone says he is: it may be that he is buried somewhere outside, it may simply be that he is simply lost.", "But he is not where Australians have been led to believe that he now lies.\"" ], [ "Legacy", "The Australia Chapel in St Nicholas Church, Bathampton, near Bath, England.", "The memorial to the first governor of New South Wales, Arthur Phillip, is on the right hand wallAdmiral Arthur Phillip monument bust in the City of LondonA number of places in Australia bear Phillip's name, including Port Phillip, Phillip Island (Victoria), Phillip Island (Norfolk Island), Phillip Street in the Sydney central business district, the federal electorate of Phillip (1949–1993), the suburb of Phillip in Canberra, the Governor Phillip Tower building in Sydney, St Phillip's Church, Sydney (now St Philip's), and many streets, parks, and schools, including Arthur Phillip High School in Parramatta.A monument to Phillip in Bath Abbey Church was unveiled in 1937.Another was unveiled at St Mildred's Church, Bread Street, London, in 1932; that church was destroyed in the London Blitz in 1940, but the principal elements of the monument were re-erected at the west end of Watling Street, near Saint Paul's Cathedral, in 1968.A different bust and memorial is inside the nearby church of St Mary-le-Bow.", "There is a statue of him in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Sydney.", "There is a portrait of him by Francis Wheatley in the National Portrait Gallery, London, and in the Mitchell Library, State Library of New South Wales, Sydney.Percival Serle wrote of Phillip in his ''Dictionary of Australian Biography'': ===200th anniversary===As part of a series of events on the bicentenary of his death, a memorial was dedicated in Westminster Abbey on 9 July 2014.In the service, the Dean of Westminster, Very Reverend Dr John Hall, described Phillip as follows: \"This modest, yet world-class seaman, linguist, and patriot, whose selfless service laid the secure foundations on which was developed the Commonwealth of Australia, will always be remembered and honoured alongside other pioneers and inventors here in the Nave: David Livingstone, Thomas Cochrane, and Isaac Newton.\"", "A similar memorial was unveiled by the outgoing 37th Governor of New South Wales, Marie Bashir, in St James' Church, Sydney, on 31 August 2014.A bronze bust was installed at the Museum of Sydney, and a full-day symposium discussed his contributions to the founding of modern Australia." ], [ "In popular culture", "Phillip has been played by a number of actors in movies and television programs, including:*Sir Cedric Hardwicke in ''Botany Bay'' (1953) *Edward Hepple in ''The Hungry Ones'' (1963)*Wynn Roberts in ''Prelude to Harvest'' (1963)*Peter Collingwood in ''The Timeless Land (1980)''*Sam Neill in ''The Incredible Journey of Mary Bryant'' (2005)*David Wenham in ''Banished'' (2015)*Barry Lee-Pearce in ''The Australian Wars'' (2022)He is a prominent character in Timberlake Wertenbaker's play ''Our Country's Good'', in which he commissions Lieutenant Ralph Clark to stage a production of ''The Recruiting Officer''.", "He is shown as compassionate and just, but receives little support from his fellow officers.His life was dramatised on radio in:*''The Watch on the Headland'' (1940)*''I'll Meet You in Botany Bay'' (1945)" ], [ "See also", "* ''Historical Records of Australia''* Journals of the First Fleet* History of smallpox in Australia" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===** * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * ** * * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* * * B. H. Fletcher, \"Phillip, Arthur (1738–1814)\", ''Australian Dictionary of Biography'', Volume 2, Melbourne University Press, 1967, pp 326–333." ] ]

[ [ "April 10" ], [ "Introduction" ], [ "Events", "===Pre-1600===* 428 – Nestorius becomes the Patriarch of Constantinople.", "* 837 – Halley's Comet makes its closest approach to Earth at a distance equal to 0.0342 AU (5.1 million kilometres/3.2 million miles).", "*1407 – Deshin Shekpa, 5th Karmapa Lama visits the Ming dynasty capital at Nanjing and is awarded the title \"Great Treasure Prince of Dharma\".", "*1500 – Ludovico Sforza is captured by Swiss troops at Novara and is handed over to the French.", "*1545 – The settlement of Villa Imperial de Carlos V (now the city of Potosí) in Bolivia is founded after the discovery of huge silver deposits in the area.===1601–1900===*1606 – The Virginia Company of London is established by royal charter by James I of England with the purpose of establishing colonial settlements in North America.", "*1710 – The Statute of Anne, the first law regulating copyright, comes into force in Great Britain.", "*1717 – Robert Walpole resigns from the British government, commencing the Whig Split which lasts until 1720.", "*1741 – War of the Austrian Succession: Prussia gains control of Silesia at the Battle of Mollwitz.", "*1809 – Napoleonic Wars: The War of the Fifth Coalition begins when forces of the Austrian Empire invade Bavaria.", "*1815 – The Mount Tambora volcano begins a three-month-long eruption, lasting until July 15.The eruption ultimately kills 71,000 people and affects Earth's climate for the next two years.", "*1816 – The Federal government of the United States approves the creation of the Second Bank of the United States.", "*1821 – Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople is hanged by the Ottoman government from the main gate of the Patriarchate and his body is thrown into the Bosphorus.", "* 1821 – Greek War of Independence: the island of Psara joins the Greek struggle for independence.", "*1826 – The 10,500 inhabitants of the Greek town of Missolonghi begin leaving the town after a year's siege by Turkish forces.", "Very few of them survive.", "*1858 – After the original Big Ben, a bell for the Palace of Westminster, had cracked during testing, it is recast into the current bell by Whitechapel Bell Foundry.", "*1864 – Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg is proclaimed emperor of Mexico during the French intervention in Mexico.", "*1865 – American Civil War: A day after his surrender to Union forces, Confederate General Robert E. Lee addresses his troops for the last time.", "*1866 – The American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA) is founded in New York City by Henry Bergh.", "*1868 – At Arogee in Abyssinia, British and Indian forces defeat an army of Emperor Tewodros II.", "While 700 Ethiopians are killed and many more injured, only two British/Indian troops die.", "*1872 – The first Arbor Day is celebrated in Nebraska.", "*1875 – India: Arya Samaj is founded in Mumbai by Swami Dayananda Saraswati to propagate his goal of social reform.", "*1887 – On Easter Sunday, Pope Leo XIII authorizes the establishment of the Catholic University of America.", "*1896 – 1896 Summer Olympics: The Olympic marathon is run ending with the victory of Greek athlete Spyridon Louis.", "*1900 – British suffer a sharp defeat by the Boers south of Brandfort.", "600 British troops are killed and wounded and 800 taken prisoner.===1901–present===*1912 – ''RMS Titanic'' sets sail from Southampton, England on her maiden and only voyage.", "*1916 – The Professional Golfers' Association of America (PGA) is created in New York City.", "*1919 – Mexican Revolution leader Emiliano Zapata is ambushed and shot dead by government forces in Morelos.", "* 1919 – The Third Regional Congress of Peasants, Workers and Insurgents is held by the Makhnovshchina at Huliaipole.", "*1925 – ''The Great Gatsby'' by F. Scott Fitzgerald is first published in New York City, by Charles Scribner's Sons.", "*1938 – The 1938 German parliamentary election and referendum seeks approval for a single list of Nazi candidates and the recent annexation of Austria.", "*1939 – ''Alcoholics Anonymous'', A.A.'s \"Big Book\", is first published.", "*1941 – World War II: The Axis powers establish the Independent State of Croatia.", "*1944 – Rudolf Vrba and Alfréd Wetzler escape from Birkenau death camp.", "*1963 – One hundred twenty-nine American sailors die when the submarine sinks at sea.", "*1968 – The TEV ''Wahine'', a New Zealand ferry sinks in Wellington harbour due to a fierce storm – the strongest winds ever in Wellington.", "Out of the 734 people on board, fifty-three died.", "*1970 – Paul McCartney announces that he is leaving The Beatles for personal and professional reasons.", "*1971 – Ping-pong diplomacy: In an attempt to thaw relations with the United States, China hosts the U.S. table tennis team for a week-long visit.", "*1972 – Tombs containing bamboo slips, among them Sun Tzu's ''Art of War'' and Sun Bin's lost military treatise, are discovered by construction workers in Shandong.", "* 1972 – Vietnam War: For the first time since November 1967, American B-52 bombers reportedly begin bombing North Vietnam.", "*1973 – Invicta International Airlines Flight 435 crashes in a snowstorm on approach to Basel, Switzerland, killing 108 people.", "*1979 – Red River Valley tornado outbreak: A tornado lands in Wichita Falls, Texas killing 42 people.", "*1988 – The Ojhri Camp explosion kills or injures more than 1,000 people in Rawalpindi and Islamabad, Pakistan.", "*1991 – Italian ferry collides with an oil tanker in dense fog off Livorno, Italy, killing 140.", "* 1991 – A rare tropical storm develops in the South Atlantic Ocean near Angola; the first to be documented by satellites.", "*1998 – The Good Friday Agreement is signed in Northern Ireland.", "*2009 – President of Fiji Ratu Josefa Iloilo announces the abrogation of the constitution and assumes all governance in the country, creating a constitutional crisis.", "*2010 – Polish Air Force Tu-154M crashes near Smolensk, Russia, killing 96 people, including Polish President Lech Kaczyński, his wife, and dozens of other senior officials and dignitaries.", "*2016 – The Paravur temple accident in which a devastating fire caused by the explosion of firecrackers stored for Vishu, kills more than one hundred people out of the thousands gathered for seventh day of Bhadrakali worship.", "* 2016 – An earthquake of 6.6 magnitude strikes 39 km west-southwest of Ashkasham, impacting India, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Srinagar and Pakistan.", "*2019 – Scientists from the Event Horizon Telescope project announce the first ever image of a black hole, which was located in the centre of the M87 galaxy.", "*2023 – A mass shooting occurs at the Old National Bank in Louisville, Kentucky that leaves five victims dead and eight wounded." ], [ "Births", "===Pre-1600===* 401 – Theodosius II, Roman emperor (d. 450)*1018 – Nizam al-Mulk, Persian scholar and vizier (d. 1092)*1472 – Margaret of York, English princess (d. 1472)*1480 – Philibert II, duke of Savoy (d. 1504)*1487 – William I, count of Nassau-Siegen (d. 1559)*1512 – James V, king of Scotland (d. 1542)*1579 – Augustus II, duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg (d. 1666)*1583 – Hugo Grotius, Dutch philosopher and jurist (d. 1645)===1601–1900===*1603 – Christian, Prince-Elect of Denmark (d. 1647)*1651 – Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus, German mathematician, physicist, and physician (d. 1708)*1656 – René Lepage de Sainte-Claire, French-Canadian settler, founded Rimouski (d. 1718)*1704 – Benjamin Heath, English scholar and author (d. 1766)*1707 – Michel Corrette, French organist, composer, and author (d. 1795)*1713 – John Whitehurst, English geologist and clockmaker (d. 1788)*1755 – Samuel Hahnemann, German-French physician and academic (d. 1843)*1762 – Giovanni Aldini, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1834)*1769 – Jean Lannes, French marshal (d. 1809)*1778 – William Hazlitt, English essayist and critic (d. 1830)*1794 – Matthew C. Perry, English-Scottish American commander (d. 1858)*1806 – Juliette Drouet, French actress (d. 1883)* 1806 – Leonidas Polk, Scottish-American general and bishop (d. 1884)*1827 – Lew Wallace, American general, lawyer, and politician, 11th Governor of New Mexico Territory (d. 1905)*1829 – William Booth, English minister, founded The Salvation Army (d. 1912)*1847 – Joseph Pulitzer, Hungarian-American journalist, publisher, and politician, founded Pulitzer, Inc. (d. 1911)*1864 – Eugen d'Albert, Scottish-German pianist and composer (d. 1932)*1865 – Jack Miner, American-Canadian farmer, hunter, and environmentalist (d. 1944)*1867 – George William Russell, Irish author, poet, and painter (d. 1935)*1868 – George Arliss, English actor and playwright (d. 1946)* 1868 – Asriel Günzig, Moravian rabbi (d. 1931)*1873 – Kyösti Kallio, Finnish farmer, banker, and politician, 4th President of Finland (d. 1940)*1875 – George Clawley, English footballer (d. 1920)*1877 – Alfred Kubin, Austrian author and illustrator (d. 1959)*1879 – Bernhard Gregory, Estonian-German chess player (d. 1939)* 1879 – Coenraad Hiebendaal, Dutch rower and physician (d. 1921)*1880 – Frances Perkins, American sociologist, academic, and politician, United States Secretary of Labor (d. 1965)* 1880 – Montague Summers, English clergyman and author (d. 1948)*1886 – Johnny Hayes, American runner and trainer (d. 1965)*1887 – Bernardo Houssay, Argentinian physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971)*1889 – Louis Rougier, French philosopher from the Vienna Circle (d. 1982)*1891 – Frank Barson, English footballer and coach (d. 1968)*1893 – Otto Steinböck, Austrian zoologist (d. 1969)*1894 – Ben Nicholson, British painter (d. 1982)*1897 – Prafulla Chandra Sen, Indian accountant and politician, 3rd Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1990)*1900 – Arnold Orville Beckman, American chemist, inventor, and philanthropist (d. 2004)===1901–present===*1901 – Dhananjay Ramchandra Gadgil, Indian economist (d. 1971)*1903 – Patroklos Karantinos, Greek architect (d. 1976) * 1903 – Clare Turlay Newberry, American author and illustrator (d. 1970)*1906 – Steve Anderson, American hurdler (d. 1988)*1910 – Margaret Clapp, American scholar and academic (d. 1974)* 1910 – Helenio Herrera, Argentinian footballer and manager (d. 1997)* 1910 – Paul Sweezy, American economist and publisher, founded the ''Monthly Review'' (d. 2004)*1911 – Martin Denny, American pianist and composer (d. 2005)* 1911 – Maurice Schumann, French journalist and politician, Minister of Foreign and European Affairs for France (d. 1998)*1912 – Boris Kidrič, Austrian-Slovenian politician, 1st Prime Minister of Slovenia (d. 1953)*1913 – Stefan Heym, German-American soldier and author (d. 2001)*1914 – Jack Badcock, Australian cricketer (d. 1982)*1915 – Harry Morgan, American actor and director (d. 2011)* 1915 – Leo Vroman, Dutch-American hematologist, poet, and illustrator (d. 2014)*1916 – Lee Jung-seob, Korean painter (d. 1956)*1917 – Jagjit Singh Lyallpuri, Indian politician (d. 2013)* 1917 – Robert Burns Woodward, American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)*1919 – John Houbolt, American engineer and academic (d. 2014)*1921 – Chuck Connors, American baseball player and actor (d. 1992)* 1921 – Jake Warren, Canadian soldier and diplomat, Canadian Ambassador to the United States (d. 2008)* 1921 – Sheb Wooley, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2003) *1923 – Roger Gaillard, Haitian historian and author (d. 2000)* 1923 – Jane Kean, American actress and singer (d. 2013)* 1923 – Floyd Simmons, American decathlete and actor (d. 2008)* 1923 – Sid Tickridge, English footballer (d. 1997)* 1923 – John Watkins, South African cricketer (d. 2021)*1924 – Kenneth Noland, American soldier and painter (d. 2010)*1925 – Angelo Poffo, American wrestler and promoter (d. 2010)*1926 – Jacques Castérède, French pianist and composer (d. 2014)* 1926 – Junior Samples, American comedian (d. 1983)*1927 – Norma Candal, Puerto Rican actress (d. 2006)* 1927 – Marshall Warren Nirenberg, American biochemist and geneticist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2010)*1929 – Mike Hawthorn, English race car driver (d. 1959)* 1929 – Liz Sheridan, American actress (d. 2022) * 1929 – Max von Sydow, Swedish-French actor (d. 2020)*1930 – Claude Bolling, French pianist, composer, and actor (d. 2020)* 1930 – Dolores Huerta, American activist, co-founded the United Farm Workers* 1930 – Spede Pasanen, Finnish film director and producer, comedian, and inventor (d. 2001)*1931 – Kishori Amonkar, Indian classical vocalist (d. 2017)*1932 – Delphine Seyrig, Swiss/Alsatian French actress (d. 1990)* 1932 – Omar Sharif, Egyptian actor and screenwriter (d. 2015)*1933 – Rokusuke Ei, Japanese composer and author (d. 2016)* 1933 – Helen McElhone, Scottish politician (d. 2013)*1934 – David Halberstam, American journalist and author (d. 2007)*1935 – Patrick Garland, English actor and director (d. 2013)* 1935 – Peter Hollingworth, Australian bishop, 23rd Governor General of Australia* 1935 – Christos Yannaras, Greek philosopher, theologian and author *1936 – John A. Bennett, American soldier (d. 1961)* 1936 – David A. Hardy, British artist* 1936 – John Howell, English long jumper* 1936 – John Madden, American football player, coach, and sportscaster (d. 2021)* 1936 – Bobby Smith, American singer (d. 2013)*1937 – Bella Akhmadulina, Soviet and Russian poet, short story writer, and translator (d. 2010)*1938 – Don Meredith, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2010)*1939 – Claudio Magris, Italian scholar, author, and translator*1940 – Gloria Hunniford, British radio and television host*1941 – Chrysostomos II of Cyprus, (d. 2022)* 1941 – Harold Long, Canadian politician (d. 2013)* 1941 – Paul Theroux, American novelist, short story writer, and travel writer*1942 – Nick Auf der Maur, Canadian journalist and politician (d. 1998)* 1942 – Ian Callaghan, English footballer* 1942 – Stuart Dybek, American novelist, short story writer, and poet*1943 – Andrzej Badeński, Polish-German sprinter (d. 2008)* 1943 – Margaret Pemberton, English author*1945 – Kevin Berry, Australian swimmer (d. 2006)*1946 – David Angell, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2001)* 1946 – Bob Watson, American baseball player and manager (d. 2020)* 1946 – Adolf Winkelmann, German director, producer, and screenwriter*1947 – David A. Adler, American author and educator* 1947 – Bunny Wailer, Jamaican singer-songwriter and drummer (d. 2021) *1948 – Mel Blount, American football player* 1948 – Jim Burns, Welsh artist*1949 – Daniel Mangeas, French banker and sportscaster* 1949 – Eric Troyer, American singer-songwriter, keyboardist and guitarist*1950 – Ken Griffey, Sr., American baseball player and manager* 1950 – Eddie Hazel, American guitarist (d. 1992)*1951 – David Helvarg, American journalist and activist*1952 – Narayan Rane, Indian politician, 16th Chief Minister of Maharashtra* 1952 – Masashi Sada, Japanese singer, lyricist, composer, novelist, actor, and producer* 1952 – Steven Seagal, American actor, producer, and martial artist*1953 – David Moorcroft, English runner and businessman* 1953 – Pamela Wallin, Swedish-Canadian journalist, academic, and politician*1954 – Paul Bearer, American wrestler and manager (d. 2013)* 1954 – Anne Lamott, American author and educator* 1954 – Peter MacNicol, American actor* 1954 – Juan Williams, Panamanian-American journalist and author*1955 – Lesley Garrett, English soprano and actress*1956 – Carol V. Robinson, English chemist and academic*1957 – Aliko Dangote, Nigerian businessman, founded Dangote Group* 1957 – John M. Ford, American author and poet (d. 2006)* 1957 – Steve Gustafson, Spanish-American bass player * 1957 – Rosemary Hill, English historian and author*1958 – Bob Bell, Northern Irish engineer* 1958 – Yefim Bronfman, Uzbek-American pianist* 1958 – Brigitte Holzapfel, German high jumper*1959 – Babyface, American singer-songwriter and producer * 1959 – Yvan Loubier, Canadian economist and politician* 1959 – Brian Setzer, American singer-songwriter and guitarist*1960 – Steve Bisciotti, American businessman, co-founded Allegis Group* 1960 – Katrina Leskanich, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1960 – Terry Teagle, American basketball player*1961 – Nicky Campbell, Scottish broadcaster and journalist* 1961 – Carole Goble, English computer scientist and academic* 1961 – Mark Jones, American basketball player*1962 – Steve Tasker, American football player and sportscaster*1963 – Warren DeMartini, American guitarist and songwriter * 1963 – Jeff Gray, American baseball player and coach* 1963 – Doris Leuthard, Swiss lawyer and politician, 162nd President of the Swiss Confederation*1965 – Tim Alexander, American drummer and songwriter *1966 – Steve Claridge, English footballer, manager, and sportscaster*1967 – Donald Dufresne, Canadian ice hockey player and coach* 1967 – David Rovics, American singer-songwriter*1968 – Metin Göktepe, Turkish photographer and journalist (d. 1996)* 1968 – Orlando Jones, American actor, producer, and screenwriter*1969 – Steve Glasson, Australian lawn bowler* 1969 – Ekaterini Koffa, Greek sprinter*1970 – Enrico Ciccone, Canadian ice hockey player* 1970 – Leonard Doroftei, Romanian-Canadian boxer* 1970 – Kenny Lattimore, American singer-songwriter* 1970 – Q-Tip, American rapper, producer, and actor *1971 – Brad William Henke, American football player and actor* 1971 – Indro Olumets, Estonian footballer and coach* 1971 – Al Reyes, Dominican-American baseball player*1972 – Ian Harvey, Australian cricketer* 1972 – Priit Kasesalu, Estonian computer programmer, co-created Skype* 1972 – Gordon Buchanan, Scottish film maker*1973 – Guillaume Canet, French actor and director* 1973 – Roberto Carlos, Brazilian footballer and manager* 1973 – Aidan Moffat, Scottish singer-songwriter * 1973 – Christopher Simmons, Canadian-American graphic designer, author, and academic*1974 – Eric Greitens, American soldier, author and politician* 1974 – Petros Passalis, Greek footballer*1975 – Chris Carrabba, American singer-songwriter and guitarist * 1975 – Terrence Lewis, Indian dancer and choreographer* 1975 – David Harbour, American actor*1976 – Clare Buckfield, English actress* 1976 – Yoshino Kimura, Japanese actress and singer* 1976 – Sara Renner, Canadian skier*1977 – Stephanie Sheh, Taiwanese-American voice actress, director, and producer*1978 – Sir Christus, Finnish guitarist (d. 2017)*1979 – Iván Alonso, Uruguayan footballer* 1979 – Kenyon Coleman, American football player* 1979 – Rachel Corrie, American author and activist (d. 2003)* 1979 – Tsuyoshi Domoto, Japanese singer-songwriter and actor* 1979 – Sophie Ellis-Bextor, English singer-songwriter * 1979 – Pavlos Fyssas, Greek rapper (d. 2013) * 1979 – Peter Kopteff, Finnish footballer*1980 – Sean Avery, Canadian ice hockey player and model* 1980 – Charlie Hunnam, English actor * 1980 – Shao Jiayi, Chinese footballer* 1980 – Kasey Kahne, American race car driver* 1980 – Andy Ram, Israeli tennis player* 1980 – Bryce Soderberg, American singer-songwriter and bass player *1981 – Laura Bell Bundy, American actress and singer* 1981 – Liz McClarnon, English singer and dancer * 1981 – Michael Pitt, American actor, model and musician* 1981 – Alexei Semenov, Russian ice hockey player*1982 – Andre Ethier, American baseball player* 1982 – Chyler Leigh, American actress and singer*1983 – Jamie Chung, American actress* 1983 – Andrew Dost, American guitarist and songwriter * 1983 – Ryan Merriman, American actor* 1983 – Hannes Sigurðsson, Icelandic footballer*1984 – Faustina Agolley, Australian television host* 1984 – Jeremy Barrett, American figure skater* 1984 – Mandy Moore, American singer-songwriter and actress* 1984 – David Obua, Ugandan footballer* 1984 – Damien Perquis, French-Polish footballer* 1984 – Gonzalo Javier Rodríguez, Argentinian footballer*1985 – Barkhad Abdi, Somali-American actor and director* 1985 – Willo Flood, Irish footballer* 1985 – Jesús Gámez, Spanish footballer* 1985 – Dion Phaneuf, Canadian ice hockey player*1986 – Olivia Borlée, Belgian sprinter* 1986 – Fernando Gago, Argentine footballer* 1986 – Corey Kluber, American baseball pitcher* 1986 – Vincent Kompany, Belgian footballer* 1986 – Tore Reginiussen, Norwegian footballer*1987 – Ahmed Adel Abdel Moneam, Egyptian footballer* 1987 – Shay Mitchell, Canadian actress and model* 1987 – Hayley Westenra, New Zealand soprano*1988 – Chris Heston, American baseball pitcher* 1988 – Kareem Jackson, American football player* 1988 – Haley Joel Osment, American actor*1989 – Charlie Culberson, American baseball player*1990 – Ben Amos, English footballer* 1990 – Andile Jali, South African footballer* 1990 – Ricky Leutele, Australian-Samoan rugby league player* 1990 – Maren Morris, American singer* 1990 – Alex Pettyfer, English actor*1991 – AJ Michalka, American actress and singer*1992 – Jack Buchanan, Australian rugby league player* 1992 – Sadio Mané, Senegalese footballer * 1992 – Chaz Mostert, Australian racing driver * 1992 – Daisy Ridley, English actress*1993 – Sofia Carson, American singer and actress*1994 – Siobhan Hunter, Scottish footballer*1995 – Ian Nelson, American actor*1996 – Thanasi Kokkinakis, Australian tennis player* 1996 – Audrey Whitby, American actress*1997 – Claire Wineland, American activist and author (d. 2018)*1998 – Anna Pogorilaya, Russian figure skater*2001 – Ky Baldwin, Australian singer and actor* 2001 – Noa Kirel, Israeli singer" ], [ "Deaths", "===Pre-1600===* 879 – Louis the Stammerer, king of West Francia (b.", "846)* 943 – Landulf I, prince of Benevento and Capua* 948 – Hugh of Arles, king of Italy*1008 – Notker of Liège, French bishop (b.", "940)*1216 – Eric X, king of Sweden (b.", "1180)*1282 – Ahmad Fanakati, chief minister under Kublai Khan*1309 – Elisabeth von Rapperswil, Swiss countess (b.", "1261)*1362 – Maud, English noblewoman (b.", "1339)*1500 – Michael Tarchaniota Marullus, Greek scholar and poet*1533 – Frederick I, king of Denmark and Norway (b.", "1471)*1545 – Costanzo Festa, Italian composer*1585 – Gregory XIII, pope of the Catholic Church (b.", "1502)*1598 – Jacopo Mazzoni, Italian philosopher (b.", "1548)*1599 – Gabrielle d'Estrées, French mistress of Henry IV of France (b.", "1571)===1601–1900===*1601 – Mark Alexander Boyd, Scottish soldier and poet (b.", "1562)*1619 – Thomas Jones, English-Irish archbishop and politician, Lord Chancellor of Ireland (b.", "1550)*1640 – Agostino Agazzari, Italian composer and theorist (b.", "1578)*1644 – William Brewster, English official and pilgrim leader (b.", "1566)*1646 – Santino Solari, Swiss architect and sculptor (b.", "1576)*1667 – Jan Marek Marci, Czech physician and author (b.", "1595)*1704 – Wilhelm Egon von Fürstenberg, German cardinal (b.", "1629)*1756 – Giacomo Antonio Perti, Italian composer (b.", "1661)*1760 – Jean Lebeuf, French historian and author (b.", "1687)*1786 – John Byron, English admiral and politician, 24th Commodore Governor of Newfoundland (b.", "1723)*1806 – Horatio Gates, English-American general (b.", "1727)*1813 – Joseph-Louis Lagrange, Italian mathematician and astronomer (b.", "1736)*1821 – Gregory V of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople (b.", "1746) *1823 – Karl Leonhard Reinhold, Austrian philosopher and academic (b.", "1757)*1871 – Lucio Norberto Mansilla, Argentinian general and politician (b.", "1789)*1889 – William Crichton, Scottish engineer and shipbuilder (b.", "1827)===1901–present===*1909 – Algernon Charles Swinburne, English poet, playwright, novelist, and critic (b.", "1837)*1919 – Emiliano Zapata, Mexican general (b.", "1879)*1920 – Moritz Cantor, German mathematician and historian (b.", "1829)*1931 – Kahlil Gibran, Lebanese-American poet, painter, and philosopher (b.", "1883)*1935 – Rosa Campbell Praed, Australian novelist (b.", "1851)*1938 – King Oliver, American cornet player and bandleader (b.", "1885)*1942 – Carl Schenstrøm, Danish actor and director (b.", "1881)*1943 – Andreas Faehlmann, Estonian-German sailor and engineer (b.", "1898)*1945 – Hendrik Nicolaas Werkman, Dutch printer and typographer (b.", "1882)*1947 – Charles Nordhoff, English-American lieutenant and author (b.", "1887)*1950 – Fevzi Çakmak, Turkish field marshal and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Turkey (b.", "1876)*1954 – Auguste Lumière, French director and producer (b.", "1862)* 1954 – Oscar Mathisen, Norwegian speed skater (b.", "1888)*1955 – Pierre Teilhard de Chardin, French priest, theologian, and philosopher (b.", "1881)*1958 – Chuck Willis, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1928)*1960 – André Berthomieu, French director and screenwriter (b.", "1903)*1962 – Michael Curtiz, Hungarian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b.", "1886)* 1962 – Stuart Sutcliffe, Scottish artist and musician (b.", "1940)*1965 – Lloyd Casner, American race car driver, founded Casner Motor Racing Division (b.", "1928)* 1965 – Linda Darnell, American actress (b.", "1923)*1966 – Evelyn Waugh, English soldier, novelist, journalist and critic (b.", "1903)*1968 – Gustavs Celmiņš, Latvian lieutenant and politician (b.", "1899)*1969 – Harley Earl, American businessman (b.", "1893)*1975 – Walker Evans, American photographer (b.", "1903)* 1975 – Marjorie Main, American actress (b.", "1890)*1978 – Hjalmar Mäe, Estonian politician (b.", "1901)*1979 – Nino Rota, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (b.", "1911)*1980 – Kay Medford, American actress and singer (b.", "1919)*1981 – Howard Thurman, American author, philosopher and civil rights activist (b.", "1899)*1983 – Issam Sartawi, Palestinian activist (b.", "1935)*1985 – Zisis Verros, Greek chieftain of the Macedonian Struggle (b.", "1880)*1986 – Linda Creed, American singer-songwriter (b.", "1948)*1988 – Ezekias Papaioannou, Greek Cypriot politician (b.", "1908) *1991 – Kevin Peter Hall, American actor (b.", "1955)* 1991 – Martin Hannett, English guitarist and producer (b.", "1948)* 1991 – Natalie Schafer, American actress (b.", "1900)*1992 – Sam Kinison, American comedian and actor (b.", "1953)*1993 – Chris Hani, South African activist and politician (b.", "1942)*1994 – Sam B.", "Hall, Jr., American lawyer, judge, and politician (b.", "1924)*1995 – Morarji Desai, Indian politician, 4th Prime Minister of India (b.", "1896)*1997 – Michael Dorris, American author and academic (b.", "1945)* 1998 – Seraphim of Athens, Greek archbishop (b.", "1913)*1999 – Heinz Fraenkel-Conrat, German-American biochemist and physician (b.", "1910)* 1999 – Jean Vander Pyl, American actress and voice artist (b.", "1919)*2000 – Peter Jones, English actor and screenwriter (b.", "1920)* 2000 – Larry Linville, American actor (b.", "1939)*2003 – Little Eva, American singer (b.", "1943)*2004 – Jacek Kaczmarski, Polish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and poet (b.", "1957)* 2004 – Sakıp Sabancı, Turkish businessman and philanthropist, founded Sabancı Holding (b.", "1933)*2005 – Norbert Brainin, Austrian violinist (b.", "1923)* 2005 – Scott Gottlieb, American drummer (b.", "1970)* 2005 – Archbishop Iakovos of America (b.", "1911)* 2005 – Al Lucas, American football player (b.", "1978)* 2005 – Wally Tax, Dutch singer-songwriter (b.", "1948)*2006 – Kleitos Kyrou, Greek poet and translator (b.", "1921) *2007 – Charles Philippe Leblond, French-Canadian biologist and academic (b.", "1910)* 2007 – Dakota Staton, American singer (b.", "1930)*2009 – Deborah Digges, American poet and educator (b.", "1950)* 2009 – Ioannis Patakis, Greek politician (b.", "1940) *2010 – Casualties in the 2010 Polish Air Force Tu-154 crash included:** Ryszard Kaczorowski, Polish soldier and politician, 6th President of the Republic of Poland (b.", "1919)** Maria Kaczyńska, Polish economist, First Lady of Poland (b.", "1942)** Lech Kaczyński, Polish lawyer and politician, 4th President of Poland (b.", "1949)** Anna Walentynowicz, Ukrainian-Polish journalist and activist (b.", "1929)* 2010 – Dixie Carter, American actress and singer (b.", "1939)*2012 – Raymond Aubrac, French engineer and activist (b.", "1914)* 2012 – Barbara Buchholz, German theremin player and composer (b.", "1959)* 2012 – Lili Chookasian, Armenian-American operatic singer (b.", "1921)* 2012 – Luis Aponte Martínez, Puerto Rican cardinal (b.", "1922)* 2012 – Akin Omoboriowo, Nigerian lawyer and politician (b.", "1932)*2013 – Lorenzo Antonetti, Italian cardinal (b.", "1922)* 2013 – Raymond Boudon, French sociologist and academic (b.", "1934)* 2013 – Binod Bihari Chowdhury, Bangladeshi activist (b.", "1911)* 2013 – Robert Edwards, English physiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b.", "1925)* 2013 – Olive Lewin, Jamaican anthropologist, musicologist, and author (b.", "1927)* 2013 – Gordon Thomas, English cyclist (b.", "1921)* 2013 – Angela Voigt, German long jumper (b.", "1951)*2014 – Dominique Baudis, French journalist and politician (b.", "1947)* 2014 – Jim Flaherty, Canadian lawyer and politician, 37th Canadian Minister of Finance (b.", "1949)* 2014 – Richard Hoggart, English author and academic (b.", "1918)* 2014 – Sue Townsend, English author and playwright (b.", "1946)*2015 – Richie Benaud, Australian cricketer and sportscaster (b.", "1930)* 2015 – Raúl Héctor Castro, Mexican-American politician and diplomat, 14th Governor of Arizona (b.", "1916)* 2015 – Judith Malina, German-American actress and director, co-founded The Living Theatre (b.", "1926)* 2015 – Rose Francine Rogombé, Gabonese lawyer and politician, President of Gabon (b.", "1942)* 2015 – Peter Walsh, Australian farmer and politician, 6th Australian Minister for Finance (b.", "1935)*2016 – Howard Marks, Welsh cannabis smuggler, writer, and legalisation campaigner (b.", "1945)*2023 – Al Jaffee, American cartoonist (b.", "1921)" ], [ "Holidays and observances", "*Christian feast day:**Fulbert of Chartres**James, Azadanus and Abdicius**Mikael Agricola (Lutheran)**Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (Episcopal Church)**William of Ockham (Anglicanism)**William Law (Anglicanism)**April 10 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)*Day of the Builder (Azerbaijan)*Feast of the Third Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)*Siblings Day (International observance)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* BBC: On This Day* * Historical Events on April 10" ] ]

[ [ "Angus, Scotland" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Angus''' (; ) is one of the 32 local government council areas of Scotland, a registration county and a lieutenancy area.", "The council area borders Aberdeenshire, Dundee City and Perth and Kinross.", "Main industries include agriculture and fishing.", "Global pharmaceuticals company GSK has a significant presence in Montrose in the east of the county.Angus was historically a province, and later a sheriffdom and county (known officially as '''Forfarshire''' from the 18th century until 1928), bordering Kincardineshire to the north-east, Aberdeenshire to the north and Perthshire to the west; southwards it faced Fife across the Firth of Tay; these remain the borders of Angus, minus Dundee which now forms its own small separate council area.", "Angus remains a registration county and a lieutenancy area.", "In 1975 some of its administrative functions were transferred to the council district of the Tayside Region, and in 1995 further reform resulted in the establishment of the unitary Angus Council." ], [ "History", "===Etymology===The name \"Angus\" indicates the territory of the eighth-century Pictish king of that name.===Prehistory===The area that now comprises Angus has been occupied since at least the Neolithic period.", "Material taken from postholes from an enclosure at Douglasmuir, near Friockheim, about five miles north of Arbroath has been radiocarbon dated to around 3500 BC.", "The function of the enclosure is unknown, but may have been for agriculture or for ceremonial purposes.Bronze Age archaeology is to be found in abundance in the area.", "Examples include the short-cist burials found near West Newbigging, about a mile to the North of the town.", "These burials included pottery urns, a pair of silver discs and a gold armlet.", "Iron Age archaeology is also well represented, for example in the souterrain nearby Warddykes cemetery and at West Grange of Conan, as well as the better-known examples at Carlungie and Ardestie.===Medieval and later history===The county is traditionally associated with the Pictish territory of Circin, which is thought to have encompassed Angus and the Mearns.", "Bordering it were the kingdoms of Cé (Mar and Buchan) to the North, Fotla (Atholl) to the West, and Fib (Fife) to the South.", "The most visible remnants of the Pictish age are the numerous sculptured stones that can be found throughout Angus.", "Of particular note are the collections found at Aberlemno, St Vigeans, Kirriemuir and Monifieth.Angus is first recorded as one of the provinces of Scotland in 937, when Dubacan, the Mormaer of Angus, is recorded in the ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' as having died at the Battle of Brunanburh.The signing of the Declaration of Arbroath at Arbroath Abbey in 1320 marked Scotland's establishment as an independent nation.", "Partly on this basis, Angus is marketed as the birthplace of Scotland.", "It is an area of rich history from Pictish times onwards.", "Notable historic sites in addition to Arbroath Abbey include Glamis Castle, Arbroath Signal Tower museum and the Bell Rock Lighthouse, described as one of the Seven Wonders of the Industrial World." ], [ "Geography", "Craigowl Hill, highest of the Sidlaws, in southern AngusAngus can be split into three geographic areas.", "To the north and west, the topography is mountainous.", "This is the area of the Grampian Mountains, Mounth hills and Five Glens of Angus, which is sparsely populated and where the main industry is hill farming.", "Glas Maol – the highest point in Angus at 1,068 m (3,504 ft) – can be found here, on the tripoint boundary with Perthshire and Aberdeenshire.", "To the south and east the topography consists of rolling hills (such as the Sidlaws) bordering the sea; this area is well populated, with the larger towns.", "In between lies Strathmore (''the Great Valley''), which is a fertile agricultural area noted for the growing of potatoes, soft fruit and the raising of Aberdeen Angus cattle.Montrose in the north east of the county is notable for its tidal basin and wildlife.", "Angus's coast is fairly regular, the most prominent features being the headlands of Scurdie Ness and Buddon Ness.", "The main bodies of water in the county are Loch Lee, Loch Brandy, Carlochy, Loch Wharral, Den of Ogil Reservoir, Loch of Forfar, Loch Fithie, Rescobie Loch, Balgavies Loch, Crombie Reservoir, Monikie Reservoirs, Long Loch, Lundie Loch, Loch of Kinnordy, Loch of Lintrathen, Backwater Reservoir, Auchintaple Loch, Loch Shandra." ], [ "Demography", "===Population structure===In the 2001 census, the population of Angus was recorded as 108,400.20.14% were under the age of 16, 63.15% were between 16 and 65 and 18.05% were aged 65 or above.Of the 16 to 74 age group, 32.84% had no formal qualifications, 27.08% were educated to 'O' Grade/Standard Grade level, 14.38% to Higher level, 7.64% to HND or equivalent level and 18.06% to degree level.===Language in Angus===The most recent available census results (2001) show that Gaelic is spoken by 0.45% of the Angus population.", "This, similar to other lowland areas, is lower than the national average of 1.16%.", "These figures are self-reported and are not broken down into levels of fluency.", "Category Number Percentage All people 108,400 100 Understands spoken Gaelic but cannot speak, read or write it 351 0.32 Speaks reads and writes Gaelic 238 0.22 Speaks but neither reads nor writes Gaelic 188 0.17 Speaks and reads but cannot write Gaelic 59 0.05 Reads but neither speaks not writes Gaelic 61 0.06 Writes but neither speaks nor reads Gaelic 13 0.01 Reads and writes but does not speak Gaelic 22 0.02 Other combination of skills in Gaelic 7 0.01 No knowledge of Gaelic 107,461 99.13Meanwhile, the 2011 census found that 38.4% of the population in Angus can speak Scots, above the Scottish average of 30.1%.", "This puts Angus as the council area with the sixth highest proficiency in Scots, behind only Shetland, Orkney, Moray, Aberdeenshire, and East Ayrshire.Historically, the dominant language in Angus was Pictish until the sixth to seventh centuries AD when the area became progressively gaelicised, with Pictish extinct by the mid-ninth century.", "Gaelic/Middle Irish began to retreat from lowland areas in the late-eleventh century and was absent from the Eastern lowlands by the fourteenth century.", "It was replaced there by Middle Scots, the contemporary local South Northern dialect of Modern Scots, while Gaelic persisted as a majority language in the Highlands and Hebrides until the 19th century.Angus Council are planning to raise the status of Gaelic in the county by adopting a series of measures, including bilingual road signage, communications, vehicle livery and staffing." ], [ "Government", "===Local government===Map of the area's wards (2017 configuration)The Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889 established a uniform system of county councils in Scotland and realigned the boundaries of many of Scotland's counties.", "Subsequently, Angus County Council was created in 1890.In May 1975 the county council was abolished and its functions were transferred to Tayside Regional Council: the local area was served by Angus District Council.", "The county council was based at the County Buildings in Market Street in Forfar.", "'''Angus Council''' is one of the 32 local government council areas of Scotland after the two-tier local government council was abolished and Angus was established as one of the replacement single-tier Council Areas in 1996.As of May 2017 there are 28 seats on the council.", "From the May 2022 elections the seats are held as follows – SNP 13, Independent 7, Conservative 7, Labour 2.The boundaries of the present council area are the same as those of the historic county minus the Dundee City.", "The council area borders Aberdeenshire, Dundee City and Perth and Kinross.=== Structure ===The council's civic head is the Provost of Angus.", "There have been seven Provosts since its establishment in 1996 – Frances Duncan, Bill Middleton, Ruth Leslie-Melville, Helen Oswald, Alex King, Ronnie Proctor and Brian Boyd.", "Angus is also a lieutenancy area; the Lord Lieutenant of Angus is appointed by the monarch and is unconnected to the council.The council has had four Chief Executives since its formation – Sandy Watson 1996–2006, David Sawers 2006–2011, Richard Stiff 2011–2017 and Margo Williamson 2017 to date.", "Margo Williamson is the first female Chief Executive since the council was formed.===Leadership===The role of provost is largely ceremonial in Angus.", "Political leadership is instead provided by the leader of the council.", "The leaders since 1996 have been: Councillor Party From To Ian Hudghton 1 Apr 1996 1998 Rob Murray 1998 May 2007 Bob Myles May 2007 May 2012 Ian Gaul May 2012 May 2017 Bob Myles 16 May 2017 May 2018 David Fairweather 14 Jun 2018 24 May 2022 Beth Whiteside 24 May 2022 ===Premises===Angus House: Angus Council's main offices since 2007.Council meetings are generally held at Forfar Town and County Hall at The Cross in the centre of Forfar.", "In 2007 the council moved its main offices to a new building called Angus House on Silvie Way in the Orchardbank Business Park on the outskirts of Forfar." ], [ "Community council areas", " Angus is divided into 25 community council areas and all apart from Friockheim district have an active council.", "The areas are: Aberlemno; Auchterhouse; Carnoustie; City of Brechin & District; Ferryden & Craig; Friockheim & District; Glamis; Hillside, Dun, & Logie Pert; Inverarity; Inveresk; Kirriemuir; Kirriemuir Landward East; Kirriemuir Landward West; Letham & District; Lunanhead & District; Monifieth; Monikie & Newbigging; Montrose; Muirhead, Birkhill and Liff; Murroes & Wellbank; Newtyle & Eassie; Royal Burgh of Arbroath; Royal Burgh of Forfar; Strathmartine; and Tealing." ], [ "Parliamentary representation", "===UK Parliament===Angus is represented by three MPs for the UK Parliament.", "*Angus — covers most of the council area, is represented by Dave Doogan of the Scottish National Party.", "*Dundee East — mainly covers Dundee, however a small portion of eastern Sidlaw and Carnoustie areas are part of the constituency, is represented by Stewart Hosie of the Scottish National Party.", "*Dundee West — mainly covers Dundee, however a small portion of western Sidlaw area is part of the constituency, is represented by Chris Law of the Scottish National Party.===Scottish Parliament===Angus is represented by two constituency MSPs for the Scottish Parliament.", "*Angus North and Mearns — covers the north of Angus and a southern portion of Aberdeenshire, is represented by Mairi Gougeon of the Scottish National Party.", "*Angus South — covers the south of Angus, is represented by Graeme Dey of the Scottish National Party.In addition to the two constituency MSPs, Angus is also represented by seven MSPs for the North East Scotland electoral region." ], [ "Transport", "The Edinburgh-Aberdeen railway line runs along the coast, through Dundee and the towns of Monifieth, Carnoustie, Arbroath and Montrose.There is a small airport at Dundee, which at present operates flights to London and Belfast." ], [ "Settlements", "c.1854 Angusshire (Forfarshire) Civil Parish map.MontroseLargest settlements by population:+SettlementPopulation ()ArbroathForfarMontroseCarnoustieMonifiethBrechinKirriemuirBirkhillLethamFerryden===Towns===*Arbroath, the largest town in the modern county*Brechin*Carnoustie*Forfar, the county town and administrative centre*Kirriemuir*Monifieth*Montrose===Villages===*Aberlemno*Airlie*Arbirlot*Ardovie*Auchinleish*Auchmithie*Auchnacree*Auchterhouse*Balintore*Balkeerie*Balmirmer*Barry*Birkhill*Boddin*Bowriefauld*Boysack*Brechin*Brewlands Bridge*Bridge of Craigisla*Bridge of Dun*Bridgefoot*Bridgend of Lintrathen*Bucklerheads*Burnside of Duntrune*Caldhame*Camuston*Careston*Carlogie*Carmyllie*Castleton*Charleston*Clayholes*Clova*Colliston*Cortachy*Craichie*Craigo*Craigton*Douglastown*Dun*Dunnichen*Eassie*Elliot*East Haven*Edzell*Farnell*Ferryden*Folda*Friockheim*Finavon*Gallowfauld*Gateside*Glamis*Greystone*Guthrie*Hillside*Inveraldie*Inverkeilor*Inverarity*Kellas*Kincaldrum*Kingennie*Kingsmuir*Kirkbuddo*Kirkinch*Kirkton of Glenisla*Kirkton of Kingoldrum*Letham*Liff*Little Brechin*Little Forter*Lucknow*Lunan*Lundie*Marywell*Memus*Menmuir*Milden*Milton of Finavon*Milton of Ogilvie*Monikie*Muirdrum*Muirhead*Murroes*Newbigging*Newtyle*Noranside*Oathlaw*Old Balkello*Panbride*Redford*Ruthven*St Vigeans*Salmond's Muir*Stracathro*Strathmartine*Tannadice*Tarfside*Tealing*Templeton*Trinity*Unthank*Upper Victoria*Wellbank*Wester Denoon*Whigstreet*Woodhill" ], [ "Places of interest", "*Aberlemno (Pictish symbols)*Angus Folk Museum, Glamis*Arbroath Abbey, place of signing of the Declaration of Arbroath*Barry Mill*Brechin Cathedral*Brechin Castle*Brechin Round Tower*Caledonian Railway (Brechin)*Cairngorms National Park*Corrie Fee National Nature Reserve*Eassie Stone*Edzell Castle*Glamis Castle* Glenesk Folk Museum*House of Dun*Loch of Kinnordy Nature Reserve*Meffan Institute, museum and art gallery in Forfar*Monboddo House*Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre, site of the first operational military airfield in Britain RAF Montrose*Montrose Basin Nature Reserve*Montrose Museum" ], [ "Sister areas", "* – Yantai, Shandong, China." ], [ "Surnames", "Most common surnames in Angus (Forfarshire) at the time of the United Kingdom Census of 1881:* 1.Smith* 2.Robertson* 3.Anderson* 4.Stewart* 5.Scott* 6.Mitchell* 7.Brown* 8.Duncan* 9.Milne* 10.Thomson" ], [ "See also", "*Earl of Angus*High schools in Angus*List of counties of Scotland 1890–1975*Medieval Diocese of Angus*Primary schools in Angus" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Angus Council" ] ]

[ [ "André the Giant" ], [ "Introduction", "'''André René Roussimoff''' (; 19 May 1946 – 28 January 1993), better known by his ring name '''André the Giant''', was a French professional wrestler and actor.", "Dubbed \"the Eighth Wonder of the World\", Roussimoff was known for his great size, which was a result of gigantism caused by excess growth hormones.Beginning his career in 1966, Roussimoff relocated to North America in 1971.From 1973 to the mid-1980s, Roussimoff was booked by World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF) promoter Vincent J. McMahon as a roving \"special attraction\" who wrestled for promotions throughout the United States, as well as in Japan for New Japan Pro-Wrestling.", "During the 1980s wrestling boom, Roussimoff became a mainstay of the WWWF (by then renamed the World Wrestling Federation), being paired with the villainous manager Bobby Heenan and feuding with Hulk Hogan.", "The two headlined WrestleMania III in 1987, and in 1988, he defeated Hogan to win the WWF Championship, his sole world heavyweight championship, on the first episode of ''The Main Event''.", "As his WWF career wound down after WrestleMania VI in 1990, Roussimoff wrestled primarily for All Japan Pro-Wrestling, usually alongside Giant Baba, until his sudden death.After his death in 1993, Roussimoff became the inaugural inductee into the newly created WWF Hall of Fame.", "He was later a charter member of the ''Wrestling Observer Newsletter'' Hall of Fame and the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame; the latter describes him as being \"one of the most recognizable figures in the world both as a professional wrestler and as a pop culture icon.\"", "Outside of wrestling, Roussimoff is best known for appearing as Fezzik, the giant in the 1987 film ''The Princess Bride''." ], [ "Early life", "André René Roussimoff was born on 19 May 1946 in Coulommiers, Seine-et-Marne, the son of immigrants Boris Roussimoff (1907–1993) and Mariann Roussimoff Stoeff (1910–1997); his father was Bulgarian and his mother was Polish.", "He was raised Catholic.", "He had two older siblings and two younger.", "His childhood nickname was Dédé (, ).", "At birth, André weighed ; as a child, he displayed symptoms of gigantism, and was noted as \"a good head taller than other kids\", with abnormally long hands.", "In a 1970s television interview, Roussimoff stated that his mother was tall and his father tall, and that according to his father his grandfather was tall.", "By the time he was 12, Roussimoff stood .Roussimoff was an average student, though good at mathematics.", "After finishing school at 14, as he did not think higher education was necessary for a farm laborer, he joined the workforce; contrary to popular legend, he did not drop out of school, as compulsory education in France at the time ended at 14.Roussimoff spent years working on his father's farm in Molien, where, according to his brother Jacques, he could perform the work of three men.", "He also completed an apprenticeship in woodworking, and next worked in a factory that manufactured engines for hay balers.", "None of these brought him any satisfaction.", "While Roussimoff was growing up in the 1950s, the Irish playwright Samuel Beckett was one of several adults who sometimes drove local children to school, including Roussimoff and his siblings.", "They had a surprising amount of common ground and bonded over their love of cricket, with Roussimoff recalling that the two rarely talked about anything else." ], [ "Professional wrestling career", "=== Early career (1964–1971) ===André the Giant in the early 1970sAt the age of 18, Roussimoff moved to Paris and was taught professional wrestling by a local promoter, Robert Lageat, who recognized the earning potential of Roussimoff's size.", "He trained at night and worked as a mover during the day to pay living expenses.", "Roussimoff was billed as \"Géant Ferré\", a name based on the Picardian folk hero Grand Ferré, and began wrestling in Paris and nearby areas.", "Canadian promoter and wrestler Frank Valois met Roussimoff in 1966, years later to become his business manager and adviser.", "Roussimoff began making a name for himself wrestling in the United Kingdom, Germany, Australia, New Zealand, and Africa.He made his Japanese debut for the International Wrestling Enterprise in 1970, billed as \"Monster Roussimoff\".", "Wrestling as both a singles and tag team competitor, he quickly was made the IWA World Tag Team Champion alongside Michael Nador.", "During his time in Japan, doctors first informed Roussimoff that he suffered from acromegaly.Roussimoff next moved to Montreal, Canada in 1971, where he became an immediate success, regularly selling out the Montreal Forum.", "Promoters eventually ran out of plausible opponents for him and, as the novelty of his size wore off, the gate receipts dwindled.", "Roussimoff was defeated by Adnan Al-Kaissie in Baghdad in 1971, and wrestled numerous times in 1971 for Verne Gagne's American Wrestling Association (AWA) as a special attraction.=== Touring special attraction (1971–1984) ===In 1973, Vincent J. McMahon, founder of the World Wide Wrestling Federation (WWWF), suggested several changes to Roussimoff's booking and presentation.", "He felt Roussimoff should be portrayed as a large, immovable monster, and to enhance the perception of his size, McMahon discouraged Roussimoff from performing maneuvers such as dropkicks (although he was capable of performing such agile maneuvers before his health deteriorated in later life).", "He also began billing Roussimoff as \"André the Giant\" and set up a travel-intensive schedule, lending him to wrestling associations around the world, to keep him from becoming overexposed in any area.", "Promoters had to guarantee Roussimoff a certain amount of money as well as pay McMahon's WWF booking fee.Roussimoff wrestling a \"local competitor\" in June 1973On 24 March 1973, Roussimoff debuted in the World Wide Wrestling Federation (later World Wrestling Federation) as a fan favorite, defeating Frank Valois and Bull Pometti in a handicap match in Philadelphia.", "Two days later he made his debut in New York's Madison Square Garden, defeating Buddy Wolfe.Roussimoff was one of professional wrestling's most beloved babyfaces throughout the 1970s and early 1980s.", "As such, Gorilla Monsoon often stated that Roussimoff had not been defeated in 15 years by pinfall or submission prior to WrestleMania III.", "He had lost matches outside of the WWF: a loss to Adnan Al-Kaissie in Baghdad, Iraq in 1971, pinfall losses to Don Leo Jonathan in Montreal in 1972, Killer Kowalski in Quebec City in 1972 two draws and a countout loss to The Sheik in Toronto in 1974 after a fireball was thrown in Andre's face, knockout to Jerry Lawler in Memphis in 1975 and a count out to Lawler in Louisville in 1977, draw with Bobo Brazil at a battle royal in Detroit in 1976, Ronnie Garvin in Knoxville in 1978, Stan Hansen by disqualification in Japan in 1981, Kamala by countout in Toronto in 1984 and Canek in Mexico in 1984 and submission losses in Japan to Strong Kobayashi in 1972 and Antonio Inoki in 1986.He also had sixty-minute time-limit draws with two of the three major world champions of the day, Harley Race in Houston in 1979 and Nick Bockwinkel in Chicago in 1976.In 1976, at the second Showdown at Shea, Roussimoff fought professional boxer Chuck Wepner in an unscripted boxer-versus-wrestler fight.", "The wild fight was shown via telecast as part of the undercard of the Muhammad Ali versus Antonio Inoki fight and ended when he threw Wepner over the top rope and outside the ring and won via count-out.Hulk Hogan (top) and André the Giant during the Superdome Showdown professional wrestling event on August 2, 1980, in New OrleansIn 1980, he feuded with Hulk Hogan, when, unlike their more famous matches in the late 1980s, Hogan was the villain and Roussimoff was the hero, wrestling him at Shea Stadium's third Showdown at Shea event and in Pennsylvania, where after Roussimoff pinned Hogan to win the match, Hogan bodyslammed him much like their legendary WrestleMania III match in 1987.The feud continued in Japan in 1982 and 1983 with their roles reversed and with Antonio Inoki also involved.One of Roussimoff's feuds pitted him against the \"Mongolian Giant\" Killer Khan.", "According to the storyline, Khan snapped Roussimoff's ankle during a match on 2 May 1981 in Rochester, New York by leaping off the top rope and crashing down upon it with his knee-drop.", "In reality, he had broken his ankle getting out of bed the morning before the match.", "The injury and subsequent rehabilitation was worked into the existing Roussimoff/Khan storyline.", "After a stay at Beth Israel Hospital in Boston, Roussimoff returned with payback on his mind.", "The two battled on 20 July 1981, at Madison Square Garden in a match that resulted in a double disqualification.", "Their feud continued as fans filled arenas up and down the east coast to witness their matches.", "On 14 November 1981 at the Philadelphia Spectrum, he decisively defeated Khan in what was billed as a \"Mongolian stretcher match\", in which the loser must be taken to the dressing room on a stretcher.", "The same type of match was also held in Toronto.", "In early 1982 the two also fought in a series of matches in Japan with Arnold Skaaland in Roussimoff's corner.=== World Wrestling Federation (1984–1991) ======= Feud with the Heenan Family (1984–1987) ====André the Giant and Hillbilly Jim versus King Kong Bundy and Big John Studd in tag team match at Madison Square Garden in October 1985In 1982, Vincent J. McMahon sold the World Wide Wrestling Federation to his son, Vince McMahon As McMahon began to expand his newly acquired promotion to the national level, he required his wrestlers to appear exclusively for him.", "McMahon signed Roussimoff to these terms in 1984, although he still allowed him to work in Japan for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW).Roussimoff feuded with Big John Studd over which of the two men was the \"true giant\" of wrestling.", "Throughout the early to mid-1980s, Roussimoff and Studd fought all over the world, battling to try to determine who the real giant of wrestling was.", "In 1984, Studd took the feud to a new level when he and partner Ken Patera knocked out Roussimoff during a televised tag-team match and proceeded to cut off his hair.", "After gaining revenge on Patera, Roussimoff met Studd in a \"body slam challenge\" at the first WrestleMania, held 31 March 1985, at Madison Square Garden in New York City.", "Roussimoff slammed Studd to win the match and collect the $15,000 prize, then proceeded to throw cash to the fans before having the bag taken from him by Studd's manager, Bobby \"The Brain\" Heenan.At WrestleMania 2 on 7 April 1986, Roussimoff continued to display his dominance by winning a twenty-man battle royal which featured top National Football League stars and wrestlers.", "He last eliminated Bret Hart to win the contest.Following a final tour with New Japan Pro-Wrestling in mid-1986, and a win in Austria over CWA World champion Otto Wanz, Roussimoff began appearing exclusively with the World Wrestling Federation.After WrestleMania 2, Roussimoff continued his feud with Studd and King Kong Bundy.", "Around this time, Roussimoff requested a leave of absence to tend to his health, since the effects from his acromegaly were beginning to take their toll, as well as to tour Japan.", "He had also been cast in the film ''The Princess Bride''.", "To explain his absence, a storyline was developed in which Heenan—suggesting that Roussimoff was secretly afraid of Studd and Bundy, whom Heenan bragged were unbeatable—challenged Roussimoff and a partner of his choosing to wrestle Studd and Bundy in a televised tag-team match.", "When Roussimoff failed to show, WWF president Jack Tunney indefinitely suspended him.", "Later in the summer of 1986, upon Roussimoff's return to the United States, he began wearing a mask and competing as the \"Giant Machine\" in a stable known as the Machines.", "Big Machine and Super Machine were the other members; Hulk Hogan (as \"Hulk Machine\") and Roddy Piper (as \"Piper Machine\") were also one-time members.", "The WWF's television announcers sold the Machines—a gimmick that was copied from the New Japan Pro-Wrestling character \"Super Strong Machine\", played by Japanese wrestler Junji Hirata, —as \"a new tag-team from Japan\" and claimed not to know the identities of the wrestlers, even though it was obvious to fans that it was Roussimoff competing as the Giant Machine.", "Heenan, Studd, and Bundy complained to Tunney, who eventually told Heenan that if it could be proven that Roussimoff and the Giant Machine were the same person, Roussimoff would be fired.", "Roussimoff thwarted Heenan, Studd, and Bundy at every turn.", "Then, in late 1986, the Giant Machine \"disappeared\" and Roussimoff was reinstated.", "Foreshadowing Roussimoff's heel turn, Heenan expressed his approval of the reinstatement but did not explain why.==== Alliance with Bobby Heenan and Ted DiBiase (1987–1989) ====Roussimoff (right) was managed by Bobby Heenan (foreground) during parts of his feud with Hulk Hogan.Roussimoff agreed to turn heel in early 1987 to be the counter to the biggest \"babyface\" in professional wrestling at that time, Hulk Hogan.", "On an edition of ''Piper's Pit'' in 1987, Hogan was presented a trophy for being the WWF World Heavyweight Champion for three years; Roussimoff came out to congratulate him, shaking Hogan's hand with a strong grip, which surprised the Hulkster.", "On the following week's ''Piper's Pit'', Roussimoff was presented a slightly smaller trophy for being \"the only undefeated wrestler in wrestling history.\"", "Although he had suffered a handful of countout and disqualification losses in WWF, he had never been pinned or forced to submit in a WWF ring.", "Hogan came out to congratulate him and ended up being the focal point of the interview.", "Apparently annoyed, Roussimoff walked out in the midst of Hogan's speech.", "A discussion between Roussimoff and Hogan was scheduled, and on a ''Piper's Pit'' that aired 7 February 1987, the two met.", "Hogan was introduced first, followed by Roussimoff, who was led by longtime rival Bobby Heenan.Speaking on behalf of his new protégé, Heenan accused Hogan of being Roussimoff's friend only so he would not have to defend his title against him.", "Hogan tried to reason with Roussimoff, but his pleas were ignored as he challenged Hogan to a match for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania III.", "Hogan was still seemingly in disbelief as to what Roussimoff was doing, prompting Heenan to say \"You can't believe it?", "Maybe you'll believe this, Hogan\" before Roussimoff ripped off the T-shirt and crucifix from Hogan, with the crucifix scratching Hogan's chest, causing him to bleed.Following Hogan's acceptance of his challenge on a later edition of ''Piper's Pit'', the two were part of a 20-man over-the-top-rope battle-royal on 14 March edition of ''Saturday Night's Main Event X'' at the Joe Louis Arena in Detroit.", "Although the battle royal was won by Hercules, Roussimoff claimed to have gained a psychological advantage over Hogan when he threw the WWF World Heavyweight Champion over the top rope.", "The match, which was actually taped on 21 February 1987, aired only two weeks before WrestleMania III to make it seem like Hogan had met his match in André the Giant.At WrestleMania III, he was billed at , and the stress of such immense weight on his bones and joints resulted in constant pain.", "After recent back surgery, he was also wearing a brace underneath his wrestling singlet.", "In front of a record crowd, Hogan won the match after body-slamming Roussimoff (later dubbed \"the bodyslam heard around the world\"), followed by Hogan's running leg drop finisher.", "Years later, Hogan claimed that Roussimoff was so heavy, he felt more like , and that he tore his latissimus dorsi muscle when slamming him.Another myth about the match is that no one, not even WWF owner Vince McMahon, knew until the day of the event whether Roussimoff would lose the match.", "In reality, he agreed to lose the match sometime before, mostly for health reasons.", "Contrary to popular belief, it was not the first time that Hogan had successfully body-slammed him in a WWF match.", "A then-heel Hogan had slammed a then-face Roussimoff following their match at the Showdown at Shea on 9 August 1980, though Roussimoff was somewhat lighter (around ) and more athletic at the time (Hogan also slammed him in a match in Hamburg, Pennsylvania, a month later).", "This took place in the territorial days of American wrestling three years before WWF began national expansion, so many of those who watched WrestleMania III had never seen the Giant slammed (Roussimoff had also previously allowed Harley Race, El Canek and Stan Hansen, among others, to slam him).André chokes Bam Bam Bigelow on the tope rope, By the time of WrestleMania III, the WWF went national, giving more meaning to the Roussimoff–Hogan match that took place then.", "The feud between Roussimoff and Hogan simmered during the summer of 1987, as Roussimoff's health declined.", "The feud began heating up again when wrestlers were named the captains of rival teams at the inaugural Survivor Series event.", "During their approximately one minute of battling each other during the match, Hogan dominated Roussimoff and was on the brink of knocking him from the ring, but was tripped up by his partners, Bundy and One Man Gang, and would be counted out.", "Roussimoff went on to be the sole survivor of the match, pinning Bam Bam Bigelow before Hogan returned to the ring to attack André and knock him out of the ring.", "Roussimoff later got revenge when, after Hogan won a match against Bundy on ''Saturday Night's Main Event'', he snuck up from behind and began choking Hogan to the brink of unconsciousness, not letting go even after an army of seven face-aligned wrestlers ran to the ring to try to pull him away; it took Hacksaw Jim Duggan breaking a piece of wood over his back (which he no-sold) for him to let go, after which Hogan was pulled to safety.", "As was the case with the ''SNME'' battle royal a year earlier, the series of events was one of the pieces that helped build interest in a possible one-on-one rematch between Hogan and Roussimoff, and to make it seem that Roussimoff was certain to win easily when they did meet.", "Meanwhile, Rousimoff returned to Germany in December 1987 for another match with Wanz, which he lost by countout.In the meantime, the \"Million Dollar Man\" Ted DiBiase failed to persuade Hogan to sell him the WWF World Heavyweight Championship.", "After failing to defeat Hogan in a subsequent series of matches, DiBiase turned to Roussimoff to win it for him.", "He and DiBiase had teamed several times in the past, including in Japan and in the WWF in the late 1970s and early 1980s when both were faces, but this was not acknowledged during this new storyline.", "The earlier attack and DiBiase's insertion into the feud set up the Hogan-Roussimoff rematch on ''The Main Event'', to air 5 February 1988, on a live broadcast on NBC.", "Acting as his hired gun, Roussimoff won the WWF World Heavyweight Championship from Hogan (his first singles title) in a match where it was later revealed that appointed referee Dave Hebner was \"detained backstage\", and a replacement (whom Hogan afterwards initially accused of having been paid by DiBiase to get plastic surgery to look like Dave, but was revealed to have been his evil twin brother, Earl Hebner), made a three count on Hogan while his shoulders were off the mat.After winning, Roussimoff \"sold\" the title to DiBiase; the transaction was declared invalid by then-WWF president Jack Tunney and the title was declared vacant.", "This was shown on WWF's NBC program ''The Main Event''.", "At WrestleMania IV, Roussimoff and Hulk Hogan fought to a double disqualification in a WWF title tournament match (with the idea in the storyline saying that Roussimoff was again working on DiBiase's behalf in giving DiBiase a clearer path in the tournament).", "Afterward, Roussimoff and Hogan's feud died down after a steel cage match held at ''WrestleFest'' on 31 July 1988, in Milwaukee.", "Hogan was the winner.Roussimoff's feud with Jake Roberts derived from Roussimoff's fear of snakes.At the inaugural SummerSlam pay-per-view held at Madison Square Garden, Roussimoff and DiBiase (billed as The Mega Bucks) faced Hogan and WWF World Heavyweight Champion \"Macho Man\" Randy Savage (known as The Mega Powers) in the main event, with Jesse \"The Body\" Ventura as the special guest referee.", "During the match, the Mega Powers' manager, Miss Elizabeth, distracted the Mega Bucks and Ventura when she climbed up on the ring apron, removed her yellow skirt and walked around in a pair of red panties.", "This allowed Hogan and Savage time to recover and eventually win the match with Hogan pinning DiBiase.", "Savage forced Ventura's hand down for the final three-count, due to Ventura's character historically being at odds with Hogan, and his unwillingness to count the fall.Concurrent with the developing feud with the Mega Powers, Roussimoff was placed in a feud with Jim Duggan, which began after Duggan knocked out Roussimoff with a two-by-four board during a television taping.", "Despite Duggan's popularity with fans, Roussimoff regularly got the upper hand in the feud.Roussimoff's next major feud was against Jake \"The Snake\" Roberts.", "In this storyline, it was said Roussimoff was afraid of snakes, something Roberts exposed on ''Saturday Night's Main Event'' when he threw his snake, Damien, on the frightened Roussimoff; as a result, he suffered a kayfabe mild heart attack and vowed revenge.", "During the next few weeks, Roberts frequently walked to ringside carrying his snake in its bag during Roussimoff's matches, causing the latter to run from the ring in fright.", "Throughout their feud (which culminated at WrestleMania V), Roberts constantly used Damien to gain a psychological edge over the much larger and stronger Roussimoff.In 1989, Roussimoff and the returning Big John Studd briefly reprised their feud, beginning at WrestleMania V, when Studd was the referee in the match with Roberts, this time with Studd as a face and Roussimoff as the heel.During the late summer and autumn of 1989, Roussimoff engaged in a brief feud, consisting almost entirely of house shows (non-televised events), and one televised match on October 28, 1989, at Madison Square Garden with then-WWF Intercontinental Champion The Ultimate Warrior.", "Roussimoff began to wear face paint with a similar design to The Warrior and began called himself \"The Ultimate Giant\" when he appeared on ''The Brother Love Show''.", "The younger Warrior, the WWF's rising star, regularly squashed the aging Roussimoff in an attempt to showcase his star quality and promote him as the \"next big thing\".==== Colossal Connection (1989–1990) ====In late 1989, Roussimoff was joined with fellow Heenan Family member Haku to form a new tag team called the Colossal Connection, in part to fill a void left by the departure of Tully Blanchard and Arn Anderson (the Brain Busters, who were also members of Heenan's stable) from the WWF, and also to continue to keep the aging Roussimoff in the main event spotlight.", "His last singles match was a loss to The Ultimate Warrior in 20 seconds at a house show in Cape Girardeau, Missouri on 11 December 1989.The Colossal Connection immediately targeted WWF Tag Team Champions Demolition (who had recently won the belts from the Brain Busters).", "At a television taping on 13 December 1989, the Colossal Connection defeated Demolition to win the titles.", "Roussimoff and Haku successfully defended their title, mostly against Demolition, until WrestleMania VI on 1 April 1990, when Demolition took advantage of a mistimed move by the champions to regain the belts.", "After the match, a furious Heenan blamed Roussimoff for the title loss and after shouting at him, slapped him in the face; an angry Roussimoff responded with a slap of his own that sent Heenan staggering from the ring.", "Roussimoff also caught Haku's kick attempt, sending him reeling from the ring as well, prompting support for Roussimoff and turning him face for the first time since 1987.Due to his ongoing health issues, Roussimoff was not able to wrestle at the time of Wrestlemania VI and Haku actually wrestled the entire match against Demolition without tagging him in.On weekend television shows following WrestleMania VI, Bobby Heenan vowed to spit in Roussimoff's face when he came crawling back to the Heenan Family.", "He wrestled one more time with Haku, teaming up to face Demolition on a house show in Honolulu on 10 April, Roussimoff was knocked out of the ring and The Colossal Connection lost via count-out.", "After the match, Roussimoff and Haku would fight each other, marking the end of the team.", "His final WWF match of 1990 came at a combined WWF/All Japan/New Japan show on 13 April in Tokyo, Japan when he teamed with Giant Baba to defeat Demolition in a non-title match.", "Roussimoff would win by gaining the pinfall on Smash.==== Sporadic appearances (1990–1991) ====Roussimoff returned in the winter of 1990, but it was not to the World Wrestling Federation.", "Instead, Roussimoff made an interview appearance for Herb Abrams' fledgling Universal Wrestling Federation on 11 October in Reseda, California.", "(the segment aired in 1991).", "He appeared in an interview segment with Captain Lou Albano and put over the UWF.", "The following month on 30 November at a house show in Miami, Florida, the World Wrestling Federation announced his return as a participant in the 1991 Royal Rumble (to be held in Miami two months later).", "Roussimoff was also mentioned as a participant on television but would ultimately back out due to a leg injury.His on-air return finally took place at the WWF's ''Super-Stars & Stripes Forever'' USA Network special on 17 March 1991, when he came out to shake the hand of Big Boss Man after an altercation with Mr.", "Perfect.", "The following week at WrestleMania VII, he came to the aid of the Boss Man in his match against Mr.", "Perfect.", "Roussimoff finally returned to action on 26 April 1991, in a six-man tag-team matchup when he teamed with The Rockers in a winning effort against Mr. Fuji and The Orient Express at a house show in Belfast, Northern Ireland.", "On 11 May 1991 he participated in a 17-man battle-royal at a house show in Detroit, which was won by Kerry Von Erich.", "This was Andre's final WWF match, although he was involved in several subsequent storylines.", "His last major WWF storyline following WrestleMania VII had the major heel managers (Bobby Heenan, Sensational Sherri, Slick, and Mr. Fuji) trying to recruit Roussimoff one-by-one, only to be turned down in various humiliating ways (e.g.", "Heenan had his hand crushed, Sherri received a spanking, Slick got locked in the trunk of the car he was offering to Roussimoff, and Mr. Fuji got a pie in his face).", "Finally, Jimmy Hart appeared live on ''WWF Superstars'' to announce that he had successfully signed Roussimoff to tag-team with Earthquake.", "When asked to confirm this by Gene Okerlund, Roussimoff denied the claims.", "This led to Earthquake's attacking Roussimoff from behind (injuring his knee).", "Jimmy Hart would later get revenge for the humiliation by secretly signing Tugboat and forming the Natural Disasters.", "This led to Roussimoff's final major WWF appearance at SummerSlam 1991, where he seconded the Bushwhackers in their match against the Disasters.", "Roussimoff was on crutches at ringside, and after the Disasters won the match, they set out to attack him, but the Legion of Doom made their way to ringside and got in between them and the Giant, who was preparing to defend himself with one of his crutches.", "The Disasters left the ringside area as they were outnumbered by the Legion of Doom, the Bushwhackers and Roussimoff, who struck both Earthquake and Typhoon (the former Tugboat) with the crutch as they left.", "His final WWF appearance came at a house show in Paris, France, on 9 October 1991.He was in Davey Boy Smith's corner as the Bulldog faced Earthquake; Smith hit Earthquake with Roussimoff's crutch, allowing Smith to win.=== All Japan Pro Wrestling; Universal Wrestling Association (1990–1992) ===After WrestleMania VI, Roussimoff spent the rest of his in-ring career in All Japan Pro Wrestling (AJPW) and Mexico's Universal Wrestling Association (UWA), where he performed under the name \"André el Gigante\".", "He toured with AJPW three times per year, from 1990 to 1992, usually teaming with Giant Baba in tag-team matches.Roussimoff made a couple of guest appearances for Herb Abrams' Universal Wrestling Federation, in 1991, feuding with Big John Studd, though he never had a match in the promotion.In his last U.S. television appearance, Andre appeared on World Championship Wrestling's (WCW) ''Clash of the Champions XX'' special that aired on TBS on 2 September 1992, where he gave a brief interview.", "During the same event, he appeared alongside Gordon Solie and was later seen talking with him during the gala celebrating the 20th anniversary of wrestling on TBS.He did his final tour of Mexico in 1992 in a selection of six-man tag matches alongside Bam Bam Bigelow and a variety of Lucha Libre stars facing among others Bad News Allen and future WWF Champions Mick Foley and Yokozuna.", "Roussimoff made his final tour with AJPW from October to December 1992; he wrestled what became the final match of his career on 4 December 1992, teaming with Giant Baba and Rusher Kimura to defeat Haruka Eigen, Masanobu Fuchi, and Motoshi Okuma." ], [ "Acting career", "Roussimoff branched out into acting again in the 1970s and 1980s, after a 1967 French boxing film, making his USA acting debut playing a Sasquatch (\"Bigfoot\") in a two-part episode aired in 1976 on the television series ''The Six Million Dollar Man''.", "He appeared in other television shows, including ''The Greatest American Hero'', ''B.", "J. and the Bear'', ''The Fall Guy'' and 1990's ''Zorro''.Towards the end of his career, Roussimoff appeared in several films.", "He had an uncredited appearance in the 1984 film ''Conan the Destroyer'' as Dagoth, the resurrected horned giant god who is killed by Conan (Arnold Schwarzenegger).", "That same year, he also made an appearance in ''Micki & Maude'' (billed as André Rousimmoff).", "He appeared most notably as Fezzik, his own favorite role, in the 1987 film ''The Princess Bride''.", "The fact that Roussimoff found that no one stared at him on set during production was a novel and particularly gratifying experience.", "Both the film and his performance retain a devoted following.", "In a short interview with Lanny Poffo, he stated that the movie meant so much to André that he made his wrestling pals watch an advanced copy of the VHS with him over and over again while supplying dinner, drinks, and sweetly asking each time, \"Did you like my performance?", "\".In his last film, he had a cameo role as a circus giant in the comedy ''Trading Mom'', which was released in 1994, a year after his death.=== Filmography ===+ Title Year Role Notes ''Casse-tête chinois pour le judoka'' 1967 Fighter Film ''The Six Million Dollar Man'' 1976 Sasquatch Television (episodes: \"The Secret of Bigfoot, Part 1\" and \"The Secret of Bigfoot Part 2\") ''Symphorien'' 1978 Television ''B.", "J. and the Bear'' 1981 Manny Felcher Television (episode: \"Snow White and the Seven Lady Truckers, Part 1\") ''The Fall Guy'' 1982 Killer Typhoon (uncredited) Television (episode: \"Ladies on the Ropes\") ''Les Brillant'' 1982 Jean Petit Television ''The Greatest American Hero'' 1983 Monster Television (episode: \"Heaven Is in Your Genes\") ''Conan the Destroyer'' 1984 Dagoth (uncredited) Film ''Micki & Maude'' 1984 Himself Film ''I Like to Hurt People'' 1985 Himself Film ''The Goonies 'R' Good Enough'' 1985 Himself (uncredited) Music video ''The Princess Bride'' 1987 Fezzik Film ''Trading Mom'' 1994 Circus Giant Film, posthumous release" ], [ "Personal life", "Roussimoff was mentioned in the ''1974 Guinness Book of World Records'' as the then-highest-paid wrestler in history.", "He earned an annual salary of approximately $400,000 () at this time.Robin Christensen is Roussimoff's only child.", "Her mother Jean Christensen (who died in 2008) became acquainted with her father through the wrestling business around 1972 or 1973.Christensen had regular contact with her father, but saw him only five times in her life.", "After his death, Christensen spoke positively about her father and became a guardian of his image and legacy.In 1989, Roussimoff was arrested and charged with assault after he attacked a KCRG-TV cameraman shooting his match with The Ultimate Warrior at Cedar Rapids, Iowa's Five Seasons Center.", "While acquitted on the assault charge, he was fined $100 () for criminal mischief and ordered to pay KCRG $233 () in damage to its equipment.William Goldman, the author of the novel and the screenplay of ''The Princess Bride'', wrote in his nonfiction work ''Which Lie Did I Tell?''", "that Roussimoff was one of the gentlest and most generous people he ever knew.", "Whenever Roussimoff ate with someone in a restaurant, he would pay, but he would also insist on paying when he was a guest.", "On one occasion, after Roussimoff attended a dinner with Arnold Schwarzenegger and Wilt Chamberlain, Schwarzenegger had quietly moved to the cashier to pay before Roussimoff could, but then found himself being physically lifted, carried from his table and deposited on top of his car by Roussimoff and Chamberlain.Roussimoff owned a ranch in Ellerbe, North Carolina, looked after by two of his close friends.", "When he was not on the road, he loved spending time at the ranch, where he tended to his cattle, played with his dogs, and entertained friends.", "While there were custom-made chairs and a few other modifications in his home to accommodate his size, tales that everything in his home was custom-made for a large man are said to be exaggerated.", "Since Roussimoff could not easily go shopping due to his fame and size, he was known to spend hours watching and purchasing items from the shopping channel QVC.=== Health ===Roussimoff has been unofficially crowned \"the greatest drunk on Earth\" for once consuming 119 beers (in total, over or 11.16 gallons) in six hours.", "On Letterman, January 23, 1984, Roussimoff told David Letterman he drank 117 beers.", "When Letterman asked if he was drunk, Roussimoff said he couldn't remember because he passed out.", "He also said he quit drinking beer 14 months prior to this appearance on Letterman.On an episode of WWE's ''Legends of Wrestling'', Mike Graham said Roussimoff once drank 156 beers (over ) in one sitting, which was confirmed by Dusty Rhodes.", "The Fabulous Moolah wrote in her autobiography that Roussimoff drank 127 beers at the bar of the Abraham Lincoln Hotel in Reading, Pennsylvania and later passed out in the lobby.", "The staff could not move him and had to leave him there until he awoke.In a shoot interview, Ken Patera recalled an occasion where Roussimoff was challenged by Dick Murdoch to a beer drinking contest.", "After nine or so hours, Roussimoff had drunk 116 beers.", "A tale recounted by Cary Elwes in his book about the making of ''The Princess Bride'' has Roussimoff falling on top of somebody while drunk, after which the NYPD sent an undercover officer to follow Roussimoff around whenever he went out drinking in their city to make sure he did not fall on anyone again.", "Another story also says prior to his famous WrestleMania III match, Roussimoff drank 14 bottles of wine.An urban legend exists surrounding Roussimoff's 1987 surgery in which his size made it impossible for the anesthesiologist to estimate a dosage via standard methods; consequently, his alcohol tolerance was used as a guideline instead.Roussimoff had severe pericardial effusion and underwent pericardiocentesis at Duke University Hospital in the 1980s." ], [ "Death", "Roussimoff died at age 46 of congestive heart failure and apparent heart attack in his sleep, likely associated with his untreated acromegaly, at a Paris hotel on the morning of Thursday 28 January 1993.He went to play cards with some friends on the night of Wednesday 27 January.", "He came back to his hotel room around 1 a.m. CET on 28 January.", "In the afternoon, Roussimoff was found dead in his room by hotel management and his chauffeur.", "He was in Paris to attend his father's funeral.", "While there, he decided to stay longer to be with his mother on her birthday.", "He spent the day before his death visiting and playing cards with some of his oldest friends in Molien.In his will, he specified that his remains should be cremated and \"disposed of\".", "Upon his death in Paris, his family in France held a funeral for him, intending to bury him near his father.", "When they learned of his wish to be cremated, his body was flown to the United States, where he was cremated according to his wishes.", "His ashes were scattered at his ranch () in Ellerbe, North Carolina.", "In addition, in accordance with his will, he left his estate to his sole beneficiary: his daughter Robin." ], [ "Other media", "Roussimoff made numerous appearances as himself in video games, starting with ''WWF WrestleMania''.", "He also appears posthumously in ''Virtual Pro Wrestling 64'', ''WWF No Mercy'', ''Legends of Wrestling'', ''Legends of Wrestling II'', ''Showdown: Legends of Wrestling'', ''WWE SmackDown!", "vs.", "Raw'', ''WWE SmackDown!", "vs.", "Raw 2006'', ''WWE Legends of WrestleMania'', ''WWE All Stars'', ''WWE 2K14'', ''WWE 2K15'', ''WWE 2K16'', ''WWE 2K17'', ''WWE 2K18'', ''WWE 2K19'', ''WWE 2K20, WWE 2K Battlegrounds, WWE 2K22, WWE 2K23'' and many others.In January 2005, WWE released ''André The Giant'', a DVD focusing on the life and career of Roussimoff.", "The DVD is a reissue of the out-of-print ''André The Giant'' VHS made by Coliseum Video in 1985, with commentary by Michael Cole and Tazz replacing Gorilla Monsoon and Jesse Ventura's commentary on his WrestleMania match with Big John Studd.", "The video is hosted by Lord Alfred Hayes.", "Later matches, including his battles against Hulk Hogan while a heel, are not included on this VHS." ], [ "Legacy", "Big Show—a wrestler often compared with Roussimoff due to his size—was the winner of the 2015 \"André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal\" at WrestleMania 31, and is posing alongside the André the Giant Memorial Trophy, which goes to the winner of the annual match.", "* In 1993, when the then-World Wrestling Federation created the WWF Hall of Fame, André the Giant was the inaugural and sole inductee in the class of 1993.", "* Roussimoff was the inspiration for the 1998 film ''My Giant'', written by his friend Billy Crystal, whom he had met during the filming of ''The Princess Bride''.", "* Paul Wight, better known as Big Show, is more similar in body structure to Roussimoff than any other wrestler since Roussimoff's death.", "He was originally billed as the son of André during his stint in WCW (when he was known as simply \"the Giant\") despite there being no biological relationship.", "While also suffering from acromegaly, unlike Roussimoff, Wight did get surgery on his pituitary gland in the early 1990s, which successfully halted the progress of his condition.", "The former wrestler Giant González suffered from problems similar to those that Roussimoff had near the end of his life and died in 2010 due to diabetes complications.", "* In 1999, he was the subject of an episode of ''A&E Biography'', titled ''André the Giant: Larger Than Life''.", "The documentary covered his childhood and early life in France, as well as the beginning of his wrestling career, his struggles with acromegaly, his personal life, and his final years.", "His brother, Jacques Roussimoff, was interviewed for the documentary, as were fellow wrestling personalities Gorilla Monsoon, Tim White, Arnold Skaaland, Vince McMahon, Freddie Blassie, Killer Kowalski, Rene Goulet, and Frenchy Bernard, as well as wrestling historian Sheldon Goldberg.", "Several of his longtime hometown friends were interviewed as well.", "The documentary described Roussimoff as pro wrestling's \"first and only international attraction\" and that \"on his broad shoulders, wrestling rose from its status as a questionable sport to become big business, and some might argue, performance art.", "\"* The Obey brand icon originated from wheatpaste posters that artist Shepard Fairey created based upon a photo of André the Giant that he had found in a newspaper.", "* Capcom's video game character Hugo, from the ''Street Fighter'' series (known as Andore in the ''Final Fight'' series) is based on him.", "* The 2014 graphic novel ''André The Giant: The Life and The Legend'' (First Second Books), written and drawn by Box Brown, tells the story of his life and career.", "Research for the book included interviews with his fellow wrestlers and actors such as Christopher Guest, Mandy Patinkin and others.", "* In 2017, Showtime released ''Waiting for Andre'','''' a semi-fictional movie about the friendship between playwright Samuel Beckett and Roussimoff during the time Beckett lived in Ussy-sur-Marne, outside of Paris.", "A novel of the movie was published the following year by Steffan Piper ( / 198075621X from Amazon print on demand).", "* On 10 March 2014, episode of ''Raw'', WrestleMania XXX host Hulk Hogan announced that in honor of Roussimoff's legacy, WWE was establishing the André the Giant Memorial Battle Royal, that would take place at the event, with the winner receiving the André the Giant Memorial Trophy (made in the likeness of Roussimoff).", "On 6 April 2014, at WrestleMania XXX, Cesaro won the match after eliminating Big Show using a body slam similar to the body slam Hulk Hogan used on Roussimoff at WrestleMania III.", "The battle royal has since become a yearly WrestleMania Weekend tradition.=== Biopics ===* In 1999, ''Biography'' produced and aired a documentary called ''Andre The Giant: Larger Than Life''.", "* On 9 May 2016, it was announced that a movie based on the 2015 authorized graphic novel biography ''André the Giant: Closer to Heaven'' was in the plans made by Lion Forge Comics along with producers Scott Steindorff, Dylan Russell and consulted by Roussimoff's daughter, Robin Christensen-Roussimoff.", "* On 10 April 2018, HBO aired a documentary film called ''André the Giant''." ], [ "Championships and accomplishments", "* '''50th State Big Time Wrestling'''** Texas Battle Royal (1977)* '''All Japan Pro Wrestling'''** World's Strongest Tag Determination League East Sports Special Award (1991) – with Giant Baba* '''Championship Wrestling from Florida'''** NWA Florida Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes* '''Fédération Française de Catch Professionnel'''** World Heavyweight Championship (France) (1 time)* '''Houston Wrestling'''** Two-Ring Battle Royal (1974, 1975)*'''International Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame'''**Class of 2021* '''International Wrestling Enterprise'''** IWA World Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Michael Nador* '''NWA Hollywood Wrestling'''** Los Angeles Battle Royal (1975, 1980)* '''NWA San Francisco'''** Cow Palace Battle Royal (1977)* '''New Japan Pro-Wrestling'''**International Wrestling Grand Prix (1985)** MSG League (1982)** MSG Tag League (1981) – with Rene Goulet** Sagawa Express Cup (1986)**Greatest 18 Club inductee* '''NWA Tri-State'''** NWA United States Tag Team Championship ''(Tri-State version)'' (1 time) – with Dusty Rhodes* '''Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum'''** Class of 2002* '''''Pro Wrestling Illustrated'''''** Most Popular Wrestler of the Year (1977, 1982)** Match of the Year (1981) vs. Killer Khan on 2 May** Match of the Year (1988) vs. Hulk Hogan at ''The Main Event''** Most Hated Wrestler of the Year (1988)** Editor's Award (1993)** Ranked No.", "3 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the \"PWI Years\" in 2003* '''Stampede Wrestling'''** Stampede Wrestling Hall of Fame (Class of 1995)* '''World Championship Wrestling (Australia)'''** NWA Austra-Asian Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Ron Miller* '''World Wrestling Federation/WWE'''** WWF World Heavyweight Championship (1 time)** WWF Tag Team Championship (1 time) – with Haku** WWE Bronze Statue (2013)** Slammy Award (1 time)*** Bobby \"The Brain\" Heenan Scholarship Award (1987) ** WWF Hall of Fame (Class of 1993)* '''''Wrestling Observer Newsletter'''''** Feud of the Year (1981) vs. Killer Khan** Most Embarrassing Wrestler (1989)** Worst Feud of the Year (1984) vs. Big John Studd** Worst Feud of the Year (1989) vs. the Ultimate Warrior** Worst Worked Match of the Year (1987) vs. Hulk Hogan at WrestleMania 3** Worst Worked Match of the Year (1989) vs. the Ultimate Warrior on 31 October** Worst Tag Team (1990, 1991) with Giant Baba** Worst Wrestler (1989, 1991, 1992)** Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame (Class of 1996)* '''Canadian Wrestling Hall of Fame'''** Class of 2016" ], [ "See also", "* List of tallest people* List of premature professional wrestling deaths" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* * *" ], [ "External links", "* * * *" ] ]

[ [ "Adrastea (moon)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Adrastea''' (), also known as '''''', is the second by distance, and the smallest of the four inner moons of Jupiter.", "It was discovered in photographs taken by ''Voyager 2'' in 1979, making it the first natural satellite to be discovered from images taken by an interplanetary spacecraft, rather than through a telescope.", "It was officially named after the mythological Adrasteia, foster mother of the Greek god Zeus—the equivalent of the Roman god Jupiter.Adrastea is one of the few moons in the Solar System known to orbit its planet in less than the length of that planet's day.", "It orbits at the edge of Jupiter's main ring and is thought to be the main contributor of material to the rings of Jupiter.", "Despite observations made in the 1990s by the ''Galileo'' spacecraft, very little is known about the moon's physical characteristics other than its size and the fact that it is tidally locked to Jupiter." ], [ "Discovery and observations", "Discovery image of Adrastea, taken on July 8, 1979, by ''Voyager 2''.", "Adrastea is the fainter dot, in the very middle, straddling the line of the Jovian rings.Adrastea was discovered by David C. Jewitt and G. Edward Danielson in ''Voyager 2'' probe photographs taken on July 8, 1979, and received the designation ''''''.", "Although it appeared only as a dot, it was the first moon to be discovered by an interplanetary spacecraft.", "Soon after its discovery, two other of the inner moons of Jupiter (Thebe and Metis) were observed in the images taken a few months earlier by ''Voyager 1''.", "The ''Galileo'' spacecraft was able to determine the moon's shape in 1998, but the images remain poor.", "In 1983, Adrastea was officially named after the Greek nymph Adrastea, the daughter of Zeus and his lover Ananke.Although the ''Juno'' orbiter, which arrived at Jupiter in 2016, has a camera called JunoCam, it is almost entirely focused on observations of Jupiter itself.", "However, if all goes well, it should be able to capture some limited images of the moons Metis and Adrastea." ], [ "Physical characteristics", "Adrastea has an irregular shape and measures 20×16×14 km across.", "A surface area estimate would be between 840 and 1,600 (~1,200) km2.This makes it the smallest of the four inner moons.", "The bulk, composition, and mass of Adrastea are not known, but assuming that its mean density is like that of Amalthea, around 0.86 g/cm3, its mass can be estimated at about 2 kg.", "Amalthea's density implies that the moon is composed of water ice with a porosity of 10–15%, and Adrastea may be similar.No surface details of Adrastea are known, due to the low resolution of available images." ], [ "Orbit", "Adrastea is the smallest and second-closest member of the inner Jovian satellite family.", "It orbits Jupiter at a radius of about (1.806 Jupiter radii) at the exterior edge of the planet's main ring.", "Its orbit has a very small eccentricity of around 0.0015 and an inclination relative to Jupiter's equator of 0.03°, respectively.Due to tidal locking, Adrastea rotates synchronously with its orbital period, keeping one face always looking toward the planet.", "Its long axis is aligned towards Jupiter, this being the lowest energy configuration.The orbit of Adrastea lies inside Jupiter's synchronous orbit radius (as does Metis's), and as a result, tidal forces are slowly causing its orbit to decay so that it will one day impact Jupiter.", "If its density is similar to Amalthea's then its orbit would actually lie within the fluid Roche limit.", "However, since it is not breaking up, it must still lie outside its rigid Roche limit." ], [ "Relationship with Jupiter's rings", "Adrastea is the largest contributor to material in Jupiter's rings.", "This appears to consist primarily of material that is ejected from the surfaces of Jupiter's four small inner satellites by meteorite impacts.", "It is easy for the impact ejecta to be lost from these satellites into space.", "This is due to the satellites' low density and their surfaces lying close to the edge of their Hill spheres.It seems that Adrastea is the most copious source of this ring material, as evidenced by the densest ring (the main ring) being located at and within Adrastea's orbit.", "More precisely, the orbit of Adrastea lies near the outer edge of Jupiter's main ring.", "The exact extent of visible ring material depends on the phase angle of the images: in forward-scattered light Adrastea is firmly outside the main ring, but in back-scattered light (which reveals much bigger particles) there appears to also be a narrow ringlet outside Adrastea's orbit." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "'''Cited sources'''* * * * * * (discovery)* (naming the moon)* *" ], [ "External links", "* Adrastea Profile by NASA's Solar System Exploration" ] ]

[ [ "Apache HTTP Server" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Apache HTTP Server''' ( ) is a free and open-source cross-platform web server software, released under the terms of Apache License 2.0.It is developed and maintained by a community of developers under the auspices of the Apache Software Foundation.The vast majority of Apache HTTP Server instances run on a Linux distribution, but current versions also run on Microsoft Windows, OpenVMS, and a wide variety of Unix-like systems.", "Past versions also ran on NetWare, OS/2 and other operating systems, including ports to mainframes.Originally based on the NCSA HTTPd server, development of Apache began in early 1995 after work on the NCSA code stalled.", "Apache played a key role in the initial growth of the World Wide Web, quickly overtaking NCSA HTTPd as the dominant HTTP server.", "In 2009, it became the first web server software to serve more than 100 million websites., Netcraft estimated that Apache served 23.04% of the million busiest websites, while Nginx served 22.01%; Cloudflare at 19.53% and Microsoft Internet Information Services at 5.78% rounded out the top four.", "For some of Netcraft's other stats, Nginx is ahead of Apache.", "According to W3Techs' review of all web sites, in June 2022 Apache was ranked second at 31.4% and Nginx first at 33.6%, with Cloudflare Server third at 21.6%." ], [ "Name", "According to The Apache Software Foundation, its name was chosen \"from respect for the various Native American nations collectively referred to as Apache, well-known for their superior skills in warfare strategy and their inexhaustible endurance\".", "This was in a context in which it seemed that the open internet -- based on free exchange of open source code -- appeared to be soon subjected to a kind of conquer by proprietary software vendor Microsoft; Apache co-creator Brian Behlendorf -- originator of the name -- saw his effort somewhat parallel that of Geronimo, Chief of the last of the free Apache peoples.", "But it conceded that the name \"also makes a cute pun on 'a patchy web server'—a server made from a series of patches\".There are other sources for the \"patchy\" software pun theory, including the project's official documentation in 1995, which stated: \"Apache is a cute name which stuck.", "It was based on some existing code and a series of software patches, a pun on 'A PAtCHy' server.", "\"But in an April 2000 interview, Behlendorf asserted that the origins of Apache were not a pun, stating:In January 2023, the US-based non-profit Natives in Tech accused the Apache Software Foundation of cultural appropriation and urged them to change the foundation's name, and consequently also the names of the software projects it hosts.When Apache is running under Unix, its process name is , which is short for \"HTTP daemon\"." ], [ "Feature overview", "Apache supports a variety of features, many implemented as compiled modules which extend the core functionality.", "These can range from authentication schemes to supporting server-side programming languages such as Perl, Python, Tcl and PHP.", "Popular authentication modules include mod_access, mod_auth, mod_digest, and mod_auth_digest, the successor to mod_digest.", "A sample of other features include Secure Sockets Layer and Transport Layer Security support (mod_ssl), a proxy module (mod_proxy), a URL rewriting module (mod_rewrite), custom log files (mod_log_config), and filtering support (mod_include and mod_ext_filter).Popular compression methods on Apache include the external extension module, mod_gzip, implemented to help with reduction of the size (weight) of web pages served over HTTP.", "ModSecurity is an open source intrusion detection and prevention engine for Web applications.", "Apache logs can be analyzed through a Web browser using free scripts, such as AWStats/W3Perl or Visitors.Virtual hosting allows one Apache installation to serve many different websites.", "For example, one computer with one Apache installation could simultaneously serve example.com, example.org, test47.test-server.example.edu, etc.Apache features configurable error messages, DBMS-based authentication databases, content negotiation and supports several graphical user interfaces (GUIs).It supports password authentication and digital certificate authentication.", "Because the source code is freely available, anyone can adapt the server for specific needs, and there is a large public library of Apache add-ons.A more detailed list of features is provided below:* Loadable Dynamic Modules* Multiple Request Processing modes (MPMs) including Event-based/Async, Threaded and Prefork.", "* Highly scalable (easily handles more than 10,000 simultaneous connections)* Handling of static files, index files, auto-indexing and content negotiation* .htaccess per-directory configuration support* Reverse proxy with caching** Load balancing with in-band health checks** Multiple load balancing mechanisms** Fault tolerance and Failover with automatic recovery** WebSocket, FastCGI, SCGI, AJP and uWSGI support with caching** Dynamic configuration* TLS/SSL with SNI and OCSP stapling support, via OpenSSL or wolfSSL.", "* Name- and IP address-based virtual servers* IPv6-compatible* HTTP/2 support* Fine-grained authentication and authorization access control* gzip compression and decompression* URL rewriting* Headers and content rewriting* Custom logging with rotation* Concurrent connection limiting* Request processing rate limiting* Bandwidth throttling* Server Side Includes* IP address-based geolocation* User and Session tracking* WebDAV* Embedded Perl, PHP and Lua scripting* CGI support* public_html per-user web-pages* Generic expression parser* Real-time status views* FTP support (by a separate module)" ], [ "Performance", "Instead of implementing a single architecture, Apache provides a variety of MultiProcessing Modules (MPMs), which allow it to run in either a process-based mode, a hybrid (process and thread) mode, or an event-hybrid mode, in order to better match the demands of each particular infrastructure.", "Choice of MPM and configuration is therefore important.", "Where compromises in performance must be made, Apache is designed to reduce latency and increase throughput relative to simply handling more requests, thus ensuring consistent and reliable processing of requests within reasonable time-frames.For delivering static pages, Apache 2.2 series was considered significantly slower than nginx and varnish.", "To address this issue, the Apache developers created the Event MPM, which mixes the use of several processes and several threads per process in an asynchronous event-based loop.", "This architecture as implemented in the Apache 2.4 series performs at least as well as event-based web servers, according to Jim Jagielski and other independent sources.", "However, some independent but significantly outdated benchmarks show that it is still half as fast as nginx, e.g." ], [ "Licensing", "The Apache HTTP Server codebase was relicensed to the Apache 2.0 License (from the previous 1.1 license) in January 2004, and Apache HTTP Server 1.3.31 and 2.0.49 were the first releases using the new license.The OpenBSD project did not like the change and continued the use of pre-2.0 Apache versions, effectively forking Apache 1.3.x for its purposes.", "They initially replaced it with Nginx, and soon after made their own replacement, OpenBSD Httpd, based on the Relayd project.===Versions===Version 1.1:The Apache License 1.1 was approved by the ASF in 2000: The primary change from the 1.0 license is in the 'advertising clause' (section 3 of the 1.0 license); derived products are no longer required to include attribution in their advertising materials, only in their documentation.Version 2.0:The ASF adopted the Apache License 2.0 in January 2004.The stated goals of the license included making the license easier for non-ASF projects to use, improving compatibility with GPL-based software, allowing the license to be included by reference instead of listed in every file, clarifying the license on contributions, and requiring a patent license on contributions that necessarily infringe a contributor's own patents." ], [ "Development", "+Versions of Apache HTTP ServerVersionInitial releaseLatest release1998-06-062010-02-03 (1.3.42)2002-04-062013-07-10 (2.0.65)2005-12-012017-07-11 (2.2.34)2012-02-212023-10-19 (2.4.58)The Apache HTTP Server Project is a collaborative software development effort aimed at creating a robust, commercial-grade, feature-rich and freely available source code implementation of an HTTP (Web) server.", "The project is jointly managed by a group of volunteers located around the world, using the Internet and the Web to communicate, plan, and develop the server and its related documentation.", "This project is part of the Apache Software Foundation.", "In addition, hundreds of users have contributed ideas, code, and documentation to the project.Apache 2.4 dropped support for BeOS, TPF, A/UX, NeXT, and Tandem platforms." ], [ "Security", "Apache, like other server software, can be hacked and exploited.", "The main Apache attack tool is Slowloris, which exploits a bug in Apache software.", "It creates many sockets and keeps each of them alive and busy by sending several bytes (known as \"keep-alive headers\") to let the server know that the computer is still connected and not experiencing network problems.", "The Apache developers have addressed Slowloris with several modules to limit the damage caused; the Apache modules mod_limitipconn, mod_qos, mod_evasive, mod security, mod_noloris, and mod_antiloris have all been suggested as means of reducing the likelihood of a successful Slowloris attack.", "Since Apache 2.2.15, Apache ships the module mod_reqtimeout as the official solution supported by the developers." ], [ "See also", "* .htaccess* .htpasswd* ApacheBench* Comparison of web server software* IBM HTTP Server* LAMP (software bundle)* XAMPP* List of Apache modules*List of free and open-source software packages* POSSE project* suEXEC* Apache Tomcat - another web server developed by the Apache Software Foundation" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Alph" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Alph''' may refer to:*Alpheus River, a river on the Peloponnese*Alph River, a river in Antarctica*Alph Lake, a lake in Antarctica*Alph, a fictional river in the poem ''Kubla Khan'' by Samuel Taylor Coleridge*Alph, a character from ''Luminous Arc''*Alph, a character from the game ''Pikmin 3''" ], [ "See also", "*ALF (disambiguation)*Alph Lyla, the in-house band of video game developer Capcom" ] ]

[ [ "Arbroath Abbey" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Arbroath Abbey''', in the Scottish town of Arbroath, was founded in 1178 by King William the Lion for a group of Tironensian Benedictine monks from Kelso Abbey.", "It was consecrated in 1197 with a dedication to the deceased Saint Thomas Becket, whom the king had met at the English court.", "It was William's only personal foundation — he was buried before the high altar of the church in 1214.The last Abbot was Cardinal David Beaton, who in 1522 succeeded his uncle James to become Archbishop of St Andrews.", "The Abbey is cared for by Historic Environment Scotland and is open to the public throughout the year (entrance charge).", "The distinctive red sandstone ruins stand at the top of the High Street in Arbroath." ], [ "History", "seal, depicting the murder of St ThomasKing William gave the Abbey independence from its founding abbey, Kelso Abbey, and endowed it generously, including income from 24 parishes, land in every royal burgh and more.", "The Abbey's monks were allowed to run a market and build a harbour.", "King John of England gave the Abbey permission to buy and sell goods anywhere in England (except London) toll-free.The Abbey, which was the richest in Scotland, is most famous for its association with the 1320 Declaration of Scottish Independence believed to have been drafted by Abbot Bernard, who was the Chancellor of Scotland under King Robert I.The Abbey fell into ruin after the Reformation.", "From 1590 onward, its stones were raided for buildings in the town of Arbroath.", "This continued until 1815 when steps were taken to preserve the remaining ruins.On Christmas Day 1950, the Stone of Destiny went missing from Westminster Abbey.", "On April 11, 1951, the stone was found lying on the site of the Abbey's altar.Since 1947, a major historical re-enactment commemorating the Declaration's signing has been held within the roofless remains of the Abbey church.", "The celebration is run by the local Arbroath Abbey Pageant Society, and tells the story of the events which led up to the signing.", "This is not an annual event.", "However, a special event to mark the signing is held every year on the 6th of April and involves a street procession and short piece of street theatre.In 2005 The Arbroath Abbey campaign was launched.", "The campaign seeks to gain World Heritage Status for the iconic Angus landmark that was the birthplace of one of Scotland's most significant document, The Declaration of Arbroath.", "Campaigners believe that the Abbey's historical pronouncement makes it a prime candidate to achieve World Heritage Status.", "MSP Alex Johnstone wrote \"Clearly, the Declaration of Arbroath is a literary work of outstanding universal significance by any stretch of the imagination\" In 2008, the Campaign Group Chairman, Councillor Jim Millar launched a public petition to reinforce the bid explaining \"We're simply asking people to, local people especially, to sign up to the campaign to have the Declaration of Arbroath and Arbroath Abbey recognised by the United Nations.", "Essentially we need local people to sign up to this campaign simply because the United Nations demand it.\"" ], [ "Architectural description", "Arbroath Abbey, showing The Round 'O'The Abbey was built over some sixty years using local red sandstone, but gives the impression of a single coherent, mainly 'Early English' architectural design, though the round-arched processional doorway in the western front looks back to late Norman or transitional work.", "The triforium (open arcade) above the door is unique in Scottish medieval architecture.", "It is flanked by twin towers decorated with blind arcading.", "The cruciform church measured long by wide.", "What remains of it today are the sacristy, added by Abbot Paniter in the 15th century, the southern transept, which features Scotland's largest lancet windows, part of the choir and presbytery, the southern half of the nave, parts of the western towers and the western doorway.The church originally had a central tower and (probably) a spire.", "These would once have been visible from many miles over the surrounding countryside, and no doubt once acted as a sea mark for ships.", "The soft sandstone of the walls was originally protected by plaster internally and render externally.", "These coatings are long gone and much of the architectural detail is sadly eroded, though detached fragments found in the ruins during consolidation give an impression of the original refined, rather austere, architectural effect.The distinctive round window high in the south transept was originally lit up at night as a beacon for mariners.", "It is known locally as the 'Round O', and from this tradition inhabitants of Arbroath are colloquially known as 'Reid Lichties' (Scots reid = red).Little remains of the claustral buildings of the Abbey except for the impressive gatehouse, which stretches between the south-west corner of the church and a defensive tower on the High Street, and the still complete Abbot's House, a building of the 13th, 15th and 16th centuries, which is the best preserved of its type in Scotland.The nave of Arbroath Abbey, as observed from the westIn the summer of 2001, a new visitors' centre was opened to the public beside the Abbey's west front.", "This red sandstone-clad building, with its distinctive 'wave-shaped' organic roof, planted with sedum, houses displays on the history of the Abbey and some of the best surviving stonework and other relics.", "The upper storey features a scale model of the Abbey complex, a computer-generated 'fly-through' reconstruction of the church as it was when complete, and a viewing gallery with excellent views of the ruins.", "The centre won the 2002 Angus Design Award.", "An archaeological investigation of the site of the visitors' centre before building started revealed the foundations of the medieval precinct wall, with a gateway, and stonework discarded during manufacture, showing that the area was the site of the masons' yard while the Abbey was being built." ], [ "See also", "*Abbot of Arbroath, for a list of abbots and commendators*1950 removal of the Stone of Scone" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "** ''Undiscovered Scotland's'' detailed history* https://web.archive.org/web/20140220180351/http://www.angus.gov.uk/history/features/buildings/arbabbey.htm* http://www.arbroathabbeypageant.com* 2002 Angus Design Award" ] ]

[ [ "Accounting" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Accounting''', also known as '''accountancy''', is the processing of information about economic entities, such as businesses and corporations.", "Accounting measures the results of an organization's economic activities and conveys this information to a variety of stakeholders, including investors, creditors, management, and regulators.", "Practitioners of accounting are known as accountants.", "The terms \"accounting\" and \"financial reporting\" are often used interchangeably.Accounting can be divided into several fields including financial accounting, management accounting, tax accounting and cost accounting.", "Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information, including the preparation of financial statements, to the external users of the information, such as investors, regulators and suppliers.", "Management accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information for internal use by management.", "The recording of financial transactions, so that summaries of the financials may be presented in financial reports, is known as bookkeeping, of which double-entry bookkeeping is the most common system.", "Accounting information systems are designed to support accounting functions and related activities.Accounting has existed in various forms and levels of sophistication throughout human history.", "The double-entry accounting system in use today was developed in medieval Europe, particularly in Venice, and is usually attributed to the Italian mathematician and Franciscan friar Luca Pacioli.", "Today, accounting is facilitated by accounting organizations such as standard-setters, accounting firms and professional bodies.", "Financial statements are usually audited by accounting firms, and are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).", "GAAP is set by various standard-setting organizations such as the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) in the United States and the Financial Reporting Council in the United Kingdom.", "As of 2012, \"all major economies\" have plans to converge towards or adopt the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)." ], [ "History", "''Portrait of Luca Pacioli'', painted by Jacopo de' Barbari, 1495 (Museo di Capodimonte)Accounting is thousands of years old and can be traced to ancient civilizations.", "One early development of accounting dates back to ancient Mesopotamia and is closely related to developments in writing, counting and money; there is also evidence of early forms of bookkeeping in ancient Iran, and early auditing systems by the ancient Egyptians and Babylonians.", "By the time of Emperor Augustus, the Roman government had access to detailed financial information.Double-entry bookkeeping was pioneered in the Jewish community of the early-medieval Middle East and was further refined in medieval Europe.", "With the development of joint-stock companies, accounting split into financial accounting and management accounting.The first published work on a double-entry bookkeeping system was the ''Summa de arithmetica'', published in Italy in 1494 by Luca Pacioli (the \"Father of Accounting\").", "Accounting began to transition into an organized profession in the nineteenth century, with local professional bodies in England merging to form the Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales in 1880." ], [ "Etymology", "Early 19th-century ledgerBoth the words \"accounting\" and \"accountancy\" were in use in Great Britain by the mid-1800s and are derived from the words ''accompting'' and ''accountantship'' used in the 18th century.", "In Middle English (used roughly between the 12th and the late 15th century), the verb \"to account\" had the form ''accounten'', which was derived from the Old French word ''aconter'', which is in turn related to the Vulgar Latin word ''computare'', meaning \"to reckon\".", "The base of ''computare'' is ''putare'', which \"variously meant to prune, to purify, to correct an account, hence, to count or calculate, as well as to think\".The word \"accountant\" is derived from the French word , which is also derived from the Italian and Latin word .", "The word was formerly written in English as \"accomptant\", but in process of time the word, which was always pronounced by dropping the \"p\", became gradually changed both in pronunciation and in orthography to its present form.=== Terminology ==='''Accounting''' has variously been defined as the keeping or preparation of the financial records of transactions of the firm, the analysis, verification and reporting of such records and \"the principles and procedures of accounting\"; it also refers to the job of being an accountant.", "'''Accountancy''' refers to the occupation or profession of an accountant, particularly in British English." ], [ "Topics", "Accounting has several subfields or subject areas, including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing, taxation and accounting information systems.===Financial accounting===Financial accounting focuses on the reporting of an organization's financial information to external users of the information, such as investors, potential investors and creditors.", "It calculates and records business transactions and prepares financial statements for the external users in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP).", "GAAP, in turn, arises from the wide agreement between accounting theory and practice, and change over time to meet the needs of decision-makers.Financial accounting produces past-oriented reports—for example financial statements are often published six to ten months after the end of the accounting period—on an annual or quarterly basis, generally about the organization as a whole.===Management accounting===Management accounting focuses on the measurement, analysis and reporting of information that can help managers in making decisions to fulfill the goals of an organization.", "In management accounting, internal measures and reports are based on cost-benefit analysis, and are not required to follow the generally accepted accounting principle (GAAP).", "In 2014 CIMA created the Global Management Accounting Principles (GMAPs).", "The result of research from across 20 countries in five continents, the principles aim to guide best practice in the discipline.Management accounting produces past-oriented reports with time spans that vary widely, but it also encompasses future-oriented reports such as budgets.", "Management accounting reports often include financial and non financial information, and may, for example, focus on specific products and departments.===Auditing===Auditing is the verification of assertions made by others regarding a payoff, and in the context of accounting it is the \"unbiased examination and evaluation of the financial statements of an organization\".", "Audit is a professional service that is systematic and conventional.An audit of financial statements aims to express or disclaim an independent opinion on the financial statements.", "The auditor expresses an independent opinion on the fairness with which the financial statements presents the financial position, results of operations, and cash flows of an entity, in accordance with the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) and \"in all material respects\".", "An auditor is also required to identify circumstances in which the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) have not been consistently observed.===Information systems===An accounting information system is a part of an organization's information system used for processing accounting data.Many corporations use artificial intelligence-based information systems.", "The banking and finance industry uses AI in fraud detection.", "The retail industry uses AI for customer services.", "AI is also used in the cybersecurity industry.", "It involves computer hardware and software systems using statistics and modeling.Many accounting practices have been simplified with the help of accounting computer-based software.", "An enterprise resource planning (ERP) system is commonly used for a large organisation and it provides a comprehensive, centralized, integrated source of information that companies can use to manage all major business processes, from purchasing to manufacturing to human resources.", "These systems can be cloud based and available on demand via application or browser, or available as software installed on specific computers or local servers, often referred to as on-premise.===Tax accounting===Tax accounting in the United States concentrates on the preparation, analysis and presentation of tax payments and tax returns.", "The U.S. tax system requires the use of specialised accounting principles for tax purposes which can differ from the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) for financial reporting.", "U.S. tax law covers four basic forms of business ownership: sole proprietorship, partnership, corporation, and limited liability company.", "Corporate and personal income are taxed at different rates, both varying according to income levels and including varying marginal rates (taxed on each additional dollar of income) and average rates (set as a percentage of overall income).===Forensic accounting===Forensic accounting is a specialty practice area of accounting that describes engagements that result from actual or anticipated disputes or litigation.", "\"Forensic\" means \"suitable for use in a court of law\", and it is to that standard and potential outcome that forensic accountants generally have to work.=== Political campaign accounting ===Political campaign accounting deals with the development and implementation of financial systems and the accounting of financial transactions in compliance with laws governing political campaign operations.", "This branch of accounting was first formally introduced in the March 1976 issue of ''The Journal of Accountancy''." ], [ "Organizations", "=== Professional bodies ===Professional accounting bodies include the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants (AICPA) and the other 179 members of the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC), including Institute of Chartered Accountants of Scotland (ICAS), Institute of Chartered Accountants of Pakistan (ICAP), CPA Australia, Institute of Chartered Accountants of India, Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) and Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales (ICAEW).", "Some countries have a single professional accounting body and, in some other countries, professional bodies for subfields of the accounting professions also exist, for example the Chartered Institute of Management Accountants (CIMA) in the UK and Institute of management accountants in the United States.", "Many of these professional bodies offer education and training including qualification and administration for various accounting designations, such as certified public accountant (AICPA) and chartered accountant.=== Firms ===Depending on its size, a company may be legally required to have their financial statements audited by a qualified auditor, and audits are usually carried out by accounting firms.Accounting firms grew in the United States and Europe in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century, and through several mergers there were large international accounting firms by the mid-twentieth century.", "Further large mergers in the late twentieth century led to the dominance of the auditing market by the \"Big Five\" accounting firms: Arthur Andersen, Deloitte, Ernst & Young, KPMG and PricewaterhouseCoopers.", "The demise of Arthur Andersen following the Enron scandal reduced the Big Five to the Big Four.=== Standard-setters ===Generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) are accounting standards issued by national regulatory bodies.", "In addition, the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) issues the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) implemented by 147 countries.", "Standards for international audit and assurance, ethics, education, and public sector accounting are all set by independent standard settings boards supported by IFAC.", "The International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board sets international standards for auditing, assurance, and quality control; the International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA) sets the internationally appropriate principles-based ''Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants''; the International Accounting Education Standards Board (IAESB) sets professional accounting education standards; and International Public Sector Accounting Standards Board (IPSASB) sets accrual-based international public sector accounting standards.Organizations in individual countries may issue accounting standards unique to the countries.", "For example, in Australia, the Australian Accounting Standards Board manages the issuance of the accounting standards in line with IFRS.", "In the United States the Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) issues the Statements of Financial Accounting Standards, which form the basis of US GAAP, and in the United Kingdom the Financial Reporting Council (FRC) sets accounting standards.", "However, as of 2012 \"all major economies\" have plans to converge towards or adopt the IFRS." ], [ "Education, training and qualifications", "=== Degrees ===At least a bachelor's degree in accounting or a related field is required for most accountant and auditor job positions, and some employers prefer applicants with a master's degree.", "A degree in accounting may also be required for, or may be used to fulfill the requirements for, membership to professional accounting bodies.", "For example, the education during an accounting degree can be used to fulfill the American Institute of CPA's (AICPA) 150 semester hour requirement, and associate membership with the Certified Public Accountants Association of the UK is available after gaining a degree in finance or accounting.A doctorate is required in order to pursue a career in accounting academia, for example, to work as a university professor in accounting.", "The Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) and the Doctor of Business Administration (DBA) are the most popular degrees.", "The PhD is the most common degree for those wishing to pursue a career in academia, while DBA programs generally focus on equipping business executives for business or public careers requiring research skills and qualifications.=== Professional qualifications ===Professional accounting qualifications include the chartered accountant designations and other qualifications including certificates and diplomas.", "In Scotland, chartered accountants of ICAS undergo Continuous Professional Development and abide by the ICAS code of ethics.", "In England and Wales, chartered accountants of the ICAEW undergo annual training, and are bound by the ICAEW's code of ethics and subject to its disciplinary procedures.In the United States, the requirements for joining the AICPA as a Certified Public Accountant are set by the Board of Accountancy of each state, and members agree to abide by the AICPA's Code of Professional Conduct and Bylaws.The ACCA is the largest global accountancy body with over 320,000 members, and the organisation provides an 'IFRS stream' and a 'UK stream'.", "Students must pass a total of 14 exams, which are arranged across three levels." ], [ "Research", "Accounting research is research in the effects of economic events on the process of accounting, the effects of reported information on economic events, and the roles of accounting in organizations and society.", "It encompasses a broad range of research areas including financial accounting, management accounting, auditing and taxation.Accounting research is carried out both by academic researchers and practicing accountants.", "Methodologies in academic accounting research include archival research, which examines \"objective data collected from repositories\"; experimental research, which examines data \"the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects\"; analytical research, which is \"based on the act of formally modeling theories or substantiating ideas in mathematical terms\"; interpretive research, which emphasizes the role of language, interpretation and understanding in accounting practice, \"highlighting the symbolic structures and taken-for-granted themes which pattern the world in distinct ways\"; critical research, which emphasizes the role of power and conflict in accounting practice; case studies; computer simulation; and field research.Empirical studies document that leading accounting journals publish in total fewer research articles than comparable journals in economics and other business disciplines, and consequently, accounting scholars are relatively less successful in academic publishing than their business school peers.", "Due to different publication rates between accounting and other business disciplines, a recent study based on academic author rankings concludes that the competitive value of a single publication in a top-ranked journal is highest in accounting and lowest in marketing." ], [ "Scandals", "The year 2001 witnessed a series of financial information frauds involving Enron, auditing firm Arthur Andersen, the telecommunications company WorldCom, Qwest and Sunbeam, among other well-known corporations.", "These problems highlighted the need to review the effectiveness of accounting standards, auditing regulations and corporate governance principles.", "In some cases, management manipulated the figures shown in financial reports to indicate a better economic performance.", "In others, tax and regulatory incentives encouraged over-leveraging of companies and decisions to bear extraordinary and unjustified risk.The Enron scandal deeply influenced the development of new regulations to improve the reliability of financial reporting, and increased public awareness about the importance of having accounting standards that show the financial reality of companies and the objectivity and independence of auditing firms.In addition to being the largest bankruptcy reorganization in American history, the Enron scandal undoubtedly is the biggest audit failure causing the dissolution of Arthur Andersen, which at the time was one of the five largest accounting firms in the world.", "After a series of revelations involving irregular accounting procedures conducted throughout the 1990s, Enron filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection in December 2001.One consequence of these events was the passage of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act in the United States in 2002, as a result of the first admissions of fraudulent behavior made by Enron.", "The act significantly raises criminal penalties for securities fraud, for destroying, altering or fabricating records in federal investigations or any scheme or attempt to defraud shareholders." ], [ "Fraud and error", "Accounting fraud is an intentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records by management or employees which involves the use of deception.", "It is a criminal act and a breach of civil tort.", "It may involve collusion with third parties.An accounting error is an unintentional misstatement or omission in the accounting records, for example misinterpretation of facts, mistakes in processing data, or oversights leading to incorrect estimates.", "Acts leading to accounting errors are not criminal but may breach civil law, for example, the tort of negligence.The primary responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud and errors rests with the entity's management." ], [ "See also", "* Accounting information system* Accounting records" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* * Operations Research in Accounting on the Institute for Operations Research and the Management Sciences website" ] ]

[ [ "Ant" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ants''' are eusocial insects of the family '''Formicidae''' and, along with the related wasps and bees, belong to the order Hymenoptera.", "Ants evolved from vespoid wasp ancestors in the Cretaceous period.", "More than 13,800 of an estimated total of 22,000 species have been classified.", "They are easily identified by their geniculate (elbowed) antennae and the distinctive node-like structure that forms their slender waists.Ants form colonies that range in size from a few dozen predatory individuals living in small natural cavities to highly organised colonies that may occupy large territories and consist of millions of individuals.", "Larger colonies consist of various castes of sterile, wingless females, most of which are workers (ergates), as well as soldiers (dinergates) and other specialised groups.", "Nearly all ant colonies also have some fertile males called \"drones\" and one or more fertile females called \"queens\" (gynes).", "The colonies are described as superorganisms because the ants appear to operate as a unified entity, collectively working together to support the colony.Ants gathering food (video)Ants have colonised almost every landmass on Earth.", "The only places lacking indigenous ants are Antarctica and a few remote or inhospitable islands.", "Ants thrive in moist tropical ecosystems and may exceed the combined biomass of wild birds and mammals.", "Their success in so many environments has been attributed to their social organisation and their ability to modify habitats, tap resources, and defend themselves.", "Their long co-evolution with other species has led to mimetic, commensal, parasitic, and mutualistic relationships.Ant societies have division of labour, communication between individuals, and an ability to solve complex problems.", "These parallels with human societies have long been an inspiration and subject of study.", "Many human cultures make use of ants in cuisine, medication, and rites.", "Some species are valued in their role as biological pest control agents.", "Their ability to exploit resources may bring ants into conflict with humans, however, as they can damage crops and invade buildings.", "Some species, such as the red imported fire ant (''Solenopsis invicta'') of South America, are regarded as invasive species in other parts of the world, establishing themselves in areas where they have been introduced accidentally." ], [ "Etymology", "The word ''ant'' and the archaic word ''emmet'' are derived from '''', '''' of Middle English, which come from '''' of Old English; these are all related to Low Saxon '''', '''' and varieties (Old Saxon '''') and to German '''' (Old High German '''').", "All of these words come from West Germanic ''*'', and the original meaning of the word was \"the biter\" (from Proto-Germanic '''', \"off, away\" + '''' \"cut\").The family name Formicidae is derived from the Latin '''' (\"ant\") from which the words in other Romance languages, such as the Portuguese '''', Italian '''', Spanish '''', Romanian '''', and French '''' are derived.", "It has been hypothesised that a Proto-Indo-European word *morwi- was the root for Sanskrit ''vamrah'', Greek μύρμηξ ''mýrmēx'', Old Church Slavonic ''mraviji'', Old Irish ''moirb'', Old Norse ''maurr'', Dutch ''mier'', Swedish ''myra'', Danish ''myre'', Middle Dutch ''miere'', and Crimean Gothic'' miera''." ], [ "Taxonomy and evolution", "The family Formicidae belongs to the order Hymenoptera, which also includes sawflies, bees, and wasps.", "Ants evolved from a lineage within the stinging wasps, and a 2013 study suggests that they are a sister group of the Apoidea.", "In 1966, E. O. Wilson and his colleagues identified the fossil remains of an ant (''Sphecomyrma'') that lived in the Cretaceous period.", "The specimen, trapped in amber dating back to around 92 million years ago, has features found in some wasps, but not found in modern ants.", "The oldest fossils of ants date to the mid-Cretaceous, around 100 million years ago, which belong to extinct stem-groups such as the Haidomyrmecinae, Sphecomyrminae and Zigrasimeciinae, with modern ant subfamilies appearing towards the end of the Cretaceous around 80–70 million years ago.", "Ants diversified and assumed ecological dominance around 60 million years ago.", "Some groups, such as the Leptanillinae and Martialinae, are suggested to have diversified from early primitive ants that were likely to have been predators underneath the surface of the soil.Ants fossilised in Baltic amberDuring the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian supercontinent (the Northern Hemisphere).", "Their representation in the fossil record is poor, in comparison to the populations of other insects, representing only about 1% of fossil evidence of insects in the era.", "Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Paleogene period.", "By the Oligocene and Miocene, ants had come to represent 20–40% of all insects found in major fossil deposits.", "Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch, around one in 10 genera survive to the present.", "Genera surviving today comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene).Termites live in colonies and are sometimes called \"white ants\", but termites are only distantly related to ants.", "They are the sub-order Isoptera, and together with cockroaches, they form the order Blattodea.", "Blattodeans are related to mantids, crickets, and other winged insects that do not undergo complete metamorphosis.", "Like ants, termites are eusocial, with sterile workers, but they differ greatly in the genetics of reproduction.", "The similarity of their social structure to that of ants is attributed to convergent evolution.", "Velvet ants look like large ants, but are wingless female wasps." ], [ "Distribution and diversity", " Region Number ofspecies  Neotropics 2,162 Nearctic 580 Europe 180 Africa 2,500 Asia 2,080 Melanesia 275 Australia 985 Polynesia 42Ants have a cosmopolitan distribution.", "They are found on all continents except Antarctica, and only a few large islands, such as Greenland, Iceland, parts of Polynesia and the Hawaiian Islands lack native ant species.", "Ants occupy a wide range of ecological niches and exploit many different food resources as direct or indirect herbivores, predators and scavengers.", "Most ant species are omnivorous generalists, but a few are specialist feeders.", "There is considerable variation in ant abundance across habitats, peaking in the moist tropics to nearly six times that found in less suitable habitats.", "Their ecological dominance has been examined primarily using estimates of their biomass: myrmecologist E. O. Wilson had estimated in 2009 that at any one time the total number of ants was between one and ten quadrillion (short scale) (i.e., between 1015 and 1016) and using this estimate he had suggested that the total biomass of all the ants in the world was approximately equal to the total biomass of the entire human race.", "More careful estimates made in 2022 which take into account regional variations puts the global ant contribution at 12 megatons of dry carbon, which is about 20% of the total human contribution, but greater than that of the wild birds and mammals combined.", "This study also puts a conservative estimate of the ants at about 20 × 1015 (20 quadrillion).Ants range in size from , the largest species being the fossil ''Titanomyrma giganteum'', the queen of which was long with a wingspan of .", "Ants vary in colour; most ants are yellow to red or brown to black, but a few species are green and some tropical species have a metallic lustre.", "More than 13,800 species are currently known (with upper estimates of the potential existence of about 22,000; see the article List of ant genera), with the greatest diversity in the tropics.", "Taxonomic studies continue to resolve the classification and systematics of ants.", "Online databases of ant species, including AntWeb and the Hymenoptera Name Server, help to keep track of the known and newly described species.", "The relative ease with which ants may be sampled and studied in ecosystems has made them useful as indicator species in biodiversity studies." ], [ "Morphology", "Diagram of a worker ant (''Neoponera verenae'')Ants are distinct in their morphology from other insects in having geniculate (elbowed) antennae, metapleural glands, and a strong constriction of their second abdominal segment into a node-like petiole.", "The head, mesosoma, and metasoma are the three distinct body segments (formally tagmata).", "The petiole forms a narrow waist between their mesosoma (thorax plus the first abdominal segment, which is fused to it) and gaster (abdomen less the abdominal segments in the petiole).", "The petiole may be formed by one or two nodes (the second alone, or the second and third abdominal segments).", "Tergosternal fusion, when the tergite and sternite of a segment fuse together, can occur partly or fully on the second, third and fourth abdominal segment and is used in identification.", "Fourth abdominal tergosternal fusion was formerly used as character that defined the poneromorph subfamilies, Ponerinae and relatives within their clade, but this is no longer considered a synapomorphic character.Like other arthropods, ants have an exoskeleton, an external covering that provides a protective casing around the body and a point of attachment for muscles, in contrast to the internal skeletons of humans and other vertebrates.", "Insects do not have lungs; oxygen and other gases, such as carbon dioxide, pass through their exoskeleton via tiny valves called spiracles.", "Insects also lack closed blood vessels; instead, they have a long, thin, perforated tube along the top of the body (called the \"dorsal aorta\") that functions like a heart, and pumps haemolymph toward the head, thus driving the circulation of the internal fluids.", "The nervous system consists of a ventral nerve cord that runs the length of the body, with several ganglia and branches along the way reaching into the extremities of the appendages.===Head===Bull ant showing the powerful mandibles and the relatively large compound eyes that provide excellent visionAnt headAn ant's head contains many sensory organs.", "Like most insects, ants have compound eyes made from numerous tiny lenses attached together.", "Ant eyes are good for acute movement detection, but do not offer a high resolution image.", "They also have three small ocelli (simple eyes) on the top of the head that detect light levels and polarization.", "Compared to vertebrates, ants tend to have blurrier eyesight, particularly in smaller species, and a few subterranean taxa are completely blind.", "However, some ants, such as Australia's bulldog ant, have excellent vision and are capable of discriminating the distance and size of objects moving nearly a meter away.Two antennae (\"feelers\") are attached to the head; these organs detect chemicals, air currents, and vibrations; they also are used to transmit and receive signals through touch.", "The head has two strong jaws, the mandibles, used to carry food, manipulate objects, construct nests, and for defence.", "In some species, a small pocket (infrabuccal chamber) inside the mouth stores food, so it may be passed to other ants or their larvae.===Mesosoma===Both the legs and wings of the ant are attached to the mesosoma (\"thorax\").", "The legs terminate in a hooked claw which allows them to hook on and climb surfaces.", "Only reproductive ants (queens and males) have wings.", "Queens shed their wings after the nuptial flight, leaving visible stubs, a distinguishing feature of queens.", "In a few species, wingless queens (ergatoids) and males occur.===Metasoma===The metasoma (the \"abdomen\") of the ant houses important internal organs, including those of the reproductive, respiratory (tracheae), and excretory systems.", "Workers of many species have their egg-laying structures modified into stings that are used for subduing prey and defending their nests.===Polymorphism===Seven leafcutter ant workers of various castes (left) and two queens (right)In the colonies of a few ant species, there are physical castes—workers in distinct size-classes, called minor, median, and major ergates.", "Often, the larger ants have disproportionately larger heads, and correspondingly stronger mandibles.", "These are known as macrergates while smaller workers are known as micrergates.", "Although formally known as dinergates, such individuals are sometimes called \"soldier\" ants because their stronger mandibles make them more effective in fighting, although they still are workers and their \"duties\" typically do not vary greatly from the minor or median workers.", "In a few species, the median workers are absent, creating a sharp divide between the minors and majors.", "Weaver ants, for example, have a distinct bimodal size distribution.", "Some other species show continuous variation in the size of workers.", "The smallest and largest workers in ''Carebara diversa'' show nearly a 500-fold difference in their dry weights.Workers cannot mate; however, because of the haplodiploid sex-determination system in ants, workers of a number of species can lay unfertilised eggs that become fully fertile, haploid males.", "The role of workers may change with their age and in some species, such as honeypot ants, young workers are fed until their gasters are distended, and act as living food storage vessels.", "These food storage workers are called ''repletes''.", "For instance, these replete workers develop in the North American honeypot ant ''Myrmecocystus mexicanus''.", "Usually the largest workers in the colony develop into repletes; and, if repletes are removed from the colony, other workers become repletes, demonstrating the flexibility of this particular polymorphism.", "This polymorphism in morphology and behaviour of workers initially was thought to be determined by environmental factors such as nutrition and hormones that led to different developmental paths; however, genetic differences between worker castes have been noted in ''Acromyrmex'' sp.", "These polymorphisms are caused by relatively small genetic changes; differences in a single gene of ''Solenopsis invicta'' can decide whether the colony will have single or multiple queens.", "The Australian jack jumper ant (''Myrmecia pilosula'') has only a single pair of chromosomes (with the males having just one chromosome as they are haploid), the lowest number known for any animal, making it an interesting subject for studies in the genetics and developmental biology of social insects.===Genome size===Genome size is a fundamental characteristic of an organism.", "Ants have been found to have tiny genomes, with the evolution of genome size suggested to occur through loss and accumulation of non-coding regions, mainly transposable elements, and occasionally by whole genome duplication.", "This may be related to colonisation processes, but further studies are needed to verify this." ], [ "Life cycle", "Meat eater ant nest during swarmingThe life of an ant starts from an egg; if the egg is fertilised, the progeny will be female diploid, if not, it will be male haploid.", "Ants develop by complete metamorphosis with the larva stages passing through a pupal stage before emerging as an adult.", "The larva is largely immobile and is fed and cared for by workers.", "Food is given to the larvae by trophallaxis, a process in which an ant regurgitates liquid food held in its crop.", "This is also how adults share food, stored in the \"social stomach\".", "Larvae, especially in the later stages, may also be provided solid food, such as trophic eggs, pieces of prey, and seeds brought by workers.The larvae grow through a series of four or five moults and enter the pupal stage.", "The pupa has the appendages free and not fused to the body as in a butterfly pupa.", "The differentiation into queens and workers (which are both female), and different castes of workers, is influenced in some species by the nutrition the larvae obtain.", "Genetic influences and the control of gene expression by the developmental environment are complex and the determination of caste continues to be a subject of research.", "Winged male ants, called drones (termed \"aner\" in old literature), emerge from pupae along with the usually winged breeding females.", "Some species, such as army ants, have wingless queens.", "Larvae and pupae need to be kept at fairly constant temperatures to ensure proper development, and so often are moved around among the various brood chambers within the colony.A new ergate spends the first few days of its adult life caring for the queen and young.", "She then graduates to digging and other nest work, and later to defending the nest and foraging.", "These changes are sometimes fairly sudden, and define what are called temporal castes.", "Such age-based task-specialization or polyethism has been suggested as having evolved due to the high casualties involved in foraging and defence, making it an acceptable risk only for ants who are older and likely to die sooner from natural causes.", "In the Brazilian ant ''Forelius pusillus,'' the nest entrance is closed from the outside to protect the colony from predatory ant species at sunset each day.", "About one to eight workers seal the nest entrance from the outside and they have no chance of returning to the nest and are in effect sacrificed.", "Whether these seemingly suicidal workers are older workers has not been determined.Ant colonies can be long-lived.", "The queens can live for up to 30 years, and workers live from 1 to 3 years.", "Males, however, are more transitory, being quite short-lived and surviving for only a few weeks.", "Ant queens are estimated to live 100 times as long as solitary insects of a similar size.Ants are active all year long in the tropics; however, in cooler regions, they survive the winter in a state of dormancy known as hibernation.", "The forms of inactivity are varied and some temperate species have larvae going into the inactive state (diapause), while in others, the adults alone pass the winter in a state of reduced activity.Alate male ant, ''Prenolepis imparis''===Reproduction===Honey ants (''Prenolepis imparis'') matingA wide range of reproductive strategies have been noted in ant species.", "Females of many species are known to be capable of reproducing asexually through thelytokous parthenogenesis.", "Secretions from the male accessory glands in some species can plug the female genital opening and prevent females from re-mating.", "Most ant species have a system in which only the queen and breeding females have the ability to mate.", "Contrary to popular belief, some ant nests have multiple queens, while others may exist without queens.", "Workers with the ability to reproduce are called \"gamergates\" and colonies that lack queens are then called gamergate colonies; colonies with queens are said to be queen-right.Drones can also mate with existing queens by entering a foreign colony, such as in army ants.", "When the drone is initially attacked by the workers, it releases a mating pheromone.", "If recognized as a mate, it will be carried to the queen to mate.", "Males may also patrol the nest and fight others by grabbing them with their mandibles, piercing their exoskeleton and then marking them with a pheromone.", "The marked male is interpreted as an invader by worker ants and is killed.Most ants are univoltine, producing a new generation each year.", "During the species-specific breeding period, winged females and winged males, known to entomologists as alates, leave the colony in what is called a nuptial flight.", "The nuptial flight usually takes place in the late spring or early summer when the weather is hot and humid.", "Heat makes flying easier and freshly fallen rain makes the ground softer for mated queens to dig nests.", "Males typically take flight before the females.", "Males then use visual cues to find a common mating ground, for example, a landmark such as a pine tree to which other males in the area converge.", "Males secrete a mating pheromone that females follow.", "Males will mount females in the air, but the actual mating process usually takes place on the ground.", "Females of some species mate with just one male but in others they may mate with as many as ten or more different males, storing the sperm in their spermathecae.", "In ''Cardiocondyla elegans,'' workers may transport newly emerged queens to other conspecific nests where wingless males from unrelated colonies can mate with them, a behavioural adaptation that may reduce the chances of inbreeding.Fertilised meat-eater ant queen beginning to dig a new colonyMated females then seek a suitable place to begin a colony.", "There, they break off their wings using their tibial spurs and begin to lay and care for eggs.", "The females can selectively fertilise future eggs with the sperm stored to produce diploid workers or lay unfertilized haploid eggs to produce drones.", "The first workers to hatch, known as nanitics, are weaker and smaller than later workers but they begin to serve the colony immediately.", "They enlarge the nest, forage for food, and care for the other eggs.", "Species that have multiple queens may have a queen leaving the nest along with some workers to found a colony at a new site, a process akin to swarming in honeybees.=== Nests, colonies, and supercolonies ===The typical ant species has a colony occupying a single nest, housing one or more queens, where the brood is raised.", "There are however more than 150 species of ants in 49 genera that are known to have colonies consisting of multiple spatially separated nests.", "These polydomous (as opposed to monodomous) colonies have food and workers moving between the nests.", "Membership to a colony is identified by the response of worker ants which identify whether another individual belongs to their own colony or not.", "A signature cocktail of body surface chemicals (also known as cuticular hydrocarbons or CHCs) forms the so-called colony odor which other members can recognize.", "Some ant species appear to be less discriminating and in the Argentine ant ''Linepithema humile,'' workers carried from a colony anywhere in the southern US and Mexico are acceptable within other colonies in the same region.", "Similarly workers from colonies that have established in Europe are accepted by any other colonies within Europe but not by the colonies in the Americas.", "The interpretation of these observations has been debated and some have been termed these large populations as supercolonies while others have termed the poulations as unicolonial." ], [ "Behaviour and ecology", "===Communication===Two ''Camponotus sericeus'' workers communicating through touch and pheromonesAnts communicate with each other using pheromones, sounds, and touch.", "Since most ants live on the ground, they use the soil surface to leave pheromone trails that may be followed by other ants.", "In species that forage in groups, a forager that finds food marks a trail on the way back to the colony; this trail is followed by other ants, these ants then reinforce the trail when they head back with food to the colony.", "When the food source is exhausted, no new trails are marked by returning ants and the scent slowly dissipates.", "This behaviour helps ants deal with changes in their environment.", "For instance, when an established path to a food source is blocked by an obstacle, the foragers leave the path to explore new routes.", "If an ant is successful, it leaves a new trail marking the shortest route on its return.", "Successful trails are followed by more ants, reinforcing better routes and gradually identifying the best path.Ants use pheromones for more than just making trails.", "A crushed ant emits an alarm pheromone that sends nearby ants into an attack frenzy and attracts more ants from farther away.", "Several ant species even use \"propaganda pheromones\" to confuse enemy ants and make them fight among themselves.", "Pheromones are produced by a wide range of structures including Dufour's glands, poison glands and glands on the hindgut, pygidium, rectum, sternum, and hind tibia.", "Pheromones also are exchanged, mixed with food, and passed by trophallaxis, transferring information within the colony.", "This allows other ants to detect what task group (e.g., foraging or nest maintenance) other colony members belong to.", "In ant species with queen castes, when the dominant queen stops producing a specific pheromone, workers begin to raise new queens in the colony.Some ants produce sounds by stridulation, using the gaster segments and their mandibles.", "Sounds may be used to communicate with colony members or with other species.===Defence ===A ''Plectroctena'' sp.", "attacks another of its kind to protect its territory.Ants attack and defend themselves by biting and, in many species, by stinging often injecting or spraying chemicals.", "Bullet ants (''Paraponera''), located in Central and South America, are considered to have the most painful sting of any insect, although it is usually not fatal to humans.", "This sting is given the highest rating on the Schmidt sting pain index.The sting of jack jumper ants can be lethal for humans, and an antivenom has been developed for it.", "Fire ants, ''Solenopsis'' spp., are unique in having a venom sac containing piperidine alkaloids.", "Their stings are painful and can be dangerous to hypersensitive people.", "Formicine ants secrete a poison from their glands, made mainly of formic acid.A weaver ant in fighting position, mandibles wide openTrap-jaw ants of the genus ''Odontomachus'' are equipped with mandibles called trap-jaws, which snap shut faster than any other predatory appendages within the animal kingdom.", "One study of ''Odontomachus bauri'' recorded peak speeds of between , with the jaws closing within 130 microseconds on average.", "The ants were also observed to use their jaws as a catapult to eject intruders or fling themselves backward to escape a threat.", "Before striking, the ant opens its mandibles extremely widely and locks them in this position by an internal mechanism.", "Energy is stored in a thick band of muscle and explosively released when triggered by the stimulation of sensory organs resembling hairs on the inside of the mandibles.", "The mandibles also permit slow and fine movements for other tasks.", "Trap-jaws also are seen in other ponerines such as ''Anochetus'', as well as some genera in the tribe Attini, such as ''Daceton'', ''Orectognathus'', and ''Strumigenys'', which are viewed as examples of convergent evolution.A Malaysian species of ant in the ''Camponotus'' ''cylindricus'' group has enlarged mandibular glands that extend into their gaster.", "If combat takes a turn for the worse, a worker may perform a final act of suicidal altruism by rupturing the membrane of its gaster, causing the content of its mandibular glands to burst from the anterior region of its head, spraying a poisonous, corrosive secretion containing acetophenones and other chemicals that immobilise small insect attackers.", "The worker subsequently dies.Ant mound holes prevent water from entering the nest during rain.In addition to defence against predators, ants need to protect their colonies from pathogens.", "Secretions from the metapleural gland, unique to the ants, produce a complex range of chemicals including several with antibiotic properties.", "Some worker ants maintain the hygiene of the colony and their activities include undertaking or ''necrophoresis'', the disposal of dead nest-mates.", "Oleic acid has been identified as the compound released from dead ants that triggers necrophoric behaviour in ''Atta mexicana'' while workers of ''Linepithema humile'' react to the absence of characteristic chemicals (dolichodial and iridomyrmecin) present on the cuticle of their living nestmates to trigger similar behaviour.Nests may be protected from physical threats such as flooding and overheating by elaborate nest architecture.", "Workers of ''Cataulacus muticus'', an arboreal species that lives in plant hollows, respond to flooding by drinking water inside the nest, and excreting it outside.", "''Camponotus anderseni'', which nests in the cavities of wood in mangrove habitats, deals with submergence under water by switching to anaerobic respiration.===Learning===tandemMany animals can learn behaviours by imitation, but ants may be the only group apart from mammals where interactive teaching has been observed.", "A knowledgeable forager of ''Temnothorax albipennis'' can lead a naïve nest-mate to newly discovered food by the process of tandem running.", "The follower obtains knowledge through its leading tutor.", "The leader is acutely sensitive to the progress of the follower and slows down when the follower lags and speeds up when the follower gets too close.Controlled experiments with colonies of ''Cerapachys biroi'' suggest that an individual may choose nest roles based on her previous experience.", "An entire generation of identical workers was divided into two groups whose outcome in food foraging was controlled.", "One group was continually rewarded with prey, while it was made certain that the other failed.", "As a result, members of the successful group intensified their foraging attempts while the unsuccessful group ventured out fewer and fewer times.", "A month later, the successful foragers continued in their role while the others had moved to specialise in brood care.===Nest construction===Leaf nest of weaver ants, Pamalican, PhilippinesComplex nests are built by many ant species, but other species are nomadic and do not build permanent structures.", "Ants may form subterranean nests or build them on trees.", "These nests may be found in the ground, under stones or logs, inside logs, hollow stems, or even acorns.", "The materials used for construction include soil and plant matter, and ants carefully select their nest sites; ''Temnothorax albipennis'' will avoid sites with dead ants, as these may indicate the presence of pests or disease.", "They are quick to abandon established nests at the first sign of threats.The army ants of South America, such as the ''Eciton burchellii'' species, and the driver ants of Africa do not build permanent nests, but instead, alternate between nomadism and stages where the workers form a temporary nest (bivouac) from their own bodies, by holding each other together.Weaver ant (''Oecophylla'' spp.)", "workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges.", "Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of ''Polyrhachis''.Ant bridge''Formica polyctena'', among other ant species, constructs nests that maintain a relatively constant interior temperature that aids in the development of larvae.", "The ants maintain the nest temperature by choosing the location, nest materials, controlling ventilation and maintaining the heat from solar radiation, worker activity and metabolism, and in some moist nests, microbial activity in the nest materials.Some ant species, such as those that use natural cavities, can be opportunistic and make use of the controlled micro-climate provided inside human dwellings and other artificial structures to house their colonies and nest structures.===Cultivation of food===''Myrmecocystus'', honeypot ants, store food to prevent colony famine.Most ants are generalist predators, scavengers, and indirect herbivores, but a few have evolved specialised ways of obtaining nutrition.", "It is believed that many ant species that engage in indirect herbivory rely on specialized symbiosis with their gut microbes to upgrade the nutritional value of the food they collect and allow them to survive in nitrogen poor regions, such as rainforest canopies.", "Leafcutter ants (''Atta'' and ''Acromyrmex'') feed exclusively on a fungus that grows only within their colonies.", "They continually collect leaves which are taken to the colony, cut into tiny pieces and placed in fungal gardens.", "Ergates specialise in related tasks according to their sizes.", "The largest ants cut stalks, smaller workers chew the leaves and the smallest tend the fungus.", "Leafcutter ants are sensitive enough to recognise the reaction of the fungus to different plant material, apparently detecting chemical signals from the fungus.", "If a particular type of leaf is found to be toxic to the fungus, the colony will no longer collect it.", "The ants feed on structures produced by the fungi called ''gongylidia''.", "Symbiotic bacteria on the exterior surface of the ants produce antibiotics that kill bacteria introduced into the nest that may harm the fungi.===Navigation===An ant trailForaging ants travel distances of up to from their nest and scent trails allow them to find their way back even in the dark.", "In hot and arid regions, day-foraging ants face death by desiccation, so the ability to find the shortest route back to the nest reduces that risk.", "Diurnal desert ants of the genus ''Cataglyphis'' such as the Sahara desert ant navigate by keeping track of direction as well as distance travelled.", "Distances travelled are measured using an internal pedometer that keeps count of the steps taken and also by evaluating the movement of objects in their visual field (optical flow).", "Directions are measured using the position of the sun.They integrate this information to find the shortest route back to their nest.Like all ants, they can also make use of visual landmarks when available as well as olfactory and tactile cues to navigate.", "Some species of ant are able to use the Earth's magnetic field for navigation.", "The compound eyes of ants have specialised cells that detect polarised light from the Sun, which is used to determine direction.These polarization detectors are sensitive in the ultraviolet region of the light spectrum.", "In some army ant species, a group of foragers who become separated from the main column may sometimes turn back on themselves and form a circular ant mill.", "The workers may then run around continuously until they die of exhaustion.===Locomotion===The female worker ants do not have wings and reproductive females lose their wings after their mating flights in order to begin their colonies.", "Therefore, unlike their wasp ancestors, most ants travel by walking.", "Some species are capable of leaping.", "For example, Jerdon's jumping ant (''Harpegnathos saltator'') is able to jump by synchronising the action of its mid and hind pairs of legs.", "There are several species of gliding ant including ''Cephalotes atratus''; this may be a common trait among arboreal ants with small colonies.", "Ants with this ability are able to control their horizontal movement so as to catch tree trunks when they fall from atop the forest canopy.Other species of ants can form chains to bridge gaps over water, underground, or through spaces in vegetation.", "Some species also form floating rafts that help them survive floods.", "These rafts may also have a role in allowing ants to colonise islands.", "''Polyrhachis sokolova'', a species of ant found in Australian mangrove swamps, can swim and live in underwater nests.", "Since they lack gills, they go to trapped pockets of air in the submerged nests to breathe.===Cooperation and competition===Meat-eater ants feeding on a cicada: social ants cooperate and collectively gather foodNot all ants have the same kind of societies.", "The Australian bulldog ants are among the biggest and most basal of ants.", "Like virtually all ants, they are eusocial, but their social behaviour is poorly developed compared to other species.", "Each individual hunts alone, using her large eyes instead of chemical senses to find prey.Some species attack and take over neighbouring ant colonies.", "Extreme specialists among these slave-raiding ants, such as the Amazon ants, are incapable of feeding themselves and need captured workers to survive.", "Captured workers of enslaved ''Temnothorax'' species have evolved a counter-strategy, destroying just the female pupae of the slave-making ''Temnothorax americanus'', but sparing the males (who do not take part in slave-raiding as adults).A worker ''Harpegnathos saltator'' (a jumping ant) engaged in battle with a rival colony's queen (on top)Ants identify kin and nestmates through their scent, which comes from hydrocarbon-laced secretions that coat their exoskeletons.", "If an ant is separated from its original colony, it will eventually lose the colony scent.", "Any ant that enters a colony without a matching scent will be attacked.Parasitic ant species enter the colonies of host ants and establish themselves as social parasites; species such as ''Strumigenys xenos'' are entirely parasitic and do not have workers, but instead, rely on the food gathered by their ''Strumigenys perplexa'' hosts.", "This form of parasitism is seen across many ant genera, but the parasitic ant is usually a species that is closely related to its host.", "A variety of methods are employed to enter the nest of the host ant.", "A parasitic queen may enter the host nest before the first brood has hatched, establishing herself prior to development of a colony scent.", "Other species use pheromones to confuse the host ants or to trick them into carrying the parasitic queen into the nest.", "Some simply fight their way into the nest.A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with these reproducers apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible.", "The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring.", "An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in ''Wasmannia auropunctata'', where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process whereby a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males who are clones of the father.===Relationships with other organisms===The spider ''Myrmarachne plataleoides'' (female shown) mimics weaver ants to avoid predators.Ants form symbiotic associations with a range of species, including other ant species, other insects, plants, and fungi.", "They also are preyed on by many animals and even certain fungi.", "Some arthropod species spend part of their lives within ant nests, either preying on ants, their larvae, and eggs, consuming the food stores of the ants, or avoiding predators.", "These inquilines may bear a close resemblance to ants.", "The nature of this ant mimicry (myrmecomorphy) varies, with some cases involving Batesian mimicry, where the mimic reduces the risk of predation.", "Others show Wasmannian mimicry, a form of mimicry seen only in inquilines.honeydew from an aphidAphids and other hemipteran insects secrete a sweet liquid called honeydew, when they feed on plant sap.", "The sugars in honeydew are a high-energy food source, which many ant species collect.", "In some cases, the aphids secrete the honeydew in response to ants tapping them with their antennae.", "The ants in turn keep predators away from the aphids and will move them from one feeding location to another.", "When migrating to a new area, many colonies will take the aphids with them, to ensure a continued supply of honeydew.", "Ants also tend mealybugs to harvest their honeydew.", "Mealybugs may become a serious pest of pineapples if ants are present to protect mealybugs from their natural enemies.Myrmecophilous (ant-loving) caterpillars of the butterfly family Lycaenidae (e.g., blues, coppers, or hairstreaks) are herded by the ants, led to feeding areas in the daytime, and brought inside the ants' nest at night.", "The caterpillars have a gland which secretes honeydew when the ants massage them.", "Some caterpillars produce vibrations and sounds that are perceived by the ants.", "A similar adaptation can be seen in Grizzled skipper butterflies that emit vibrations by expanding their wings in order to communicate with ants, which are natural predators of these butterflies.", "Other caterpillars have evolved from ant-loving to ant-eating: these myrmecophagous caterpillars secrete a pheromone that makes the ants act as if the caterpillar is one of their own larvae.", "The caterpillar is then taken into the ant nest where it feeds on the ant larvae.", "A number of specialized bacteria have been found as endosymbionts in ant guts.", "Some of the dominant bacteria belong to the order Hyphomicrobiales whose members are known for being nitrogen-fixing symbionts in legumes but the species found in ant lack the ability to fix nitrogen.", "Fungus-growing ants that make up the tribe Attini, including leafcutter ants, cultivate certain species of fungus in the genera ''Leucoagaricus'' or ''Leucocoprinus'' of the family Agaricaceae.", "In this ant-fungus mutualism, both species depend on each other for survival.", "The ant ''Allomerus decemarticulatus'' has evolved a three-way association with the host plant, ''Hirtella physophora'' (Chrysobalanaceae), and a sticky fungus which is used to trap their insect prey.Ants may obtain nectar from flowers such as the dandelion, but are only rarely known to pollinate flowers.Lemon ants make devil's gardens by killing surrounding plants with their stings and leaving a pure patch of lemon ant trees, (''Duroia hirsuta'').", "This modification of the forest provides the ants with more nesting sites inside the stems of the ''Duroia'' trees.", "Although some ants obtain nectar from flowers, pollination by ants is somewhat rare, one example being of the pollination of the orchid ''Leporella fimbriata'' which induces male ''Myrmecia urens'' to pseudocopulate with the flowers, transferring pollen in the process.", "One theory that has been proposed for the rarity of pollination is that the secretions of the metapleural gland inactivate and reduce the viability of pollen.", "Some plants have special nectar exuding structures, extrafloral nectaries, that provide food for ants, which in turn protect the plant from more damaging herbivorous insects.", "Species such as the bullhorn acacia (''Acacia cornigera'') in Central America have hollow thorns that house colonies of stinging ants (''Pseudomyrmex ferruginea'') who defend the tree against insects, browsing mammals, and epiphytic vines.", "Isotopic labelling studies suggest that plants also obtain nitrogen from the ants.", "In return, the ants obtain food from protein- and lipid-rich Beltian bodies.", "In Fiji ''Philidris nagasau'' (Dolichoderinae) are known to selectively grow species of epiphytic ''Squamellaria'' (Rubiaceae) which produce large domatia inside which the ant colonies nest.", "The ants plant the seeds and the domatia of young seedling are immediately occupied and the ant faeces in them contribute to rapid growth.", "Similar dispersal associations are found with other dolichoderines in the region as well.", "Another example of this type of ectosymbiosis comes from the ''Macaranga'' tree, which has stems adapted to house colonies of ''Crematogaster'' ants.Many plant species have seeds that are adapted for dispersal by ants.", "Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread, and new estimates suggest that nearly 9% of all plant species may have such ant associations.", "Often, seed-dispersing ants perform directed dispersal, depositing the seeds in locations that increase the likelihood of seed survival to reproduction.", "Some plants in arid, fire-prone systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal as the seeds are transported to safety below the ground.", "Many ant-dispersed seeds have special external structures, elaiosomes, that are sought after by ants as food.", "Ants can substantially alter rate of decomposition and nutrient cycling in their nest.", "By myrmecochory and modification of soil conditions they substantially alter vegetation and nutrient cycling in surrounding ecosystem.A convergence, possibly a form of mimicry, is seen in the eggs of stick insects.", "They have an edible elaiosome-like structure and are taken into the ant nest where the young hatch.A meat ant tending a common leafhopper nymphBold Jumping Spider (Phidippus audax) with a cutworm (tribe Noctuini) and then lost to ants (Family Formicidae)ants from different colonies steal the cranefly that a pair of Long-jawed orb weaver spiders were consuming.Most ants are predatory and some prey on and obtain food from other social insects including other ants.", "Some species specialise in preying on termites (''Megaponera'' and ''Termitopone'') while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants.", "Some termites, including ''Nasutitermes corniger'', form associations with certain ant species to keep away predatory ant species.", "The tropical wasp ''Mischocyttarus drewseni'' coats the pedicel of its nest with an ant-repellent chemical.", "It is suggested that many tropical wasps may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants.", "Other wasps, such as ''A.", "multipicta'', defend against ants by blasting them off the nest with bursts of wing buzzing.", "Stingless bees (''Trigona'' and ''Melipona'') use chemical defences against ants.Flies in the Old World genus ''Bengalia'' (Calliphoridae) prey on ants and are kleptoparasites, snatching prey or brood from the mandibles of adult ants.", "Wingless and legless females of the Malaysian phorid fly (''Vestigipoda myrmolarvoidea'') live in the nests of ants of the genus ''Aenictus'' and are cared for by the ants.", "''Oecophylla smaragdina'' killed by a fungusFungi in the genera ''Cordyceps'' and ''Ophiocordyceps'' infect ants.", "Ants react to their infection by climbing up plants and sinking their mandibles into plant tissue.", "The fungus kills the ants, grows on their remains, and produces a fruiting body.", "It appears that the fungus alters the behaviour of the ant to help disperse its spores in a microhabitat that best suits the fungus.", "Strepsipteran parasites also manipulate their ant host to climb grass stems, to help the parasite find mates.A nematode (''Myrmeconema neotropicum'') that infects canopy ants (''Cephalotes atratus'') causes the black-coloured gasters of workers to turn red.", "The parasite also alters the behaviour of the ant, causing them to carry their gasters high.", "The conspicuous red gasters are mistaken by birds for ripe fruits, such as ''Hyeronima alchorneoides'', and eaten.", "The droppings of the bird are collected by other ants and fed to their young, leading to further spread of the nematode.Menemerus'' jumping spider) sometimes feed on ants|rightA study of ''Temnothorax nylanderi'' colonies in Germany found that workers parasitized by the tapeworm ''Anomotaenia brevis'' (ants are intermediate hosts, the definitive hosts are woodpeckers) lived much longer than unparasitized workers and had a reduced mortality rate, comparable to that of the queens of the same species, which live for as long as two decades.South American poison dart frogs in the genus ''Dendrobates'' feed mainly on ants, and the toxins in their skin may come from the ants.Army ants forage in a wide roving column, attacking any animals in that path that are unable to escape.", "In Central and South America, ''Eciton burchellii'' is the swarming ant most commonly attended by \"ant-following\" birds such as antbirds and woodcreepers.", "This behaviour was once considered mutualistic, but later studies found the birds to be parasitic.", "Direct kleptoparasitism (birds stealing food from the ants' grasp) is rare and has been noted in Inca doves which pick seeds at nest entrances as they are being transported by species of ''Pogonomyrmex''.", "Birds that follow ants eat many prey insects and thus decrease the foraging success of ants.", "Birds indulge in a peculiar behaviour called anting that, as yet, is not fully understood.", "Here birds rest on ant nests, or pick and drop ants onto their wings and feathers; this may be a means to remove ectoparasites from the birds.Anteaters, aardvarks, pangolins, echidnas and numbats have special adaptations for living on a diet of ants.", "These adaptations include long, sticky tongues to capture ants and strong claws to break into ant nests.", "Brown bears (''Ursus arctos'') have been found to feed on ants.", "About 12%, 16%, and 4% of their faecal volume in spring, summer and autumn, respectively, is composed of ants." ], [ "Relationship with humans", "Weaver ants are used as a biological control for citrus cultivation in southern China.Ants perform many ecological roles that are beneficial to humans, including the suppression of pest populations and aeration of the soil.", "The use of weaver ants in citrus cultivation in southern China is considered one of the oldest known applications of biological control.", "On the other hand, ants may become nuisances when they invade buildings or cause economic losses.In some parts of the world (mainly Africa and South America), large ants, especially army ants, are used as surgical sutures.", "The wound is pressed together and ants are applied along it.", "The ant seizes the edges of the wound in its mandibles and locks in place.", "The body is then cut off and the head and mandibles remain in place to close the wound.", "The large heads of the dinergates (soldiers) of the leafcutting ant ''Atta cephalotes'' are also used by native surgeons in closing wounds.Some ants have toxic venom and are of medical importance.", "The species include ''Paraponera clavata'' (tocandira) and ''Dinoponera'' spp.", "(false tocandiras) of South America and the ''Myrmecia'' ants of Australia.In South Africa, ants are used to help harvest the seeds of rooibos (''Aspalathus linearis''), a plant used to make a herbal tea.", "The plant disperses its seeds widely, making manual collection difficult.", "Black ants collect and store these and other seeds in their nest, where humans can gather them ''en masse''.", "Up to half a pound (200 g) of seeds may be collected from one ant-heap.Although most ants survive attempts by humans to eradicate them, a few are highly endangered.", "These tend to be island species that have evolved specialized traits and risk being displaced by introduced ant species.", "Examples include the critically endangered Sri Lankan relict ant (''Aneuretus simoni'') and ''Adetomyrma venatrix'' of Madagascar.===As food===Roasted ants in ColombiaAnt larvae for sale in Isaan, ThailandAnts and their larvae are eaten in different parts of the world.", "The eggs of two species of ants are used in Mexican ''escamoles''.", "They are considered a form of insect caviar and can sell for as much as US$50 per kg going up to US$200 per kg (as of 2006) because they are seasonal and hard to find.", "In the Colombian department of Santander, ''hormigas culonas'' (roughly interpreted as \"large-bottomed ants\") ''Atta laevigata'' are toasted alive and eaten.", "In areas of India, and throughout Burma and Thailand, a paste of the green weaver ant (''Oecophylla smaragdina'') is served as a condiment with curry.", "Weaver ant eggs and larvae, as well as the ants, may be used in a Thai salad, ''yam'' (), in a dish called ''yam khai mot daeng'' () or red ant egg salad, a dish that comes from the Issan or north-eastern region of Thailand.", "Saville-Kent, in the ''Naturalist in Australia'' wrote \"Beauty, in the case of the green ant, is more than skin-deep.", "Their attractive, almost sweetmeat-like translucency possibly invited the first essays at their consumption by the human species\".", "Mashed up in water, after the manner of lemon squash, \"these ants form a pleasant acid drink which is held in high favor by the natives of North Queensland, and is even appreciated by many European palates\".In his ''First Summer in the Sierra'', John Muir notes that the Digger Indians of California ate the tickling, acid gasters of the large jet-black carpenter ants.", "The Mexican Indians eat the repletes, or living honey-pots, of the honey ant (''Myrmecocystus'').===As pests===The tiny pharaoh ant is a major pest in hospitals and office blocks; it can make nests between sheets of paper.Some ant species are considered as pests, primarily those that occur in human habitations, where their presence is often problematic.", "For example, the presence of ants would be undesirable in sterile places such as hospitals or kitchens.", "Some species or genera commonly categorized as pests include the Argentine ant, immigrant pavement ant, yellow crazy ant, banded sugar ant, pharaoh ant, red wood ant, black carpenter ant, odorous house ant, red imported fire ant, and European fire ant.", "Some ants will raid stored food, some will seek water sources, others may damage indoor structures, some may damage agricultural crops directly or by aiding sucking pests.", "Some will sting or bite.", "The adaptive nature of ant colonies make it nearly impossible to eliminate entire colonies and most pest management practices aim to control local populations and tend to be temporary solutions.", "Ant populations are managed by a combination of approaches that make use of chemical, biological, and physical methods.", "Chemical methods include the use of insecticidal bait which is gathered by ants as food and brought back to the nest where the poison is inadvertently spread to other colony members through trophallaxis.", "Management is based on the species and techniques may vary according to the location and circumstance.===In science and technology===''rightObserved by humans since the dawn of history, the behaviour of ants has been documented and the subject of early writings and fables passed from one century to another.", "Those using scientific methods, myrmecologists, study ants in the laboratory and in their natural conditions.", "Their complex and variable social structures have made ants ideal model organisms.", "Ultraviolet vision was first discovered in ants by Sir John Lubbock in 1881.Studies on ants have tested hypotheses in ecology and sociobiology, and have been particularly important in examining the predictions of theories of kin selection and evolutionarily stable strategies.", "Ant colonies may be studied by rearing or temporarily maintaining them in ''formicaria'', specially constructed glass framed enclosures.", "Individuals may be tracked for study by marking them with dots of colours.The successful techniques used by ant colonies have been studied in computer science and robotics to produce distributed and fault-tolerant systems for solving problems, for example Ant colony optimization and Ant robotics.", "This area of biomimetics has led to studies of ant locomotion, search engines that make use of \"foraging trails\", fault-tolerant storage, and networking algorithms.===As pets===From the late 1950s through the late 1970s, ant farms were popular educational children's toys in the United States.", "Some later commercial versions use transparent gel instead of soil, allowing greater visibility at the cost of stressing the ants with unnatural light.===In culture===Aesop's ants: illustration by Milo Winter, 1888–1956 Anthropomorphised ants have often been used in fables and children's stories to represent industriousness and cooperative effort.", "They also are mentioned in religious texts.", "In the Book of Proverbs in the Bible, ants are held up as a good example of hard work and cooperation.", "Aesop did the same in his fable The Ant and the Grasshopper.", "In the Quran, Sulayman is said to have heard and understood an ant warning other ants to return home to avoid being accidentally crushed by Sulayman and his marching army., In parts of Africa, ants are considered to be the messengers of the deities.", "Some Native American mythology, such as the Hopi mythology, considers ants as the very first animals.", "Ant bites are often said to have curative properties.", "The sting of some species of ''Pseudomyrmex'' is claimed to give fever relief.", "Ant bites are used in the initiation ceremonies of some Amazon Indian cultures as a test of endurance.", "In Greek mythology, the goddess Athena turned the maiden Myrmex into an ant when the latter claimed to have invented the plough, when in fact it was Athena's own invention.Multia, a town in FinlandAnt society has always fascinated humans and has been written about both humorously and seriously.", "Mark Twain wrote about ants in his 1880 book ''A Tramp Abroad''.", "Some modern authors have used the example of the ants to comment on the relationship between society and the individual.", "Examples are Robert Frost in his poem \"Departmental\" and T. H. White in his fantasy novel ''The Once and Future King''.", "The plot in French entomologist and writer Bernard Werber's ''Les Fourmis'' science-fiction trilogy is divided between the worlds of ants and humans; ants and their behaviour are described using contemporary scientific knowledge.", "H.G.", "Wells wrote about intelligent ants destroying human settlements in Brazil and threatening human civilization in his 1905 science-fiction short story, ''The Empire of the Ants.''", "A similar German story involving army ants, ''Leiningen Versus the Ants'', was written in 1937 and recreated in movie form as The Naked Jungle in 1954.In more recent times, animated cartoons and 3-D animated films featuring ants have been produced including ''Antz'', ''A Bug's Life'', ''The Ant Bully'', ''The Ant and the Aardvark'', ''Ferdy the Ant'' and ''Atom Ant.''", "Renowned myrmecologist E. O. Wilson wrote a short story, \"Trailhead\" in 2010 for ''The New Yorker'' magazine, which describes the life and death of an ant-queen and the rise and fall of her colony, from an ants' point of view.", "The French neuroanatomist, psychiatrist and eugenicist Auguste Forel believed that ant societies were models for human society.", "He published a five volume work from 1921 to 1923 that examined ant biology and society.In the early 1990s, the video game ''SimAnt'', which simulated an ant colony, won the 1992 Codie award for \"Best Simulation Program\".Ants also are quite popular inspiration for many science-fiction insectoids, such as the Formics of ''Ender's Game'', the Bugs of ''Starship Troopers'', the giant ants in the films ''Them!''", "and ''Empire of the Ants,'' Marvel Comics' super hero Ant-Man, and ants mutated into super-intelligence in ''Phase IV''.", "In computer strategy games, ant-based species often benefit from increased production rates due to their single-minded focus, such as the Klackons in the ''Master of Orion'' series of games or the ChCht in ''Deadlock II''.", "These characters are often credited with a hive mind, a common misconception about ant colonies." ], [ "See also", "* Glossary of ant terms* International Union for the Study of Social Insects* ''Myrmecological News'' (journal)* Task allocation and partitioning in social insects" ], [ "References", "===Cited texts===* *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * *" ], [ "External links", "* * AntWeb from The California Academy of Sciences* AntWiki – Bringing Ants to the World* Ant Species Fact Sheets from the National Pest Management Association on Argentine, Carpenter, Pharaoh, Odorous, and other ant species* Ant Genera of the World – distribution maps* The super-nettles.", "A dermatologist's guide to ants-in-the-plants" ] ]

[ [ "Arbitration in the United States" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Arbitration''', in the context of the law of the United States, is a form of alternative dispute resolution.", "Specifically, arbitration is an alternative to litigation through which the parties to a dispute agree to submit their respective evidence and legal arguments to a neutral third party (the arbitrator(s) or arbiter(s)) for resolution.", "In practice arbitration is generally used as a substitute for litigation, particularly when the judicial process is perceived as too slow, expensive or biased.", "In some contexts, an arbitrator may be described as an '''umpire'''.Arbitration in the United States' most overarching clause is the Federal Arbitration Act (officially the United States Arbitration Act of 1925, commonly referred to as the FAA).", "The Act stipulates that arbitration in a majority of instances is legal when both parties, either after or prior to the arising of a dispute, agree to the arbitration.", "The Supreme Court has taken a pro-arbitration stance across most but not all cases, although the federal government, most recently in 2022, has passed certain exemptions to arbitration agreements.", "States are also generally prohibited from passing their own laws which the Supreme Court and other federal courts believe limit or discriminate against arbitration.", "The practice of arbitration, especially \"forced\" arbitration clauses between workers/consumers and large companies or organizations, has been gaining a growing amount of scrutiny from both the general public and trial lawyers.", "Arbitration clauses face various challenges to enforcement, and clauses are unenforceable in the United States when a dispute which falls under the scope of an arbitration clause pertains to sexual harassment or assault." ], [ "History", "Agreements to arbitrate were not enforceable at common law.", "This rule has been traced back to dictum by Lord Coke in ''Vynor’s Case'', 8 Co. Rep. 81b, 77 Eng.", "Rep. 597 (1609), that agreements to arbitrate were revocable by either party.During the Industrial Revolution, merchants became increasingly opposed to this rule.", "They argued that too many valuable business relationships were being destroyed through years of expensive adversarial litigation, in courts whose rules differed significantly from the informal norms and conventions of businesspeople.", "Arbitration was promoted as being faster, less adversarial, and cheaper.The result was the New York Arbitration Act of 1920, followed by the United States Arbitration Act of 1925 (now known as the Federal Arbitration Act).", "Both made agreements to arbitrate valid and enforceable (unless one party could show fraud or unconscionability or some other ground for rescission which undermined the validity of the entire contract).", "Due to the subsequent judicial expansion of the meaning of interstate commerce, the Supreme Court reinterpreted the FAA in a series of cases in the 1980s and 1990s to cover almost the full scope of interstate commerce.", "In the process, the Court held that the FAA preempted many state laws covering arbitration, some of which had been passed by state legislatures to protect their workers and consumers against powerful business interests.", "Starting in 1991 with the Gilmer decision arbitration expanded dramatically in the employment context, growing from 2.1 percent of employees subject to mandatory arbitration clauses in 1992 to 53.9% in 2017." ], [ "Types of Arbitration", "===Commercial and other forms of contract arbitration===Since commercial arbitration is based upon either contract law or the law of treaties, the agreement between the parties to submit their dispute to arbitration is a legally binding contract.", "All arbitral decisions are considered to be \"final and binding\".", "This does not, however, void the requirements of law.", "Any dispute not excluded from arbitration by virtue of law (for example, criminal proceedings) may be submitted to arbitration.Furthermore, arbitration agreements can only bind parties who have agreed, expressly or impliedly, to arbitrate, and parties cannot be required to submit to an arbitration process if they have not previously \"agreed so to submit\".", "It is only through the advance agreement of the parties that the arbitrator derives any authority to resolve disputes.", "Arbitration cannot bind non-signatories to an arbitration contract, even if those non-signatories later become involved with a signatory to a contract by accident (usually through the commission of a tort).", "However, third-party non-signatories can be bound by arbitration agreements based on theories of estoppel, agency relationships with a party, assumption of the contract containing the arbitration agreement, third-party beneficiary status under the contract, or piercing the corporate veil.The question of whether two parties have actually agreed to arbitrate any disputes is one for judicial determination, because if the parties have not agreed to arbitrate then the arbitrator would have no authority.", "Where there is an arbitration agreement, doubts concerning \"the ''scope'' of arbitrable issues should be resolved in favor of arbitration\", but issues regarding whether a ''claim'' falls within the scope of arbitrable issues is a judicial matter, unless the parties have expressly agreed that the arbitrator may decide the scope of his or her own authority.", "Most courts hold that general arbitration clauses, such as an agreement to refer to arbitration any dispute \"arising from\" or \"related to\" a particular contract, do not authorize an arbitrator to determine whether a particular issue arises from or relates to the contract concerned.", "A minority view embraced by some courts is that this broad language can evidence the parties' clear and unmistakable intention to delegate the resolution of all issues to the arbitrator, including issues regarding arbitrability.===Labor arbitration===Arbitration may be used as a means of resolving labor disputes, an alternative to strikes and lockouts.", "Labor arbitration comes in two varieties:#'''interest arbitration''', which provides a method for resolving disputes about the terms to be included in a new contract when the parties are unable to agree, and#'''grievance arbitration''', which provides a method for resolving disputes over the interpretation and application of a collective bargaining agreement.Arbitration has also been used as a means of resolving labor disputes for more than a century.", "Labor organizations in the United States, such as the National Labor Union, called for arbitration as early as 1866 as an alternative to strikes to resolve disputes over the wages, benefits and other rights that workers would enjoy.====Interest arbitration====Governments have relied on arbitration to resolve particularly large labor disputes, such as the Coal Strike of 1902.This type of arbitration, wherein a neutral arbitrator decides the terms of the collective bargaining agreement, is commonly known as interest arbitration.", "The United Steelworkers of America adopted an elaborate form of interest arbitration, known as the Experimental Negotiating Agreement, in the 1970s as a means of avoiding the long and costly strikes that had made the industry vulnerable to foreign competition.", "Major League Baseball uses a variant of interest arbitration, in which an arbitrator chooses between the two sides' final offers, to set the terms for contracts for players who are not eligible for free agency.", "Interest arbitration is now most frequently used by public employees who have no right to strike (for example, law enforcement and firefighters).====Grievance arbitration====Unions and employers have also employed arbitration to resolve employee and union grievances arising under a collective bargaining agreement.", "The Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America made arbitration a central element of the ''Protocol of Peace'' it negotiated with garment manufacturers in the second decade of the twentieth century.", "Grievance arbitration became even more popular during World War II, when most unions had adopted a no-strike pledge.", "The War Labor Board, which attempted to mediate disputes over contract terms, pressed for inclusion of grievance arbitration in collective bargaining agreements.", "The Supreme Court subsequently made labor arbitration a key aspect of federal labor policy in three cases which came to be known as the Steelworkers' Trilogy.", "The Court held that grievance arbitration was a preferred dispute resolution technique and that courts could not overturn arbitrators' awards unless the award does not draw its essence from the collective bargaining agreement.", "State and federal statutes may allow vacating an award on narrow grounds (''e.g.", "'', fraud).", "These protections for arbitrator awards are premised on the union-management system, which provides both parties with due process.", "Due process in this context means that both parties have experienced representation throughout the process, and that the arbitrators practice only as neutrals.", "''See'' National Academy of Arbitrators.===Securities arbitration===In the United States securities industry, arbitration has long been the preferred method of resolving disputes between brokerage firms, and between firms and their customers.", "The arbitration process operates under its own rules, as defined by contract.", "Securities arbitrations are held primarily by the Financial Industry Regulatory Authority.The securities industry uses pre-dispute arbitration agreements, through which the parties agree to arbitrate their disputes before any such dispute arises.", "Those agreements were upheld by the United States Supreme Court in Shearson v. MacMahon, 482 U.S. 220 (1987) and today nearly all disputes involving brokerage firms, other than Securities class action claims, are resolved in arbitration.The SEC has come under fire from members of the Senate Judiciary Committee for not fulfilling statutory duty to protect individual investors, because all brokers require arbitration, and arbitration does not provide a court-supervised discovery process, require arbitrators to follow rules of evidence or result in written opinions establishing precedence, or case law, or provide the efficiency gains it once did.", "Arbitrator selection bias, hidden conflicts of interest, and a case where an arbitration panel refused to follow instructions handed down from a judge, were also raised as issues.===Judicial arbitration===Some state court systems have promulgated court-ordered arbitration; family law (particularly child custody) is the most prominent example.", "Judicial arbitration is often merely advisory dispute resolution technique, serving as the first step toward resolution, but not binding either side and allowing for trial de novo.", "Litigation attorneys present their side of the case to an independent tertiary lawyer, who issues an opinion on settlement.", "Should the parties in question decide to continue to dispute resolution process, there can be some sanctions imposed from the initial arbitration per terms of the contract." ], [ "Arbitration clauses", "The federal government has expressed a policy in support of arbitration clauses, because they reduce the burden on court systems to resolve disputes.", "This support is found in the Federal Arbitration Act, (FAA) which permits compulsory and binding arbitration, under which parties give up the right to appeal an arbitrator's decision to a court.", "In ''Prima Paint Corp. v. Flood & Conklin Mfg.", "Co.'', the U.S. Supreme Court established the \"separability principle\", under which enforceability of a contract must be challenged in arbitration before any court action, unless the arbitration clause itself has been challenged.", "Today, mandatory arbitration clauses are widespread in the United States, including by 15 of the largest 20 U.S. credit card issuers, 7 of the 8 largest cell phone companies, and 2 out of 3 major bike sharing companies in Seattle.", "Arbitration clauses can be enforceable if \"signed\" electronically, though California courts have stated that a handwritten signature to an arbitration agreement is easier to enforce than one done electronically.The FAA has also been interpreted to preempt and invalidate state laws which prevent or discriminate against the enforcement of arbitration agreements.", "In one such case in 2023, which overruled California Assembly Bill 51, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals found that California's bill placed restrictions on the \"broad national policy\" favoring arbitration agreements.", "Similar fates have been bestowed upon legislation in New Jersey, New York, and Washington state which attempted to reduce the scope of arbitration clauses.", "In insurance law, arbitration is complicated by the fact that insurance is regulated at the state level under the McCarran–Ferguson Act.", "From a federal perspective, however, a circuit court ruling has determined that McCarran-Ferguson requires a state statute rather than administrative interpretations.", "The Missouri Department of Insurance attempted to block a binding arbitration agreement under its state authority, but since this action was based only on a policy of the department and not on a state statute, the United States district court found that the Department of Insurance did not have the authority to invalidate the arbitration agreement.In ''AT&T Mobility v. Concepcion'' (2011), the Supreme Court upheld an arbitration clause in a consumer standard form contract which waived the right to a lawsuit and class action.", "However, this clause was relatively generous in that the business paid all fees unless the action was determined to be frivolous and a small-claims court action remained available; these types of protections are recommended for the contract to remain enforceable and not unconscionable.The Supreme Court has also ruled that questions on whether an arbitration clause should be enforced at all permits litigation involving the rest of the case to be stayed.", "In 2023's ''Coinbase v. Bielski'', the court ruled that federal district courts must stay proceedings involving a case during an arbitration appeal on such case.Arbitration clauses can also be written in a manner which excludes certain disputes from being required to be sent to arbitration.", "Motions to compel arbitration involving excluded disputes then on would not be honored, as seen in a 2023 ruling made by the Ninth Circuit via one of its judicial panels.", "In such ruling, the casino firm Saipan included an arbitration agreement which exempted licensing claims from being subject to mandatory arbitration.=== Opt out provisions ===Some arbitration clauses in the United States offer opportunities for parties to opt out of the arbitration agreement and not be subject to it.", "Many companies utilize opt out clauses within their arbitration agreements, most often giving 30 or 60 days for consumers in contracts between consumers and companies to either send a rejection notice by mail or by email.Including an opt out provision has been found to improve the likelihood of a contract to be found conscionable.", "In ''Hopkins v. World Acceptance Corp'', a case cited in ''Ferrara v. Luxottica'', failure to opt out of an arbitration agreement dilutes the ability to combat a motion to compel arbitration.Many credit card companies which have arbitration agreements allow card signers to opt out, although company procedures may make it difficult for consumers to exercise that option." ], [ "Prohibitions on arbitration", "=== Challenges to clause enforcement ======= Determination of validity ====Although properly drafted arbitration clauses are generally valid, they are subject to challenge in court for compliance with laws and public policy.", "Arbitration clauses may potentially be challenged as unconscionable and, therefore, unenforceable.", "Typically, the validity of an arbitration clause is decided by a court rather than an arbitrator.", "However, if the validity of the entire arbitration agreement is in dispute, then the issue is decided by the arbitrators in the first instance.", "This is known as the principle of separability.", "For example, in ''Rent-A-Center, West, Inc. v. Jackson'', the Supreme Court of the United States held that \"under the FAA, where an agreement to arbitrate includes an agreement that the arbitrator will determine the enforceability of the agreement, if a party challenges specifically the enforceability of that particular agreement, the district court considers the challenge, but if a party challenges the enforceability of the agreement as a whole, the challenge is for the arbitrator.", "\"In other words, the law typically allows federal courts to decide these types of \"gateway\" or validity questions, but the Supreme Court ruled that since Jackson targeted the entire contract rather than a specific clause, the arbitrator decided the validity.", "Public Citizen, an advocacy organization opposed to the enforcement of pre-dispute arbitration agreements, characterized the decision negatively: \"the court said that companies can write their contracts so that the companies' own arbitrator decides whether it's fair to submit a case to that arbitrator.", "\"Arbitration clauses must also further provide a clear procedure, and confusion and/or ambiguity in an arbitration clause can also cause such clause to be struck down.", "One example of this phenomenon occurred in a lawsuit against SoLo Funds, where a Philadelphia federal judge ruled that because the app did not make clear its arbitration requirements, the clause was unconscionable and SoLo's bid to compel arbitration was not granted.", "Ambiguity-related nullifications of arbitration agreements further extend to proof of agreement between the parties, as in ''Romano v. BCBSM'', Blue Cross Blue Shield of Michigan failed to compel arbitration against a former employee in June 2023 after US district judge George Caram Steeh III ruled that the online application process failed to adequately provide the employee notice of the arbitration agreement he would otherwise be bound to.==== Modification of the arbitration clause ====A significant challenge to arbitrate agreements arose out of South Carolina through the case ''Hooters v. Phillips''.", "In the 1999 case, a federal district court found that Hooters modified its dispute resolution rules in 1996 to be unfair enough that the court held that the agreement was unconscionable, partly due to Hooters requiring that all of the arbitrators in dispute resolution cases be selected from a list pre-approved by the company, which included Hooters managers.", "In April of 2022, the Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit found that in ''Coady v. Nationwide Motor Sales'', because Nationwide Motor Sales' contract enabled them to be the sole party permitted to modify the contract that Coady signed.", "Citing ''Hooters v. Phillips'', the court expressed when an employer has the ability “in whole or in part” to modify the arbitration provision without notice to its employees.", "California's Court of Appeal reached a similar conclusion in ''Peleg v. Neiman Marcus'', in which a unilateral modification to an arbitration agreement invalidated the clause.Another instance of modified arbitration clauses causing it to be overturned was found in a privacy-related dispute between Amazon and its drivers who work under the company's Amazon Flex service.", "Amazon Flex drivers, who filed a class action lawsuit claiming that the company spied on private Facebook conversations, alleged that the updated 2019 terms related to Amazon Flex were not delivered properly to them, and that the 2016 terms, which did not include an arbitration clause, should apply.", "Ultimately, the Ninth Circuit decided that since Amazon was the party compelling arbitration, the burden of proof was on Amazon to prove that its flex drivers received notice of the 2019 updated terms, and that arbitration should not be compelled.==== Waiving the right to arbitrate ====Some courts have found that parties can waive their right to compel arbitration through various forms of actions.", "In California, as demonstrated by ''Davis v. Shiekh Shoes'' and ''Espinoza v. Superior Court'', a party wishing to compel arbitration though failing to pay arbitration fees in a timely manner waives their right to compel arbitration, and must resolve the dispute in court.", "More importantly, the Supreme Court found in ''Morgan v. Sundance'' that a party which does not compel arbitration when a valid clause exists waives its right to compel arbitration.", "Justice Elena Kagan, writing for the court's unanimous ruling in favor of hourly Taco Bell employee Robyn Morgan, found that the Eighth Circuit created \"special rules\" in which Morgan was compelled to arbitrate based on Sundance's prejudice (delay) of compelling arbitration.The opinion on a party waiving its right to compel arbitration if it had litigated extensively prior to the motion has been further confirmed in light of ''Davis'' and ''Espinoza'' when one of Bronx County's justices ruled in ''Worbes Corp v. Sebrow''.", "Justice Fidel Gomez states that if a party who intended to compel arbitration brought a \"substantive defense\" before the court, served a trial notice, moved to depose a witness, or \"interposed a counterclaim demanding money damages\", that party would have waived its right to compel arbitration.", "Justice Gomez, however, clarified that such right would not be waived by a party if a defendant \"had only defended its position and had not acted in a manner that waives the right to arbitrate\".==== Unbearable arbitration fees ====Arbitration clauses can be void in instances where the costs of arbitration would be too high.", "In 1999's ''Shankle v. B-G Maintenance Management of Colorado, Inc,'' the 10th Circuit Court of Appeals refused to grant a motion to compel arbitration on the basis that the fees were too high for the plaintiff Matthew Shankle.", "The Texas Courts of Appeals found in 2022's ''Cont'l Homes of Texas v. Perez'' that due to unaffordable arbitration costs for the plaintiffs and the arbitration agreement not being an adequate remedy for litigation.==== Severability-related challenges ====In January 2023, a federal court in Delaware recommended that motions to compel arbitration which conflicted with the Employee Retirement Income Security Act of 1974 not be honored in ''Burnett et al.", "v. Prudent Financial Services LLC, et al.''", "(C.A.", "No.", "22-270-RGA-JLH).", "Presiding magistrate judge Jennifer Hall interpreted that based on recent action by the Supreme Court and other federal courts, not every provision within the arbitration agreement should be validated.", "Additionally, Judge Hall prospected that entire arbitration agreements could become invalid if a single provision is found to be unenforceable by a court.The notion of a single unconscionable provision invalidating the arbitration agreement, even if such provision was outside of the arbitration-related clauses of a contract, was expanded the following June when a California court ruled in ''Alberto v. Cambrian Homecare'' that a confidentiality agreement which prohibited discussing compensation and salary information, and threatened litigation and the collection of attorneys fees, was unenforceable and also declared the arbitration agreement unenforceable.==== Other challenges ====In 2014's ''Atalese v. U.S. Legal Services Group, L.P'', the Supreme Court of New Jersey ruled that arbitration clauses must have a valid jury trial waiver, which the court saw as a constitutional right which must be explicitly waived in a contract, in order to be effective, a position reaffirmed by Pennsylvania's Superior Court in 2022's ''Chiluti v. Uber''.", "A Pennsylvania appeals court in Philadelphia ruled in March 2023 that parents cannot bind their children to arbitration agreements over injuries, in a lawsuit between parents and a local trampoline park.==== Transportation workers exemption ====The Federal Arbitration Act also explicitly provides that workers involved in transportation are exempt from arbitration agreements, which the Supreme Court unanimously reaffirmed in various cases, with one notable example being 2022's ''Southwest Airlines v.", "Saxon.''", "This, however, does not apply to drivers working for Uber and other ridesharing services.=== Acts of Congress ======= Ending Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Act ====In 2022, Congress passed the Ending Forced Arbitration of Sexual Assault and Sexual Harassment Act (EFASASHA or EFAA), which excludes these types of complaints from arbitration clauses.", "Congress also included a ban on class action waivers for claims covered under the act.", "Under the law, claims which are filed after March 3, 2022 and fall under the scope of EFAA shall have agreements to submit disputes to binding arbitration and class action waivers within contracts signed deemed unenforceable for the entire case, though the law allows for claimants to have a case decided by binding arbitration if the plaintiff wishes upon filing.", "The law was championed by Gretchen Carlson, a former Fox News host sexually harassed for many years by then CEO Roger Ailes; she also opposed the use of non-disclosure agreements to shield perpetrators.", "The law was introduced by Illinois House Democrat Cheri Bustos as HR 4445, and passed the House of Representatives by a 335-97 vote, with all no votes coming from Republicans.", "The EFAA passed the Senate with unanimous consent, and was signed into law by President Joe Biden on March 3, 2022.The law became effective immediately at signing.Some legal agencies raised concerns that the law could allow for claims attached to a sexual harassment or sexual assault dispute to bypass arbitration as well.", "These concerns were ultimately confirmed in February 2023, where New York federal judge Paul A. Engelmayer ruled in two lawsuits against the company Everyrealm that if at least one claim in a single case was an act of sexual assault or sexual harassment, the pre-dispute arbitration agreement was unenforceable and arbitration could not be compelled.", "Engelmayer's decision was rooted in the decision from Congress to directly amend the Federal Arbitration Act, and its actions to do so were indicative of its intention to prohibit the practice in entire cases which the EFAA covers; Engelmayer, however, clarified that the claim of sexual assault or harassment must be reasonable and that the EFAA does not enable implausible claims of sexual harassment to be used to \"dodge\" arbitration agreements.", "One month later, a California court ruling on a sexual harassment lawsuit filed against Tesla further confirmed the EFAA's ability to ban compelling arbitration in sexual harassment suits, and a second New York federal court earlier came to a similar conclusion in a case filed by an investment banker.==== Forced Arbitration Injustice Repeal Act ====The Forced Arbitration Injustice Repeal Act is a bill filed in every meeting of Congress since the 116th Congress which, if passed, contains provisions which ban arbitration agreements and class action waivers in cases between consumers and large companies, as well as employers and large companies.", "The bill is generally supported by the Democratic Party as well as Freedom Caucus member Matt Gaetz, though has usually been opposed by the Republican Party.", "In the 116th and 117th congresses, the bill passed the House but failed to pass the Senate; the bill has since been reintroduced in the 118th Congress by Democratic senators Sherrod Brown and Richard Blumenthal, and Democratic representative Hank Johnson.==== Protecting Older Americans Act ====The Protecting Older Americans Act is pending legislation first filed in the 118th Congress by South Carolina Republicans Lindsey Graham in the Senate and Nancy Mace in the House.", "The law would ban and overturn arbitration agreements in cases involving discrimination based on age.=== Rulings and actions by federal agencies ======= Federal Student Loans ====In November 2022, the Department of Education and the office on Federal Student Aid passed new rules which included reinstating a ban on institutions participating in its Direct Loan Program from utilizing pre-dispute mandatory arbitration agreements and class action waivers in cases relating to Borrower Defense to Repayment.", "The new rules also require institutions to disclose their uses of arbitration to the Department and to provide certain records connected with any borrower defense claim against the school to the Department.", "The Department of Education stated its reasoning for the ban is that class action waivers and arbitration agreements are too complex for much of the general public to comprehend and that arbitration \"rarely\" gives favorable decisions to consumers.The rules become effective on July 1, 2023.==== Department of Labor ====The United States Department of Labor was noted in May 2023 by Bloomberg Law journalist Khorri Atkinson for its increased focus and hostility towards mandatory arbitration and its use by employers for violating Department of Labor rules.", "Solicitor of Labor Seema Nanda has stated that the Department will pursue more cases where employers are utilizing mandatory arbitration to commit violations of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938." ], [ "Proceedings", "Various bodies of rules have been developed that can be used for arbitration proceedings.", "The rules to be followed by the arbitrator are specified by the agreement establishing the arbitration.=== Enforcement of award ===In some cases, a party may comply with an award voluntarily.", "However, in other cases a party will have to petition to receive a court judgment for enforcement through various means such as a writ of execution, garnishment, or lien.", "If the property is in another state, then a sister-state judgment (relying on the Full Faith and Credit Clause) can be received by filing to enforce the judgment in the state where the property is located.=== Vacatur===Under the Federal Arbitration Act, courts can only vacate awards for limited reasons set out in statute with similar language in the state model Uniform Arbitration Act.The court will generally not change the arbitrator's findings of fact but will decide only whether the arbitrator was guilty of malfeasance, or whether the arbitrator exceeded the limits of his or her authority in the arbitral award or whether the award was made in manifest disregard of law or conflicts with well-established public policy." ], [ "Arbitration Fairness Act" ], [ "See also", "* Arbitration award* Consumer arbitration* Conciliation* Dispute resolution* ''Epic Systems Corp. v. Lewis''* Expert determination* London Court of International Arbitration* Mediation* Negotiation* Special referee* Subrogation* Tort reform* UNCITRAL Model Law on International Commercial Arbitration* National Arbitration Forum* National Academy of ArbitratorsFor the relevant conflict of laws elements, see contract, forum selection clause, choice of law clause, proper law, and ''lex loci arbitri''" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "* Jerold S. Auerbach, ''Justice Without Law?", ": Non-Legal Dispute Settlement in American History'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983).", "* Mark J. Astarita, Esq., ''Introduction to Securities Arbitration'' (SECLaw.com, 2000 - Securities Arbitration Overview-2023 Update)* David Sherwyn, Bruce Tracey & Zev Eigen.", "\"In Defense of Mandatory Arbitration of Employment Disputes: Saving the Baby, Tossing out the Bath Water, and Constructing a New Sink in the Process,\" 2 U. Pa. J.", "Lab.", "& Emp.", "L. 73 (1999); n.b., abbreviated source in this legal citation format is the ''University of Pennsylvania Journal of Labor and Employment Law,'' Vol.", "2, p. 73.", "* Ed Brunet, J.D., Arbitration Law in America: A Critical Assessment, Cambridge University Press, 2006.", "* Gary Born, ''International Civil Litigation in United States Courts'' (Aspen 4th ed.", "2006) (with Bo Rutledge) (3rd ed.", "1996) (2nd ed.", "1992) (1st ed.", "1989)" ], [ "External links", "* Read actual arbitration awards and find arbitrator's resumes at GVSU * American Arbitration Association's Home Page* An Example of Labor Arbitration in the United States (Vulcan Iron Works and the Machinists' Union, 1981) ." ] ]

[ [ "Adversarial system" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''adversarial system''' or '''adversary system''' or '''accusatorial system''' or '''accusatory system''' is a legal system used in the common law countries where two advocates represent their parties' case or position before an impartial person or group of people, usually a judge or jury, who attempt to determine the truth and pass judgment accordingly.", "It is in contrast to the inquisitorial system used in some civil law systems (i.e.", "those deriving from Roman law or the Napoleonic code) where a judge investigates the case.The adversarial system is the two-sided structure under which criminal trial courts operate, putting the prosecution against the defense." ], [ "Basic features", "Adversarial systems are considered to have three basic features.", "The first is a neutral decision-maker such as a judge or jury.", "The second is presentation of evidence in support of each party's case, usually by lawyers.", "The third is a highlystructured procedure.The rules of evidence are developed based upon the system of objections of adversaries and on what basis it may tend to prejudice the trier of fact which may be the judge or the jury.", "In a way the rules of evidence can function to give a judge limited inquisitorial powers as the judge may exclude evidence deemed to not be trustworthy, or irrelevant to the legal issue at hand.", "Peter Murphy in his ''Practical Guide to Evidence'' recounts an instructive example.", "A frustrated judge in an English (adversarial) court finally asked a barrister after witnesses had produced conflicting accounts, \"Am I never to hear the truth?\"", "\"No, my lord, merely the evidence\", replied counsel.===Parties===Judges in an adversarial system are impartial in ensuring the fair play of due process, or fundamental justice.", "Such judges decide, often when called upon by counsel rather than of their own motion, what evidence is to be admitted when there is a dispute; though in some common law jurisdictions judges play more of a role in deciding what evidence to admit into the record or reject.", "At worst, abusing judicial discretion would actually pave the way to a biased decision, rendering obsolete the judicial process in question—rule of law being illicitly subordinated by rule of man under such discriminating circumstances.", "Lord Devlin in ''The Judge'' said: \"It can also be argued that two prejudiced searchers starting from opposite ends of the field will between them be less likely to miss anything than the impartial searcher starting at the middle.", "\"The right to counsel in criminal trials was initially not accepted in some adversarial systems.", "It was believed that the facts should speak for themselves, and that lawyers would just blur the matters.", "As a consequence, it was only in 1836 that England gave suspects of felonies the formal right to have legal counsel (the Prisoners' Counsel Act 1836), although in practice, English courts routinely allowed defendants to be represented by counsel from the mid-18th century.", "During the second half of the 18th century, advocates like Sir William Garrow and Thomas Erskine, 1st Baron Erskine, helped usher in the adversarial court system used in most common law countries today.", "In the United States, however, personally retained counsel have had a right to appear in all federal criminal cases since the adoption of the United States Constitution, and in state cases at least since the end of the civil war, although nearly all provided this right in their state constitutions or laws much earlier.", "Appointment of counsel for indigent defendants was nearly universal in federal felony cases, though it varied considerably in state cases.", "It was not until 1963 that the U.S. Supreme Court declared that legal counsel must be provided at the expense of the state for indigent felony defendants, under the federal Sixth Amendment, in state courts.", "See ''Gideon v. Wainwright'', ." ], [ "Criminal proceedings", "In criminal adversarial proceedings, an accused is not compelled to give evidence.", "Therefore, they may not be questioned by a prosecutor or judge unless they choose to be; however, should they decide to testify, they are subject to cross-examination and could be found guilty of perjury.", "As the election to maintain an accused person's right to silence prevents any examination or cross-examination of that person's position, it follows that the decision of counsel as to what evidence will be called is a crucial tactic in any case in the adversarial system and hence it might be said that it is a lawyer's manipulation of the truth.", "Certainly, it requires the skills of counsel on both sides to be fairly equally pitted and subjected to an impartial judge.In some adversarial legislative systems, the court is permitted to make inferences on an accused's failure to face cross-examination or to answer a particular question.", "This obviously limits the usefulness of silence as a tactic by the defense.", "In the United States, the Fifth Amendment has been interpreted to prohibit a jury from drawing a negative inference based on the defendant's invocation of his or her right not to testify, and the jury must be so instructed if the defendant requests.By contrast, while defendants in most civil law systems can be compelled to give statements, these statements are not subject to cross-examinations by the prosecution and are not given under oath.", "This allows the defendant to explain their side of the case without being subject to cross-examination by a skilled opposition.", "However, this is mainly because it is not the prosecutor but the judge who questions the defendant.", "The concept of \"cross\"-examination is entirely due to adversarial structure of the common law." ], [ "Comparison with inquisitorial systems", "The name \"adversarial system\" may be misleading in that it implies it is only within this type of system in which there are opposing prosecution and defense.", "This is not the case, and both modern adversarial and inquisitorial systems have the powers of the state separated between a prosecutor and the judge and allow the defendant the right to counsel.", "Indeed, the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms in Article 6 requires these features in the legal systems of its signatory states.One of the most significant differences between the adversarial system and the inquisitorial system occurs when a criminal defendant admits to the crime.", "In an adversarial system, there is no more controversy and the case proceeds to sentencing; though in many jurisdictions the defendant must have allocution of her or his crime; an obviously false confession will not be accepted even in common law courts.", "By contrast, in an inquisitorial system, the fact that the defendant has confessed is merely one more fact that is entered into evidence, and a confession by the defendant does not remove the requirement that the prosecution present a full case.", "This allows for plea bargaining in adversarial systems in a way that is difficult or impossible in inquisitional system, and many felony cases in the United States are handled without trial through such plea bargains.", "Plea bargains are becoming more common in 27 civil law countries." ], [ "See also", "* Adversary evaluation* Exclusionary rule* Parallel thinkingdescribed as a systemic alternative" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Abano Terme" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abano Terme''' (known as '''Abano Bagni''' until 1924) is a town and ''comune'' in the Province of Padua, in the Veneto region, Italy, on the eastern slope of the Euganean Hills; it is southwest by rail from Padua.", "Abano Terme's population is 19,062 (2001) (in 1901 it was 4,556).The town's hot springs and mud baths are an important economic resource.", "The waters have a temperature of about ." ], [ "History", "The baths were known to the Romans as ''Aponi fons'' or ''Aquae Patavinae''.", "A description of them is given in a letter to Theodoric, the king of the Ostrogoths, from Cassiodorus.", "Some remains of the ancient baths have been discovered (S. Mandruzzato, ''Trattato dei Bagni d'Abano,'' Padua, 1789).", "An oracle of Geryon lay near, and the so-called ''sortes Praenestinae'' (C.I.L.", "i., Berlin, 1863; 1438–1454), small bronze cylinders inscribed, and used as oracles, were perhaps found here in the 16th century.The baths were destroyed by the Lombards in the 6th century, but they were rebuilt and enlarged when Abano became an autonomous comune in the 12th century and, again, in the late 14th century.", "The city was under the Republic of Venice from 1405 to 1797." ], [ "Main sights", "*Abano Cathedral, or the cathedral (''duomo'') of St. Lawrence.", "The current edifice was erected in 1780 over a pre-existing church which was allegedly destroyed by Cangrande della Scala.", "The bell tower has parts from the 9th/10th and 14th centuries.", "*The Montirone Gallery, housing works of Il Moretto, Palma il Giovane, Guido Reni, Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo and others.", "*The Sanctuary of the ''Madonna della Salute'' or of Monteortone (built from 1428).", "It lies on the site where the Madonna appeared to Pietro Falco, healing his wounds.", "The church is on the Latin cross plan, with a nave and two aisles with three apses decorated by a frieze.", "It has with a Baroque portal (1667), a bell tower, presbytery frescoes portraying the ''Histories of St. Peter'' and ''Virgin'' by Jacopo da Montagnana (1495) and Palma il Giovane's altarpiece depicting ''Christ Crucifixed Between St. Augustine and St. Jerome''.Just outside the city is San Daniele Abbey (11th century).", "from the city is also Praglia Abbey, founded in the 11th century by Benedictine monks and rebuilt in 1496–1550.The abbey church of the Assumption, with a marble portal from 1548, has a Renaissance style interior." ], [ "People", "* Pietro d'Abano (1316), Italian physician and philosopher* Matteo Meneghello (born 1981), Italian racing driver" ], [ "Twin towns", "* Shibukawa, Japan* Bad Füssing, Germany* Lipik, Croatia* Kamena Vourla, Greece" ], [ "See also", "* Ex Oratorio del Montirone" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "*''L'Italia da scoprire'', Giorgio Mondadori, 2006." ], [ "External links", "* Abano.it Touristic informations web site" ] ]

[ [ "Abated" ], [ "Introduction", ":''See also, Abatement.", "'''''Abated''', an ancient technical term applied in masonry and metal work to those portions which are sunk beneath the surface, as in inscriptions where the ground is sunk round the letters so as to leave the letters or ornament in relief." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Abati" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abati''' is a surname.", "It was used by an ancient noble family of Florence.", "Notable people with the surname include:* Antonio Abati (died 1667), Italian poet* Baldo Angelo Abati (sixteenth century), Italian naturalist* Joaquín Abati (1865–1936), Spanish writer* Joël Abati (born 1970), French handball player* Megliore degli Abati (thirteenth century), Italian poet* Niccolò dell'Abbate (1509 or 1512 – 1571), Italian painter* Reuben Abati (born 1965), Nigerian newspaper columnist" ], [ "Other uses", "* The Abati people, a fictional ethnic group in H. Rider Haggard's adventure novel ''Queen Sheba's Ring''* Abati, Iran, village* ''Marauna abati'', species of beetle in the family Cerambycidae" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Abatis" ], [ "Introduction", "Abatisses are used in war to keep the approaching enemy under fire for as long as possible.Abatis in front of the Union trench lines at Petersburg in 1865An '''abatis''', '''abattis''', or '''abbattis''' is a field fortification consisting of an obstacle formed (in the modern era) of the branches of trees laid in a row, with the sharpened tops directed outwards, towards the enemy.", "The trees are usually interlaced or tied with wire.", "Abatis are used alone or in combination with wire entanglements and other obstacles.In Slavic languages it is known as ''zaseka'', a position behind sharpened objects." ], [ "History", "Abatis improvised by Japanese troops during World War IIThere is evidence it was used as early as the Roman Imperial period, and as recently as the American Civil War and the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879.Gregory of Tours mentions the use of abatises several times in his writing about the history of the early Franks.", "He wrote that the Franks ambushed and destroyed a Roman army near Neuss during the reign of Magnus Maximus with the use of an abatis.", "He also wrote that Mummolus, a general working for Burgundy, successfully used an abatis to defeat a Lombard army near Embrun.", "A classic use of an abatis was at the Battle of Carillon (1758) during the Seven Years' War.", "The 3,600 French troops defeated a massive army of 16,000 British and Colonial troops by fronting their defensive positions with an extremely dense abatis.", "The British found the defences almost impossible to breach and were forced to withdraw with some 2,600 casualties.", "Other uses of an abatis can be found at the Battle of the Chateauguay, 26 October 1813, when approximately 1,300 Canadian Voltigeurs, under the command of Charles-Michel de Salaberry, defeated an American corps of approximately 4,000 men, or at the Battle of Plattsburgh." ], [ "Construction", "Giant abatis, made from entire trees, can make an effective anti-vehicle obstacle.", "This formation can be achieved by use of explosives—note the splintered stumpsAbatis can be defeated by dozer blades, as fitted here to a British Challenger 2 tankAn important weakness of abatis, in contrast to barbed wire, is that it can be destroyed by fire.", "Also, if laced together with rope instead of wire, the rope can be very quickly destroyed by such fires, after which the abatis can be quickly pulled apart by grappling hooks thrown from a safe distance.An important advantage is that an improvised abatis can be quickly formed in forested areas.", "This can be done by simply cutting down a row of trees so that they fall with their tops toward the enemy.", "An alternative is to place explosives so as to blow the trees down." ], [ "Modern use", "Abatis are rarely seen nowadays, having been largely replaced by wire obstacles.", "However, it may be used as a replacement or supplement when barbed wire is in short supply.", "A form of giant abatis, using whole trees instead of branches, can be used as an improvised anti-tank obstacle.Though rarely used by modern conventional military units, abatises are still officially maintained in United States Army and Marine Corps training.", "Current US training instructs engineers or other constructors of such obstacles to fell trees, leaving a stump, in such a manner as the trees fall interlocked pointing at a 45-degree angle towards the direction of approach of the enemy.", "Furthermore, it is recommended that the trees remain connected to the stumps and the length of roadway covered be at least .", "US military maps record an abatis by use of an inverted \"V\" with a short line extending from it to the right." ], [ "See also", "*Great Zasechnaya cherta" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Pamplin Historical Park & The National Museum of the Civil War Soldier includes large and authentic reproduction of abatis used in the U.S. Civil War." ] ]

[ [ "Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Antoine Thomson d'Abbadie d'Arrast''' (3 January 1810 – 19 March 1897) was an Irish-born French explorer, geographer, ethnologist, linguist and astronomer notable for his travels in Ethiopia during the first half of the 19th century.", "He was the older brother of Arnaud-Michel d'Abbadie, with whom he travelled." ], [ "Biography", "D'Abbadie was born a British subject, in Dublin, Ireland, from a partially Basque noble family of the French province of Soule.", "His mother, Madam Thompson, was Irish and his father, Michel d'Abbadie, was born in Arrast-Larrebieu.", "He descended from an old family of lay abbots from Arrast, a commune in the canton of Mauléon.", "These lay abbots were instituted beyond the Crusades by Charlemagne to defend the border against the Saracens.", "The lay abbots resided with their lances in hand in the abbeys of the Basque country.", "They were granted the right to collect tithes and participated in the appointment of priests by designating them in accordance with the bishop's selection.", "The name d'Abbadie was initially not a surname but rather designated their function (abbatia, abbadia).The family moved to France in 1818 where the brothers received a careful scientific education.", "In 1827, Antoine received a bachelor's degree in Toulouse.", "Starting in 1829, he began his education in Paris, where he studied law.He married Virginie Vincent de Saint-Bonnet on 21 February 1859, and settled in Hendaye where he purchased 250ha to build a castle, and became the mayor of the city from 1871 to 1875.D'Abbadie was a knight of the Legion of Honour, which he received on 27 September 1850, and the president of the French Academy of Sciences.", "He died in 1897, and bequeathed the Abbadia domain and castle in Hendaye, yielding 40,000 francs a year, to the Academy of Sciences, on the condition that they produce a catalogue of half a million stars within fifty years." ], [ "Education", "Michel d'Abbadie returned to France with his family circa 1820.Initially residing in Toulouse, he oversaw the education of all his children who were placed under the tutelage of a governess.", "\"I was raised,\" Antoine saids, \"in the English tradition alongside my sisters.", "We spent our days and nights in a dormitory, overseen carefully by a servant.", "We rarely had time in the evenings to converse with our parents, only to hear the occasional tale from Daddy before being sent to play in a corner of the room.", "We always addressed our parents formally, using 'Sir' or 'Madam'.", "\"Antoine remained at home for three or four years, \"far from the strict discipline of a boarding school tutor.\"", "At the age of 13, he attended middle School where he exhibited extraordinary fervour.", "Still in his childhood, he displayed an uncommon curiosity concerning the unfamiliar in his surroundings by asking his governess, \"What lies at the end of the road?\"", "to which she replied, \"A river, my friend.\"", "\"And what lies beyond the river?\"", "inquired the child.", "\"A mountain,\" responded the elder.", "\"And what lies beyond the mountain?\"", "asked the child.", "\"I cannot say, for I have never been there,\" replied the elder.", "\"Then I shall journey forth and discover it myself,\" declared the child.", "Antoine d'Abbadie maintained this unquenchable thirst for knowledge throughout his life.", "He has an exceptional talent for acquiring languages and is proficient in English, Italian, German, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Berber, and several Ethiopian languages.In August 1827, he obtained his baccalaureate and returned to Toulouse to become a law student.", "His closest friends at this time were Pierre Étienne Simon Duchartre, Bernard-Adolphe Granier de Cassagnac and .These young people often talk about their plans for the future.", "\"Sometimes\", notes d'Abbadie, \"Granier asks about my future projects; I respond with commonplaces, and he likely perceives this as indecisiveness.", "However, I hold in my heart the most insane and beautiful project, which brings me great joy in my leisure activities, and I cherish it just as much as any other endeavour.\"", "This project, to which the young law student made such a particular reference, had long been a part of his thinking.", "Since he was in middle school, he had focused his attention, his education and his smallest actions.", "Very early on, d'Abbadie had the passions and calling of an adventurer.", "His initial ideas, somewhat indeterminate at the start, presently became more distinct.", "\"After completing college in 1829,\"he tells us,\"I undertook six years-long study primarily aimed at preparing me for a successful exploration of Africa's interior, which I planned to enter through Tunisia and Morocco.", "Reading Bruce's travels transported me back to East Africa, a region marked by numerous migrations and the origin of many traditions still present on this continent, though shrouded in mystery.", "From then on, I became convinced that the most important field of study a man could devote himself to was that of his fellow human beings.", "\"Here is how d'Abbadie utilized the six years he spoke of to refine the remarkable project he had conceived:Being endowed with exceptional agility even in the Basque country, he trained himself over numerous years with physical exercises in anticipation of the fatigue and deprivations explorers face.", "He developed adept fencing skills, practiced gymnastics, honed his ability to contend in endurance races under differing weather conditions, and became an accomplished swimmer.", "During his 1827 Biarritz vacation, he astounded locals by swimming to the Boucalot rock, situated almost 500 meters away from the shore." ], [ "Science and explorations", "Antoine d'Abbadie 1870Portrait of Debtera Tewelde Medhin of WelkaitIn 1835 the French Academy sent Antoine on a scientific mission to Brazil, the results being published at a later date (1873) under the title of ''Observations relatives à la physique du globe faites au Brésil et en Éthiopie''.", "He left in November 1836 in the frigate L'Andromède and had as a travelling companion Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte, exiled after the attempted uprising of Strasbourg.", "During their long voyage, the prince and the young scholar had ample time to converse.", "D'Abbadie, who was acquainted with Mrs Lenormand, took pleasure in making predictions about the future.", "Upon being consulted by the prince, he declared: \"You will be called upon to govern France; I will meet you at the Tuileries.\"", "Sixteen years later, the prince became President of the Republic.", "When Antoine d'Abbadie reminded him that they had arranged to meet at the Tuileries and not the Élysée, the prince responded: \"The Élysée is not far from the Tuileries.", "\"After successfully completing the task assigned to him by the French Academy, Antoine d'Abbadie hurried to Cairo in 1837 to meet his younger brother who awaited his arrival.", "The two youthful travelers, aged 26 and 21 respectively, were to stay in Ethiopia for almost 12 years.The two brothers landing at Massawa in February 1838.They journeyed throughout Ethiopia, travelling as far south as the Kingdom of Kaffa, sometimes together and sometimes separately.", "In addition to his studies in the sciences, he delved into the political fray exerting influence in favour of France and the Catholic missionaries.", "Arnaud held several distinguished positions such as general, judge, and diplomat.", "He participated in battles and earned the title of Ras, a highly esteemed title in this country.", "Antoine, on the other hand, pursued an academic path and became a scholar.", "\"When residing in a foreign country without any known antecedents,\"he tells us\"it is advisable to adopt a vocation in line with local customs, as failure to do so may result in being branded as a political spy, a hazardous accusation in any nation.", "As I was unable to engage in combat, agriculture, or merchandising, I identified as a \"mamhir\", or teacher and scholar, during my time in Christian Ethiopia and received an education from their public and non-compulsory schools.", "\"For a considerable length of time, the two brothers had assimilated into the customs of the region; relinquishing European attire for the turban and toga of the Ethiopians.", "They traversed the terrain barefoot, as during this era, solely lepers and Jews sported sandals.", "Furthermore, they were welcomed warmly wherever they travelled.The d'Abbadie brothers undertook extensive journeys throughout Ethiopia, documenting their observations on a range of topics, including human geography, physical geography, religion, legislative texts, ethnography, philology, linguistics, numismatics, and history.", "Moreover, Antoine amassed a collection of 250 antique manuscripts and, with the assistance of the Ethiopian Debtera Tewelde Medhin of Welkait, produced the first ever Amharic-French dictionary containing 15,000 words.In late 1848, the two brothers departed Ethiopia after successfully completing their extensive self-promised program and more.Antoine became involved in various controversies relating both to his geographical results and his political intrigues.", "He was especially attacked by Charles Tilstone Beke, who impugned his veracity, especially with reference to the journey to Kana.", "But time and the investigations of subsequent explorers have shown that Abbadie was quite trustworthy as to his facts, though wrong in his assertion — hotly contested by Beke — that the Blue Nile was the main stream.", "The topographical results of his explorations were published in Paris between 1860 and 1873 in ''Géodésie d'Éthiopie'', full of the most valuable information and illustrated by ten maps.", "Of the ''Géographie de l'Éthiopie'' (Paris, 1890) only one volume was published.", "In ''Un Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits éthiopiens'' (Paris, 1859) is a description of 234 Ethiopian manuscripts collected by Antoine.", "He also compiled various vocabularies, including a ''Dictionnaire de la langue amariñña'' (Paris, 1881), and prepared an edition of the ''Shepherd of Hermas'', with the Latin version, in 1860.He published numerous papers dealing with the geography of Ethiopia, Ethiopian coins and ancient inscriptions.", "Under the title of ''Reconnaissances magnétiques'' he published in 1890 an account of the magnetic observations made by him in the course of several journeys to the Red Sea and the Levant.", "The general account of the travels of the two brothers was published by Arnaud in 1868 under the title of ''Douze ans de séjour dans la Haute Ethiopie''.The book has been translated into English \"Twelve Years in Upper Ethiopia\".Antoine was responsible for streamlining techniques in geodesy, along with inventing a new theodolite for measuring angles." ], [ "Basque and bascophile", "Basque through his father, Abbadie developed a particular interest in the Basque Language after meeting Prince Louis Lucien Bonaparte in London.", "He started his academic work on Basque in 1852.A speaker of both Souletin and Lapurdian, a resident of Lapurdi, Abbadie considered himself a Basque from Soule.", "The popularity of the motto ''Zazpiak Bat'' is attributed to Abbadie, coined in the framework of the ''Lore Jokoak'' Basque festivals that he fostered." ], [ "Abbadia Castle", "Domaine d'Abbadia in Hendaye, designed by Eugène Viollet-le-DucAbbadie gave his castle home the name ''Abbadia'', which is the name still used in Basque.", "However, in French it is usually referred to as ''Chateau d'Abbadie'' or ''Domaine d'Abbadia'', and locally it is not unusual for it to be called ''le Chateau d'Antoine d'Abbadie''.Abbadia Castle entrancePainting of Abbadie Castle depicting EthiopiansThe château was built between 1864 and 1879 on a cliff by the Atlantic Ocean, and was designed by Eugène Viollet-le-Duc in the Neo Gothic style.", "It is considered one of the most important examples of French Gothic Revival Architecture.", "It is divided in three parts: the observatory and library, the chapel, and the living quarters.Over the front entrance door of the château is engraved \"Céd míle fáilte\" Irish gaelic for one hundred thousand welcomes in honour of his Irish heritage.The château still belongs to the Academy of Science to which it was bequeathed in 1895 on condition of its producing a catalogue of half-a-million stars within fifty years' time, with the work to be carried out by members of religious orders.The château was classified as a protected historical monument by France in 1984.Most of the château property now belongs to the Coastal Protection Agency, and is managed by the city of Hendaye." ], [ "Publications", " Year Area of Study Title Translation Notes 1836 Basque Language ''Études grammaticales sur la langue euskarienne'' Grammatical Studies of the Euskarian Language On Gallica 1854 Basque Language ''Le Dictionnaire de Chaho'' Dictionary of Chaho 1854 Basque Language ''Lettres sur l'orthographe basque'' Letters on the Basque Spelling 1859 Basque Language ''Travaux récents sur la langue basque'' Recent Studies on the Basque language On Gallica 1859 Ethiopia ''Catalogue raisonné de manuscrits éthiopiens'' Catalog of Ethiopian Manuscripts Paris On Gallica 1859 Ethiopia, Geography of ''Résumé Géodésique des positions déterminées en Éthiopie'' Summarized Geodetic Positions Determined in Ethiopia Paris 1860–1873 Ethiopia, Geography of ''Géodésie d'Éthiopie ou triangulation d'une partie de la Haute Éthiopie'' Surveying of Ethiopia and Triangulation of Parts of Upper Ethiopia 4 Vols.", "Paris:Gauthier-Villars 1862–1869 Ethiopia, Geography of ''Éthiopie'' Ethiopia Map in 10 sections 1864 ''Zuberoatikaco gutun bat'' On Gallica 1867 Exploration ''Instructions pour les voyages d'exploration'' Guidelines for Exploratory Voyages Available on Gallica 1868 Basque Language ''Sur la carte de la langue basque'' The Map of the Basque Language 1868 Ethiopia, History of ''L'Abyssinie et le roi Théodoros'' Abyssinia and King Theodore On Gallica 1868 Ethiopia ''Monnaie d'Éthiopie'' Ethiopian Currency 1872 Language ''Notice sur les langues de Kamw'' Brochure of Languages Kamw 1873 Basque, History of ''Le basque et le berbère'' Both Basque and the Berber 1873 Geography ''Observations relatives à la physique du globe, faites au Brésil et en Éthiopie'' Observations on Earth Physics, Made in Brazil and Ethiopia Paris:Gauthier-Villars 1880 Exploration ''Préparation des voyageurs aux observations astronomiques et géodésiques'' Preparation of Travelers With Astronomical Observations and Geodetic Surveys 1881 Science ''Recherches sur la verticale'' Researching the Vertical 1881 Language ''Dictionnaire de la langue Amarrinna'' Dictionary of the Amharic Language 1884 Exploration ''Credo d'un vieux voyageur'' The Creed of an Old Traveler 1890 Geography ''Reconnaissances magnétiques'' Magnetic Reconnaissance Paris 1890 Ethiopia, Geography of ''Géographie de l'Éthiopie, ce que j'ai entendu, faisant suite à ce que j'ai vu'' Geography of Ethiopia, What I Heard, Which Followed What I Saw 1895 Basque Language ''Lettre sur la préservation de la langue basque'' Letter on Preserving the Basque Language 1896 Abolition of slavery ''Sur l'abolition de l'esclavage en Afrique'' On the abolition of slavery in Africa On Gallica 1898 Ethiopia, History of ''Des conquêtes faites en Abyssinie au XVIe siècle par l'imam Muhammad Ahmad dit Grâgne; version française de la chronique arabe du Chahâb ad-Dîn Ahmad'' Translation of a chronicle of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi's conquests in 16th-century Ethiopia Completed by Philipp Paulitschke and published posthumously.", "On Gallica===Awards and memberships===Antoine received the French Legion of Honor on 27 September 1850 with the order of chevalier or knight.", "He was a member of the Bureau des Longitudes and also the French Academy of Sciences.", "Both brothers received the grand medal of the Paris Geographical Society in 1850." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * – Antoine d'Abbadie* * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Abba Mari" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abba Mari ben Moses ben Joseph''', was a Provençal rabbi, born at Lunel, near Montpellier, towards the end of the 13th century.", "He is also known as '''Yarhi''' from his birthplace (Hebrew ''Yerah'', i.e.", "moon, lune), and he further took the name '''Astruc''', '''Don Astruc''' or '''En Astruc of Lunel''' from the word \"astruc\" meaning lucky.The descendant of men learned in rabbinic lore, Abba Mari devoted himself to the study of theology and philosophy, and made himself acquainted with the writings of Moses Maimonides and Nachmanides as well as with the ''Talmud''.In Montpellier, where he lived from 1303 to 1306, he was much distressed by the prevalence of Aristotelian rationalism, which (in his opinion) through the medium of the works of Maimonides, threatened the authority of the Old Testament, obedience to the law, and the belief in miracles and revelation.", "He therefore, in a series of letters (afterwards collected under the title ''Minhat Kenaot'', i.e., \"Offering of Zealotry\") called upon the famous rabbi Solomon ben Aderet of Barcelona to come to the aid of orthodoxy.", "Ben Aderet, with the approval of other prominent Spanish rabbis, sent a letter to the community at Montpellier proposing to forbid the study of philosophy to those who were less than twenty-five years of age, and, in spite of keen opposition from the liberal section, a decree in this sense was issued by Ben Aderet in 1305.The result was a great schism among the Jews of Spain and southern France, and a new impulse was given to the study of philosophy by the unauthorized interference of the Spanish rabbis.Upon the expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV in 1306, Abba Mari settled at Perpignan, where he published the letters connected with the controversy.", "His subsequent history is unknown.", "Beside the letters, he was the author of liturgical poetry and works on civil law." ], [ "Defender of Law and Tradition", "Leader of the opposition to the rationalism of the Maimonists in the Montpellier controversy of 1303–1306; born at Lunel—hence his name, Yarḥi (from Yeraḥ = Moon = Lune).", "He was a descendant of Meshullam ben Jacob of Lunel, one of whose five sons was Joseph, the grandfather of Abba Mari, who, like his son Moses, the father of Abba Mari, was highly respected for both his rabbinical learning and his general erudition.", "Abba Mari moved to Montpellier, where, to his chagrin, he found the study of rabbinical lore greatly neglected by the young, who devoted all of their time and zeal to science and philosophy.", "The rationalistic method pursued by the new school of Maimonists (including Levi ben Abraham ben Chayyim of Villefranche, near the town of Perpignan, and Jacob Anatolio) especially provoked his indignation; for the sermons preached and the works published by them seemed to resolve the entire Scriptures into allegory and threatened to undermine the Jewish faith and the observance of the Law and tradition.", "He was not without some philosophical training.", "He mentions even with reverence the name of Maimonides, whose work he possessed and studied; but he was more inclined toward the mysticism of Nachmanides.", "Above all, he was a thorough believer in revelation and in a divine providence, and was a sincere, law-observing follower of rabbinical Judaism.", "He would not allow Aristotle, \"the searcher after God among the heathen,\" to be ranked with Moses." ], [ "Opponent of Rationalism", "Abba Mari possessed considerable Talmudic knowledge and some poetical talent; but his zeal for the Law made him an agitator and a persecutor of all the advocates of liberal thought.", "Being himself without sufficient authority, he appealed in a number of letters, afterward published under the title of ''Minḥat Ḳenaot'' (''Jealousy Offering''), to Solomon ben Adret of Barcelona, the most influential rabbi of the time, to use his powerful authority to check the source of evil by hurling his anathema against both the study of philosophy and the allegorical interpretations of the Bible, which did away with all belief in miracles.", "Ben Adret, while reluctant to interfere in the affairs of other congregations, was in perfect accord with Abba Mari as to the danger of the new rationalistic systems, and advised him to organize the conservative forces in defense of the Law.", "Abba Mari, through Ben Adret's aid, obtained allies eager to take up his cause, among whom were Don Bonafoux Vidal of Barcelona and his brother, Don Crescas Vidal, then in Perpignan.", "The proposition of the latter to prohibit, under penalty of excommunication, the study of philosophy and any of the sciences except medicine, by one under thirty years of age, met with the approval of Ben Adret.", "Accordingly, Ben Adret addressed to the congregation of Montpellier a letter, signed by fifteen other rabbis, proposing to issue a decree pronouncing the anathema against all those who should pursue the study of philosophy and science before due maturity in age and in rabbinical knowledge.", "On a Sabbath in September, 1304, the letter was to be read before the congregation, when Jacob Machir Don Profiat Tibbon, the renowned astronomical and mathematical writer, entered his protest against such unlawful interference by the Barcelona rabbis, and a schism ensued.", "Twenty-eight members signed Abba Mari's letter of approval; the others, under Tibbon's leadership, addressed another letter to Ben Adret, rebuking him and his colleagues for condemning a whole community without knowledge of the local conditions.", "Finally, the agitation for and against the liberal ideas brought about a schism in the entire Jewish population in southern France and Spain.Encouraged, however, by letters signed by the rabbis of Argentière and Lunel, and particularly by the support of Kalonymus ben Todros, the ''nasi'' of Narbonne, and of the eminent Talmudist Asheri of Toledo, Ben Adret issued a decree, signed by thirty-three rabbis of Barcelona, excommunicating those who should, within the next fifty years, study physics or metaphysics before their thirtieth year of age (basing his action on the principle laid down by Maimonides, ''Guide for the Perplexed'' part one chapter 34), and had the order promulgated in the synagogue on Sabbath, July 26, 1305.When this heresy-decree, to be made effective, was forwarded to other congregations for approval, the friends of liberal thought, under the leadership of the Tibbonites, issued a counter-ban, and the conflict threatened to assume a serious character, as blind party zeal (this time on the liberal side) did not shrink from asking the civil powers to intervene.", "But an unlooked-for calamity brought the warfare to an end.", "The expulsion of the Jews from France by Philip IV (\"the Fair\"), in, caused the Jews of Montpellier to take refuge, partly in Provence, partly in Perpignan and partly in Majorca.", "Consequently, Abba Mari removed first to Arles, and, within the same year, to Perpignan, where he finally settled and disappeared from public view.", "There he published his correspondence with Ben Adret and his colleagues." ], [ "''Minchat Kenaot''", "Abba Mari collected the correspondence and added to each letter a few explanatory notes.", "Of this collection, called ''Minchat Kenaot'', several manuscript copies survive (at Oxford; Paris; Günzburg Libr., Saint Petersburg; Parma; Ramsgate Montefiore College Library; and Turin).", "Some of these are mere fragments.", "The printed edition (Presburg, 1838), prepared by M. L. Bislichis, contains: (1) Preface; (2) a treatise of eighteen chapters on the incorporeality of God; (3) correspondence; (4) a treatise, called ''Sefer ha-Yarḥi,'' included also in letter 58; (5) a defense of ''The Guide'' and its author by Shem-Tob Palquera.As the three cardinal doctrines of Judaism, Abba Mari accentuates: (1) Recognition of God's existence and of His absolute sovereignty, eternity, unity, and incorporeality, as taught in revelation, especially in the ''Ten Commandments''; (2) the world's creation by Him out of nothing, as evidenced particularly by the Sabbath; (3) special Divine providence, as manifested in the Biblical miracles.", "In the preface, Abba Mari explains his object in collecting the correspondence; and in the treatise which follows he shows that the study of philosophy, useful in itself as a help toward the acquisition of the knowledge of God, requires great caution, lest we be misled by the Aristotelian philosophy or its false interpretation, as regards the principles of ''creatio ex nihilo'' and divine individual providence.", "The manuscripts include twelve letters which are not included in the printed edition of ''Minḥat Ḳenaot.", "''The correspondence refers mainly to the proposed restriction of the study of the Aristotelian philosophy.", "Casually, other theological questions are discussed.", "For example, letters 1, 5, and 8 contain a discussion on the question, whether the use of a piece of metal with the figure of a lion, as a talisman, is permitted by Jewish law for medicinal purposes, or is prohibited as idolatrous.", "In letter 131, Abba Mari mourns the death of Ben Adret, and in letter 132 he sends words of sympathy to the congregation of Perpignan, on the death of Don Vidal Shlomo (the Meiri) and Rabbi Meshullam.", "Letter 33 contains the statement of Abba Mari that two letters which he desired to insert could not be discovered by him.", "MS. Ramsgate, No.", "52, has the same statement, but also the two letters missing in the printed copies.", "In ''Sefer haYarchi'', Abba Mari refers to the great caution shown by the rabbis of old regarding the teaching of the philosophical mysteries, and recommended by men like the Hai Gaon, Maimonides, and David Kimhi.", "A response of Abba Mari on a ritual question is contained in MS. Ramsgate, No.", "136; and Zunz mentions a ''ḳinah'' composed by Abba Mari.", "''Minchat Kenaot'' is instructive reading for the historian because it throws much light upon the deeper problems which agitated Judaism, the question of the relation of religion to the philosophy of the age, which neither the zeal of the fanatic nor the bold attitude of the liberal-minded could solve in any fixed dogmatic form or by any anathema, as the independent spirit of the congregations refused to accord to the rabbis the power possessed by the Church of dictating to the people what they should believe or respect.At the close of the work are added several eulogies written by Abba Mari on Ben Adret (who died in 1310), and on Don Vidal, Solomon of Perpignan, and Don Bonet Crescas of Lunel." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Abbas II of Egypt" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abbas Helmy II''' (also known as ''ʿAbbās Ḥilmī Pāshā'', ) (14 July 1874 – 19 December 1944) was the last Khedive of Egypt and the Sudan, ruling from 8January 1892 to 19 December 1914.In 1914, after the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the nationalist Khedive was removed by the British, then ruling Egypt, in favour of his more pro-British uncle, Hussein Kamel, marking the ''de jure'' end of Egypt's four-century era as a province of the Ottoman Empire, which had begun in 1517." ], [ "Early life", "Abbas II (full name: Abbas Hilmy), the great-great-grandson of Muhammad Ali, was born in Alexandria, Egypt on 14 July 1874.In 1887 he was ceremonially circumcised together with his younger brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik.", "The festivities lasted for three weeks and were carried out with great pomp.", "As a boy he visited the United Kingdom, and he had a number of British tutors in Cairo including a governess who taught him English.", "In a profile of Abbas II, the boys' annual, ''Chums'', gave a lengthy account of his education.", "His father established a small school near the Abdin Palace in Cairo where European, Arab and Ottoman masters taught Abbas and his brother Mohammed Ali Tewfik.", "An American officer in the Egyptian army took charge of his military training.", "He attended school at Lausanne, Switzerland; then, at the age of twelve, he was sent to the Haxius School in Geneva, in preparation for his entry into the Theresianum in Vienna.", "In addition to Arabic and Ottoman Turkish, he had good conversational knowledge of English, French and German." ], [ "Reign", "Abbas II succeeded his father, Tewfik Pasha, as Khedive of Egypt and Sudan on 8 January 1892.He was still in college in Vienna when he assumed the throne of the Khedivate of Egypt upon the sudden death of his father.", "He was barely of age according to Egyptian law; normally eighteen in cases of succession to the throne.", "For some time he did not willingly cooperate with the British, whose army had occupied Egypt in 1882.As he was young and eager to exercise his new power, he resented the interference of the British Agent and Consul General in Cairo, Sir Evelyn Baring, later made Lord Cromer.", "Lord Cromer initially supported Abbas but the new Khedive's nationalist agenda and association with anti-colonial Islamist movements put him in direct conflict with British colonial officers, and Cromer later interceded on behalf of Lord Kitchener (British commander in the Sudan) in an ongoing dispute with Abbas about Egyptian sovereignty and influence in that territory.At the outset of his reign, Khedive Abbas II surrounded himself with a coterie of European advisers who opposed the British occupation of Egypt and Sudan and encouraged the young khedive to challenge Cromer by replacing his ailing prime minister with an Egyptian nationalist.", "At Cromer's behest, Lord Rosebery, the British Foreign Secretary, sent Abbas II a letter stating that the Khedive was obliged to consult the British consul on such issues as cabinet appointments.", "In January 1894 Abbas II made an inspection tour of Sudanese and Egyptian frontier troops stationed near the southern border, the Mahdists being at the time still in control of the Sudan.", "At Wadi Halfa the Khedive made public remarks disparaging the Egyptian army units commanded by British officers.", "The British Sirdar of the Egyptian army, Sir Herbert Kitchener, immediately threatened to resign.", "Kitchener further insisted on the dismissal of a nationalist under-secretary of war appointed by Abbas II and that an apology be made for the Khedive's criticism of the army and its officers.By 1899 he had come to accept British counsels.", "Also in 1899, British diplomat Alfred Mitchell-Innes was appointed Under-Secretary of State for Finance in Egypt, and in 1900 Abbas II paid a second visit to Britain, during which he said he thought the British had done good work in Egypt, and declared himself ready to cooperate with the British officials administering Egypt and Sudan.", "He gave his formal approval for the establishment of a sound system of justice for Egyptian nationals, a significant reduction in taxation, increased affordable and sound education, the inauguration of the substantial irrigation works such as the Aswan Low Dam and the Assiut Barrage, and the reconquest of Sudan.", "He displayed more interest in agriculture than in statecraft.", "His farm of cattle and horses at Qubbah, near Cairo, was a model for agricultural science in Egypt, and he created a similar establishment at Muntazah, just east of Alexandria.", "He married the Princess Ikbal Hanem and had several children.", "Muhammad Abdul Moneim, the heir-apparent, was born on 20 February 1899.Abbas II with King George V in 1911Although Abbas II no longer ''publicly'' opposed the British, he secretly created, supported and sustained the Egyptian nationalist movement, which came to be led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha.", "He also funded the anti-British newspaper Al-Mu'ayyad.", "As Kamil's thrust was increasingly aimed at winning popular support for a nationalist political party, Khedive Abbas publicly distanced himself from the Nationalists and was labeled as being against Islam by said nationalists.", "The western world would characterize him as a revolutionary against peace, although his main goal was to gain independence for Morocco.", "Their demand for a constitutional government in 1906 was rebuffed by Abbas II, and the following year he formed the National Party, led by Mustafa Kamil Pasha, to counter the Ummah Party of the Egyptian moderates.", "However, in general, he had no real political power.", "When the Egyptian Army was sent to fight Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi in Sudan in 1896, he only found out about it because the Austro-Hungarian Archduke Francis Ferdinand was in Egypt and told him after being informed of it by a British Army officer.His relations with Cromer's successor, Sir Eldon Gorst, however, were excellent, and they co-operated in appointing the cabinets headed by Butrus Ghali in 1908 and Muhammad Sa'id in 1910 and in checking the power of the National Party.", "The appointment of Kitchener to succeed Gorst in 1912 displeased Abbas II, and relations between the Khedive and the British deteriorated.", "Kitchener, who exiled or imprisoned the leaders of the National Party, often complained about \"that wicked little Khedive\" and wanted to depose him.On 25 July 1914, at the onset of World War I, Abbas II was in Constantinople and was wounded in his hands and cheeks during a failed assassination attempt.", "On 5 November 1914 when Great Britain declared war on the Ottoman Empire, he was accused of deserting Egypt by not promptly returning home.", "The British also believed that he was plotting against their rule, as he had attempted to appeal to Egyptians and Sudanese to support the Central Powers against the British.", "So when the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I, the United Kingdom declared Egypt a Sultanate under British protection on 18 December 1914 and deposed Abbas II.Painting commemorating Abbas II's 1909 Hajj pilgrimage, including his portrait on the leftDuring the war, Abbas II sought support from the Ottomans, including proposing to lead an attack on the Suez Canal.", "He was replaced by the British by his uncle Hussein Kamel from 1914 to 1917, with the title of Sultan of Egypt.", "Hussein Kamel issued a series of restrictive orders to strip Abbas II of property in Egypt and Sudan and forbade contributions to him.", "These also barred Abbas from entering Egyptian territory and stripped him of the right to sue in Egyptian courts.", "This did not prevent his progeny, however, from exercising their rights.", "Abbas II finally accepted the new order on 12 May 1931 and formally abdicated.", "He retired to Switzerland, where he wrote ''The Anglo-Egyptian Settlement'' (1930).", "He died at Geneva on 19 December 1944, aged 70, 30 years to the day after the end of his reign as Khedive." ], [ "Marriages and issue", "His first marriage in Cairo on 19 February 1895 was to Ikbal Hanim (Istanbul, Ottoman Empire, 22 October 1876Istanbul, 10 February 1941).", "They divorced in 1910 and had six children, two sons and four daughters: * Princess Emina (Montaza Palace, Alexandria, 12 February 1895 – 1954), unmarried and without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, ''31 May 1895'';* Princess Atiyatullah (Cairo, 9 June 1896 – 1971), married twice and had issue, three sons, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, ''1 October 1904'';* Princess Fathiya (27 November 1897 – 30 November 1923), married without issue, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, ''1 October 1904'';* Prince Prince Muhammad Abdel Moneim, Heir Apparent and Regent of Egypt and Sudan, (20 February 1899 – 1 December 1979), married and had issue, a son and a daughter;* Princess Lutfiya Shavkat (Cairo, 29 September 1900 – 1975), married and had issue, two daughters, received decoration of the Order of Charity, 1st class, ''20 July 1907'';* Prince Muhammad Abdul Kadir (4 February 1902 – Montreux, 21 April 1919);His second marriage in Çubuklu, Turkey on 28 February 1910 was to Hungarian noblewoman Javidan Hanim (born May Torok de Szendro, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S., 8 January 18745 August 1968).", "They divorced in 1913 without issue." ], [ "Honours", "Ribbon bar Country Honour Date Notes80pxSwedenCommander Grand Cross of the Order of the Polar Star189080pxAustria-HungaryGrand Cross of the Order of Franz Joseph189180pxUnited Kingdom of Great Britain and IrelandHonorary Knight Grand Cross of the Most Distinguished Order of Saint Michael and Saint George23 July 189180pxFranceGrand Cross of the Légion d'honneur189280pxDenmarkKnight Grand Cross of the Order of the Dannebrog6 April 189280pxUnited KingdomHonorary Knight Grand Cross (Civil) of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath10 June 189280pxSpainGrand Cross of the Order of Charles III4 August 189280pxNetherlandsKnight Grand Cross of the Order of the Netherlands Lion189280px Ottoman Empire1st Class of the Order of the Medjidie189580pxOttoman Empire1st Class of the Order of Osmanieh1895 80pxAustria-HungaryGrand Cross of the Order of Leopold189780pxSiamKnight Grand Cross (Special Class) of the Most Illustrious Order of Chula Chom Klao189780pxUnited KingdomHonorary Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order28 June 190080pxRussiaKnight of the Order of Saint Alexander Nevsky190280pxHesseGrand Cross of the Order of Ludwig26 March 1903 80pxUnited KingdomRecipient of the Royal Victorian Chain15 June 190580pxOldenburgGrand Cross of the House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis190580pxSaxe-Coburg and GothaGrand Cross of the Saxe-Ernestine House Order190580pxSaxonyGrand Cross of the Order of Albert190580pxGreeceGrand Cross of the Order of the Redeemer190580pxMontenegroKnight Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I190580pxRomaniaGrand Cross of the Order of Carol I190580pxVaticanKnight Grand Cross of the Order of Pius IX190580pxAustria-HungaryGrand Cross of the Order of Saint Stephen190580pxRussiaKnight 1st Class of the Order of Saint Stanislaus190880pxSiamKnight of the Most Auspicious Order of the Royal House of Chakri190880pxItalyKnight Grand Cross of the Order of Saints Maurice and Lazarus191180pxBelgiumGrand Cordon of the Order of Leopold191180pxEthiopiaGrand Cross of the Order of the Star of Ethiopia191180pxMoroccoGrand Cross of the Order of Ouissam Alaouite191380pxAlbaniaGrand Cross of the Order of the Black Eagle191480pxPrussiaGrand Cross with Collar of the Order of the Red Eagle191480pxZanzibarGrand Cordon of the Order of the Exalted1914" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "Footnotes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* * * * *" ], [ "External links", "* Al-Ahram on Abbas in exile* *" ] ]

[ [ "Abbas Mirza" ], [ "Introduction", "Reviewing in.", "The Ottoman Persian war 1821 to 1823'''Abbas Mirza''' (; August 26, 1789October 25, 1833) was a Qajar crown prince of Iran.", "He developed a reputation as a military commander during the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813 and the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, as well as through the Ottoman–Persian War of 1821–1823.He is furthermore noted as an early modernizer of Persia's armed forces and institutions, and for his death before his father, Fath Ali Shah.", "Abbas was an intelligent prince, possessed some literary taste, and is noteworthy on account of the comparative simplicity of his life.With Abbas Mirza as the military commander of the Persian forces, Iran lost all of its territories in the Caucasus comprising the South Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus (Dagestan) to Russia in conformity with the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan and the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay, following the outcomes of the 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 wars." ], [ "Biography", "Abbas Mirza was born on 26 August 1789 in Nava, Mazandaran, a younger son of Fath Ali Shah, but, on account of his mother's royal birth, was destined by his father to succeed him.", "Considered the favorite son by his father, he was named governor (''beglarbeg'') of the Azerbaijan region of Persia, in approximately 1798, when he was 10 years old.", "In 1801, three years after Agha Mohammad Khan's death, the Russians capitalized on the moment, and annexed Kartli-Kakheti.", "As (Eastern) Georgia had been under intermittent Iranian suzerainty since the early 16th century, this act by the Russians was seen as intrusion into Iranian territory.", "In 1804, eager to take the rest of Iran's territories, the Russian army led by general Pavel Tsitsianov, besieged, captured and sacked the city of Ganja, thereby initiating the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813).", "Fath-Ali Shah appointed Abbas Mirza as commander of the expeditionary force of 30,000 men.", "His aid was eagerly solicited by both England and Napoleon, anxious to checkmate one another in the East, especially as Persia bordered a common rival, namely Imperial Russia.", "Preferring the friendship of France, Abbas Mirza continued the war against Russia's young General Kotlyarevsky, aged only twenty-nine but his new ally could give him very little assistance.The early stages of the war following Fath Ali Shah's orders to invade and regain Georgia and the northern parts of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic ended up in years of relatively territorial stale warfare.", "However, as Prof. Alexander Mikaberidze adds, Abbas Mirza led the army in an overall disastrous campaign against the Russians, suffering defeats at Gyumri, Kalagiri, the Zagam River (1805), Karakapet (1806), Karababa (1808), Ganja (1809), Meghri, the Aras River, and Akhalkalaki (1810).", "The tide started to decisively turn as Russia was sending more and more advanced weaponry and increasing numbers of soldiers.", "Commanding the southernmost Russian divisions during the long war, Kotlyarevsky defeated the numerically superior Persian army in the Battle of Aslanduz (1812) and in early 1813 stormed and took Lankaran.", "The Russians were encamped on the opposite bank of River Aras when his two British advisers, Capt Christie and Lt Pottinger, told him to post sentry pickets in short order, but Mirza ignored the warnings.", "Christie and other British officers tried to rally an army retreating in panic; for days the Russians launched fierce assaults, but at last Christie fell, and Mirza ordered a full retreat.", "Complacency cost 10,000 Persian lives; Mirza believing wrongly in the weight of superior numbers.", "In spite of the absence of leadership, The Persians at Lenkoran held out for weeks until, breaking through, the Russians slaughtered the garrison of 4,000 officers and men.In October 1813, with Abbas Mirza still commander-in-chief, Persia was compelled to make a severely disadvantageous peace known as the Treaty of Gulistan, irrevocably ceding swaths of its territory in the Caucasus, comprising present-day Georgia, Dagestan, and most of what most recently became the Republic of Azerbaijan.", "The only promise the Shah received in return was a lukewarm guarantee the Mirza would succeed to his throne, without let or hindrance.", "Persia's dire losses attracted the attention of the British Empire; following the reversal of initial successes, the Russians now posed a serious threat from the Caucasus.The drastic losses suffered by his forces made him realize that he needed to train Persia's military in the European style of war, and he started sending his students to Europe for military training.", "By introducing European-style regiments, Abbas Mirza believed it would enable Iran to gain the upper hand over Russia and to reclaim its lost territories.", "Influenced by Sultan Selim III's reforms, Abbas Mirza set out to create an Iranian version of the Ottoman ''Nizam-ı Cedid'', and reduce the Qajar dependence on tribal and provincial forces.", "In 1811 and 1815, two groups were sent to Britain, and in 1812 a printing press was finished in Tabriz as a means to reproduce European military handbooks.", "Tabriz also saw a gunpowder factory and a munitions depot.", "The training continued with constant drilling by British advisers, with a focus on the infantry and artillery.Abbas Mirza with Ivan Paskevich at the signing of the Treaty of Turkmenchay, 1828He received his opportunity to test his newly reformed military when the Ottoman–Persian War (1821–1823) began, and they proved themselves adept with several victories.", "This resulted in a peace treaty signed in 1823 after the Battle of Erzurum.", "The war was a victory for Persia, especially considering they were outnumbered, and this gave much needed confidence to his forces.", "His second war with Russia, which began in 1826, started off on a good note as he won back most of the territory lost in the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813); however it ended in a string of costly defeats after which Persia was forced to cede the last of its Caucasian territories, comprising all of what is modern day Armenia, Nakhchivan, the rest of the remainder of the contemporary Azerbaijani Republic that was still in Iranian hands, and Iğdır Province, all conform the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay.", "The eventual loss was due less to his army's skill and more to do with lack of reinforcements and overwhelming superiority in numbers.", "The irrevocable losses, which in total amounted up for all of Qajar Iran's territories in the North Caucasus and the South Caucasus, affected Abbas Mirza severely and his health began to suffer.", "He also lost enthusiasm for any more military reform.", "In 1833, he sought to restore order in Khorasan province, which was nominally under Persian supremacy, and while engaged in the task died at Mashhad in 1833.In 1834, his eldest son, Mohammed Mirza, succeeded Fath Ali Shah as the next king.", "R. G. Watson (History of Persia, 128–9) described him as “the noblest of the Qajar race”.He is most remembered for his valor in battle and his failed attempts to modernize the Persian army.", "He was unsuccessful in the latter due, in part, to the lack of government centralization in Iran during the era.", "Furthermore, it was Abbas Mirza who first dispatched Iranian students to Europe for a western education.", "He was unable to prove successful in the long run in his wars with Russia as he ended up losing more territory than he gained." ], [ "In popular culture", "* ''Tabriz in Fog'': an Iranian historical drama about Abbas Mirza's life." ], [ "Issue", "Abbas Mirza's sons* Prince Mohammed Mirza, to become Mohammad Shah Qajar* Prince Bahram Mirza ''Mo'ez ed-Dowleh''* Prince Djahangir Mirza* Prince Bahman Mirza* Prince Fereydoun Mirza ''Nayeb-ol-Eyaleh''* Prince Eskandar Mirza* Prince Khosrow Mirza* Prince Ghahreman Mirza* Prince Ardeshir Mirza ''Rokn ed-Dowleh''* Prince Ahmad Mirza ''Mo'in ed-Dowleh''* Prince Ja'far Gholi Mirza* Prince Mostafa Gholi Mirza* Prince Soltan Morad Mirza ''Hessam-al-Saltaneh''* Prince Manouchehr Mirza* Prince Farhad Mirza ''Mo'tamed ed-Dowleh''* Prince Firouz Mirza ''Nosrat ed-Dowleh''* Prince Khanlar Mirza ''Ehtesham ed-Dowleh''* Prince Bahador Mirza* Prince Mohammad Rahim Mirza* Prince Mehdi Gholi Mirza * Prince Hamzeh Mirza ''Heshmat ed-Dowleh''* Prince Ildirim Bayazid Mirza* Prince Lotfollah Mirza ''Shoa'a ed-Dowleh''* Prince Mohammad Karim Mirza* Prince Ja'ffar Mirza* Prince Abdollah Mirza" ], [ "See also", "*Set Khan Astvatsatourian*Abbas Mirza Mosque, Yerevan*Russo-Persian Wars*Samson Makintsev*Imperial Crown Jewels of Persia*Military history of Iran" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]

[ [ "George Abbot (bishop)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''George Abbot''' (29 October 15624 August 1633) was an English divine who was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1611 to 1633.He also served as the fourth chancellor of the University of Dublin, from 1612 to 1633.", "''Chambers Biographical Dictionary'' describes him as \"a sincere but narrow-minded Calvinist\".", "Among his five brothers, Robert became Bishop of Salisbury and Maurice became Lord Mayor of London.", "He was a translator of the King James Version of the Bible." ], [ "Life and career", "===Early years===Born at Guildford in Surrey, where his father Maurice Abbot (died 1606) was a cloth worker, he was taught at the Royal Grammar School, Guildford.", "According to an eighteenth-century biographical dictionary, when Abbot's mother was pregnant with him she had a dream in which she was told that if she ate a pike her child would be a son and rise to great prominence.", "Some time afterwards she accidentally caught a pike while fetching water from the River Wey and it \"being reported to some gentlemen in the neighbourhood, they offered to stand sponsors for the child, and afterwards shewed him many marks of favour\".", "He later studied, and then taught under many eminent scholars, including Thomas Holland, at Balliol College, Oxford, was chosen Master of University College in 1597, and appointed Dean of Winchester in 1600.He was three times Vice-Chancellor of the University, and took a leading part in preparing the authorised version of the New Testament.", "In 1608, he went to Scotland with George Home, 1st Earl of Dunbar to arrange for a union between the churches of England and Scotland.", "He so pleased King James in this affair that he was made Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry in 1609 and was translated to the see of London a month afterwards.Abbot's Hospital in Guildford===Archbishop of Canterbury===On 4 March 1611, Abbot was raised to the position of Archbishop of Canterbury.", "As archbishop, he defended the apostolic succession of Anglican bishops and the validity of the church's priesthood in 1614.In consequence of the Nag's Head Fable, the archbishop invited certain Roman Catholics to inspect the register in the presence of six of his own episcopal colleagues, the details of which inspection were preserved.", "It was agreed by all parties that:In spite of his defence of the catholic nature of the priesthood, his Puritan instincts frequently led him not only into harsh treatment of Roman Catholics, but also into courageous resistance to the royal will, such as when he opposed the scandalous divorce suit of the Lady Frances Howard against Robert Devereux, 3rd Earl of Essex, and again in 1618 when, at Croydon, he forbade the reading of the Declaration of Sports listing the permitted Sunday recreations.", "He was naturally, therefore, a promoter of the match between the king's daughter, Princess Elizabeth, and Frederick V, Elector Palatine, and a firm opponent of the projected marriage of the new Prince of Wales (later Charles I) and the Spanish Infanta, Maria Anna.", "This policy brought upon the archbishop the hatred of William Laud (with whom he had previously come into collision at Oxford) and the king's court, although the King himself never forsook Abbot.In July 1621, while hunting in Lord Zouch's park at Bramshill in Hampshire, a bolt from his cross-bow aimed at a deer happened to strike one of the keepers, who died within an hour, and Abbot was so greatly distressed by the event that he fell into a state of settled melancholia.", "His enemies maintained that the fatal issue of this accident disqualified him for his office, and argued that, though the homicide was involuntary, the sport of hunting which had led to it was one in which no clerical person could lawfully indulge.", "The King had to refer the matter to a commission of ten, though he said that \"an angel might have miscarried after this sort\".", "The commission was equally divided, and the King gave a casting vote in the Archbishop's favour, though signing also a formal pardon or dispensation.", "Gustavus Paine notes that Abbot was both the \"only translator of the 1611 Bible and the only Archbishop of Canterbury ever to kill a human being\".The tomb of George Abbot in leftAfter this, the Archbishop seldom appeared at the council, chiefly on account of his infirmities.", "In 1625 he attended the King constantly, however, in his last illness, and performed the ceremony of the coronation of King Charles I as king of England.", "His refusal to license the assize sermon preached by Robert Sibthorp at Northampton on 22 February 1627, in which cheerful obedience was urged to the king's demand for a general loan, and the duty proclaimed of absolute non-resistance even to the most arbitrary royal commands, led Charles to deprive him of his functions as primate, putting them in commission.", "The need of summoning parliament, however, soon brought about a nominal restoration of the Archbishop's powers.", "His presence being unwelcome at court, he lived from that time in retirement, leaving Laud and his party in undisputed ascendancy.", "He died at Croydon on 4 August 1633, and was buried at Guildford, his native place, where he had endowed Abbot's Hospital with lands to the value of £300 a year." ], [ "Legacy", "Abbot's statue in High Street, GuildfordAbbot was a conscientious prelate, though narrow in view and often harsh towards both separatists and Roman Catholics.", "He wrote a large number of works, the most interesting being his discursive ''Exposition on the Prophet Jonah'' (1600), which was reprinted in 1845.His ''Geography, or a Brief Description of the Whole World'' (1599), passed through numerous editions.", "The newest edition, edited by the current Master of the Abbot's Hospital, was published by Goldenford Publishers Ltd on 20 June 2011, to commemorate the 400th anniversary of his enthronement as Archbishop of Canterbury.Abbot had a large private library of more than 8000 volumes, the majority of which he left to Lambeth Palace Library.", "Books bearing his armorial stamp can still be found in libraries today.Guildford remembers the Archbishop with his hospital and a statue in the High Street.", "A secondary school and a pub in the High Street are named after him.", "His tomb can be found in Holy Trinity Church." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Adware" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Adware''', often called '''advertising-supported software''' by its developers, is software that generates revenue for its developer by automatically generating online advertisements in the user interface of the software or on a screen presented to the user during the installation process.", "The software may generate two types of revenue: one is for the display of the advertisement and another on a \"pay-per-click\" basis, if the user clicks on the advertisement.", "Some advertisements also act as spyware, collecting and reporting data about the user, to be sold or used for targeted advertising or user profiling.", "The software may implement advertisements in a variety of ways, including a static box display, a banner display, a full screen, a video, a pop-up ad or in some other form.", "All forms of advertising carry health, ethical, privacy and security risks for users.The 2003 ''Microsoft Encyclopedia of Security'' and some other sources use the term \"adware\" differently: \"any software that installs itself on your system without your knowledge and displays advertisements when the user browses the Internet\", i.e., a form of malware.Some software developers offer their software free of charge, and rely on revenue from advertising to recoup their expenses and generate income.", "Some also offer a version of the software at a fee without advertising." ], [ "Advertising-supported software", "In legitimate software, the advertising functions are integrated into or bundled with the program.", "Adware is usually seen by the developer as a way to recover development costs, and generate revenue.", "In some cases, the developer may provide the software to the user free of charge or at a reduced price.", "The income derived from presenting advertisements to the user may allow or motivate the developer to continue to develop, maintain and upgrade the software product.", "The use of advertising-supported software in business is becoming increasingly popular, with a third of IT and business executives in a 2007 survey by McKinsey & Company planning to be using ad-funded software within the following two years.", "Advertisement-funded software is also one of the business models for open-source software.=== Application software ===Some software is offered in both an advertising-supported mode and a paid, advertisement-free mode.", "The latter is usually available by an online purchase of a license or registration code for the software that unlocks the mode, or the purchase and download of a separate version of the software.Some software authors offer advertising-supported versions of their software as an alternative option to business organizations seeking to avoid paying large sums for software licenses, funding the development of the software with higher fees for advertisers.Examples of advertising-supported software include Adblock Plus (\"Acceptable Ads\"), the Windows version of the Internet telephony application Skype, and the Amazon Kindle 3 family of e-book readers, which has versions called \"Kindle with Special Offers\" that display advertisements on the home page and in sleep mode in exchange for substantially lower pricing.In 2012, Microsoft and its advertising division, Microsoft Advertising, announced that Windows 8, the major release of the Microsoft Windows operating system, would provide built-in methods for software authors to use advertising support as a business model.", "The idea had been considered since as early as 2005.Most editions of Windows 10 include adware by default.=== Software as a service ===Support by advertising is a popular business model of software as a service (SaaS) on the Web.", "Notable examples include the email service Gmail and other Google Workspace products (previously called Google Apps and G Suite), and the social network Facebook.", "Microsoft has also adopted the advertising-supported model for many of its social software SaaS offerings.", "The Microsoft Office Live service was also available in an advertising-supported mode.=== Definition of Spyware, Consent, and Ethics ===In the view of Federal Trade Commission staff, there appears to be general agreement that software should be considered \"spyware\" only if it is downloaded or installed on a computer without the user's knowledge and consent.", "However, unresolved issues remain concerning how, what, and when consumers need to be told about software installed on their computers.", "For instance, distributors often disclose in an end-user license agreement that there is additional software bundled with primary software, but some participants did not view such disclosure as sufficient to infer consent.Much of the discussion on the topic involves the idea of informed consent, the assumption being that this standard eliminates any ethical issues with any given software's behavior.", "However, if a majority of important software, websites and devices were to adopt similar behavior and only the standard of informed consent is used, then logically a user's only recourse against that behavior would become not using a computer.", "The contract would become an ultimatum - agree or be ostracized from the modern world.", "This is a form of psychological coercion and presents an ethical problem with using implied or inferred consent as a standard.", "There are notable similarities between this situation and binding arbitration clauses which have become inevitable in contracts in the United States.Furthermore, certain forms and strategies of advertising have been shown to lead to psychological harm, especially in children.", "One example is childhood eating disorders - several studies have reported a positive association between exposure to beauty and fashion magazines and an increased level of weight concerns or eating disorder symptoms in girls." ], [ "Malware", "The term ''adware'' is frequently used to describe a form of malware (malicious software) which presents unwanted advertisements to the user of a computer.", "The advertisements produced by adware are sometimes in the form of a pop-up, sometimes in an \"unclosable window\", and sometimes injected into web pages.When the term is used in this way, the severity of its implication varies.", "While some sources rate adware only as an \"irritant\", others classify it as an \"online threat\" or even rate it as seriously as computer viruses and trojans.", "The precise definition of the term in this context also varies.", "Adware that observes the computer user's activities without their consent and reports it to the software's author is called spyware.", "Adwares may collect the personal information of the user, causing privacy concerns.", "However, most adware operates legally and some adware manufacturers have even sued antivirus companies for blocking adware.Programs have been developed to detect, quarantine, and remove advertisement-displaying malware, including Ad-Aware, Malwarebytes' Anti-Malware, Spyware Doctor and Spybot – Search & Destroy.", "In addition, almost all commercial antivirus software currently detect adware and spyware, or offer a separate detection module.A new wrinkle is adware (using stolen certificates) that disables anti-malware and virus protection; technical remedies are available.Adware has also been discovered in certain low-cost Android devices, particularly those made by small Chinese firms running on Allwinner systems-on-chip.", "There are even cases where adware code is embedded deep into files stored on the system and boot partitions, to which removal involves extensive (and complex) modifications to the firmware.In recent years, machine-learning based systems have been implemented to detect malicious adware on Android devices by examining features in the flow of network traffic." ], [ "See also", "* Malvertising*Online advertising* Typhoid adware" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Aeacus" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aeacus''' (; also spelled '''Eacus'''; Ancient Greek: Αἰακός) was a mythological king of the island of Aegina in the Saronic Gulf.", "He was a son of Zeus and the nymph Aegina, and the father of the heroes Peleus and Telamon.", "According to legend, he was famous for his justice, and after he died he became one of the three judges in Hades alongside Minos and Rhadamanthos.", "In another story, he assisted Poseidon and Apollo in building the walls of Troy.He had sanctuaries in Athens and Aegina, and the Aeginetan festival of the Aeacea (Αἰάκεια) was celebrated in his honour." ], [ "Mythology", "''Myrmidons; People from ants for King Aeacus,'' engraving by Virgil Solis for Ovid's ''Metamorphoses'' Book VII, 622–642.=== Birth and early days ===Aeacus was born on the island of Oenone or Oenopia, where his mother Aegina had been carried by Zeus to secure her from the anger of her parents; afterward, this island became known as Aegina.", "He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax.", "In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris.", "Aeacus' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him.", "When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon.", "Some traditions related that, at the time when Aeacus was born, Aegina was not yet inhabited, and that Zeus either changed the ants (μύρμηκες) of the island into the men (Myrmidons) over whom Aeacus ruled, or he made the men grow up out of the earth.", "Ovid, on the other hand, supposed that the island was not uninhabited at the time of the birth of Aeacus, instead stating that during the reign of Aeacus, Hera, jealous of Aegina, ravaged the island bearing the name of the latter by sending a plague or a fearful dragon into it, by which nearly all its inhabitants were carried off.", "Afterward, Zeus restored the population by changing the ants into men.These legends seem to be a mythical account of the colonization of Aegina, which seems to have been originally inhabited by Pelasgians, and afterwards received colonists from Phthiotis, the seat of the Myrmidons, and from Phlius on the Asopus.", "While he reigned in Aegina, Aeacus was renowned in all Greece for his justice and piety, and was frequently called upon to settle disputes not only among men, but even among the gods themselves.", "He was such a favourite with the latter, that when Greece was visited by a drought as a consequence of a murder that had been committed, the oracle of Delphi declared that the calamity would not cease unless Aeacus prayed to the gods to end it.", "Aeacus prayed, and as a result, the drought ceased.", "Aeacus then demonstrated his gratitude by erecting a temple to ''Zeus Panhellenius'' on Mount Panhellenion, and afterward, the Aeginetans built a sanctuary on their island called Aeaceum, which was a square temple enclosed by walls of white marble.", "Aeacus was believed in later times to be buried under the altar of this sacred enclosure.=== Later adventures ===A legend preserved in Pindar relates that Apollo and Poseidon took Aeacus as their assistant in building the walls of Troy.", "When the work was completed, three dragons rushed against the wall, and though the two that attacked the sections of the wall built by the gods fell down dead, the third forced its way into the city through the portion of the wall built by Aeacus.", "Thereafter, Apollo prophesied that Troy would fall at the hands of Aeacus's descendants, the Aeacidae (i.e.", "his sons Telamon and Peleus joined Heracles when he sieged the city during Laomedon's rule.", "Later, his great-grandson Neoptolemus was present in the wooden horse).Aeacus was also believed by the Aeginetans to have surrounded their island with high cliffs in order to protect it against pirates.", "Several other incidents connected to the story of Aeacus are mentioned by Ovid.", "By Endeïs Aeacus had two sons, Telamon (father of Ajax and Teucer) and Peleus (father of Achilles), and by Psamathe a son, Phocus, whom he preferred to the former two sons, both of whom conspired to kill Phocus during a contest, and then subsequently fled from their native island.=== In the afterlife ===''Minos, Aeacus and Rhadamanthys'' by Ludwig Mack, BildhauerAfter his death, Aeacus became one of the three judges in Hades (along with his Cretan half-brothers Rhadamanthus and Minos) and, according to Plato, was specifically concerned with the shades of Europeans upon their arrival to the underworld.", "In works of art he was depicted bearing a sceptre and the keys of Hades.", "Aeacus had sanctuaries in both Athens and in Aegina, and the Aeginetans regarded him as the tutelary deity of their island and celebrated the Aeacea in his honor.In ''The Frogs'' (405 BC) by Aristophanes, Dionysus descends to Hades and proclaims himself to be Heracles.", "Aeacus, lamenting the fact that Heracles had stolen Cerberus, sentences Dionysus to Acheron to be tormented by the hounds of Cocytus, the Echidna, the Tartesian eel, and Tithrasian Gorgons." ], [ "Family", "Aeacus was the son of Zeus by Aegina, a daughter of the river-god Asopus, and thus, brother of Damocrateia.", "In some accounts, his mother was Europa and thus possible full-brother to Minos, Rhadamanthus and Sarpedon.", "He was the father of Peleus, Telamon and Phocus and was the grandfather of the Trojan war warriors Achilles and Telemonian Ajax.", "In some accounts, Aeacus had a daughter called Alcimache who bore Medon to Oileus of Locris.", "Aeacus' sons Peleus and Telamon were jealous of Phocus and killed him.", "When Aeacus learned about the murder, he exiled Peleus and Telamon.", "Aeacus' descendants are collectively known as Aeacidae ().", "Several times in the ''Iliad'', Homer refers to Achilles as Αἰακίδης (Aiakides: II.860, 874; IX.184, 191, etc.).", "The kings of Epirus and Olympias, mother to Alexander the Great, claimed to be members of this lineage.=== Family tree of Aeacidae ===" ], [ "See also", "* Chinvat Bridge, the bridge of the dead in Persian cosmology* Sraosha, Mithra and Rashnu, guardians and judges of souls in Zoroastrian tradition" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Apollodorus, ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.ISBN 0-674-99135-4.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "* Diodorus Siculus, ''The Library of History'' translated by Charles Henry Oldfather.", "Twelve volumes.", "Loeb Classical Library.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989.Vol.", "3.Books 4.59–8.Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site* Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica.", "Vol 1-2''.", "Immanel Bekker.", "Ludwig Dindorf.", "Friedrich Vogel.", "in aedibus B. G. Teubneri.", "Leipzig.", "1888–1890.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library* Pausanias, ''Graeciae Descriptio.''", "''3 vols''.", "Leipzig, Teubner.", "1903.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pindar, ''Odes'' translated by Diane Arnson Svarlien.", "1990.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pindar, ''The Odes of Pindar'' including the Principal Fragments with an Introduction and an English Translation by Sir John Sandys, Litt.D., FBA.", "Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1937.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Publius Ovidius Naso, ''Metamorphoses'' translated by Brookes More (1859-1942).", "Boston, Cornhill Publishing Co. 1922.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Publius Ovidius Naso, ''Metamorphoses.''", "Hugo Magnus.", "Gotha (Germany).", "Friedr.", "Andr.", "Perthes.", "1892.Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Smith, William, ''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', London (1873).", "Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Strabo, ''The Geography of Strabo.''", "Edition by H.L.", "Jones.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Strabo, ''Geographica'' edited by A. Meineke.", "Leipzig: Teubner.", "1877.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library." ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Aeclanum" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aeclanum''' (also spelled '''Aeculanum''', , ) was an ancient town of Samnium, Southern Italy, about 25 km east-southeast of Beneventum, on the Via Appia.", "It lies in Passo di Mirabella, near the modern Mirabella Eclano.It is now an archaeological park.Roman roads in the region" ], [ "Location", "Aeclanum was on a promontory naturally defended, to some extent, by a steep slope on the south side down to the river Calore, while the north side lay open towards the crest of the ridge where the Via Appia ran.", "This led through Lacus Ampsanctus to Aquilonia and Venusia.", "Two other routes to Apulia, the and , diverged nearby, leading through Aequum Tuticum to Luceria and through Trivicum to Herdoniae respectively.", "The road from Aeclanum to Abellinum (modern Atripalda, near Avellino) may also follow an ancient line.Today there are ruins of the city walls, of an aqueduct, baths and an amphitheatre; nearly 400 inscriptions have also been discovered.", "Excavation has revealed a long history of pre-Roman settlement." ], [ "History", "Aeclanum was a town of the Hirpini, although it was never mentioned during the Samnite wars.", "Sulla captured it in 89 BC by setting on fire the wooden breastwork by which it was defended, and sacked it.", "It quickly recovered, new fortifications were erected, and it became a ''municipium''.", "Hadrian, who repaired the Via Appia from Beneventum to this point, made it a (colony).", "With the Lombard invasion of Italy, in the 6th century AD, it was annexed to the Duchy of Benevento, but was captured and destroyed by Eastern Roman forces under Constans II in 663 and never recovered, being reduced to a small hamlet known as Quintodecimo, a name that referred to its distance of 15 Roman miles from Benevento." ], [ "Bishopric", "Aeclanum became a Christian episcopal see, whose best known bishop was Julian of Eclanum, who was consecrated by Pope Innocent I in about 417.He refused to sign the condemnation of Pelagianism issued by Pope Innocent's successor, Pope Zosimus, and carried on a war of writings against Augustine of Hippo.", "It has been thought that the diocese was united to that of Frequentium as early as the 5th century, but there is mention of Quintodecimo as a suffragan see of Benevento in 969 and 1058.From 1059 it was definitively united with Frequentium.", "No longer a residential bishopric, Aeclanum is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see." ], [ "Gallery", "File:Aeclanum (Ancient Roman Street).jpg|The central roadFile:Aeclanum (Ruins-01).jpg|Remains of the houses (1)File:Aeclanum (Ruins-02).jpg|Remains of the houses (2)File:Aeclanum (Thermae-02).jpg|Side view of the ''thermae''" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Aeclanum (Cultural Property of Campania website)* Aeclanum (Mirabella Eclano municipal website)" ] ]

[ [ "Aedesius" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aedesius''' (, died 355 AD) was a Neoplatonist philosopher and mystic.", "He was born into a wealthy Cappadocian family, but he moved to Syria, where he was apprenticed to Iamblichos.", "None of his writings have survived, but there is an extant biography by Eunapius, a Greek sophist and historian of the 4th century who wrote a collection of biographies titled ''Lives of the Sophists''.", "Aedesius's philosophical doctrine was a mixture between Platonism and eclecticism and, according to Eunapius, he differed from Iamblichus on certain points connected with theurgy and magic.", "The school of Syria was dispersed after Iamblichus' death, and Aedesius seems to have modified his doctrines out of fear of Constantine II, and took refuge in divination.", "An oracle in hexameter verse represented a pastoral life as his only retreat, but his disciples, perhaps calming his fears by a metaphorical interpretation, compelled him to resume his instructions.", "Aedesius then founded a school of philosophy at Pergamon, which emphasized theurgy and the revival of polytheism, and where he numbered among his pupils Eusebius of Myndus, Maximus of Ephesus, and the Roman emperor Julian.", "After the accession of the latter to the imperial purple he invited Aedesius to continue his instructions, but the declining strength of the sage being unequal to the task, two of his most learned disciples, Chrysanthius and the aforementioned Eusebius, were by his own desire appointed to supply his place.", "His co-teacher and perhaps consort at the Pergamon school was the female philosopher and mystic, Sosipatra." ], [ "References", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Aedicula" ], [ "Introduction", "Lilybaeum, with sign of Baal Hammon, signs of Tanit and caduceusIn ancient Roman religion, an '''''aedicula''''' (: '''''aediculae''''') is a small shrine, and in classical architecture refers to a niche covered by a pediment or entablature supported by a pair of columns and typically framing a statue, the early Christian ones sometimes contained funeral urns.", "''Aediculae'' are also represented in art as a form of ornamentation.", "The word ''aedicula'' is the diminutive of the Latin ''aedes'', a temple building or dwelling place.", "The Latin word has been anglicised as \"'''aedicule'''\" and as \"'''edicule'''\".", "Describing post-antique architecture, especially Renaissance architecture, aedicular forms may be described using the word tabernacle, as in '''tabernacle window'''." ], [ "Classical ''aediculae''", "Many ''aediculae'' were household shrines (''lararia'') that held small altars or statues of the Lares and Di Penates.", "The Lares were Roman deities protecting the house and the family household gods.", "The Penates were originally patron gods (really ''genii'') of the storeroom, later becoming household gods guarding the entire house.Other ''aediculae'' were small shrines within larger temples, usually set on a base, surmounted by a pediment and surrounded by columns.", "In ancient Roman architecture the ''aedicula'' has this representative function in the society.", "They are installed in public buildings like the triumphal arch, city gate, and thermae.", "The Library of Celsus in Ephesus ( AD) is a good example.From the 4th century Christianization of the Roman Empire onwards such shrines, or the framework enclosing them, are often called by the Biblical term tabernacle, which becomes extended to any elaborated framework for a niche, window or picture.File:Pantheon11111.jpg|''Aediculae'' in the Pantheon, RomeFile:Wall painting - Athena in aedicula and snake at altar - Gragnano Carmiano (villa A) - Pompeii PAAnt 63688 - 01.jpg|''Aedicula'' containing a painted Athena and AgathodaemonFile:Montemartini - tempio di Apollo Sosiano edicola 1030469.JPG|1st century BC interior ''aedicula'' from the Temple of Apollo Sosianus, RomeFile:Herculaneum-Palestra.jpg|Painted ''aediculae'' in a fresco from the ''palaestra'' of HerculaneumFile:DSC00097 - Edicola funebre greco-punica da Marsala - Foto G. Dall'Orto.jpg|Graeco-Punic funerary ''aedicula'' from Marsala, with signs of Tanit and caduceusFile:Painted stucco relief - architecture with aedicula and pictures - Pompeii (VI 9 2) - Napoli MAN 9596.jpg|''Aediculae'' and figures painted on stucco from Pompeii" ], [ "Gothic ''aediculae''", "Gothic façade of Exeter Cathedral, with rows of figures in ''aediculae'' or tabernacle frames above the door, and two above the crenellationsIn Gothic architecture, too, an ''aedicula'' or tabernacle is a structural framing device that gives importance to its contents, whether an inscribed plaque, a cult object, a bust or the like, by assuming the tectonic vocabulary of a little building that sets it apart from the wall against which it is placed.", "A tabernacle frame on a wall serves similar hieratic functions as a free-standing, three-dimensional architectural baldaquin or a ciborium over an altar.In Late Gothic settings, altarpieces and devotional images were customarily crowned with gables and canopies supported by clustered-column piers, echoing in small the architecture of Gothic churches.", "Painted ''aediculae'' frame figures from sacred history in initial letters of illuminated manuscripts." ], [ "Renaissance ''aediculae''", "Classicizing architectonic structure and décor ''all'antica'', in the \"ancient Roman mode\", became a fashionable way to frame a painted or bas-relief portrait, or protect an expensive and precious mirror during the High Renaissance; Italian precedents were imitated in France, then in Spain, England and Germany during the later 16th century.Late 18th-century Doric ''aedicula'' on Skerton Bridge, Lancaster, Lancashire" ], [ "Post-Renaissance classicism", "Aedicular door surrounds that are architecturally treated, with pilasters or columns flanking the doorway and an entablature even with a pediment over it came into use with the 16th century.", "In the neo-Palladian revival in Britain, architectonic aedicular or tabernacle frames, carved and gilded, are favourite schemes for English Palladian mirror frames of the late 1720s through the 1740s, by such designers as William Kent.", "''Aediculae'' feature prominently in the arrangement of the Saint Peter's tomb with statues by Bernini; a small ''aedicula'' directly underneath it, dated ca.", "160 AD, was discovered in 1940." ], [ "Other ''aediculae''", "Similar small shrines, called ''naiskoi'', are found in Greek religion, but their use was strictly religious.", "''Aediculae'' exist today in Roman cemeteries as a part of funeral architecture.Presently the most famous ''aediculae'' is situated inside the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in city of Jerusalem.Contemporary American architect Charles Moore (1925–1993) used the concept of ''aediculae'' in his work to create spaces within spaces and to evoke the spiritual significance of the home." ], [ "See also", "* Portico* Similar, but free-standing structures:** Ciborium** Baldachin** Monopteros** Gazebo" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "* Adkins, Lesley & Adkins, Roy A.", "(1996).", "''Dictionary of Roman Religion''.", "Facts on File, inc.", ".", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Conservation glossary" ] ]

[ [ "Aedui" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Aedui''' or '''Haedui''' (Gaulish: *''Aiduoi'', 'the Ardent'; ) were a Gallic tribe dwelling in what is now the region of Burgundy during the Iron Age and the Roman period.The Aedui had an ambiguous relationship with the Roman Republic, as well as other Gallic tribes.", "In 121 BC, they appealed to Rome against the Arverni and Allobroges.", "During the Gallic Wars (58–50 BC), they gave valuable though not whole-hearted support to Caesar, before eventually giving lukewarm support to Vercingetorix in 52.Although they were involved in the revolts of Iulius Sacrovir in 21 AD and Vindex in 68 AD, their aristocracy became highly Romanized under the Empire." ], [ "Name", "They are mentioned as ''Ardues'' (Ἄρδυες) by Polybius (2nd c. BC), ''Haedui'' by Cicero (mid-1st c. BC) and Caesar (mid-1st c. BC), ''Haeduos'' by Livy (late 1st c. BC), ''Aedui'' by Pliny (mid-1st c. AD), ''Aidúōn'' (Αἰδύων) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD), and as ''Aídouoi'' (Aἴδουοι) by Cassius Dio (3rd c. AD).The ethnonym ''Aedui'' is a latinized form of Gaulish *''Aiduoi'' (sing.", "*''Aiduos''), which means 'the Ardent ones'.", "It derives from the Celtic stem ''*aidu-'' ('fire, ardour'; cf.", "Old Irish ''áed'' 'fire', Welsh ''aidd'' 'ardour'; also the Irish deity ''Aéd'' or ''Aodh''), itself from Proto-Indo-European '''' ('firewood'; cf.", "Sanskrit ''édhas'' 'bonfire', Latin ''aedes'' 'building, temple'; cf.", "also Ancient Greek ''Aether'' 'god of the upper sky' and ''Aethra'' 'bright sky', from ''aíthō'' 'to ignite, to kindle')." ], [ "Geography", "=== Territory ===The territory of the Aedui was situated between the Saône and Loire rivers, in a strategic position regarding trade routes.", "It included most of the modern départements of Saône-et-Loire and Nièvre, the southwestern-part of Côte-d'Or between Beaune and Saulieu, and the southern part of Yonne around Avallon, corresponding to the Saône plains, the Morvan granitic massif, and the low Nivernais plateau, from east to west.", "They dwelled between the Arverni in the west, the Segusiavi and Ambarri in the south, the Sequani in the east, and the Lingones and Senones in the north.=== Settlements ===Three oppida are known from the end of the La Tène period: Vieux-Dun (Dun-les-Places), Le Fou de Verdun (Lavault-de-Frétoy), and Bibracte, which occupied a central position in the Aedian economic system.During the Roman period, Bibracte was abandoned for Augustodunum ('fortress of Augustus'; modern-day Autun).=== Ancient sources ===The country of the Aedui is defined by reports of them in ancient writings.", "The upper Liger formed their western border, separating them from the Bituriges.", "The Arar formed their eastern border, separating them from the Sequani.", "The Sequani did not reside in the region of the confluence of the Dubis and the Arar, and of the Arar into the Rhodanus, as Caesar says that the Helvetii, traveling southward along the pass between the Jura Mountains and the Rhodanus, which belonged to the Sequani, plundered the territory of the Aedui.", "These circumstances explain an apparent contradiction in Strabo, who in one sentence says that the Aedui lived between the Arar and the Dubis, and in the next, that the Sequani lived across the Arar (eastward)." ], [ "History", "=== Pre-Roman period ===Burgundy is situated in the heartland of the early La Tène culture (see Vix Grave).By the early 3rd century BC, the emergence of settlements with diversified functions, along with the creation of sanctuaries, suggest the beginning of a civilization centered around the oppidum.=== Roman period ===Outside of the Roman province and prior to Roman rule, Gaul was occupied by self-governing tribes divided into cantons, and each canton was further divided into communes.", "The Aedui, like other powerful tribes in the region, such as the Arverni, Sequani, and Helvetii, had replaced their monarchy with a council of magistrates called grand-judges.", "The grand-judges were under the authority of a senate.", "This senate was made up of the descendants of ancient royal families.", "Free men in the tribes were vassals of the heads of these families, in an exchange of military, financial, and political interests.Denarius of the Aedui, first century BC, 1.94 grams.", "Hotel de la Monnaie.|300x300pxAccording to Livy (v. 34), the Aedui took part in the expedition of Bellovesus into Italy in the sixth century BC.", "Before Caesar's time, they had attached themselves to the Romans and were honoured with the title of brothers and kinsmen of the Roman people.", "When the Sequani, their traditional rivals, defeated and massacred the Aedui at the Battle of Magetobriga in 63 BC, with the assistance of the Germanic chieftain Ariovistus, the Aedui sent the druid Diviciacus to Rome with an appeal to the senate for help; but his mission was unsuccessful.After his arrival in Gaul in 58 BC, Caesar restored the independence of the Aedui.", "In spite of this, they subsequently joined the Gallic coalition against Caesar (''B.", "G.'' vii.", "42), but after the surrender of Vercingetorix at the Battle of Alesia, the Aedui gladly returned to their allegiance.", "Augustus dismantled their capital, Bibracte, on Mont Beuvray, and constructed a new town with a half-Roman, half-Gaulish name, Augustodunum (modern Autun).In AD 21, during the reign of Tiberius, the Aedui revolted under Julius Sacrovir, and seized Augustodunum, but they were soon put down by Gaius Silius (Tacitus ''Ann.''", "iii.", "43–46).", "The Aedui were the first of the Gauls to receive from the emperor Claudius the distinction of ''jus honorum'', thus being the first Gauls permitted to become senators.Until Claudius (41–54 AD), the Aedui were the first northern Gallic people to send senators to Rome.The oration of Eumenius, in which he pleaded for the restoration of the schools of his native Augustodunum, suggests that the district was then neglected.", "The chief magistrate of the Aedui in Caesar's time was called the Vergobretus (according to Mommsen, \"judgment-worker\").", "He was elected annually, and possessed powers of life and death, but was forbidden to go beyond the frontiers of his territory.", "Certain clientes, or small communities, were also dependent upon the Aedui." ], [ "Religion", "Temple of Janus.|230x230pxThe Temple of Janus was located just outside the Aedian town of Augustodunum.", "It probably dates back to the second half of the 1st century AD.At the end of the La Tène period, religious convergences occurred between the Aedui and the neighbouring Lingones and Sequani in the Saône-Doubs area, as evidenced by the similarity in the practices at the sanctuaries of Nuits-Saint-Georges (Aedui), Mirebeau-sur-Bèze (Lingones) and Mandeure (Sequani)." ], [ "Political organization", "According to Julius Caesar, the Aedui were one of the strongest Gallic tribes, in rivalry with the Helvetii, Sequani, Remi, and Arverni.", "Furthermore, the Aedui seemed to work in a semi-republican state, with the powerful Vergobret at least slightly being at the will of the people, similar to the senators of Rome." ], [ "See also", "* List of peoples of Gaul* Jublains archeological site" ], [ "References", "===Primary sources===* * ===Bibliography===*******" ], [ "Further reading", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Aegadian Islands" ], [ "Introduction", "A map showing the Aegadian IslandsThe '''Aegadian Islands''' (; ; ; ; ) are a group of five small mountainous islands in the Mediterranean Sea off the northwest coast of Sicily, Italy, near the cities of Trapani and Marsala, with a total area of .The island of Favignana (''Aegusa''), the largest, lies southwest of Trapani; Levanzo (''Phorbantia'') lies west; and Marettimo, the ancient ''Hiera Nesos'', west of Trapani, is now reckoned as a part of the group.", "There are also two minor islands, Formica and Maraone, lying between Levanzo and Sicily.", "For administrative purposes the archipelago constitutes the ''comune'' of Favignana in the province of Trapani.The overall population in 2017 was 4,292.Winter frost is unknown and rainfall is low.", "The main occupation of the islanders is fishing, and the largest tuna fishery in Sicily is there." ], [ "History", "There is evidence of Neolithic and even Paleolithic paintings in caves on Levanzo, and to a lesser extent on Favignana.The islands were the scene of the battle of the Aegates of 241 BC, in which the Carthaginian fleet was defeated by the Roman fleet led by Lutatius Catulus; the engagement ended the First Punic War.", "After the end of Western Roman power in the first millennium AD, the islands, to the extent that they were governed at all, were part of territories of Goths, Vandals, Saracens, before the Normans fortified Favignana in 1081.The islands belonged to the Pallavicini-Rusconi family of Genoa until 1874, when the Florio family of Palermo bought them." ], [ "Island views", "File:Mare Favignana.JPG|Cala Rossa, FavignanaFile:Favignana cala azzurra.jpg|Cala azzurra, FavignanaFile:Erice-views-bjs-2.jpg|A view from Erice to Favignana and Levanzo.", "On the horizon Marettimo is faintly visible." ], [ "See also", "*Isolotto Formica Lighthouse" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Aegean civilization" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aegean civilization''' is a general term for the Bronze Age civilizations of Greece around the Aegean Sea.", "There are three distinct but communicating and interacting geographic regions covered by this term: Crete, the Cyclades and the Greek mainland.", "Crete is associated with the Minoan civilization from the Early Bronze Age.", "The Cycladic civilization converges with the mainland during the Early Helladic (\"Minyan\") period and with Crete in the Middle Minoan period.", "From (Late Helladic, Late Minoan), the Greek Mycenaean civilization spreads to Crete, probably by military conquest.", "The earlier Aegean farming populations of Neolithic Greece brought agriculture westward into Europe before 5,000 BC." ], [ "Aegean Neolithic farmers", "A DNA study from 2019 indicates that agriculture was brought to Western Europe by the Aegean populations, known as \"Aegean Neolithic farmers\".", "These Neolithic groups arrived in northern France and Germany around 5000 BC.", "About 1000 years later, they arrived in Britain.When they left the Aegean, these peoples split into two groups with somewhat different cultures.", "One group went north along the Danube, while the other took a southerly route along the Mediterranean and reached Iberia.", "This latter group then arrived in Britain.", "Previously, these areas were populated by hunter-gathererer cultures known as the 'western hunter-gatherers', similar to the Cheddar Man.Most of the ancestry of the population after 4000 BC (74% on average) is attributable to the Aegean Neolithic farmers.", "This indicates a shift in ancestry with the transition to farming.The Chalcolithic (Copper Age) started in Europe about 5500 BC.", "Numerous megalithic structures and monuments were erected in this period." ], [ "Periodization", "===Mainland===* Early Helladic (EH): 3200/3100–2050/2001 BC* Middle Helladic (MH): 2000/1900–1550 BC* Late Helladic (LH): 1550–1050 BC===Crete===*Early Minoan (EM): 3200–2160 BC*Middle Minoan (MM): 2160–1600 BC*Late Minoan (LM): 1600–1100 BC===Cyclades===*Early Cycladic (EC): 3300–2000 BC*Kastri (EH II–EH III): –2100 BC*Convergence with MM from ca.", "2000 BC" ], [ "Commerce", "Commerce was practiced to some extent in very early times, as is shown by the distribution of Melian obsidian over all the Aegean area.", "Cretan vessels appeared to be exported to Melos, Egypt, and the Greek mainland.", "In particular, Melian vases, eventually, found their way to Crete.", "After 1600 BC, there was commerce with Egypt, and Aegean goods found their way to all coasts of the Mediterranean.", "No traces of currency have come to light, excluding certain axeheads.", "These axeheads were too small for practical use.", "Standard weights have been found, as well as representations of ingots.", "The Aegean written documents have not yet been proven (by being found outside the area) to be epistolary (letter writing) correspondence with other countries.", "Representations of ships are not common, but several have been observed on Aegean gems, gem-sealings, frying pans, and vases.", "These vases feature ships of low free-board, with masts and oars.", "Familiarity with the sea is proved by the free use of marine motifs in decoration.", "The most detailed illustrations are to be found on the 'ship fresco' at Akrotiri on the island of Thera (Santorini) preserved by the ash fall from the volcanic eruption which destroyed the town there.Discoveries, later in the 20th century, of sunken trading vessels such as those at Uluburun and Cape Gelidonya off the south coast of Turkey have brought forth an enormous amount of new information about that culture." ], [ "Evidence", "For details of monumental evidence the articles on Crete, Mycenae, Tiryns, Troad, Cyprus, etc., must be consulted.", "The most representative site explored up to now is Knossos (see Crete) which has yielded not only the most various but the most continuous evidence from the Neolithic age to the twilight of classical civilization.", "Next in importance come Hissarlik, Mycenae, Phaestus, Hagia Triada, Tiryns, Phylakope, Palaikastro and Gournia.===Internal evidence===*'''Structures''': Ruins of palaces, palatial villas, houses, built dome- or cist-graves and fortifications (Aegean islands, Greek mainland and northwestern Anatolia), but not distinct temples; small shrines, however, and temene (religious enclosures, remains of one of which were probably found at Petsofa near Palaikastro by J. L. Myres in 1904) are represented on intaglios and frescoes.", "From the sources and from inlay-work we have also representations of palaces and houses.", "*'''Structural decoration''': Architectural features, such as columns, friezes and various mouldings; mural decoration, such as fresco-paintings, coloured reliefs and mosaic inlay.", "Roof tiles were also occasionally employed, as at early Helladic Lerna and Akovitika, and later in the Mycenaean towns of Gla and Midea.", "*'''Furniture''': (a) Domestic furniture, such as vessels of all sorts and in many materials, from huge store jars down to tiny unguent pots; culinary and other implements; thrones, seats, tables, etc., these all in stone or plastered terracotta.", "(b) Sacred furniture, such as models or actual examples of ritual objects; of these we have also numerous pictorial representations.", "(c) Funerary furniture, for example, coffins in painted terracotta.", "*'''Art products''': for example, plastic objects, carved in stone, or ivory, cast or beaten in metals (gold, silver, copper and bronze), or modelled in clay, faience, paste, etc.", "Very little trace has yet been found of large free-standing sculpture, but many examples exist of sculptors' smaller work.", "Vases of many kinds, carved in marble or other stones, cast or beaten in metals or fashioned in clay, the latter in enormous number and variety, richly ornamented with coloured schemes, and sometimes bearing moulded decoration.", "Examples of painting on stone, opaque and transparent.", "Engraved objects in great number for example, ring-bezels and gems; and an immense quantity of clay impressions, taken from these.", "*'''Weapons, tools and implements''': In stone, clay, and bronze, and at the last iron, sometimes richly ornamented or inlaid.", "Numerous representations also of the same.", "No actual body armour, except such as was ceremonial and buried with the dead, like the gold breastplates in the circle-graves at Mycenae or the full length body armour from Dendra.", "*'''Articles of personal use''': for example, brooches (fibulae), pins, razors, tweezers, often found as dedications to a deity, for example, in the Dictaean Cavern of Crete.", "No textiles have survived other than impressions in clay.", "*'''Written documents''': for example, clay tablets and discs (so far in Crete only), but nothing of more perishable nature, such as skin, papyrus, etc.", "; engraved gems and gem impressions; legends written with pigment on pottery (rare); characters incised on stone or pottery.", "These show a number of systems of script employing either ideograms or syllabograms (see Linear B).", "*'''Excavated tombs''': Of either the pit, chamber or the tholos kind, in which the dead were laid, together with various objects of use and luxury, without cremation, and in either coffins or loculi or simple wrappings.", "*'''Public works''': Such as paved and stepped roadways, bridges, systems of drainage, etc.===External evidence===*'''Monuments and records of other contemporary civilizations''': for example, representations of alien peoples in Egyptian frescoes; imitation of Aegean fabrics and style in non-Aegean lands; allusions to Mediterranean peoples in Egyptian, Semitic or Babylonian records.", "*'''Literary traditions of subsequent civilizations''': Especially the Hellenic; such as, for example, those embodied in the Homeric poems, the legends concerning Crete, Mycenae, etc.", "; statements as to the origin of gods, cults and so forth, transmitted to us by Hellenic antiquarians such as Strabo, Pausanias, Diodorus Siculus, etc.", "*'''Traces of customs, creeds, rituals, etc.", "''': In the Aegean area at a later time, discordant with the civilization in which they were practiced and indicating survival from earlier systems.", "There are also possible linguistic and even physical survivals to be considered.Mycenae and Tiryns are the two principal sites on which evidence of a prehistoric civilization was remarked long ago by the ancient Greeks." ], [ "Discovery", "The curtain-wall and towers of the Mycenaean citadel, its gate with heraldic lions, and the great \"Treasury of Atreus\" had borne silent witness for ages before Heinrich Schliemann's time.", "However, they were regarded as a crude precursor of later Greek culture.", "It was not until Schliemann's excavations that Mycenaean culture attracted serious scholarly attention.There had been, however, a good deal of other evidence available before 1876, which, had it been collated and seriously studied, might have discounted the sensation that the discovery of the citadel graves eventually made.", "For instance, scholars had noted that tributaries appearing in Egyptian art resembled modern Greeks, but were unable to definitely recognize them as such.", "Nor did the Aegean objects which were lying obscurely in museums in 1870, or thereabouts, provide a sufficient test of the real basis underlying the Hellenic myths of the Argolid, the Troad and Crete, to cause these to be taken seriously.", "Aegean vases have been exhibited both at Sèvres and Neuchatel since about 1840, the provenance (i.e.", "source or origin) being in the one case Phylakope in Melos, in the other Cephalonia.Ludwig Ross, the German archaeologist appointed Curator of the Antiquities of Athens at the time of the establishment of the Kingdom of Greece, by his explorations in the Greek islands from 1835 onwards, called attention to certain early intaglios, since known as Inselsteine; but it was not until 1878 that C. T. Newton demonstrated these to be no strayed Phoenician products.", "In 1866 primitive structures were discovered on the island of Therasia by quarrymen extracting pozzolana, a siliceous volcanic ash, for the Suez Canal works.", "When this discovery was followed up in 1870, on the neighbouring Santorini (Thera), by representatives of the French School at Athens, much pottery of a class now known immediately to precede the typical late Aegean ware, and many stone and metal objects, were found.", "These were dated by the geologist Ferdinand A. Fouqué, somewhat arbitrarily, to 2000 BC, by consideration of the superincumbent eruptive stratum.Meanwhile, in 1868, tombs at Ialysus in Rhodes had yielded to Alfred Biliotti many painted vases of styles which were called later the third and fourth \"Mycenaean\"; but these, bought by John Ruskin, and presented to the British Museum, excited less attention than they deserved, being supposed to be of some local fabric of uncertain date.", "Nor was a connection immediately detected between them and the objects found four years later in a tomb at Menidi in Attica and a rock-cut \"bee-hive\" grave near the Argive Heraeum.Even Schliemann's initial excavations at Hissarlik in the Troad did not excite surprise.", "However, the \"Burnt City\" now known as Troy II, revealed in 1873, with its fortifications and vases, and a hoard of gold, silver, and bronze objects, which the discoverer connected with it, began to arouse curiosity both among scholars and the general public.", "With Schliemann's excavations at Mycenae, interest in prehistoric Greece exploded.", "It was recognized that the character of both the fabric and the decoration of the Mycenaean objects was not that of any previously known style.", "A wide range in space was proved by the identification of the Inselsteine and the Ialysus vases with the new style, and a wide range in time by collation of the earlier Theraean and Hissarlik discoveries.", "Many scholars were struck by potential resemblances between objects described by Homer and Mycenaean artifacts.Schliemann resumed excavations at Hissarlik in 1878, and greatly increased our knowledge of the lower strata, but did not recognize the Aegean remains in his \"Lydian\" city now known as Late Bronze Age Troy.", "These were not to be fully revealed until Dr. Wilhelm Dorpfeld, who had become Schliemann's assistant in 1879, resumed the work at Hissarlik in 1892 after Schliemann's death.", "But by laying bare in 1884 the upper stratum of remains on the rock of Tiryns, Schliemann made a contribution to our knowledge of prehistoric domestic life which was amplified two years later by Christos Tsountas's discovery of the palace at Mycenae.", "Schliemann's work at Tiryns was not resumed till 1905, when it was proved, as had long been suspected, that an earlier palace underlies the one he had exposed.From 1886 dates the finding of Mycenaean sepulchres outside the Argolid, from which, and from the continuation of Tsountas's exploration of the buildings and lesser graves at Mycenae, a large treasure, independent of Schliemann's princely gift, has been gathered into the National Museum at Athens.", "In that year tholos-tombs, most already pillaged but retaining some of their furniture, were excavated at Arkina and Eleusis in Attica, at Dimini near Volos in Thessaly, at Kampos on the west of Mount Taygetus, and at Maskarata in Cephalonia.", "The richest grave of all was explored at Vaphio in Laconia in 1889, and yielded, besides many gems and miscellaneous goldsmiths' work, two golden goblets chased with scenes of bull-hunting, and certain broken vases painted in a large bold style which remained an enigma until the excavation of Knossos.In 1890 and 1893, Staes cleared out certain less rich tholos-tombs at Thoricus in Attica; and other graves, either rock-cut \"bee-hives\" or chambers, were found at Spata and Aphidna in Attica, in Aegina and Salamis, at the Argive Heraeum and Nauplia in the Argolid, near Thebes and Delphi, and not far from the Thessalian Larissa.", "During the Acropolis excavations in Athens, which terminated in 1888, many potsherds of the Mycenaean style were found; but Olympia had yielded either none, or such as had not been recognized before being thrown away, and the temple site at Delphi produced nothing distinctively Aegean (in dating).", "The American explorations of the Argive Heraeum, concluded in 1895, also failed to prove that site to have been important in the prehistoric time, though, as was to be expected from its neighbourhood to Mycenae itself, there were traces of occupation in the later Aegean periods.Prehistoric research had now begun to extend beyond the Greek mainland.", "Certain central Aegean islands, Antiparos, Ios, Amorgos, Syros and Siphnos, were all found to be singularly rich in evidence of the Middle-Aegean period.", "The series of Syran-built graves, containing crouching corpses, is the best and most representative that is known in the Aegean.", "Melos, long marked as a source of early objects but not systematically excavated until taken in hand by the British School at Athens in 1896, yielded at Phylakope remains of all the Aegean periods, except the Neolithic.A map of Cyprus in the later Bronze Age (such as is given by J. L. Myres and M. O. Richter in Catalogue of the Cyprus Museum) shows more than 25 settlements in and about the Mesaorea district alone, of which one, that at Enkomi, near the site of Salamis, has yielded the richest Aegean treasure in precious metal found outside Mycenae.", "E. Chantre in 1894 picked up lustreless ware, like that of Hissariik, in central Phtygia and at Pteria, and the English archaeological expeditions, sent subsequently into north-western Anatolia, have never failed to bring back ceramic specimens of Aegean appearance from the valleys of the Rhyndncus, Sangarius and Halys.In Egypt in 1887, Flinders Petrie found painted sherds of Cretan style at Kahun in the Fayum, and farther up the Nile, at Tell el-Amarna, chanced on bits of no fewer than 800 Aegean vases in 1889.There have now been recognized in the collections at Cairo, Florence, London, Paris and Bologna several Egyptian imitations of the Aegean style which can be set off against the many debts which the centres of Aegean culture owed to Egypt.", "Two Aegean vases were found at Sidon in 1885, and many fragments of Aegean and especially Cypriot pottery have been found during recent excavations of sites in Philistia by the Palestine Fund.Sicily, ever since P. Orsi excavated the Sicel cemetery near Lentini in 1877, has proved a mine of early remains, among which appear in regular succession Aegean fabrics and motives of decoration from the period of the second stratum at Hissarlik.", "Sardinia has Aegean sites, for example, at Abini near Teti; and Spain has yielded objects recognized as Aegean from tombs near Cádiz and from Saragossa.One land, however, has eclipsed all others in the Aegean by the wealth of its remains of all the prehistoric ages— Crete; and so much so that, for the present, we must regard it as the fountainhead of Aegean civilization, and probably for long its political and social centre.", "The island first attracted the notice of archaeologists by the remarkable archaic Greek bronzes found in a cave on Mount Ida in 1885, as well as by epigraphic monuments such as the famous law of Gortyna (also called Gortyn).", "But the first undoubted Aegean remains reported from it were a few objects extracted from Cnossus by Minos Kalokhairinos of Candia in 1878.These were followed by certain discoveries made in the S. plain Messara by F. Halbherr.", "Unsuccessful attempts at Cnossus were made by both W. J. Stillman and H. Schliemann, and A. J. Evans, coming on the scene in 1893, travelled in succeeding years about the island picking up trifles of unconsidered evidence, which gradually convinced him that greater things would eventually be found.", "He obtained enough to enable him to forecast the discovery of written characters, till then not suspected in Aegean civilization.", "The revolution of 1897–1898 opened the door to wider knowledge, and much exploration has ensued, for which see Crete.Thus the \"Aegean Area\" has now come to mean the Archipelago with Crete and Cyprus, the Hellenic peninsula with the Ionian islands, and Western Anatolia.", "Evidence is still wanting for the Macedonian and Thracian coasts.", "Offshoots are found in the western Mediterranean area, in Sicily, Italy, Sardinia and Spain, and in the eastern Mediterranean area in Syria and Egypt.", "Regarding the Cyrenaica, we are still insufficiently informed." ], [ "End", "The final collapse of the Mycenaean civilisation appears to have occurred about 1200 BC.", "Iron took the place of bronze, cremation took the place of burial of the dead, and writing was lost." ], [ "See also", "* Mycenaean Greece* Prehistory of Southeastern Europe" ], [ "References", "* This includes illustrations and a history of the civilizations, as understood in the early 20th century." ], [ "External links", "* Jeremy B. Rutter, \"The Prehistoric Archaeology of the Aegean\": chronology, history, bibliography* Aegean and Balkan Prehistory: Articles, site-reports and bibliography database concerning the Aegean, Balkans and Western Anatolia" ] ]

[ [ "Aegeus" ], [ "Introduction", "''Theseus Recognized by his Father'' by Hippolyte Flandrin (1832)'''Aegeus''' (, ; ) was one of the kings of Athens in Greek mythology, who gave his name to the Aegean Sea, was the father of Theseus, and founded Athenian institutions." ], [ "Family", "Aegeus was the son of Pandion II, king of Athens and Pylia, daughter of King Pylas of Megara and thus, brother to Pallas, Nysus, Lykos and the wife of Sciron.", "But, in some accounts, he was regarded as the son of Scyrius or Phemius and was not of the stock of the Erechtheids, since he was only an adopted son of Pandion.Aegeus' first wife was Meta, daughter of Hoples and his second wife was Chalciope, daughter of Rhexenor, neither of whom bore him any children.", "He was also credited to be the father of Medus by the witch Medea.", "In a rare account, Pallas was also said to be the son of Aegeus.Aegeides (Αἰγείδης), was a patronymic from Aegeus and especially used to designate Theseus." ], [ "Mythology", "===Reign ===Aegeus was born in Megara where his father Pandion had settled after being expelled from Athens by the sons of Metion who seized the throne.", "After the death of Pandion, now king of Megara, Aegeus in conjunction with his three brothers successfully attacked Athens, took control over the government and expelled the usurpers, the Metionids.", "Then, they divide the power among themselves but Aegeus obtained the sovereignty of Attica, succeeding Pandion to the throne.", "It has been said that Megara was at the time a part of Attica, and that Nisus received his part when he became king of that city.", "Lycus became king of Euboea whereas Pallas received the southern part of the territory.", "Aegeus, being the eldest of the brothers, received what they all regarded as the best part: Athens.The division of the land was explained further in the following text by the geographer Strabo:... when Attica was divided into four parts, Nisus obtained Megaris as his portion and founded Nisaea.", "Now, according to Philochorus, his rule extended from the Isthmus to the Pythium, but according to Andron, only as far as Eleusis and the Thriasian Plain.", "Although different writers have stated the division into four parts in different ways, it suffices to take the following from Sophocles: Aegeus says that his father ordered him to depart to the shorelands, assigning to him as the eldest the best portion of this land; then to Lycus he assigns Euboea's garden that lies side by side therewith; and for Nisus he selects the neighboring land of Sceiron's shore; and the southerly part of the land fell to this rugged Pallas, breeder of giants.Later on, Lycus was driven from the territory by Aegeus himself, and had to seek refuge in Arene, Messenia which was ruled by King Aphareus.", "Pallas and his fifty sons revolted at a later time, being crushed by Aegeus' son Theseus.=== Heirless King ===Still without a male heir with his previous marriages, Aegeus asked the oracle at Delphi for advice.", "According to Pausanias, Aegeus ascribed this misfortune to the anger of Aphrodite and in order to conciliate her introduced her worship as Aphrodite Urania (Heavenly) in Athens.The cryptic words of the oracle were \"Do not loosen the bulging mouth of the wineskin until you have reached the height of Athens, lest you die of grief.\"", "Aegeus did not understand the prophecy and was disappointed.", "This puzzling oracle forced Aegeus to visit Pittheus, king of Troezen, who was famous for his wisdom and skill at expounding oracles.", "Pittheus understood the prophecy and introduced Aegeus to his daughter, Aethra, when Aegeus was drunk.", "They lay with each other, and then in some versions, Aethra waded to the island of Sphairia (a.k.a.", "Calauria) and bedded Poseidon.", "When Aethra became pregnant, Aegeus decided to return to Athens.", "Before leaving, he buried his sandal, shield, and sword under a huge rock and told her that, when their son grew up, he should move the rock and bring the weapons to his father, who would acknowledge him.", "Upon his return to Athens, Aegeus married Medea, who had fled from Corinth and the wrath of Jason.", "Aegeus and Medea had one son named Medus.When Theseus grew up, he found his father's belongings left for him and went to Athens to claim his birthright.", "Aegeus recognized him as his son by his sword, shield, and sandals.", "Medea, Aegeus' wife perceived Theseus to be a threat for her children's inheritance and first tried to discredit and then to poison Theseus.", "When Aegeus discovered these schemes, he drove Medea out of Athens.", "''Thésée reconnu par son père'' by Antoine-Placide Gibert (1832)===Conflict with Crete===While visiting in Athens, King Minos' son, Androgeus managed to defeat Aegeus in every contest during the Panathenaic Games.", "Out of envy, Aegeus sent him to conquer the Marathonian Bull, which killed him.", "Minos was angry and declared war on Athens.", "He offered the Athenians peace, however, under the condition that Athens would send seven young men and seven young women every nine years to Crete to be fed to the Minotaur, a vicious monster.", "This continued until Theseus killed the Minotaur with the help of Ariadne, Minos' daughter.After his adventures in Crete, Theseus returned by ship to Athens.", "His father, Aegeus previously had asked him to hang a white sail as a sign that Theseus is alive, but Theseus neglected this request.", "When Aegeus saw Theseus' ships without a white sail, he assumed the worst and threw himself in his grief into the sea, named after him the Aegean Sea.", "''Arrival or departure of a young warrior or hero, maybe Theseus arriving at Athens and being recognized because of his sword by Aegeus''.", "Apulian red-figured volute-krater, ca.", "410–400 BC, from Ruvo (South Italy).|left===Theseus and the Minotaur===In Troezen, Theseus grew up and became a brave young man.", "He managed to move the rock and took his father's weapons.", "His mother then told him the identity of his father and that he should take the weapons back to him at Athens and be acknowledged.", "Theseus decided to go to Athens and had the choice of going by sea, which was the safe way, or by land, following a dangerous path with thieves and bandits all the way.", "Young, brave and ambitious, Theseus decided to go to Athens by land.When Theseus arrived, he did not reveal his true identity.", "He was welcomed by Aegeus, who was suspicious about the stranger who came to Athens.", "Medea tried to have Theseus killed by encouraging Aegeus to ask him to capture the Marathonian Bull, but Theseus succeeded.", "She tried to poison him, but at the last second, Aegeus recognized his son and knocked the poisoned cup out of Theseus' hand.", "Father and son were thus reunited, and Medea was sent away to Asia.Theseus departed for Crete.", "Upon his departure, Aegeus told him to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the Minotaur.", "However, when Theseus returned, he forgot these instructions.", "When Aegeus saw the black sails coming into Athens, mistaken in his belief that his son had been slain, he killed himself by jumping from a height: according to some, from the Acropolis or another unnamed rock; according to some Latin authors, into the sea which was therefore known as the Aegean Sea.Sophocles' tragedy ''Aegeus'' has been lost, but Aegeus features in Euripides' ''Medea''." ], [ "Legacy", "At Athens, the traveller Pausanias was informed in the second-century CE that the cult of Aphrodite Urania above the Kerameikos was so ancient that it had been established by Aegeus, whose sisters were barren, and he still childless himself.There was a heroon of Aigeus in Athens, called Aigeion (Αἰγεῖον)." ], [ "See also", "*Catullus, LXIV.", "*Plutarch, ''Theseus''." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Apollodorus, ''The Library'' with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S.", "in 2 Volumes, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921.ISBN 0-674-99135-4.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "* Diodorus Siculus, ''The Library of History'' translated by Charles Henry Oldfather.", "Twelve volumes.", "Loeb Classical Library.", "Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1989.Vol.", "3.Books 4.59–8.Online version at Bill Thayer's Web Site* Diodorus Siculus, ''Bibliotheca Historica.", "Vol 1-2''.", "Immanel Bekker.", "Ludwig Dindorf.", "Friedrich Vogel.", "in aedibus B. G. Teubneri.", "Leipzig.", "1888–1890.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Gaius Julius Hyginus, ''Fabulae from The Myths of Hyginus'' translated and edited by Mary Grant.", "University of Kansas Publications in Humanistic Studies.", "Online version at the Topos Text Project.", "* Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus, ''Lives'' with an English Translation by Bernadotte Perrin.", "Cambridge, MA.", "Harvard University Press.", "London.", "William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.1.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "Greek text available from the same website.", "* Maurus Servius Honoratus, ''In Vergilii carmina comentarii.", "Servii Grammatici qui feruntur in Vergilii carmina commentarii;'' recensuerunt Georgius Thilo et Hermannus Hagen.", "Georgius Thilo.", "Leipzig.", "B. G. Teubner.", "1881.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Pausanias, ''Description of Greece'' with an English Translation by W.H.S.", "Jones, Litt.D., and H.A.", "Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes.", "Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918.. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library* Pausanias, ''Graeciae Descriptio.''", "''3 vols''.", "Leipzig, Teubner.", "1903.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Strabo, ''The Geography of Strabo.''", "Edition by H.L.", "Jones.", "Cambridge, Mass.", ": Harvard University Press; London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924.Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "* Strabo, ''Geographica'' edited by A. Meineke.", "Leipzig: Teubner.", "1877.Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Aegina" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aegina''' (; , ''Aígina''; ) is one of the Saronic Islands of Greece in the Saronic Gulf, from Athens.", "Tradition derives the name from Aegina, the mother of the mythological hero Aeacus, who was born on the island and became its king." ], [ "Administration", "===Municipality===The municipality of Aegina consists of the island of Aegina and a few offshore islets.", "It is part of the Islands regional unit, Attica region.", "The municipality is subdivided into the following five communities (population in 2021 in parentheses ):* Aegina (6,976)* Kypseli (2,166)* Mesagros (1,473)* Perdika (847)* Vathy (1,449)The regional capital is the town of Aegina, situated at the northwestern end of the island.", "Due to its proximity to Athens, it is a popular vacation place during the summer months, with quite a few Athenians owning second houses on the island.The buildings of the island are examples of Neoclassical architecture with a strong folk element, built in the 19th century===Province===The province of Aegina () was one of the provinces of the Attica Prefecture and was created in 1833 as part of Attica and Boeotia Prefecture.", "Its territory corresponded with that of the current municipalities Aegina and Agkistri.", "It was abolished in 2006." ], [ "Geography", "Aegina is roughly triangular in shape, approximately from east to west and from north to south, with an area of .An extinct volcano constitutes two-thirds of Aegina.", "The northern and western sides consist of stony but fertile plains, which are well cultivated and produce luxuriant crops of grain, with some cotton, vines, almonds, olives and figs, but the most characteristic crop of Aegina today (2000s) is pistachio.", "Economically, the sponge fisheries are of notable importance.", "The southern volcanic part of the island is rugged and mountainous, and largely barren.", "Its highest rise is the conical Mount Oros (531 m) in the south, and the Panhellenian ridge stretches northward with narrow fertile valleys on either side.The beaches are also a popular tourist attraction.", "Hydrofoil ferries from Piraeus take only forty minutes to reach Aegina; the regular ferry takes about an hour, with ticket prices for adults within the 4–15 euro range.", "There are regular bus services from Aegina town to destinations throughout the island such as Agia Marina.", "Portes is a fishing village on the east coast." ], [ "Climate", "Aegina has a hot semi-arid climate (Köppen climate classification: BSh).", "It is one of the driest places in Greece." ], [ "History", "===Earliest history (20th–7th centuries BC)===Aegina, according to Herodotus, was a colony of Epidaurus, to which state it was originally subject.", "Its placement between Attica and the Peloponnesus made it a site of trade even earlier, and its earliest inhabitants allegedly came from Asia Minor.", "The most important Early Bronze Age settlement was Kolonna, stone-built fortified site.", "The main connections were with the Greek mainland, but there were found also influences from Cyclades and Crete.", "Minoan ceramics have been found in contexts of .", "The famous Aegina Treasure, now in the British Museum is estimated to date between 1700 and 1500 BC.", "The discovery on the island of a number of gold ornaments belonging to the last period of Mycenaean art suggests that Mycenaean culture existed in Aegina for some generations after the Dorian conquest of Argos and Lacedaemon.", "Another important deposit of Early Bronze Age golden and silver jewellery was discovered by Austrian archaeologists.", "The excavations on the site, done by the Paris Lodron Universität Salzburg are still ongoing.", "It is probable that the island was not Doricised before the 9th century BC.One of the earliest historical facts is its membership in the Amphictyony or League of Calauria, attested around the 8th century BC.", "This ostensibly religious league included, besides Aegina, Athens, the Minyan (Boeotian) Orchomenos, Troezen, Hermione, Nauplia, and Prasiae.", "It was probably an organisation of city-states that were still Mycenaean, for the purpose of suppressing piracy in the Aegean that began as a result of the decay of the naval supremacy of the Mycenaean princes.Aegina seems to have belonged to the Eretrian league during the Lelantine War; this, perhaps, may explain the war with Samos, a major member of the rival Chalcidian league during the reign of King Amphicrates (Herod.", "iii.", "59), i.e.", "not later than the earlier half of the 7th century BC.===Coinage and sea power (7th–5th centuries BC)===Its early history reveals that the maritime importance of the island dates back to pre-Dorian times.", "It is usually stated on the authority of Ephorus, that Pheidon of Argos established a mint in Aegina, the first city-state to issue coins in Europe, the Aeginetic stater.", "One stamped stater (having the mark of some authority in the form of a picture or words) can be seen in the Bibliothèque Nationale of Paris.", "It is an electrum stater of a turtle, an animal sacred to Aphrodite, struck at Aegina that dates from 700 BC.", "Therefore, it is thought that the Aeginetes, within 30 or 40 years of the invention of coinage in Asia Minor by the Ionian Greeks or the Lydians (), might have been the ones to introduce coinage to the Western world.", "The fact that the Aeginetic standard of weights and measures (developed during the mid-7th century) was one of the two standards in general use in the Greek world (the other being the Euboic-Attic) is sufficient evidence of the early commercial importance of the island.", "The Aeginetic weight standard of about 12.2 grams was widely adopted in the Greek world during the 7th century BC.", "The Aeginetic stater was divided into two drachmae of 6.1 grams of silver.", "Staters depicting a sea-turtle were struck up to the end of the 5th century BC.", "During the First Peloponnesian War, by 456 BC, it was replaced by the land tortoise.During the naval expansion of Aegina during the Archaic Period, Kydonia was an ideal maritime stop for Aegina's fleet on its way to other Mediterranean ports controlled by the emerging sea-power Aegina.", "During the next century Aegina was one of the three principal states trading at the emporium of Naucratis in Egypt, and it was the only Greek state near Europe that had a share in this factory.", "At the beginning of the 5th century BC it seems to have been an entrepôt of the Pontic grain trade, which, at a later date, became an Athenian monopoly.Unlike the other commercial states of the 7th and 6th centuries BC, such as Corinth, Chalcis, Eretria and Miletus, Aegina did not found any colonies.", "The settlements to which Strabo refers (viii.", "376) cannot be regarded as any real exceptions to this statement.===Rivalry with Athens (5th century BC)===The known history of Aegina is almost exclusively a history of its relations with the neighbouring state of Athens, which began to compete with the thalassocracy (sea power) of Aegina about the beginning of the 6th century BC.", "Solon passed laws limiting Aeginetan commerce in Attica.", "The legendary history of these relations, as recorded by Herodotus (v. 79–89; vi.", "49–51, 73, 85–94), involves critical problems of some difficulty and interest.", "He traces the hostility of the two states back to a dispute about the images of the goddesses Damia and Auxesia, which the Aeginetes had carried off from Epidauros, their parent state.The Epidaurians had been accustomed to make annual offerings to the Athenian deities Athena and Erechtheus in payment for the Athenian olive-wood of which the statues were made.", "Upon the refusal of the Aeginetes to continue these offerings, the Athenians endeavoured to carry away the images.", "Their design was frustrated miraculously (according to the Aeginetan version, the statues fell upon their knees) and only a single survivor returned to Athens.", "There he became victim to the fury of his comrades' widows who pierced him with their peplos brooch-pins.", "No date is assigned by Herodotus for this \"old feud\"; writers such as J.", "B.", "Bury and R. W. Macan suggest the period between Solon and Peisistratus, .", "It is possible that the whole episode is mythical.", "A critical analysis of the narrative seems to reveal little else than a series of aetiological traditions (explanatory of cults and customs), such as of the kneeling posture of the images of Damia and Auxesia, of the use of native ware instead of Athenian in their worship, and of the change in women's dress at Athens from the Dorian peplos to the Ionian style chiton.Colour depiction of the Temple of Aphaea, sacred to a mother goddess, particularly worshiped on Aegina.The Temple of Aphaea (about 490 BC)In the early years of the 5th century BC the Thebans, after the defeat by Athens about 507 BC, appealed to Aegina for assistance.", "The Aeginetans at first contented themselves with sending the images of the Aeacidae, the tutelary heroes of their island.", "Subsequently, however, they contracted an alliance, and ravaged the seaboard of Attica.", "The Athenians were preparing to make reprisals, in spite of the advice of the Delphic oracle that they should desist from attacking Aegina for thirty years, and content themselves meanwhile with dedicating a precinct to Aeacus, when their projects were interrupted by the Spartan intrigues for the restoration of Hippias.In 491 BC Aegina was one of the states which gave the symbols of submission (\"earth and water\") to Achaemenid Persia.", "Athens at once appealed to Sparta to punish this act of medism, and Cleomenes I, one of the Spartan kings, crossed over to the island, to arrest those who were responsible for it.", "His attempt was at first unsuccessful; but, after the deposition of Demaratus, he visited the island a second time, accompanied by his new colleague Leotychides, seized ten of the leading citizens and deposited them at Athens as hostages.After the death of Cleomenes and the refusal of the Athenians to restore the hostages to Leotychides, the Aeginetes retaliated by seizing a number of Athenians at a festival at Sunium.", "Thereupon the Athenians concerted a plot with Nicodromus, the leader of the democratic party in the island, for the betrayal of Aegina.", "He was to seize the old city, and they were to come to his aid on the same day with seventy vessels.", "The plot failed owing to the late arrival of the Athenian force, when Nicodromus had already fled the island.", "An engagement followed in which the Aeginetes were defeated.", "Subsequently, however, they succeeded in winning a victory over the Athenian fleet.All the incidents subsequent to the appeal of Athens to Sparta are referred expressly by Herodotus to the interval between the sending of the heralds in 491 BC and the invasion of Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC (cf.", "Herod.", "vi.", "49 with 94).There are difficulties with this story, of which the following are the principal elements:* Herodotus nowhere states or implies that peace was concluded between the two states before 481 BC, nor does he distinguish between different wars during this period.", "Hence it would follow that the war lasted from soon after 507 BC until the congress at the Isthmus of Corinth in 481 BC* It is only for two years (491 and 490 BC) out of the twenty-five that any details are given.", "It is the more remarkable that no incidents are recorded in the period between the battles of Marathon and Salamis, since at the time of the Isthmian Congress the war was described as the most important one then being waged in Greece,* It is improbable that Athens would have sent twenty vessels to the aid of the Ionians in 499 BC if at the time it was at war with Aegina.", "* There is an incidental indication of time, which indicates the period after Marathon as the true date for the events which are referred by Herodotus to the year before Marathon, viz.", "the thirty years that were to elapse between the dedication of the precinct to Aeacus and the final victory of Athens.", "As the final victory of Athens over Aegina was in 458 BC, the thirty years of the oracle would carry us back to the year 488 BC as the date of the dedication of the precinct and the beginning of hostilities.", "This inference is supported by the date of the building of the 200 triremes \"for the war against Aegina\" on the advice of Themistocles, which is given in the ''Constitution of Athens'' as 483–482 BC.", "The ruins of the Temple of Apollo.It is probable, therefore, that Herodotus is in error both in tracing back the beginning of hostilities to an alliance between Thebes and Aegina () and in claiming the episode of Nicodromus occurred prior to the battle of Marathon.Overtures were unquestionably made by Thebes for an alliance with Aegina , but they came to nothing.", "The refusal of Aegina was in the diplomatic guise of \"sending the Aeacidae.\"", "The real occasion of the beginning of the war was the refusal of Athens to restore the hostages some twenty years later.", "There was but one war, and it lasted from 488 to 481 BC.", "That Athens had the worst of it in this war is certain.", "Herodotus had no Athenian victories to record after the initial success, and the fact that Themistocles was able to carry his proposal to devote the surplus funds of the state to the building of so large a fleet seems to imply that the Athenians were themselves convinced that a supreme effort was necessary.It may be noted, in confirmation of this opinion, that the naval supremacy of Aegina is assigned by the ancient writers on chronology to precisely this period, i.e.", "the years 490–480 BC.===Decline===In the repulse of Xerxes I it is possible that the Aeginetes played a larger part than is conceded to them by Herodotus.", "The Athenian tradition, which he follows in the main, would naturally seek to obscure their services.", "It was to Aegina rather than Athens that the prize of valour at Salamis was awarded, and the destruction of the Persian fleet appears to have been as much the work of the Aeginetan contingent as of the Athenian (Herod.", "viii.", "91).", "There are other indications, too, of the importance of the Aeginetan fleet in the Greek scheme of defence.", "In view of these considerations it becomes difficult to credit the number of the vessels that is assigned to them by Herodotus (30 as against 180 Athenian vessels, cf.", "Greek History, sect.", "Authorities).", "During the next twenty years the Philo-Laconian policy of Cimon secured Aegina, as a member of the Spartan league, from attack.", "The change in Athenian foreign policy, which was consequent upon the ostracism of Cimon in 461 BC, resulted in what is sometimes called the First Peloponnesian War, during which most of the fighting was experienced by Corinth and Aegina.", "The latter state was forced to surrender to Athens after a siege, and to accept the position of a subject-ally ().", "The tribute was fixed at 30 talents.By the terms of the Thirty Years' Peace (445 BC) Athens promised to restore to Aegina her autonomy, but the clause remained ineffective.", "During the first winter of the Peloponnesian War (431 BC) Athens expelled the Aeginetans and established a cleruchy in their island.", "The exiles were settled by Sparta in Thyreatis, on the frontiers of Laconia and Argolis.", "Even in their new home they were not safe from Athenian rancour.", "A force commanded by Nicias landed in 424 BC, and killed most of them.", "At the end of the Peloponnesian War Lysander restored the scattered remnants of the old inhabitants to the island, which was used by the Spartans as a base for operations against Athens during the Corinthian War.It is probable that the power of Aegina had steadily declined during the twenty years after Salamis, and that it had declined absolutely, as well as relatively to that of Athens.", "Commerce was the source of Aegina's greatness, and her trade, which seems to have been principally with the Levant, must have suffered seriously from the war with Persia.", "Aegina's medism in 491 is to be explained by its commercial relations with the Persian Empire.", "It was forced into patriotism in spite of itself, and the glory won by the Battle of Salamis was paid for by the loss of its trade and the decay of its marine.", "The loss of the state's power is explained by the conditions of the island, which was based on slave labour; Aristotle's estimated the population of slaves were as much as 470,000.===Hellenistic period and Roman rule===The remains of the 4th century synagogue at the Archaeological Museum of AeginaAegina with the rest of Greece became dominated successively by the Macedonians (322–229 BC), the Achaeans (229–211 BC), Aetolians (211–210 BC), Attalus of Pergamum (210–133 BC) and the Romans (after 133 BC).", "A sign at the Archaeological Museum of Aegina is reported to say that a Jewish community was established in Aegina \"at the end of the second and during the 3rd century AD\" by Jews fleeing the barbarian invasions of the time in Greece.", "However, the first phases of those invasions began in the 4th century.", "The Romaniote Jewish community erected an elaborate synagogue in rectangle form with an apse on the eastern wall with a magnificent mosaic decorated with geometric motifs, still preserved in the courtyard of the Archaeological Museum of Aegina.", "The synagogue dates from the 4th century AD and was in use until the 7th century AD.", "Local Christian tradition has it that a Christian community was established there in the 1st century, having as its bishop Crispus, the ruler of the Corinthian synagogue, who became a Christian, and was baptised by Paul the Apostle.", "There are written records of participation by later bishops of Aegina, Gabriel and Thomas, in the Councils of Constantinople in 869 and 879.The see was at first a suffragan of the metropolitan see of Corinth, but was later given the rank of archdiocese.", "No longer a residential bishopric, Aegina is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see.===Byzantine period===The Byzantine church of Agioi TheodoroiAegina belonged to the East Roman (Byzantine) Empire after the division of the Roman Empire in 395.It remained Eastern Roman during the period of crisis of the 7th–8th centuries, when most of the Balkans and the Greek mainland were overrun by Slavic invasions.", "Indeed, according to the ''Chronicle of Monemvasia'', the island served as a refuge for the Corinthians fleeing these incursions.", "The island flourished during the early 9th century, as evidenced by church construction activity, but suffered greatly from Arab raids originating from Crete.", "Various hagiographies record a large-scale raid , that resulted in the flight of much of the population to the Greek mainland.", "During that time, some of the population sought refuge in the island's hinterland, establishing the settlement of Palaia Chora.According to the 12th-century bishop of Athens, Michael Choniates, by his time the island had become a base for pirates.", "This is corroborated by Benedict of Peterborough's graphic account of Greece, as it was in 1191; he states that many of the islands were uninhabited for fear of pirates and that Aegina, along with Salamis and Makronisos, were their strongholds.===Frankish rule after 1204===The former catholic church known as Saint George of the Forum in Palaiochora, the medieval capital of Aegina.", "After the dissolution and partition of the Byzantine Empire by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, Aegina was accorded to the Republic of Venice.", "In the event, it became controlled by the Duchy of Athens.", "The Catalan Company seized control of Athens, and with it Aegina, in 1317, and in 1425 the island became controlled by the Venetians, when Alioto Caopena, at that time ruler of Aegina, placed himself by treaty under the Republic's protection to escape the danger of a Turkish raid.", "The island must then have been fruitful, for one of the conditions by which Venice accorded him protection was that he should supply grain to Venetian colonies.", "He agreed to surrender the island to Venice if his family became extinct.", "Antonio II Acciaioli opposed the treaty for one of his adopted daughters had married the future lord of Aegina, Antonello Caopena.===Venetians in Aegina (1451–1537)===The Venetian era Markellos towerIn 1451, Aegina became Venetian.", "The islanders welcomed Venetian rule; the claims of Antonello's uncle Arnà, who had lands in Argolis, were satisfied by a pension.", "A Venetian governor (''rettore'') was appointed, who was dependent on the authorities of Nauplia.", "After Arnà's death, his son Alioto renewed his claim to the island but was told that the republic was resolved to keep it.", "He and his family were pensioned and one of them aided in the defence of Aegina against the Turks in 1537, was captured with his family, and died in a Turkish dungeon.In 1463 the Turco-Venetian war began, which was destined to cost the Venetians Negroponte (Euboea), the island of Lemnos, most of the Cyclades islands, Scudra and their colonies in the Morea.", "Peace was concluded in 1479.Venice still retained Aegina, Lepanto (Naupactus), Nauplia, Monemvasia, Modon, Navarino, Coron, and the islands Crete, Mykonos and Tinos.", "Aegina remained subject to Nauplia.====Administration====Aegina obtained money for its defences by reluctantly sacrificing its cherished relic, the head of St. George, which had been carried there from Livadia by the Catalans.", "In 1462, the Venetian Senate ordered the relic to be removed to St. Giorgio Maggiore in Venice and on 12 November, it was transported from Aegina by Vettore Cappello, the famous Venetian commander.", "In return, the Senate gave the Aeginetes 100 ducats apiece towards fortifying the island.In 1519, the government was reformed.", "The system of having two rectors was found to result in frequent quarrels and the republic thenceforth sent out a single official styled Bailie and Captain, assisted by two councillors, who performed the duties of camerlengo by turns.", "The Bailie's authority extended over the rector of Aegina, whereas Kastri (opposite the island Hydra) was granted to two families, the Palaiologoi and the Alberti.Society at Nauplia was divided into three classes: nobles, citizens and plebeians, and it was customary for nobles alone to possess the much-coveted local offices, such as the judge of the inferior court and inspector of weights and measures.", "The populace now demanded its share and the home government ordered that at least one of the three inspectors should be a non-noble.Aegina had always been exposed to the raids of corsairs and had oppressive governors during these last 30 years of Venetian rule.", "Venetian nobles were not willing to go to this island.", "In 1533, three rectors of Aegina were punished for their acts of injustice and there is a graphic account of the reception given by the Aeginetans to the captain of Nauplia, who came to command an enquiry into the administration of these delinquents (vid.", "inscription over the entrance of St. George the Catholic in Paliachora).", "The rectors had spurned their ancient right to elect an islander to keep one key of the money-chest.", "They had also threatened to leave the island en masse with the commissioner, unless the captain avenged their wrongs.", "To spare the economy of the community, it was ordered that appeals from the governor's decision should be made on Crete, instead of in Venice.", "The republic was to pay a bakshish to the Turkish governor of the Morea and to the voivode who was stationed at the frontier of Thermisi (opposite Hydra).", "The fortifications too, were allowed to become decrepit and were inadequately guarded.====16th century====The ruins of Palaiochora.", "Walls, houses, and castle have been destroyed, only the chapels were restored.After the end of the Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia, the only Latin possessions left on the mainland of Greece were the papal city of Monemvasia, the fortress of Vonitsa, the Messenian stations Coron and Modon, Lepanto, Pteleon, Navarino, and the castles of Argos and Nauplia, to which the island of Aegina was subordinate.In 1502–03, the new peace treaty left Venice with nothing but Cephalonia, Monemvasia and Nauplia, with their appurtenances in the Morea.", "And against the sack of Megara, it had to endure the temporary capture of the castle of Aegina by Kemal Reis and the abduction of 2000 inhabitants.", "This treaty was renewed in 1513 and 1521.All supplies of grain from Nauplia and Monemvasia had to be imported from Turkish possessions, while corsairs rendered dangerous all traffic by sea.In 1537, sultan Suleiman declared war upon Venice and his admiral Hayreddin Barbarossa devastated much of the Ionian Islands, and in October invaded the island of Aegina.", "On the fourth day Palaiochora was captured, but the Latin church of St George was spared.", "Hayreddin Barbarossa had the adult male population massacred and took away 6,000 surviving women and children as slaves.", "Then Barbarossa sailed to Naxos, whence he carried off an immense booty, compelling the Duke of Naxos to purchase his further independence by paying a tribute of 5000 ducats.With the peace of 1540, Venice ceded Nauplia and Monemvasia.", "For nearly 150 years afterwards, Venice ruled no part of the mainland of Greece except Parga and Butrinto (subordinate politically to the Ionian Islands), but it still retained its insular dominions Cyprus, Crete, Tenos and six Ionian islands.===First Ottoman period (1540–1687)===Aegina suffered greatly after being attacked by Barbarossa in 1537.In 1579, the island was repopulated partly by Albanians.", "The Albanians would eventually assimilate into the Greek population.The island was attacked and left desolate by Francesco Morosini during the Cretan War (1654).===Second Venetian period (1687–1715)===Aegina in 1845, by Carl Rottmann.In 1684, the beginning of the Morean War between Venice and the Ottoman Empire resulted in the temporary reconquest of a large part of the country by the Republic.", "In 1687 the Venetian army arrived in Piraeus and captured Attica.", "The number of the Athenians at that time exceeded 6,000, the Albanians from the villages of Attica excluded, whilst in 1674 the population of Aegina did not seem to exceed 3,000 inhabitants, two thirds of which were women.", "The Aeginetans had been reduced to poverty to pay their taxes.", "The most significant plague epidemic began in Attica during 1688, an occasion that caused the massive migration of Athenians toward the south; most of them settled in Aegina.", "In 1693 Morosini resumed command, but his only acts were to refortify the castle of Aegina, which he had demolished during the Cretan war in 1655, the cost of upkeep being paid as long as the war lasted by the Athenians, and to place it and Salamis under Malipiero as Governor.", "This caused the Athenians to send him a request for the renewal of Venetian protection and an offer of an annual tribute.", "He died in 1694 and Zeno was appointed at his place.In 1699, thanks to English mediation, the war ended with the peace of Karlowitz by which Venice retained possession of the 7 Ionian islands as well as Butrinto and Parga, the Morea, Spinalonga and Suda, Tenos, Santa Maura and Aegina and ceased to pay a tribute for Zante, but which restored Lepanto to the Ottoman sultan.", "Cerigo and Aegina were united administratively since the peace with Morea, which not only paid all the expenses of administration but furnished a substantial balance for the naval defence of Venice, in which it was directly interested.===Second Ottoman period (1715–1821)===During the early part of the Ottoman–Venetian War of 1714–1718 the Ottoman Fleet commanded by Canum Hoca captured Aegina.", "Ottomans rule in Aegina and the Morea was resumed and confirmed by the Treaty of Passarowitz, and they retained control of the island with the exception of a brief Russian occupation Orlov Revolt (early 1770s), until the beginning of the Greek War of Independence in 1821.Throughout the 19th century, a small minority of Arvanites lived on the island, who were bilingual in Arvanitika and Greek (spoken more by men and less by women), up until the early 20th century.", "The Greek-speaking population spoke a particular dialect known as ''Old Athenian'', which was also found in neighboring Megara and Athens.===Greek Revolution===During the Greek War of Independence, Aegina became an administrative centre for the Greek revolutionary authorities.", "Ioannis Kapodistrias was briefly established here." ], [ "Landmarks", "Panorama of Aegina's port.View of the port.Traditional street in the townAegina town centre.A bust of Kapodistrias* '''Temple of Aphaea''', dating from about 490 BC, it is the oldest surviving temple in Greece.", "It was dedicated to its namesake, a goddess who was later associated with Athena; the temple was part of an equilateral holy triangle of temples including the Athenian Parthenon and the temple of Poseidon at Sounion.", "* '''Monastery of Agios Nectarios''', dedicated to Nectarios of Aegina, a recent saint of the Greek Orthodox Church.", "* A statue in the principal square commemorates '''Ioannis Kapodistrias''' (1776–1831), the first administrator of free modern Greece.", "* '''The Orphanage of Kapodistrias''' is a large building, known locally as ''The Prison'' (Οι Φυλακές, Oi Filakes), constructed in 1828-29 by Ioannis Kapodistrias as a home for children orphaned as a result of the Greek War of Independence.", "The building also housed schools, vocational workshops, the National Public Library, the National Archaeological Museum, a military academy, the National Printing Office and the National Conservatory for Choir and Orchestra.", "From about 1880 it was used as a prison, and housed political prisoners during the Greek Junta (1967-1974) - hence its local name.", "There are currently plans to restore the building as a museum.", "* '''The Tower of Markellos''' was probably built during the second Venetian occupation, 1687–1714, as a watch tower in anticipation of a Turkish siege.", "A castle, fortified walls and numerous watchtowers were built at this time.", "The tower was abandoned after the Turkish occupation of 1714, until revolutionary leader Spyros Markellos bought the tower as his residence in around 1802.In 1826-28 it was the headquarters of the temporary government of the embryonic Greek state.", "It subsequently was used as a police headquarters and housed various government agencies until it was abandoned again in the mid 19th century.", "It is currently owned by the Municipality of Aegina.", "* '''Temple of Zeus Hellanios''', near the village of Pachia Rachi, is a 13th-century Byzantine church, built on the ruins of the ancient temple to Zeus Hellanios, built in the 4th century BC.", "The staircase leading up to the church, some of the original walls, and loose stones from the earlier temple remain.", "* '''Colona''', Located to the north of the town of Aegina.", "Acropolis with the sanctuary of Apollo and Byzantine settlement.", "The name Colona was given by the Venetian sailors, who used the columns of the pavilion of the Doric temple of Apollo (6x11 columns) as a sign of orientation.", "The foundations and one column from the rear building are preserved.", "The temple with the buildings related to the function of the sanctuary dominates the ancient acropolis on the hill.", "It was built at the end of the 6th century when Aegina, one of the most important commercial centers, emerged as a rival of Athens.", "Excavations from the 19th century onwards made it clear that the architectural remains of the archaic-Hellenistic acropolis, which are only partially preserved, are based on the impressive buildings of the prehistoric era, with at least ten successive building phases." ], [ "Economy", "===Pistachios===In 1896, the physician Nikolaos Peroglou introduced the systematic cultivation of pistachios, which soon became popular among the inhabitants of the island.", "By 1950, pistachio cultivation had significantly displaced the rest of the agricultural activity due to its high profitability but also due to the phylloxera that threatened the vineyards that time.", "As a result, in the early 60s, the first pistachio peeling factory was established in the Plakakia area by Grigorios Konidaris.", "The quality of \"''Fistiki Aeginis''\" (Aegina Pistachios), a name that was established as a product of Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) in 1996, is considered internationally excellent and superior to several foreign varieties, due to the special climatic conditions of the island (drought) as well as soil's volcanic characteristics.", "Pistachios have made Aegina famous all over the world.", "Today, half of the pistachio growers are members of the Agricultural Cooperative of Aegina's Pistachio Producers.", "It is estimated that pistachio cultivation covers 29,000 acres of the island while the total production reaches 2,700 tons per year.", "In recent years, in mid-September, the Pistachio Festival has been organized every year under the name \"''Fistiki Fest''\"." ], [ "Culture", "===Mythology===In Greek mythology, Aegina was a daughter of the river god Asopus and the nymph Metope.", "She bore at least two children: Menoetius by Actor, and Aeacus by the god Zeus.", "When Zeus abducted Aegina, he took her to Oenone, an island close to Attica.", "Here, Aegina gave birth to Aeacus, who would later become king of Oenone; thenceforth, the island's name was Aegina.Aegina was the gathering place of Myrmidons; in Aegina they gathered and trained.", "Zeus needed an elite army and at first thought that Aegina, which at the time did not have any villagers, was a good place.", "So he changed some ants (, Myrmigia) into warriors who had six hands and wore black armour.", "Later, the Myrmidons, commanded by Achilles, were known as the most fearsome fighting unit in Greece.===Famous Aeginetans===* Aeacus, the first king of Aegina according to mythology, in whose honour the Aeacea were celebrated* Smilis (6th century BC), sculptor* Sostratus of Aegina (6th century BC), merchant* Onatas (5th century BC), sculptor* Ptolichus (5th century BC), sculptor* Philiscus of Aegina (4th century BC), Cynic philosopher* Paul of Aegina (7th century), medical scholar and physician* Saint Athanasia of Aegina (9th century), abbess and saint* Cosmas II Atticus (12th century), Patriarch of Constantinople* Nectarios of Aegina (1846–1920), bishop and saint* Aristeidis Moraitinis (aviator) born 1891, died 1918*Gustav Hasford, American military journalist and novelist, moved to Aegina and died there of heart failure on 29 January 1993, aged 45" ], [ "Historical population<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 17, 2023 |title=ΑΠΟΤΕΛΕΣΜΑΤΑ ΑΠΟΓΡΑΦΗ ΠΛΗΘΥΣΜΟΥ ΚΑΤΟΙΚΙΩΝ ΕΛΣΤΑΤ 2021 |url=https://elstat-outsourcers.statistics.gr/Census2022_GR.pdf |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=Ελληνική Στατιστική Αρχή}}</ref>", " Year Town population Municipal/Island population1981 6,730 11,1271991 6,373 11,6392001 7,410 13,5522011 7,253 13,056202112,911" ], [ "See also", "*Flag of Aegina" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Αίγινα 2197.jpg|Airview of the town of AeginaFile:Church Agios Nikolaos Aegina harbor, Greece.jpg|Church Agios Nikolas o Thalassinos, AeginaFile:Aegina - panoramic view 02.jpg|Agia Marina, AeginaFile:First Greek Printshop Aegina c1890.jpg|The first printshop of the independent Greek State, 1830File:Entrance to the Old Port of Aegina - Wordsworth Christopher - 1882.jpg|Christopher Wordsworth, Aegina 1882File:The Temple of Aphaea - panoramio (1).jpg|The Temple of Aphaea, AeginaFile:Aphaea1.jpg|Temple of AphaeaFile:The Byzantine Church of Taxiarches in Aigina on August 25, 2021.jpg|Reconstructed Byzantine church of the Taxiarchs built over the ruins of the \"Temple of Zeus Hellanios\" on Mount Hellanion" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Welter Gabriel, ''Aigina'', Archäol.", "Inst.", "d. Deutschen Reiches, Berlin 1938.", "* * * Miller William, ''Essays on the Latin orient'', Rome 1921 (reprint: Amsterdam 1964).", "Essays on the Latin Orient* Miller William, \"Η Παληαχώρα της Αιγίνης.", "Ηρημωμένη ελληνική πόλις\", Νέος Ελληνομνήμων Κ΄ (1926), p. 363–365.Wayback Machine* Rubio y Lluch A., \"Συμβολαί εις την ιστορίαν των Καταλωνίων εν Ελλάδι\", Δελτίον της Ιστορικής και Εθνολογικής Εταιρείας της Ελλάδος Β΄(1883), p. 458–466.", "* Lambros Spyridon ed., ''Έγγραφα αναφερόμενα εις την μεσαιωνικήν ιστορίαν των Αθηνών'', Athens 1906.", "* D' Olwer Nic., ''Les seigneurs Catalans d' Egine'', τόμος εις μνήμην του Σπυρίδωνος Λάμπρου, Athens 1935.", "* Koulikourdi Georgia, ''Αίγινα'', 2 vols., Athens 1990.", "* Μεσσίνας, Ηλίας, ''Οι Συναγωγές της Θεσσαλονίκης και της Βέροιας'', Aθήνα 1997..* Messinas, Elias, ''The Synagogues of Greece: A Study of Synagogues in Macedonia and Thrace: With Architectural Drawings of all Synagogues of Greece''.", "Seattle 2022.", "* Μεσσίνας, Ηλίας, ''H Συναγωγή'', Αθήνα: Εκδόσεις Ινφογνώμων 2022.", "* Moutsopoulos Nikolaos, ''Η Παλιαχώρα της Αιγίνης.", "Ιστορική και μορφολογική εξέτασις των μνημείων'', Athens 1962.", "* Nikoloudis Nikolaos .", ":BiblioNet : Νικολούδης, Νικόλαος Γ., \"Η Αίγινα κατά τον Μεσαίωνα και την Τουρκοκρατία\", Βυζαντινός Δόμος 7(1993–94), pp:13–21.", "* Pennas Charalambos .", ":BiblioNet : Πέννας, Χαράλαμπος,'' The Byzantine Aegina'' .", ":BiblioNet : Byzantine Aegina / Πέννας, Χαράλαμπος, Athens 2004.", "* John N. Koumanoudes .", ":BiblioNet : Κουμανούδης, Ιωάννης Ν., ''Ανεμομυλικά ΙΙ, Αγκίστρι, Αίγινα, Αστυπάλαια, Λήμνος, Σαλαμίνα, Σπέτσες, Σύμη, Χίος και Ψαρά'' .", ":BiblioNet : Ανεμομυλικά ΙΙ / Κουμανούδης, Ιωάννης Ν., Τεχνικό Επιμελητήριο Ελλάδας, 2010." ], [ "External links", "* The feud between Athens and Aegina* The Municipality of Aegina – official website* Site for visitors and tourists run by the Municipality of Aegina * Excavations on the site Aegina Kolonna* Richard Stillwell, ed.", "''Princeton Encyclopedia of Classical Sites'', 1976: \"Aigina, Greece\"* Map of Ancient Greece (includes Aegina Island)* AeginaGreece.com Tourist guide* The Mosaic of Aegina Program" ] ]

[ [ "Aegis" ], [ "Introduction", "The aegis on the ''Lemnian Athena'' of Phidias, represented by a cast at the Pushkin MuseumThe '''aegis''' ( ; ''aigís''), as stated in the ''Iliad'', is a device carried by Athena and Zeus, variously interpreted as an animal skin or a shield and sometimes featuring the head of a Gorgon.", "There may be a connection with a deity named Aex, a daughter of Helios and a nurse of Zeus or alternatively a mistress of Zeus (Hyginus, ''Astronomica'' 2.13).The modern concept of doing something \"under someone's ''aegis'' means doing something under the protection of a powerful, knowledgeable, or benevolent source.", "The word ''aegis'' is identified with protection by a strong force with its roots in Greek mythology and adopted by the Romans; there are parallels in Norse mythology and in Egyptian mythology as well, where the Greek word ''aegis'' is applied by extension." ], [ "Etymology", "The Greek ''aigis'' has many meanings, including:# \"violent windstorm\", from the verb ''aïssō'' (word stem ''aïg-'') = \"I rush or move violently\".", "Akin to ''kataigis'', \"thunderstorm\".# The shield of a deity as described above.# \"goatskin coat\", from treating the word as meaning \"something grammatically feminine pertaining to goat\": Greek ''aix'' (stem ''aig-'') = \"goat\" + suffix ''-is'' (stem ''-id-'').The original meaning may have been the first, and ''Zeus Aigiokhos'' = \"Zeus who holds the aegis\" may have originally meant \"Sky/Heaven, who holds the thunderstorm\".", "The transition to the meaning \"shield\" or \"goatskin\" may have come by folk etymology among a people familiar with draping an animal skin over the left arm as a shield." ], [ "In Greek mythology", "Athena's aegis, with Gorgon, here resembles the skin of the serpent who guards the golden fleece (regurgitating Jason); cup by Douris, early fifth century BC (Vatican Museums)The aegis of Athena is referred to in several places in the ''Iliad''.", "\"It produced a sound as from myriad roaring dragons (''Iliad'', 4.17) and was borne by Athena in battle ... and among them went bright-eyed Athene, holding the precious aegis which is ageless and immortal: a hundred tassels of pure gold hang fluttering from it, tight-woven each of them, and each the worth of a hundred oxen.", "\"Virgil imagines the Cyclopes in Hephaestus' forge, who \"busily burnished the aegis Athena wears in her angry moods—a fearsome thing with a surface of gold like scaly snake-skin, and the linked serpents and the Gorgon herself upon the goddess's breast—a severed head rolling its eyes\", furnished with golden tassels and bearing the ''Gorgoneion'' (Medusa's head) in the central boss.", "Some of the Attic vase-painters retained an archaic tradition that the tassels had originally been serpents in their representations of the aegis.", "When the Olympian deities overtook the older deities of Greece and she was born of Metis (inside Zeus who had swallowed the goddess) and \"re-born\" through the head of Zeus fully clothed, Athena already wore her typical garments.When the Olympian shakes the aegis, Mount Ida is wrapped in clouds, the thunder rolls and men are struck down with fear.", "\"Aegis-bearing Zeus\", as he is in the ''Iliad'', sometimes lends the fearsome aegis to Athena.", "In the ''Iliad'' when Zeus sends Apollo to revive the wounded Hector, Apollo, holding the aegis, charges the Achaeans, pushing them back to their ships drawn up on the shore.", "According to Edith Hamilton's ''Mythology: Timeless Tales of Gods and Heroes'', the Aegis is the breastplate of Zeus, and was \"awful to behold\".", "However, Zeus is normally portrayed in classical sculpture holding a thunderbolt or lightning, bearing neither a shield nor a breastplate.In some versions, Zeus watched Athena and Triton's daughter, Pallas, compete in a friendly mock battle involving spears.", "Not wanting his daughter to lose, Zeus flapped his aegis to distract Pallas, whom Athena accidentally impaled.", "Zeus apologized to Athena by giving her the aegis; Athena then named herself Pallas Athena in tribute to her late friend." ], [ "In classical poetry and art", " First century BC depiction of Alexander wearing the aegis on the Alexander Mosaic, Pompeii (Naples National Archaeological Museum)Classical Greece interpreted the Homeric aegis usually as a cover of some kind borne by Athena.", "It was supposed by Euripides (''Ion'', 995) that the aegis borne by Athena was the skin of the slain Gorgon, yet the usual understanding is that the ''Gorgoneion'' was ''added'' to the aegis, a votive offering from a grateful Perseus.In a similar interpretation, Aex, a daughter of Helios, represented as a great fire-breathing chthonic serpent similar to the Chimera, was slain and flayed by Athena, who afterwards wore its skin, the aegis, as a cuirass (Diodorus Siculus iii.", "70), or as a chlamys.", "The Douris cup shows that the aegis was represented exactly as the skin of the great serpent, with its scales clearly delineated.John Tzetzes says that aegis was the skin of the monstrous giant Pallas whom Athena overcame and whose name she attached to her own.In a late rendering by Gaius Julius Hyginus (''Poetical Astronomy'' ii.", "13), Zeus is said to have used the skin of a pet goat owned by his nurse Amalthea (''aigis'' \"goat-skin\") which suckled him in Crete, as a shield when he went forth to do battle against the Titans.The aegis appears in works of art sometimes as an animal's skin thrown over Athena's shoulders and arms, occasionally with a border of snakes, usually also bearing the Gorgon head, the ''gorgoneion''.", "In some pottery it appears as a tasselled cover over Athena's dress.", "It is sometimes represented on the statues of Roman emperors, heroes, and warriors, and on coins, cameos and vases.", "A vestige of that appears in a portrait of Alexander the Great in a fresco from Pompeii dated to the first century BC, which shows the image of the head of a woman on his armor that resembles the Gorgon." ], [ "Interpretations", "Herodotus thought he had identified the source of the aegis in ancient Libya, which was always a distant territory of ancient magic for the Greeks.", "\"Athene's garments and aegis were borrowed by the Greeks from the Libyan women, who are dressed in exactly the same way, except that their leather garments are fringed with thongs, not serpents.", "\"Robert Graves in ''The Greek Myths'' (1955) asserts that the aegis in its Libyan sense had been a shamanic pouch containing various ritual objects, bearing the device of a monstrous serpent-haired visage with tusk-like teeth and a protruding tongue which was meant to frighten away the uninitiated.", "In this context, Graves identifies the aegis as clearly belonging first to Athena.One current interpretation is that the Hittite sacral hieratic hunting bag (''kursas''), a rough and shaggy goatskin that has been firmly established in literary texts and iconography by H.G.", "Güterbock, was a source of the aegis." ], [ "References", "Augustus shown with an ''aegis'' thrown over his shoulder as a divine attribute in the Blacas Cameo; the hole for the head appears at the point of his shoulder." ], [ "External links", "* Theoi Project: \"Aigis\"* ''Die Aigis: Zu Typologie und Ikonographie eines Mythischen Gegenstandes'': a Doctoral dissertation on the Ægis (Westfälischen Wilhelms-Universität, Münster 1991) by Sigrid Vierck." ] ]

[ [ "Aegisthus" ], [ "Introduction", "Aegisthus being murdered by Orestes and Pylades – The Louvre'''Aegisthus''' (; ; also transliterated as '''Aigisthos''', ) was a figure in Greek mythology.", "Aegisthus is known from two primary sources: the first is Homer's ''Odyssey'', believed to have been first written down by Homer at the end of the 8th century BC, and the second from Aeschylus's ''Oresteia'', written in the 5th century BC.", "Aegisthus also features heavily in the action of Euripides's ''''Electra'''' ( 420 BC), although his character remains offstage." ], [ "Family", "Aegisthus was the son of Thyestes and Thyestes's own daughter Pelopia, an incestuous union motivated by his father's rivalry with the house of Atreus for the throne of Mycenae.", "Aegisthus murdered Atreus in order to restore his father to power, ruling jointly with him, only to be driven from power by Atreus's son Agamemnon.", "In another version, Aegisthus was the sole surviving son of Thyestes after Atreus killed his brother's children and served them to Thyestes in a meal.While Agamemnon laid siege to Troy, his estranged queen Clytemnestra took Aegisthus as a lover.", "The couple killed Agamemnon upon the king's return, making Aegisthus king of Mycenae once more.", "Aegisthus ruled for seven more years before his death at the hands of Agamemnon's son Orestes." ], [ "Mythology", "===Early life===Thyestes felt he had been deprived of the Mycenean throne unfairly by his brother, Atreus.", "The two battled back and forth several times.", "In addition, Thyestes had an affair with Atreus's wife, Aerope.", "In revenge, Atreus killed Thyestes's sons and served them to him unknowingly.", "After realizing he had eaten his own sons' corpses, Thyestes asked an oracle how best to gain revenge.", "The advice was to father a son with his own daughter, Pelopia, and that son would kill Atreus.Thyestes raped Pelopia after she performed a sacrifice, hiding his identity from her.", "When Aegisthus was born, his mother abandoned him, ashamed of his origin, and he was raised by shepherds and suckled by a goat, hence his name Aegisthus (from , male goat).", "Atreus, not knowing the baby's origin, took Aegisthus in and raised him as his own son.===Death of Atreus===In the night in which Pelopia had been raped by her father, she had taken from him his sword which she afterwards gave to Aegisthus.", "When she discovered that the sword belonged to her own father, she realised that her son was the product of incestuous rape.", "In despair, she killed herself.", "Atreus in his enmity towards his brother sent Aegisthus to kill him; but the sword which Aegisthus carried was the cause of the recognition between Thyestes and his son, and the latter returned and slew his uncle Atreus, while he was offering a sacrifice on the seacoast.", "Aegisthus and his father now took possession of their lawful inheritance from which they had been expelled by Atreus.===Power struggle over Mycenae===Aegisthus and Thyestes thereafter ruled over Mycenae jointly, exiling Atreus's sons Agamemnon and Menelaus to Sparta, where King Tyndareus gave the pair his daughters, Clytemnestra and Helen, to take as wives.", "Agamemnon and Clytemnestra had four children: one son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra, and Chrysothemis.After the death of Tyndareus, Meneleaus became king of Sparta.", "He used the Spartan army to drive out Aegisthus and Thyestes from Mycenae and place Agamemnon on the throne.", "Agamemnon extended his dominion by conquest and became the most powerful ruler in Greece.", "After Helen's abduction to Troy, Agamemnon was forced to sacrifice his own daughter Iphigenia in order to appease the gods before setting off for Ilium.", "While Agamemnon was away fighting in the Trojan War, Clytemnestra turned against her husband and took Aegisthus as a lover.", "Upon Agamemnon's return to Mycenae, Aegisthus and Clytemnestra worked together to kill Agamemnon with certain accounts recording Aegisthus committing the murder while others record Clytemnestra herself exacting revenge on Agamemnon for his murder of Iphigenia.Following Agamemnon's death, Aegisthus reigned over Mycenae for seven years.", "He and Clytemnestra had a son, Aletes, and a daughter, Erigone (sometimes known as Helen).", "In the eighth year of his reign Orestes, the son of Agamemnon, returned to Mycenae and avenged the death of his father by killing Aegisthus and Clytemnestra.", "The impiety of matricide was such that Orestes was forced to flee from Mycenae, pursued by the Furies.", "Aletes became king until Orestes returned several years later and killed him.", "Orestes later married Aegisthus's daughter Erigone." ], [ "In culture", "Pierre-Narcisse Guérin's ''Clytemnestra and Agamemnon'', in which Aegisthus appears as a shadowy figure pushing Clytemnestra forwardHomer gives no information about Aegisthus's antecedents.", "We learn from him only that, after the death of Thyestes, Aegisthus ruled as king at Mycenae and took no part in the Trojan expedition.", "While Agamemnon was absent on his expedition against Troy, Aegisthus seduced Clytemnestra, and was so wicked as to offer up thanks to the gods for the success with which his criminal exertions were crowned.", "In order not to be surprised by the return of Agamemnon, he sent out spies, and when Agamemnon came, Aegisthus invited him to a repast at which he had him treacherously murdered.In Aeschylus's ''Oresteia'', Aegisthus is a minor figure.", "In the first play, ''Agamemnon'', he appears at the end to claim the throne, after Clytemnestra herself has killed Agamemnon and Cassandra.", "Clytemnestra wields the axe she has used to quell dissent.", "In ''The Libation Bearers'' he is killed quickly by Orestes, who then struggles over having to kill his mother.", "Aegisthus is referred to as a \"weak lion\", plotting the murders but having his lover commit the deeds.", "According to Johanna Leah Braff, he \"takes the traditional female role, as one who devises but is passive and does not act.\"", "Christopher Collard describes him as the foil to Clytemnestra, his brief speech in ''Agamemnon'' revealing him to be \"cowardly, sly, weak, full of noisy threats - a typical 'tyrant figure' in embryo.", "\"Aeschylus's portrayal of Aegisthus as a weak, implicitly feminised figure, influenced later writers and artists who often depict him as an effeminate or decadent individual, either manipulating or dominated by the more powerful Clytemnestra.", "He appears in Seneca's ''Agamemnon'', enticing her to murder.", "In Richard Strauss's and Hugo von Hofmannsthal's opera, ''Elektra'' his voice is \"a decidedly high-pitched tenor, punctuated by irrational upward leaps, that rises to high pitched squeals during his death colloquy with Elektra.\"", "In the first production he was depicted as \"an epicene...with long curly locks and rouged lips, half-cringing, half-posturing seductively.", "\"An ancient tomb in Mycenae is fancifully known as the \"Tomb of Aegisthus\".", "It dates from around 1470 BC." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Aegospotami" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aegospotami''' (, ''Aigos Potamoi'') or '''Aegospotamos''' (i.e.", "''Goat Streams'') is the ancient Greek name for a small river issuing into the Hellespont (Modern Turkish ''Çanakkale Boğazı''), northeast of Sestos.Aegospotami is located on the Dardanelles, south of the modern Turkish town of Sütlüce, Gelibolu.At its mouth was the scene of the decisive battle in 405 BC in which Lysander destroyed the Athenian fleet, ending the Peloponnesian War.", "The ancient Greek township of the same name, whose existence is attested by coins of the 5th and 4th centuries, and the river itself were located in ancient Thrace in the Chersonese.According to ancient sources including Pliny the Elder and Aristotle, in 467 BC a large meteorite landed near Aegospotami.", "It was described as brown in colour and the size of a wagon load.", "A comet, tentatively identified as Halley's Comet, was reported at the time the meteorite landed.", "This is possibly the first European record of Halley's comet." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Aelia Capitolina" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aelia Capitolina''' ( ; full name in ) was a Roman colony founded during Emperor Hadrian's visit to Judaea in 129/130 AD, centered around Jerusalem, which had been almost totally razed after the siege of 70 AD.The foundation of Aelia Capitolina and the construction of a temple to Jupiter at the site of the former temple may have been one of the causes for the outbreak of the Bar Kokhba revolt in 132.Aelia Capitolina remained as the official name until late antiquity and the Aelia part of the name was used in Arabic as ''Īlyāʾ'' during the Umayyad Caliphate." ], [ "Name", "''Aelia'' came from Hadrian's Aelia gens, while ''Capitolina'' meant that the new city was dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus, to whom a temple was built.", "The Latin name ''Aelia'' is the source of the much later term ''Īlyāʾ'', a seventh-century early Islamic name for Jerusalem." ], [ "History", "=== Foundation ===Jerusalem, once heavily rebuilt by Herod the Great, was still in ruins following the decisive siege of the city in 70 CE as part of the First Jewish–Roman War.The Roman emperor Hadrian decided to rebuild the city as a ''colonia'' that would be inhabited by his legionaries.", "Hadrian's new city was to be dedicated to himself and certain Roman gods, in particular Capitoline Jupiter.There is controversy as to whether Hadrian's anti-Jewish decrees followed the Bar Kokhba revolt or preceded it and were the cause of the revolt.", "The older view is that the Bar Kokhba revolt, which took the Romans three years to suppress, enraged Hadrian, and he became determined to erase Judaism from the province.", "Circumcision was forbidden and Jews were expelled from the city.", "Hadrian renamed the province of Judaea to Syria Palaestina, dispensing with the Jewish-associated name.Jerusalem was renamed Aelia Capitolina and rebuilt in the style of its original Hippodamian plan, although adapted to Roman use.", "Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death except for one day each year: during the fast day of Tisha B'Av.", "Taken together, these measures (which also affected Jewish Christians) essentially secularized the city.", "Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that the rebuilt city was now inhabited by veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire.According to Eusebius, the Jerusalem church was scattered twice, in 70 and 135, with the difference that from 70 to 130 the bishops of Jerusalem have evidently Jewish names, whereas after 135 the bishops of Aelia Capitolina appear to be Greeks.", "Eusebius' evidence for continuation of a church at Aelia Capitolina is confirmed by the Bordeaux Pilgrim.=== Byzantine period ===The ban against Jews was maintained until the 7th century, though Christians would soon be granted an exemption: during the 4th century, the Roman emperor Constantine I ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.", "Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.The Madaba Map depiction of 6th-century Jerusalem has the ''Cardo Maximus'', the town's main street, beginning at the northern gate (today's Damascus Gate), and traversing the city in a straight line south to \"New Church\".Depiction of Jerusalem in the Byzantine Umm ar-Rasas mosaics, identified as Hagia Polis in Greek, the Holy City, during the time of the Abbasid Caliphate in 785.In the fifth century the eastern Roman Emperor based in Constantinople maintained control of the city, but following Sassanid Khosrau II's early seventh century advance through Syria, his generals Shahrbaraz and Shahin attacked Jerusalem ('''') aided by the Jews of Palaestina Prima, who had risen up against the Byzantines.", "In 614 AD, after 21 days of relentless siege, Jerusalem was captured.", "Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sassanids and Jews slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the Mamilla Pool, and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.", "The conquered city would remain in Sassanid hands for some fifteen years until it was recovered by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius in 629.However, Byzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the Arab armies of Umar ibn al-Khattab in AD 638, which resulted in the removal of the restrictions on Jews living in the city.", "Among Muslims of Islam's earliest era it was referred to as ''Madinat bayt al-Maqdis'', 'City of the Temple', a name restricted to the Temple Mount.", "The rest of the city was called \"Iliya\", reflecting the Roman name Aelia Capitolina." ], [ "Plan of the city", "The two pairs of main roads—the cardines (north-south) and decumani (east-west)—in Aelia CapitolinaThe city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of the Tenth Legion, during the Late Roman period.", "The detachment at Jerusalem, which apparently encamped all over the city's western hill, was responsible for preventing Jews from returning to the city.", "Roman enforcement of this prohibition continued through the 4th century.===Layout and street pattern===The urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical Roman town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the urban grid lengthwise and widthwise.", "The urban grid was based on the usual central north–south road (''cardo maximus'') and central east–west route (''decumanus maximus'').", "However, as the main cardo ran up the western hill, and the Temple Mount blocked the eastward route of the main decumanus, the strict pattern had to be adapted to the local topography; a secondary, eastern cardo, diverged from the western one and ran down the Tyropoeon Valley, while the decumanus had to zigzag around the Temple Mount, passing it on its northern side.", "The Hadrianic western cardo terminated not far beyond its junction with the decumanus, where it reached the Roman garrison's encampment, but in the Byzantine period it was extended over the former camp to reach the southern, expanded margins of the city.The two cardines converged near the Damascus Gate, and a semicircular piazza covered the remaining space; in the piazza a columnar monument was constructed, hence the Arabic name for the gate, ''Bab el-Amud'' (\"Gate of the Column\").", "Tetrapylones were constructed at the other junctions between the main roads.This street pattern has been preserved in the Old City of Jerusalem to the present.", "The original thoroughfare, flanked by rows of columns and shops, was about wide, but buildings have extended onto the streets over the centuries, and the modern lanes replacing the ancient grid are now quite narrow.", "The substantial remains of the western cardo have now been exposed to view near the junction with Suq el-Bazaar, and remnants of one of the tetrapylones are preserved in the 19th century Franciscan chapel at the junction of the Via Dolorosa and Suq Khan ez-Zeit.===Western forum===As was standard for new Roman cities, Hadrian placed the city's main forum at the junction of the main cardo and decumanus, now the location for the (smaller) Muristan.", "Adjacent to the forum, Hadrian built a large temple to Venus, at a site later used for the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre; several boundary walls of Hadrian's temple have been found among the archaeological remains beneath the church.===Valley cardo and eastern forum===The ''Struthion Pool'' lay in the path of the northern decumanus, so Hadrian placed vaulting over it, added a large pavement on top, and turned it into a secondary forum; the pavement can still be seen under the Convent of the Sisters of Zion.===''Ecce homo'' arch===Near the Struthion Pool, Hadrian built a triple-arched gateway as an entrance to the eastern forum of Aelia Capitolina.", "Traditionally, this was thought to be the gate of Herod's Antonia Fortress, which itself was alleged to be the location of Jesus' trial and Pontius Pilate's ''Ecce homo'' speech as described in John 19:13.This was due in part to the 1864 discovery of a game etched on a flagstone of the pool.", "According to the nuns of the convent, the game was played by Roman soldiers and ended in the execution of a 'mock king'.", "It is possible that following its destruction, the Antonia Fortress's pavement tiles were brought to the cistern of Hadrian's plaza.When later constructions narrowed the ''Via Dolorosa'', the two arches on either side of the central arch became incorporated into a succession of more modern buildings.", "The Basilica of Ecce Homo now preserves the northern arch.", "The southern arch was incorporated into a monastery for Uzbek dervishes belonging to the Order of the Golden Chain in the 16th century, but these were demolished in the 19th century in order to found a mosque." ], [ "See also", "*Alexander of Jerusalem (died 251), bishop of Jerusalem*Caesarea Maritima, Roman provincial capital after 6 CE*Gabbatha, biblical name of the place where Jesus was tried by Pilate*Names of Jerusalem" ], [ "Further reading", "* Leo Kadman, '''The Coins of Aelia Capitolina''', Jerusalem, 1956* Benjamin H. Isaac, ''Roman Colonies in Judaea: the Foundation of Aelia Capitolina'', '''Talanta''' XII/XIII (1980/81),pp.", "31–54* Ritti, T., ''Documenti adrianei da Hierapolis di Frigia: le epistole di Adriano alla città'', ''L’Hellénisme d’époque romaine.", "Nouveaux documents, nouvelles approches (ier s. a.C.–iiie s.", "p.C.", ")'', Paris, 2014, pp.", "297–340* Yaron Z. Eliav, The Urban Layout of Aelia Capitolina: A New View from the Perspective of the Temple Mount, '''The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish Revolt''', Peter Schäfer (ed.", "), 2003, pp.", "241–277* Zissu, B., Klein, E., Kloner, A.", "''Settlement Processes in the territorium of Roman Jerusalem (Aelia Capitolina)'', J. M. Alvarez, T. Nogales, I. Roda (hg.", "), XVIII CIAC: Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World, Mérida, 2014, pp. 219–223.", "* S. Weksler-Bdolah, ''The Foundation of Aelia Capitolina in Light of New Excavations along the Eastern Cardo'', '''IEJ''' 64, 2014, pp.", "38–62* B. Isaac,''Caesarea-on-the-Sea and Aelia Capitolina: Two Ambiguous Roman Colonies'', ''L’héritage Grec des colonies Romaines d’Orient.", "Interactions culturelles dans les provinces hellénophones de l’empire romain'', C. Brélaz (hg.", "), Paris, 2017, pp. 331–343.", "* Kloner, A., Klein, E., Zissu, B., ''The Rural Hinterland (territorium) of Aelia Capitolina'', G. Avni, G. D. Stiebel (hg.", "), Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City, Portsmouth, RI, 2017, pp. 131–141.", "* Newman, H. I., ''The Temple Mount of Jerusalem and the Capitolium of Aelia Capitolina'', '''Knowledge and Wisdom: Archaeological and Historical Essays in Honour of Leah Di Segni''', G. C. Bottini, L. D. Chrupcała, J. Patrich (hg.", "), Jerusalem, 2017, pp.", "35–42* A. Bernini, ''Un riconoscimento di debito redatto a Colonia Aelia Capitolina'', '''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik''' 206, 2018, pp.", "183–193* A. Bernini, ''New Evidence for Colonia Aelia Capitolina (P. Mich. VII 445 + inv.", "3888c + inv.", "3944k'', '''Proceedings of the 28th International Congress of Papyrology''', Barcelona, 2019, pp. 557–562.", "* Werner Eck, Die Colonia Aelia Capitolina: Überlegungen zur Anfangsphase der zweiten römischen Kolonie in der Provinz Iudaea-Syria Palaestina, '''ELECTRUM''', Vol.", "26 (2019), pp.", "129–139* Miriam Ben Zeev Hofman, ''Eusebius and Hadrian's Founding of Aelia Capitolina in Jerusalem'', '''ELECTRUM''', Vol.", "26 (2019), pp.", "119–128* Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah, '''Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman Period - In Light of Archaeological Research''', Mnemosyne, Supplements, History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, Volume: 432, Brill, 2020" ], [ "References", "'''Footnotes''''''Citations'''" ], [ "External links", "* Detailed description (including map) of the city of Aelia Capitolina* Pictures of the cave where it is believed by Christians that Jesus was buried and from which it is believed he resurrected and a picture of the remains of the walls of the Temple of Venus previously constructed on that site by the emperor Hadrian* \"Archaeologists bringing Jerusalem's ancient Roman city back to life\" by Nir Hasson, Ha'aretz, February 21, 2012* Photos of the Ecco Homo Arch at the Manar al-Athar photo archive" ] ]

[ [ "Aelianus Tacticus" ], [ "Introduction", "''In hoc codice continentur Helianus De instruendis aciebus et Onosander De optimo imperatore'', , by Aelianus Tacticus'''Aelianus Tacticus''' (; fl.", "2nd century AD), also known as '''Aelian''' (), was a Greek military writer who lived in Rome." ], [ "Work", "Aelian's military treatise in fifty-three chapters on the tactics of the Greeks, titled ''On Tactical Arrays of the Greeks'' (), is dedicated to the emperor Hadrian, though this is probably a mistake for Trajan, and the date 106 has been assigned to it.", "It is a handbook of Greek, i.e.", "Macedonian, drill and tactics as practiced by the Hellenistic successors of Alexander the Great.", "The author claims to have consulted all the best authorities, the most important of which was a lost treatise on the subject by Polybius.", "Perhaps the chief value of Aelian's work lies in his critical account of preceding works on the art of war, and in the fullness of his technical details in matters of drill.Aelian also gives a brief account of the constitution of a Roman army at that time.", "The work arose, he says, from a conversation he had with the emperor Nerva at Frontinus's house at Formiae.", "He promises a work on Naval Tactics also; but this, if it was written, is lost.Critics of the 18th century — Guichard Folard and the Prince de Ligne — were unanimous in thinking Aelian greatly inferior to Arrian, but Aelian exercised a great influence both on his immediate successors, the Byzantines, and later on the Arabs, (who translated the text for their own use).", "The author of the ''Strategikon'' ascribed to the emperor Maurice selectively used Aelian's work as a conceptional model, especially its preface.", "Emperor Leo VI the Wise incorporated much of Aelian's text in his own ''Taktika''.", "The Arabic version of Aelian was made about 1350.It was first translated into Latin by Theodore Gaza, published at Rome in 1487.The Greek editio princeps was edited by Francesco Robortello and published at Venice in 1552.In spite of its academic nature, the copious details to be found in the treatise rendered it of the highest value to the army organisers of the 16th century, who were engaged in fashioning a regular military system out of the semi-feudal systems of previous generations.", "The Macedonian phalanx of Aelian had many points of resemblance to the solid masses of pikemen and the squadrons of cavalry of the Spanish and Dutch systems, and the translations made in the 16th century formed the groundwork of numerous books on drill and tactics.The first significant reference to the influence of Aelian in the 16th century is a letter to Maurice of Nassau, Prince of Orange from his cousin William Louis, Count of Nassau-Dillenburg on December 8, 1594.The letter is influential in supporting the thesis of the early-modern Military Revolution.", "In the letter, William Louis discusses the use of ranks by soldiers of Imperial Rome as discussed in Aelian's Tactica.", "Aelian was discussing the use of the counter march in the context of the Roman sword gladius and spear pilum.", "William Louis in a 'crucial leap' realised that the same technique could work for men with firearms." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "**" ] ]

[ [ "Agarose" ], [ "Introduction", "An agarose gel in a trayused for gel electrophoresis'''Agarose''' is a heteropolysaccharide, generally extracted from certain red seaweed.", "It is a linear polymer made up of the repeating unit of agarobiose, which is a disaccharide made up of D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose.", "Agarose is one of the two principal components of agar, and is purified from agar by removing agar's other component, agaropectin.Agarose is frequently used in molecular biology for the separation of large molecules, especially DNA, by electrophoresis.", "Slabs of agarose gels (usually 0.7 - 2%) for electrophoresis are readily prepared by pouring the warm, liquid solution into a mold.", "A wide range of different agaroses of varying molecular weights and properties are commercially available for this purpose.", "Agarose may also be formed into beads and used in a number of chromatographic methods for protein purification." ], [ "Structure", "The structure of the repeating unit of an agarose polymer.Agarose is a linear polymer with a molecular weight of about 120,000, consisting of alternating D-galactose and 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose linked by α-(1→3) and β-(1→4) glycosidic bonds.", "The 3,6-anhydro-L-galactopyranose is an L-galactose with an anhydro bridge between the 3 and 6 positions, although some L-galactose units in the polymer may not contain the bridge.", "Some D-galactose and L-galactose units can be methylated, and pyruvate and sulfate are also found in small quantities.Each agarose chain contains ~800 molecules of galactose, and the agarose polymer chains form helical fibers that aggregate into supercoiled structure with a radius of 20-30 nanometer (nm).", "The fibers are quasi-rigid, and have a wide range of length depending on the agarose concentration.", "When solidified, the fibers form a three-dimensional mesh of channels of diameter ranging from 50 nm to >200 nm depending on the concentration of agarose used - higher concentrations yield lower average pore diameters.", "The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state." ], [ "Properties", "Agarose is available as a white powder which dissolves in near-boiling water, and forms a gel when it cools.", "Agarose exhibits the phenomenon of thermal hysteresis in its liquid-to-gel transition, i.e.", "it gels and melts at different temperatures.", "The gelling and melting temperatures vary depending on the type of agarose.", "Standard agaroses derived from ''Gelidium'' has a gelling temperature of and a melting temperature of , while those derived from ''Gracilaria'', due to its higher methoxy substituents, has a gelling temperature of and melting temperature of .", "The melting and gelling temperatures may be dependent on the concentration of the gel, particularly at low gel concentration of less than 1%.", "The gelling and melting temperatures are therefore given at a specified agarose concentration.Natural agarose contains uncharged methyl groups and the extent of methylation is directly proportional to the gelling temperature.", "Synthetic methylation however have the reverse effect, whereby increased methylation lowers the gelling temperature.", "A variety of chemically modified agaroses with different melting and gelling temperatures are available through chemical modifications.The agarose in the gel forms a meshwork that contains pores, and the size of the pores depends on the concentration of agarose added.", "On standing, the agarose gels are prone to syneresis (extrusion of water through the gel surface), but the process is slow enough to not interfere with the use of the gel.Agarose gel can have high gel strength at low concentration, making it suitable as an anti-convection medium for gel electrophoresis.", "Agarose gels as dilute as 0.15% can form slabs for gel electrophoresis.", "The agarose polymer contains charged groups, in particular pyruvate and sulfate.", "These negatively charged groups can slow down the movement of DNA molecules in a process called electroendosmosis (EEO), and low EEO agarose is therefore generally preferred for use in agarose gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids.", "Zero EEO agaroses are also available but these may be undesirable for some applications as they may be made by adding positively charged groups that can affect subsequent enzyme reactions.", "Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used preferentially over agar as agaropectin in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulphate and carboxyl groups.", "The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduces the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix.", "However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum protein, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used.===Low melting and gelling temperature agaroses===The melting and gelling temperatures of agarose can be modified by chemical modifications, most commonly by hydroxyethylation, which reduces the number of intrastrand hydrogen bonds, resulting in lower melting and setting temperatures compared to standard agaroses.", "The exact temperature is determined by the degree of substitution, and many available low-melting-point (LMP) agaroses can remain fluid at range.", "This property allows enzymatic manipulations to be carried out directly after the DNA gel electrophoresis by adding slices of melted gel containing DNA fragment of interest to a reaction mixture.", "The LMP agarose contains fewer of the sulphates that can affect some enzymatic reactions, and is therefore preferably used for some applications.", "Hydroxyethylated agarose also has a smaller pore size (~90 nm) than standard agaroses.", "Hydroxyethylation may reduce the pore size by reducing the packing density of the agarose bundles, therefore LMP gel can also have an effect on the time and separation during electrophoresis.", "Ultra-low melting or gelling temperature agaroses may gel only at ." ], [ "Applications", "UV light on a UV Transilluminator.Agarose is a preferred matrix for work with proteins and nucleic acids as it has a broad range of physical, chemical and thermal stability, and its lower degree of chemical complexity also makes it less likely to interact with biomolecules.", "Agarose is most commonly used as the medium for analytical scale electrophoretic separation in agarose gel electrophoresis.", "Gels made from purified agarose have a relatively large pore size, making them useful for separation of large molecules, such as proteins and protein complexes >200 kilodaltons, as well as DNA fragments >100 basepairs.", "Agarose is also used widely for a number of other applications, for example immunodiffusion and immunoelectrophoresis, as the agarose fibers can function as anchor for immunocomplexes.=== Agarose gel electrophoresis ===Agarose gel electrophoresis is the routine method for resolving DNA in the laboratory.", "Agarose gels have lower resolving power for DNA than acrylamide gels, but they have greater range of separation, and are therefore usually used for DNA fragments with lengths of 50–20,000 bp (base pairs), although resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE).", "It can also be used to separate large protein molecules, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5-10 nm.The pore size of the gel affects the size of the DNA that can be sieved.", "The lower the concentration of the gel, the larger the pore size, and the larger the DNA that can be sieved.", "However low-concentration gels (0.1 - 0.2%) are fragile and therefore hard to handle, and the electrophoresis of large DNA molecules can take several days.", "The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb.", "This limit can be overcome by PFGE, where alternating orthogonal electric fields are applied to the gel.", "The DNA fragments reorientate themselves when the applied field switches direction, but larger molecules of DNA take longer to realign themselves when the electric field is altered, while for smaller ones it is quicker, and the DNA can therefore be fractionated according to size.Agarose gels are cast in a mold, and when set, usually run horizontally submerged in a buffer solution.", "Tris-acetate-EDTA and Tris-Borate-EDTA buffers are commonly used, but other buffers such as Tris-phosphate, barbituric acid-sodium barbiturate or Tris-barbiturate buffers may be used in other applications.", "The DNA is normally visualized by staining with ethidium bromide and then viewed under a UV light, but other methods of staining are available, such as SYBR Green, GelRed, methylene blue, and crystal violet.", "If the separated DNA fragments are needed for further downstream experiment, they can be cut out from the gel in slices for further manipulation.FPLC machine.=== Protein purification ===Agarose gel matrix is often used for protein purification, for example, in column-based preparative scale separation as in gel filtration chromatography, affinity chromatography and ion exchange chromatography.", "It is however not used as a continuous gel, rather it is formed into porous beads or resins of varying fineness.", "The beads are highly porous so that protein may flow freely through the beads.", "These agarose-based beads are generally soft and easily crushed, so they should be used under gravity-flow, low-speed centrifugation, or low-pressure procedures.", "The strength of the resins can be improved by increased cross-linking and chemical hardening of the agarose resins, however such changes may also result in a lower binding capacity for protein in some separation procedures such as affinity chromatography.Agarose is a useful material for chromatography because it does not absorb biomolecules to any significant extent, has good flow properties, and can tolerate extremes of pH and ionic strength as well as high concentration of denaturants such as 8M urea or 6M guanidine HCl.", "Examples of agarose-based matrix for gel filtration chromatography are Sepharose and WorkBeads 40 SEC (cross-linked beaded agarose), ''Praesto'' and Superose (highly cross-linked beaded agaroses), and Superdex (dextran covalently linked to agarose).For affinity chromatography, beaded agarose is the most commonly used matrix resin for the attachment of the ligands that bind protein.", "The ligands are linked covalently through a spacer to activated hydroxyl groups of agarose bead polymer.", "Proteins of interest can then be selectively bound to the ligands to separate them from other proteins, after which it can be eluted.", "The agarose beads used are typically of 4% and 6% densities with a high binding capacity for protein.===Solid culture media===Agarose plate may sometimes be used instead of agar for culturing organisms as agar may contain impurities that can affect the growth of the organism or some downstream procedures such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR).", "Agarose is also harder than agar and may therefore be preferable where greater gel strength is necessary, and its lower gelling temperature may prevent causing thermal shock to the organism when the cells are suspended in liquid before gelling.", "It may be used for the culture of strict autotrophic bacteria, plant protoplast, ''Caenorhabditis elegans'', other organisms and various cell lines.=== Motility assays ===Agarose is sometimes used instead of agar to measure microorganism motility and mobility.", "Motile species will be able to migrate, albeit slowly, throughout the porous gel and infiltration rates can then be visualized.", "The gel's porosity is directly related to the concentration of agar or agarose in the medium, so different concentration gels may be used to assess a cell's swimming, swarming, gliding and twitching motility.", "Under-agarose cell migration assay may be used to measure chemotaxis and chemokinesis.", "A layer of agarose gel is placed between a cell population and a chemoattractant.", "As a concentration gradient develops from the diffusion of the chemoattractant into the gel, various cell populations requiring different stimulation levels to migrate can then be visualized over time using microphotography as they tunnel upward through the gel against gravity along the gradient." ], [ "See also", "*Agar*SDD-AGE" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Atomic absorption spectroscopy" ], [ "Introduction", "Flame atomic absorption spectroscopy instrumentA scientist preparing solutions for atomic absorption spectroscopy, reflected in the glass window of the AAS's flame atomizer cover door'''Atomic absorption spectroscopy''' ('''AAS''') and atomic emission spectroscopy ('''AES''') is a spectroanalytical procedure for the quantitative determination of chemical elements by free atoms in the gaseous state.", "Atomic absorption spectroscopy is based on absorption of light by free metallic ions.In analytical chemistry the technique is used for determining the concentration of a particular element (the analyte) in a sample to be analyzed.", "AAS can be used to determine over 70 different elements in solution, or directly in solid samples via electrothermal vaporization, and is used in pharmacology, biophysics,archaeology and toxicology research.Atomic emission spectroscopy (AAS) was first used as an analytical technique, and the underlying principles were established in the second half of the 19th century by Robert Wilhelm Bunsen and Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, both professors at the University of Heidelberg, Germany.The modern form of AAS was largely developed during the 1950s by a team of Australian chemists.", "They were led by Sir Alan Walsh at the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Division of Chemical Physics, in Melbourne, Australia.Atomic absorption spectrometry has many uses in different areas of chemistry such as clinical analysis of metals in biological fluids and tissues such as whole blood, plasma, urine, saliva, brain tissue, liver, hair, muscle tissue.", "Atomic absorption spectrometry can be used in qualitative and quantitative analysis." ], [ "Principles", "The technique makes use of the atomic absorption spectrum of a sample in order to assess the concentration of specific analytes within it.", "It requires standards with known analyte content to establish the relation between the measured absorbance and the analyte concentration and relies therefore on the Beer–Lambert law.", "## Analyzing Samples with Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS) measures the concentration of specific elements in a sample by analyzing their unique \"fingerprint\" in the form of an atomic absorption spectrum.", "Here's how it works:**Step 1: Sample Preparation:*** The sample is typically dissolved in a suitable solvent (acids, water) to create a liquid solution.", "This ensures the analytes are present as free atoms, ready for absorption.", "* For solid samples like ores or minerals, additional steps like grinding and digestion may be required to break down the matrix and liberate the analytes.", "**Step 2: Atomization:*** The prepared solution is nebulized into a fine mist and introduced into a high-temperature flame (air-acetylene or nitrous oxide-acetylene mix).", "* The intense heat in the flame excites the electrons in the analyte atoms, promoting them to higher energy levels.", "**Step 3: Absorption:*** Simultaneously, a hollow cathode lamp containing the same element as the analyte emits a specific wavelength of light that corresponds to the energy difference between the excited and ground state of the analyte atoms.", "* As the emitted light passes through the atomized sample, some photons are absorbed by the excited analyte atoms, causing them to return to their ground state.", "This absorption decreases the intensity of the light at the specific wavelength.", "**Step 4: Measurement and Analysis:*** The light intensity before and after passing through the sample is measured by a detector.", "* The difference in intensity is directly proportional to the concentration of the analyte in the sample, following the Beer-Lambert law: * **A = εcl**, where: * A is the absorbance measured.", "* ε is the molar absorptivity (constant specific to the element and wavelength).", "* c is the concentration of the analyte.", "* l is the path length of the light through the sample.", "**Step 5: Calibration and Quantification:*** To determine the actual concentration of the analyte, the instrument is calibrated using standard solutions containing known concentrations of the element.", "* By comparing the measured absorbance of the sample to the calibration curve, the concentration of the analyte in the original sample can be calculated.", "**Feedback Mechanism:**The measured absorbance directly provides feedback on the concentration of the analyte in the sample.", "This feedback loop allows the AAS to analyze various samples efficiently and determine their elemental composition with high accuracy.In summary, AAS utilizes the unique absorption properties of elements to accurately quantify their concentration in samples.", "By preparing the sample, atomizing the analytes, measuring their absorption of specific light, and applying the Beer-Lambert law, this powerful technique helps us understand the elemental makeup of diverse materials across various scientific and industrial fields." ], [ "Instrumentation", "Atomic absorption spectrometer block diagramIn order to analyze a sample for its atomic constituents, it has to be atomized.", "The atomizers most commonly used nowadays are flames and electrothermal (graphite tube) atomizers.", "The atoms should then be irradiated by optical radiation, and the radiation source could be an element-specific line radiation source or a continuum radiation source.", "The radiation then passes through a monochromator in order to separate the element-specific radiation from any other radiation emitted by the radiation source, which is finally measured by a detector.=== Atomizers ===The used nowadays are spectroscopic flames and electrothermal atomizers.", "Other atomizers, such as glow-discharge atomization, hydride atomization, or cold-vapor atomization, might be used for special purposes.==== Flame atomizers ====The oldest and most commonly used atomizers in AAS are flames, principally the air-acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2300 °C and the nitrous oxide system (N2O)-acetylene flame with a temperature of about 2700 °C.", "The latter flame, in addition, offers a more reducing environment, being ideally suited for analytes with high affinity to oxygen.A laboratory flame photometer that uses a propane operated flame atomizerLiquid or dissolved samples are typically used with flame atomizers.", "The sample solution is aspirated by a pneumatic analytical nebulizer, transformed into an aerosol, which is introduced into a spray chamber, where it is mixed with the flame gases and conditioned in a way that only the finest aerosol droplets (−1 range, and may be extended down to a few μg L−1 for some elements.==== Electrothermal atomizers ====GFAA method developmentGraphite tubeElectrothermal AAS (ET AAS) using graphite tube atomizers was pioneered by Boris V. L’vov at the Saint Petersburg Polytechnical Institute, Russia, since the late 1950s, and investigated in parallel by Hans Massmann at the Institute of Spectrochemistry and Applied Spectroscopy (ISAS) in Dortmund, Germany.Although a wide variety of graphite tube designs have been used over the years, the dimensions nowadays are typically 20–25 mm in length and 5–6 mm inner diameter.", "With this technique liquid/dissolved, solid and gaseous samples may be analyzed directly.", "A measured volume (typically 10–50 μL) or a weighed mass (typically around 1 mg) of a solid sample are introduced into the graphite tube and subject to a temperature program.", "This typically consists of stages, such as drying – the solvent is evaporated; pyrolysis – the majority of the matrix constituents are removed; atomization – the analyte element is released to the gaseous phase; and cleaning – eventual residues in the graphite tube are removed at high temperature.The graphite tubes are heated via their ohmic resistance using a low-voltage high-current power supply; the temperature in the individual stages can be controlled very closely, and temperature ramps between the individual stages facilitate separation of sample components.", "Tubes may be heated transversely or longitudinally, where the former ones have the advantage of a more homogeneous temperature distribution over their length.", "The so-called stabilized temperature platform furnace (STPF) concept, proposed by Walter Slavin, based on research of Boris L’vov, makes ET AAS essentially free from interference.", "The major components of this concept are atomization of the sample from a graphite platform inserted into the graphite tube (L’vov platform) instead of from the tube wall in order to delay atomization until the gas phase in the atomizer has reached a stable temperature; use of a chemical modifier in order to stabilize the analyte to a pyrolysis temperature that is sufficient to remove the majority of the matrix components; and integration of the absorbance over the time of the transient absorption signal instead of using peak height absorbance for quantification.In ET AAS a transient signal is generated, the area of which is directly proportional to the mass of analyte (not its concentration) introduced into the graphite tube.", "This technique has the advantage that any kind of sample, solid, liquid or gaseous, can be analyzed directly.", "Its sensitivity is 2–3 orders of magnitude higher than that of flame AAS, so that determinations in the low μg L−1 range (for a typical sample volume of 20 μL) and ng g−1 range (for a typical sample mass of 1 mg) can be carried out.", "It shows a very high degree of freedom from interferences, so that ET AAS might be considered the most robust technique available nowadays for the determination of trace elements in complex matrices.====Specialized atomization techniques====While flame and electrothermal vaporizers are the most common atomization techniques, several other atomization methods are utilized for specialized use.=====Glow-discharge atomization=====A glow-discharge device (GD) serves as a versatile source, as it can simultaneously introduce and atomize the sample.", "The glow discharge occurs in a low-pressure argon gas atmosphere between 1 and 10 torr.", "In this atmosphere lies a pair of electrodes applying a DC voltage of 250 to 1000 V to break down the argon gas into positively charged ions and electrons.", "These ions, under the influence of the electric field, are accelerated into the cathode surface containing the sample, bombarding the sample and causing neutral sample atom ejection through the process known as sputtering.", "The atomic vapor produced by this discharge is composed of ions, ground state atoms, and fraction of excited atoms.", "When the excited atoms relax back into their ground state, a low-intensity glow is emitted, giving the technique its name.The requirement for samples of glow discharge atomizers is that they are electrical conductors.", "Consequently, atomizers are most commonly used in the analysis of metals and other conducting samples.", "However, with proper modifications, it can be utilized to analyze liquid samples as well as nonconducting materials by mixing them with a conductor (e.g.", "graphite).=====Hydride atomization=====Hydride generation techniques are specialized in solutions of specific elements.", "The technique provides a means of introducing samples containing arsenic, antimony, selenium, bismuth, and lead into an atomizer in the gas phase.", "With these elements, hydride atomization enhances detection limits by a factor of 10 to 100 compared to alternative methods.", "Hydride generation occurs by adding an acidified aqueous solution of the sample to a 1% aqueous solution of sodium borohydride, all of which is contained in a glass vessel.", "The volatile hydride generated by the reaction that occurs is swept into the atomization chamber by an inert gas, where it undergoes decomposition.", "This process forms an atomized form of the analyte, which can then be measured by absorption or emission spectrometry.=====Cold-vapor atomization=====The cold-vapor technique is an atomization method limited only for the determination of mercury, due to it being the only metallic element to have a large vapor pressure at ambient temperature.", "Because of this, it has an important use in determining organic mercury compounds in samples and their distribution in the environment.", "The method initiates by converting mercury into Hg2+ by oxidation from nitric and sulfuric acids, followed by a reduction of Hg2+ with tin(II) chloride.", "The mercury, is then swept into a long-pass absorption tube by bubbling a stream of inert gas through the reaction mixture.", "The concentration is determined by measuring the absorbance of this gas at 253.7 nm.", "Detection limits for this technique are in the parts-per-billion range making it an excellent mercury detection atomization method.=== Radiation sources ===We have to distinguish between line source AAS (LS AAS) and continuum source AAS (CS AAS).", "In classical LS AAS, as it has been proposed by Alan Walsh, the high spectral resolution required for AAS measurements is provided by the radiation source itself that emits the spectrum of the analyte in the form of lines that are narrower than the absorption lines.", "Continuum sources, such as deuterium lamps, are only used for background correction purposes.", "The advantage of this technique is that only a medium-resolution monochromator is necessary for measuring AAS; however, it has the disadvantage that usually a separate lamp is required for each element that has to be determined.", "In CS AAS, in contrast, a single lamp, emitting a continuum spectrum over the entire spectral range of interest is used for all elements.", "Obviously, a high-resolution monochromator is required for this technique, as will be discussed later.Hollow cathode lamp (HCL)==== Hollow cathode lamps ====Hollow cathode lamps (HCL) are the most common radiation source in LS AAS.", "Inside the sealed lamp, filled with argon or neon gas at low pressure, is a cylindrical metal cathode containing the element of interest and an anode.", "A high voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, resulting in an ionization of the fill gas.", "The gas ions are accelerated towards the cathode and, upon impact on the cathode, sputter cathode material that is excited in the glow discharge to emit the radiation of the sputtered material, i.e., the element of interest.", "In the majority of cases single element lamps are used, where the cathode is pressed out of predominantly compounds of the target element.", "Multi-element lamps are available with combinations of compounds of the target elements pressed in the cathode.", "Multi element lamps produce slightly less sensitivity than single element lamps and the combinations of elements have to be selected carefully to avoid spectral interferences.", "Most multi-element lamps combine a handful of elements, e.g.", ": 2 - 8.Atomic Absorption Spectrometers can feature as few as 1-2 hollow cathode lamp positions or in automated multi-element spectrometers, a 8-12 lamp positions may be typically available.==== Electrodeless discharge lamps ====Electrodeless discharge lamps (EDL) contain a small quantity of the analyte as a metal or a salt in a quartz bulb together with an inert gas, typically argon gas, at low pressure.", "The bulb is inserted into a coil that is generating an electromagnetic radio frequency field, resulting in a low-pressure inductively coupled discharge in the lamp.", "The emission from an EDL is higher than that from an HCL, and the line width is generally narrower, but EDLs need a separate power supply and might need a longer time to stabilize.==== Deuterium lamps ====Deuterium HCL or even hydrogen HCL and deuterium discharge lamps are used in LS AAS for background correction purposes.", "The radiation intensity emitted by these lamps decreases significantly with increasing wavelength, so that they can be only used in the wavelength range between 190 and about 320 nm.Xenon lamp as a continuous radiation source==== Continuum sources ====When a continuum radiation source is used for AAS, it is necessary to use a high-resolution monochromator, as will be discussed later.", "In addition, it is necessary that the lamp emits radiation of intensity at least an order of magnitude above that of a typical HCL over the entire wavelength range from 190 nm to 900 nm.", "A special high-pressure xenon short arc lamp, operating in a hot-spot mode has been developed to fulfill these requirements.=== Spectrometer ===As already pointed out above, there is a difference between medium-resolution spectrometers that are used for LS AAS and high-resolution spectrometers that are designed for CS AAS.", "The spectrometer includes the spectral sorting device (monochromator) and the detector.==== Spectrometers for LS AAS ====In LS AAS the high resolution that is required for the measurement of atomic absorption is provided by the narrow line emission of the radiation source, and the monochromator simply has to resolve the analytical line from other radiation emitted by the lamp.", "This can usually be accomplished with a band pass between 0.2 and 2 nm, i.e., a medium-resolution monochromator.", "Another feature to make LS AAS element-specific is modulation of the primary radiation and the use of a selective amplifier that is tuned to the same modulation frequency, as already postulated by Alan Walsh.", "This way any (unmodulated) radiation emitted for example by the atomizer can be excluded, which is imperative for LS AAS.", "Simple monochromators of the Littrow or (better) the Czerny-Turner design are typically used for LS AAS.", "Photomultiplier tubes are the most frequently used detectors in LS AAS, although solid state detectors might be preferred because of their better signal-to-noise ratio.==== Spectrometers for CS AAS ====When a continuum radiation source is used for AAS measurement it is indispensable to work with a high-resolution monochromator.", "The resolution has to be equal to or better than the half-width of an atomic absorption line (about 2 pm) in order to avoid losses of sensitivity and linearity of the calibration graph.", "The research with high-resolution (HR) CS AAS was pioneered by the groups of O’Haver and Harnly in the US, who also developed the (up until now) only simultaneous multi-element spectrometer for this technique.", "The breakthrough, however, came when the group of Becker-Ross in Berlin, Germany, built a spectrometer entirely designed for HR-CS AAS.", "The first commercial equipment for HR-CS AAS was introduced by Analytik Jena (Jena, Germany) at the beginning of the 21st century, based on the design proposed by Becker-Ross and Florek.", "These spectrometers use a compact double monochromator with a prism pre-monochromator and an echelle grating monochromator for high resolution.", "A linear charge-coupled device (CCD) array with 200 pixels is used as the detector.", "The second monochromator does not have an exit slit; hence the spectral environment at both sides of the analytical line becomes visible at high resolution.", "As typically only 3–5 pixels are used to measure the atomic absorption, the other pixels are available for correction purposes.", "One of these corrections is that for lamp flicker noise, which is independent of wavelength, resulting in measurements with very low noise level; other corrections are those for background absorption, as will be discussed later." ], [ "Background absorption and background correction", "The relatively small number of atomic absorption lines (compared to atomic emission lines) and their narrow width (a few pm) make spectral overlap rare; there are only few examples known that an absorption line from one element will overlap with another.", "Molecular absorption, in contrast, is much broader, so that it is more likely that some molecular absorption band will overlap with an atomic line.", "This kind of absorption might be caused by un-dissociated molecules of concomitant elements of the sample or by flame gases.", "We have to distinguish between the spectra of di-atomic molecules, which exhibit a pronounced fine structure, and those of larger (usually tri-atomic) molecules that don't show such fine structure.", "Another source of background absorption, particularly in ET AAS, is scattering of the primary radiation at particles that are generated in the atomization stage, when the matrix could not be removed sufficiently in the pyrolysis stage.All these phenomena, molecular absorption and radiation scattering, can result in artificially high absorption and an improperly high (erroneous) calculation for the concentration or mass of the analyte in the sample.", "There are several techniques available to correct for background absorption, and they are significantly different for LS AAS and HR-CS AAS.=== Background correction techniques in LS AAS ===In LS AAS background absorption can only be corrected using instrumental techniques, and all of them are based on two sequential measurements: firstly, total absorption (atomic plus background), secondly, background absorption only.", "The difference of the two measurements gives the net atomic absorption.", "Because of this, and because of the use of additional devices in the spectrometer, the signal-to-noise ratio of background-corrected signals is always significantly inferior compared to uncorrected signals.", "It should also be pointed out that in LS AAS there is no way to correct for (the rare case of) a direct overlap of two atomic lines.", "In essence there are three techniques used for background correction in LS AAS:==== Deuterium background correction ====This is the oldest and still most commonly used technique, particularly for flame AAS.", "In this case, a separate source (a deuterium lamp) with broad emission is used to measure the background absorption over the entire width of the exit slit of the spectrometer.", "The use of a separate lamp makes this technique the least accurate one, as it cannot correct for any structured background.", "It also cannot be used at wavelengths above about 320 nm, as the emission intensity of the deuterium lamp becomes very weak.", "The use of deuterium HCL is preferable compared to an arc lamp due to the better fit of the image of the former lamp with that of the analyte HCL.==== Smith-Hieftje background correction ====This technique (named after their inventors) is based on the line-broadening and self-reversal of emission lines from HCL when high current is applied.", "Total absorption is measured with normal lamp current, i.e., with a narrow emission line, and background absorption after application of a high-current pulse with the profile of the self-reversed line, which has little emission at the original wavelength, but strong emission on both sides of the analytical line.", "The advantage of this technique is that only one radiation source is used; among the disadvantages are that the high-current pulses reduce lamp lifetime, and that the technique can only be used for relatively volatile elements, as only those exhibit sufficient self-reversal to avoid dramatic loss of sensitivity.", "Another problem is that background is not measured at the same wavelength as total absorption, making the technique unsuitable for correcting structured background.==== Zeeman-effect background correction ====An alternating magnetic field is applied at the atomizer (graphite furnace) to split the absorption line into three components, the π component, which remains at the same position as the original absorption line, and two σ components, which are moved to higher and lower wavelengths, respectively.", "Total absorption is measured without magnetic field and background absorption with the magnetic field on.", "The π component has to be removed in this case, e.g.", "using a polarizer, and the σ components do not overlap with the emission profile of the lamp, so that only the background absorption is measured.", "The advantages of this technique are that total and background absorption are measured with the same emission profile of the same lamp, so that any kind of background, including background with fine structure can be corrected accurately, unless the molecule responsible for the background is also affected by the magnetic field and using a chopper as a polariser reduces the signal to noise ratio.", "While the disadvantages are the increased complexity of the spectrometer and power supply needed for running the powerful magnet needed to split the absorption line.=== Background correction techniques in HR-CS AAS ===In HR-CS AAS background correction is carried out mathematically in the software using information from detector pixels that are not used for measuring atomic absorption; hence, in contrast to LS AAS, no additional components are required for background correction.==== Background correction using correction pixels ====It has already been mentioned that in HR-CS AAS lamp flicker noise is eliminated using correction pixels.", "In fact, any increase or decrease in radiation intensity that is observed to the same extent at all pixels chosen for correction is eliminated by the correction algorithm.", "This obviously also includes a reduction of the measured intensity due to radiation scattering or molecular absorption, which is corrected in the same way.", "As measurement of total and background absorption, and correction for the latter, are strictly simultaneous (in contrast to LS AAS), even the fastest changes of background absorption, as they may be observed in ET AAS, do not cause any problem.", "In addition, as the same algorithm is used for background correction and elimination of lamp noise, the background corrected signals show a much better signal-to-noise ratio compared to the uncorrected signals, which is also in contrast to LS AAS.==== Background correction using a least-squares algorithm ====The above technique can obviously not correct for a background with fine structure, as in this case the absorbance will be different at each of the correction pixels.", "In this case HR-CS AAS is offering the possibility to measure correction spectra of the molecule(s) that is (are) responsible for the background and store them in the computer.", "These spectra are then multiplied with a factor to match the intensity of the sample spectrum and subtracted pixel by pixel and spectrum by spectrum from the sample spectrum using a least-squares algorithm.", "This might sound complex, but first of all the number of di-atomic molecules that can exist at the temperatures of the atomizers used in AAS is relatively small, and second, the correction is performed by the computer within a few seconds.", "The same algorithm can actually also be used to correct for direct line overlap of two atomic absorption lines, making HR-CS AAS the only AAS technique that can correct for this kind of spectral interference." ], [ "See also", "*Absorption spectroscopy*Beer–Lambert law*Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry*Laser absorption spectrometry" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*B. Welz, M. Sperling (1999), ''Atomic Absorption Spectrometry'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, .", "*A.", "Walsh (1955), ''The application of atomic absorption spectra to chemical analysis'', Spectrochim.", "Acta 7: 108–117.*J.A.C.", "Broekaert (1998), ''Analytical Atomic Spectrometry with Flames and Plasmas'', 3rd Edition, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany.*B.V.", "L’vov (1984), ''Twenty-five years of furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy'', Spectrochim.", "Acta Part B, 39: 149–157.*B.V.", "L’vov (2005), ''Fifty years of atomic absorption spectrometry''; J. Anal.", "Chem., 60: 382–392.*H.", "Massmann (1968), ''Vergleich von Atomabsorption und Atomfluoreszenz in der Graphitküvette'', Spectrochim.", "Acta Part B, 23: 215–226.*W.", "Slavin, D.C. Manning, G.R.", "Carnrick (1981), ''The stabilized temperature platform furnace'', At.", "Spectrosc.", "2: 137–145.*B.", "Welz, H. Becker-Ross, S. Florek, U. Heitmann (2005), ''High-resolution Continuum Source AAS'', Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, Germany, .", "*H.", "Becker-Ross, S. Florek, U. Heitmann, R. Weisse (1996), ''Influence of the spectral bandwidth of the spectrometer on the sensitivity using continuum source AAS'', Fresenius J. Anal.", "Chem.", "355: 300–303.*J.M.", "Harnly (1986), ''Multi element atomic absorption with a continuum source'', Anal.", "Chem.", "58: 933A-943A.", "*Skoog, Douglas (2007).", "Principles of Instrumental Analysis (6th ed.).", "Canada: Thomson Brooks/Cole.", "." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Arthur St. Clair" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Arthur St. Clair''' ( – August 31, 1818) was a Scottish-American soldier and politician.", "Born in Thurso, Scotland, he served in the British Army during the French and Indian War before settling in Pennsylvania, where he held local office.", "During the American Revolutionary War, he rose to the rank of major general in the Continental Army, but lost his command after a controversial retreat from Fort Ticonderoga.After the war, he served as President of the Continental Congress, which during his term passed the Northwest Ordinance.", "He was then made governor of the Northwest Territory in 1788, and then the portion that would become Ohio in 1800.In 1791, St. Clair commanded the American forces in what was the United States' worst-ever defeat by the Native Americans, which became known as St. Clair's defeat.", "Politically out-of-step with the Jefferson administration, he was replaced as governor in 1802." ], [ "Early life and career", "St. Clair was born in Thurso, Caithness, Scotland.", "Little is known of his early life.", "Early biographers estimated his year of birth as 1734, but subsequent historians uncovered a birth date of March 23, 1736, which in the modern calendar system means that he was born in 1737.His parents, unknown to early biographers, were probably William Sinclair, a merchant, and Elizabeth Balfour.", "He reportedly attended the University of Edinburgh before being apprenticed to the renowned physician William Hunter.In 1757, St. Clair purchased a commission in the British Army, Royal American Regiment, and came to America with Admiral Edward Boscawen's fleet for the French and Indian War.", "He served under General Jeffery Amherst at the capture of Louisburg, Nova Scotia, on July 26, 1758.On April 17, 1759, he received a lieutenant's commission and was assigned under the command of General James Wolfe, under whom he served at the Battle of the Plains of Abraham which resulted in the capture of Quebec City." ], [ "Settler in America", "On April 16, 1762, he resigned his commission, and, in 1764, he settled in Ligonier Valley, Pennsylvania, where he purchased land and erected mills.", "He was the largest landowner in Western Pennsylvania.In 1770, St. Clair became a justice of the court, of quarter sessions and of common pleas, a member of the proprietary council, a justice, recorder, and clerk of the orphans' court, and prothonotary of Bedford and Westmoreland counties.In 1774, the colony of Virginia took claim of the area around Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, and some residents of Western Pennsylvania took up arms to eject them.", "St. Clair issued an order for the arrest of the officer leading the Virginia troops.", "Lord Dunmore's War eventually settled the boundary dispute." ], [ "Revolutionary War", "By the mid-1770s, St. Clair considered himself more of an American than a British subject.", "In January 1776, he accepted a commission in the Continental Army as a colonel of the 3rd Pennsylvania Regiment.", "He first saw service in the later days of the Quebec invasion, where he saw action in the Battle of Trois-Rivières.", "He was appointed a brigadier general in August 1776, and was sent by Gen. George Washington to help organize the New Jersey militia.", "He took part in George Washington's crossing of the Delaware River on the night of December 25–26, 1776, before the Battle of Trenton on the morning of December 26.Many biographers credit St. Clair with the strategy that led to Washington's capture of Princeton, New Jersey, on January 3, 1777.St.", "Clair was promoted to major general in February 1777.In April 1777, St. Clair was sent to defend Fort Ticonderoga.", "His outnumbered garrison could not resist British General John Burgoyne's larger force in the Saratoga campaign.", "St. Clair was forced to retreat at the Siege of Fort Ticonderoga on July 5, 1777.He withdrew his forces and played no further part in the campaign.", "In 1778 he was court-martialed for the loss of Ticonderoga.", "The court exonerated him and he returned to duty, although he was no longer given any battlefield commands.", "He still saw action, however, as an aide-de-camp to General Washington, who retained a high opinion of him.", "St. Clair was at Yorktown when Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army.", "During his military service, St. Clair was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 1780." ], [ "President of the United States in Congress Assembled", "St. Clair was a member of the Pennsylvania Council of Censors in 1783 and was elected a delegate to the Confederation Congress, serving from November 2, 1785, until November 28, 1787.Chaos ruled the day in early 1787 with Shays's Rebellion in full force and the states refusing to settle land disputes or contribute to the now six-year-old federal government.", "On February 2, 1787, the delegates finally gathered into a quorum and elected St. Clair to a one-year term as President of the Continental Congress.", "Congress enacted its most important piece of legislation, the Northwest Ordinance, during St. Clair's tenure as president.", "Time was running out for the Confederation Congress, however; during St. Clair's presidency, the Philadelphia Convention was drafting a new United States Constitution, which would abolish the old Congress." ], [ "Northwest Territory", "''A Narrative'' printed by Jane AitkenUnder the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which created the Northwest Territory, General St. Clair was appointed governor of what is now Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, along with parts of Wisconsin and Minnesota.", "He named Cincinnati, Ohio, after the Society of the Cincinnati, and it was there that he established his home.As Governor, he formulated Maxwell's Code (named after its printer, William Maxwell), the first written laws of the territory.", "He also sought to end Native American claims to Ohio land and clear the way for white settlement.", "In 1789, he succeeded in getting certain Native Americans to sign the Treaty of Fort Harmar, but many native leaders had not been invited to participate in the negotiations, or had refused to do so.", "Rather than settling the Native Americans' claims, the treaty provoked them to further resistance in what is also sometimes known as the \"Northwest Indian War\" (or \"Little Turtle's War\").", "Mutual hostilities led to a campaign by General Josiah Harmar, whose 1,500 militiamen were defeated by the Native Americans in October 1790.In March 1791, St. Clair succeeded Harmar as commander of the United States Army and was commissioned as a major general.", "He personally led a punitive expedition involving two Regular Army regiments and some militia.", "In October 1791 as an advance post for his campaign, Fort Jefferson (Ohio) was built under the direction of General Arthur St. Clair.", "Located in present-day Darke County in far western Ohio, the fort was built of wood and intended primarily as a supply depot; accordingly, it was originally named Fort Deposit.One month later, near modern-day Fort Recovery, his force advanced to the location of Native American settlements near the headwaters of the Wabash River, but on November 4 they were routed in battle by a tribal confederation led by Miami Chief Little Turtle and Shawnee chief Blue Jacket.", "They were aided by British collaborators Alexander McKee and Simon Girty.", "More than 600 soldiers and scores of women and children were killed in the battle, which has since borne the name \"St. Clair's Defeat\", also known as the \"Battle of the Wabash\", the \"Columbia Massacre,\" or the \"Battle of a Thousand Slain\".", "It remains the greatest defeat of a US Army by Native Americans in history, with about 623 American soldiers killed in action and about 50 Native Americans killed.", "The wounded were many, including St. Clair and Capt.", "Robert Benham.Although an investigation exonerated him, St. Clair resigned his army commission in March 1792 at the request of President Washington, but he continued to serve as Governor of the Northwest Territory.St.", "Clair signed check while Governor of Northwest Territory (1796)A Federalist, St. Clair hoped to see two states made of the Ohio Territory in order to increase Federalist power in Congress.", "However, he was opposed by Ohio Democratic-Republicans for what were perceived as his partisanship, high-handedness, and arrogance in office.", "In 1802, St. Clair remarked the U.S. Congress had no power to interfere in the affairs of those in the Ohio Territory.", "He also stated the people of the territory \"are no more bound by an act of Congress than we would be bound by an edict of the first consul of France.\"", "This led President Thomas Jefferson to remove him from office as territorial governor.", "He thus played no part in the organizing of the state of Ohio in 1803.The first Ohio Constitution provided for a weak governor and a strong legislature, in part as a reaction to St. Clair's method of governance." ], [ "Family life", "St. Clair met Phoebe Bayard, a member of one of the most prominent families in Boston, and they were married in 1760.Miss Bayard's mother's maiden name was Bowdoin and she was the sister of James Bowdoin, colonial governor of Massachusetts.His eldest daughter was Louisa St. Clair Robb, a mounted messenger and scout, and known as a beautiful huntress.Like many of his Revolutionary era peers, St. Clair suffered from gout as noted in correspondence with John Adams." ], [ "Death", "In retirement St. Clair lived with his daughter, Louisa St. Clair Robb, and her family on the ridge between Ligonier and Greensburg.Arthur St. Clair died in poverty in Greensburg, Pennsylvania, on August 31, 1818, at the age of 81.His remains are buried under a Masonic monument in St. Clair Park in downtown Greensburg.", "St. Clair had been a petitioner for a Charter for Nova CaesareaLodge #10 in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1791.This Lodge exists today, as Nova Caesarea Harmony #2.His wife Phoebe died shortly after and is buried beside him." ], [ "Legacy", "A portion of the Hermitage, St. Clair's home in Oak Grove, Pennsylvania (north of Ligonier), was later moved to Ligonier, Pennsylvania, where it is now preserved, along with St. Clair artifacts and memorabilia at the Fort Ligonier Museum.An American Civil War steamer was named USS ''St.", "Clair''.Lydia Sigourney included a poem in his honor, in her first poetry collection of 1815.The site of Clair's inauguration as Governor of the Northwest Territory is now occupied by the ''National Start Westward Memorial of The United States'', commemorating the settlement of the territory.Places named in honor of Arthur St. Clair include:In Pennsylvania:* Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania* St. Clairsville, Pennsylvania* St. Clair Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania* St. Clair Township, Westmoreland County, Pennsylvania* East St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania* West St. Clair Township, Bedford County, Pennsylvania* The St. Clair neighborhood in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania* St. Clair Hospital, Mt.", "Lebanon, PennsylvaniaIn Ohio:*St. Clair Township in Butler County, Ohio* St. Clair Township in Columbiana County, Ohio,* St. Clairsville, Ohio* St. Clair Avenue in Cleveland, Ohio* St. Clair Street in Dayton, Ohio* St. Clair Street in Toledo, Ohio* St. Clair Street in Marietta, Ohio* Fort St. Clair in Eaton, OhioOther States:* St. Clair County, Illinois* St. Clair Street in Indianapolis, Indiana* St. Clair County, Missouri* St. Clair County, Alabama* St. Clair Street in Frankfort, Kentucky, was named for the St. Clair by Gen. James Wilkinson, who laid out the town that became the state capital.", "The street's north end is at the Old Capitol, and near its south end is the Franklin County Court House; both were designed by Gideon Shryock.In Scotland:* The three-star St Clair Hotel in Sinclair St, Thurso, Caithness, is named after him." ], [ "References", "'''Notes''''''Books'''* Kopper, Kevin Patrick.", "\"Arthur St. Clair and the Struggle For Power in the Old Northwest, 1763–1803\" (Dissertation.", "Kent State University, 2005) online * *" ], [ "External links", "* Ohio Memory* Ohio History Central* The Hermitage – home of Arthur St. Clair" ] ]

[ [ "Ajaccio" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ajaccio''' (, , ; French: ; or ; , locally: ; ) is the capital and largest city of Corsica, France.", "It forms a French commune, prefecture of the department of Corse-du-Sud, and head office of the ''Collectivité territoriale de Corse'' (capital city of Corsica).", "It is also the largest settlement on the island.", "Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, southeast of Marseille.The original city went into decline in the Middle Ages, but began to prosper again after the Genoese built a citadel in 1492, to the south of the earlier settlement.", "After the Corsican Republic was declared in 1755, the Genoese continued to hold several citadels, including Ajaccio, until the French took control of the island.The inhabitants of the commune are known as ''Ajacciens'' (men) or ''Ajacciennes'' (women).", "The most famous of these is Napoleon Bonaparte, who was born in Ajaccio in 1769, and whose ancestral home, the Maison Bonaparte, is now a museum.", "Other dedications to him in the city include Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport." ], [ "Toponymy", "Several hypotheses have been advanced as to the etymology of the name ''Ajaccio'' (''Aiacciu'' in Corsican, ''Addiazzo'' on old documents).", "Among these, the most prestigious suggests that the city was founded by the Greek legendary hero Ajax and named after him.", "Other more realistic explanations are, for example, that the name could be related to the Tuscan ''agghiacciu'' meaning \"sheep pens\".", "Another explanation, supported by Byzantine sources from around the year 600 AD called the city ''Agiation'' which suggests a possible Greek origin for the word, ''agathè'' could mean \"good luck\" or \"good mooring\" (this was also the root of the name of the city of Agde)." ], [ "Geography", "===Location===Ajaccio is located on the west coast of the island of Corsica, southeast of Marseille.", "The commune occupies a sheltered position at the foot of wooded hills on the northern shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio between Gravona and the ''pointe de la Parata'' and includes the ''îles Sanguinaires'' (Bloody Islands).", "The harbour lies to the east of the original citadel below a hill overlooking a peninsula which protects the harbour in the south where the Quai de la Citadelle and the Jettée de la Citadelle are.", "The modern city not only encloses the entire harbour but takes up the better part of the Gulf of Ajaccio and in suburban form extends for some miles up the valley of the river Gravona.", "The flow from that river is nearly entirely consumed as the city's water supply.", "Many beaches and coves border its territory and the terrain is particularly rugged in the west where the highest point is .File:Porto Ajacio.JPG|Ajaccio MarinaFile:Baie_Ajaccio_voilier.jpg|The BayFile:Ajaccio_phare_citadelle.jpg|The lighthouse of the citadel of Ajaccio overlooking the bayFile:Ajaccio Sanguinaires 1.jpg|''Îles Sanguinaires''Port Ajaccio.JPG|The market Ajaccio bay.jpg|A satellite image of the city and surrounding water.===Urbanism===PortAlthough the commune of Ajaccio has a large area (82.03 km2), only a small portion of this is urbanized.", "Therefore, the urban area of Ajaccio is located in the east of the commune on a narrow coastal strip forming a densely populated arc.", "The rest of the territory is natural with habitation of little importance and spread thinly.", "Suburbanization occurs north and east of the main urban area.The original urban core, close to the old marshy plain of ''Cannes'' was abandoned in favour of the current city which was built near the ''Punta della Lechia''.", "It has undergone various improvements, particularly under Napoleon, who originated the two current major structural arteries (the ''Cours Napoleon'' oriented north–south and the ''Cours Grandval'' oriented east–west).Ajaccio experienced a demographic boom in the 1960s, which explains why 85% of dwellings are post-1949.This is reflected in the layout of the city which is marked by very large areas of low-rise buildings and concrete towers, especially on the heights (''Les Jardins de l'Empereur'') and in the north of the city - e.g.", "the waterfront, ''Les Cannes'', and ''Les Salines''.", "A dichotomy appears in the landscape between the old city and the imposing modern buildings.", "Ajaccio gives the image of a city built on two different levels.===Climate===The city has a Mediterranean climate which is ''Csa'' in the Köppen climate classification.", "The average annual sunshine is 2726 hours.There are important local climatic variations, especially with wind exposure and total precipitation, between the city centre, the airport, and the ''îles Sanguinaires''.", "The annual average rainfall is at the ''Campo dell'Oro'' weather station (as per the chart) and at the ''Parata'': the third-driest place in metropolitan France.", "The heat and dryness of summer are somewhat tempered by the proximity of the Mediterranean Sea except when the sirocco is blowing.", "In autumn and spring, heavy rain-storm episodes may occur.", "Winters are mild and snow is rare.", "Ajaccio is the French city which holds the record for the number of thunderstorms in the reference period 1971–2000 with an average of 39 thunderstorm days per year.On 14 September 2009, the city was hit by a tornado with an intensity of F1 on the Fujita scale.", "There was little damage except torn billboards, flying tiles, overturned cars, and broken windows but no casualties.", "'''Weather Data for Ajaccio'''===Heraldry===" ], [ "History", "Statue of Napoleon in the Place Fochright===Antiquity===The city was not mentioned by the Greek geographer Ptolemy of Alexandria in the 2nd century AD despite the presence of a place called ''Ourkinion'' in the ''Cinarca'' area.", "It is likely that the city of Ajaccio had its first development at this time.", "The 2nd century was a period of prosperity in the Mediterranean basin (the Pax Romana) and there was a need for a proper port at the head of the several valleys that lead to the Gulf able to accommodate large ships.", "Some important underwater archaeological discoveries recently made of Roman ships tend to confirm this.", "Further excavations conducted recently led to the discovery of important early Christian remains suggest that an upwards reevaluation might be necessary of the size of Ajaccio city in Late Antiquity and the beginning of the Middle Ages.", "The city was in any case already significant enough to be the seat of a diocese, mentioned by Pope Gregory the Great in 591.The city was then further north than the location chosen later by the Genoese - in the location of the existing quarters of ''Castel Vecchio'' and ''Sainte-Lucie''.The earliest certain written record of a settlement at Ajaccio with a name ancestral to its name was the exhortation in Epistle 77 written in 601AD by Gregory the great to the Defensor Boniface, one of two known rectors of the early Corsican church, to tell him not to leave Aléria and Adjacium without bishops.", "There is no earlier use of the term and Adjacium is not an attested Latin word, which probably means that it is a Latinization of a word in some other language.", "The Ravenna Cosmography of about 700 AD cites Agiation, which sometimes is taken as evidence of a prior Greek city, as -ion appears to be a Greek ending.", "There is, however, no evidence at all of a Greek presence on the west coast and the Ionians at Aléria on the east coast had been expelled by the Etruscans long before Roman domination.Ptolemy, who must come the closest to representing indigenous names, lists the Lochra River just south of a feature he calls the \"sandy shore\" on the southwest coast.", "If the shore is the Campo dell'Oro (Place of Gold) the Lochra would seem to be the combined mouth of the Gravona and Prunelli Rivers, neither one of which sounds like Lochra.North of there was a Roman city, Ourchinion.", "The western coastline was so distorted, however, that it is impossible to say where Adjacium was; certainly, he would have known its name and location if he had had any first-hand knowledge of the island and if in fact it was there.", "Ptolemy's Ourchinion is further north than Ajaccio and does not have the same name.", "It could be Sagone.", "The lack of correspondence between Ptolemaic and historical names known to be ancient has no defense except in the case of the two Roman colonies, Aleria and Mariana.", "In any case the population of the region must belong to Ptolemy's Tarabeni or Titiani people, neither of which are ever heard about again.", "===Archaeological evidence===The population of the city throughout the centuries maintained an oral tradition that it had originally been Roman.", "Travellers of the 19th century could point to the Hill of San Giovanni on the northwest shore of the Gulf of Ajaccio, which still had a cathedral said to have been the 6th-century seat of the Bishop of Ajaccio.", "The Castello Vecchio (\"old castle\"), a ruined citadel, was believed to be Roman but turned out to have Gothic features.", "The hill was planted with vines.", "The farmers kept turning up artifacts and terracotta funerary urns that seemed to be Roman.In the 20th century, the hill was covered over with buildings and became a part of downtown Ajaccio.", "In 2005 construction plans for a lot on the hill offered the opportunity to the ''Institut national de recherches archéologiques preventatives'' (Inrap) to excavate.", "They found the baptistry of a 6th-century cathedral and large amounts of pottery dated to the 6th and 7th centuries AD; in other words, an early Christian town.", "A cemetery had been placed over the old church.", "In it was a single Roman grave covered over with roof tiles bearing short indecipherable inscriptions.", "The finds of the previous century had included Roman coins.", "This is the only evidence so far of a Roman city continuous with the early Christian one.===Medieval Genoese period===It has been established that after the 8th century the city, like most other Corsican coastal communities, strongly declined and disappeared almost completely.", "Nevertheless, a castle and a cathedral were still in place in 1492 which last was not demolished until 1748.Towards the end of the 15th century, the Genoese were eager to assert their dominance in the south of the island and decided to rebuild the city of Ajaccio.", "Several sites were considered: the ''Pointe de la Parata'' (not chosen because it was too exposed to the wind), the ancient city (finally considered unsafe because of the proximity of the salt ponds), and finally the ''Punta della Lechia'' which was finally selected.Work began on the town on 21 April 1492 south of the Christian village by the Bank of Saint George at Genoa, who sent Cristoforo of Gandini, an architect, to build it.", "He began with a castle on Capo di Bolo, around which he constructed residences for several hundred people.Genoese Tower.The new city was essentially a colony of Genoa.", "The Corsicans were restricted from the city for some years.Nevertheless, the town grew rapidly and became the administrative capital of the province of ''Au Delà Des Monts'' (more or less the current ''Corse-du-Sud'').", "Bastia remained the capital of the entire island.Although at first populated exclusively by the Genoese, the city slowly opened to the Corsicans while the Ajaccians, almost to the French conquest, were legally citizens of the Republic of Genoa and were happy to distinguish themselves from the insular ''paesani'' who lived mainly in ''Borgu'', a suburb outside the city walls (the current ''rue Fesch'' was the main street).===Attachment to France===Ajaccio was occupied from 1553 to 1559 by the French, but it again fell to the Genoese after the Treaty of Cateau Cambresis in the latter year.Subsequently, the Republic of Genoa was strong enough to keep Corsica until 1755, the year Pasquale Paoli proclaimed the Corsican Republic.", "Paoli took most of the island for the republic, but he was unable to force Genoese troops out of the citadels of Saint-Florent, Calvi, Ajaccio, Bastia and Algajola.", "Leaving them there, he went on to build the nation, while the Republic of Genoa was left to ponder prospects and solutions.", "Their ultimate solution was to sell Corsica to France in 1768 and French troops of the Ancien Régime replaced Genoese ones in the citadels, including Ajaccio's.Corsica was formally annexed to France in 1780.===Napoleon===Napoleon Bonaparte (born as Napoleone di Buonaparte) was born at Ajaccio in the same year as the Battle of Ponte Novu, 1769.The Buonaparte family at the time had a huge four-story home in town (now a museum known as Maison Bonaparte) and a rarely used country home in the hills north of the city (now site of the Arboretum des Milelli).", "The father of the family, attorney Carlo di Buonaparte, was secretary to Pasquale Paoli during the Corsican Republic.Ajaccio, Place De Gaulle - monument NapoléonAfter the defeat of Paoli, the Comte de Marbeuf began to meet with some leading Corsicans to outline the shape of the future and enlist their assistance.", "The Comte was among a delegation from Ajaccio in 1769, offered his loyalty and was appointed assessor.Marbeuf also offered Carlo di Buonaparte an appointment for one of his sons to the Military College of Brienne, but Napoleone did not speak French which was a requirement and he had to be at least ten years of age.", "There is a dispute concerning Napoleon's age because of this requirement; the emperor is known to have altered the civic records at Ajaccio concerning himself and it is possible that he was born in Corte in 1768 when his father was there on business.", "In any case Napoleon was sent to a school in Autun to learn basic French, then after a year went to Brienne from 1779 to 1784.At Brienne Napoleon concentrated on studies.", "He wrote a boyish history of Corsica.", "He did not share his father's views but held Pasquale Paoli in high esteem and was at heart a Corsican nationalist.", "The top students were encouraged to go into the artillery.", "After graduation and a brief sojourn at the Military School of Paris Napoleon applied for a second-lieutenancy in the artillery regiment of La Fère at Valence and after a time was given the position.", "Meanwhile, his father died and his mother was cast into poverty in Corsica, still having four children to support.", "Her only income was Napoleon's meager salary.", "The regiment was in Auxonne when the revolution broke out in the summer of 1789.Napoleon returned on leave to Ajaccio in October, became a Jacobin and began to work for the revolution.", "The National Assembly in Paris united Corsica to France and pardoned its exiles.", "Paoli returned in 1790 after 21 years and kissed the soil on which he stood.", "He and Napoleon met and toured the battlefield of Paoli's defeat.", "A national assembly at Orezza created the department of Corsica and Paoli was subsequently elected president.", "He commanded the national guard raised by Napoleon.", "After a brief return to his regiment Napoleon was promoted to first lieutenant and came home again on leave in 1791.View of the citadel of AjaccioAll officers were recalled from leave in 1792, intervention threatened and war with Austria (Marie-Antoinette's homeland) began.", "Napoleon returned to Paris for review, was exonerated, then promoted to captain and given leave to escort his sister, a schoolgirl, back to Corsica at state expense.", "His family was prospering; his estate increased.Napoleon became a lieutenant-colonel in the Corsican National Guard.", "Paoli sent him off on an expedition to Sardinia, ordered by France, under Paolis's nephew but the nephew had secret orders from Paoli to make sure the expedition failed.", "Paoli was now a conservative, opposing the execution of the king and supporting an alliance with Great Britain.", "Returning from Sardinia Napoleon with his family and all his supporters were instrumental in getting Paoli denounced at the National Convention in Paris in 1793.Napoleon earned the hatred of the Paolists by pretending to support Paoli and then turning against him (payment, one supposes, for Sardinia).Paoli was convicted in absentia, a warrant was issued for his arrest (which could not be served) and Napoleon was dispatched to Corsica as Inspector General of Artillery to take the citadel of Ajaccio from the royalists who had held it since 1789.The Paolists combining with the royalists defeated the French in two pitched battles and Napoleon and his family went on the run, hiding by day, while the Paolists burned their estate.", "Napoleon and his mother, Laetitia, were taken out by ship in June 1793, by friends while two of the girls found refuge with other friends.", "They landed in Toulon with only Napoleon's pay for their support.Death mask of NapoleonThe Bonapartes moved to Marseille but in August Toulon offered itself to the British and received the protection of a fleet under Admiral Hood.", "The Siege of Toulon began in September under revolutionary officers mainly untrained in the art of war.", "Napoleon happened to present socially one evening and during a casual conversation over a misplaced 24-pounder explained the value of artillery.", "Taken seriously he was allowed to bring up over 100 guns from coastal emplacements but his plan for the taking of Toulon was set aside as one incompetent officer superseded another.", "By December they decided to try his plan and made him a Colonel.", "Placing the guns at close range he used them to keep the British fleet away while he battered down the walls of Toulon.", "As soon as the Committee of Public Safety heard of the victory Napoleon became a brigadier general, the start of his meteoric rise to power.The Bonapartes were back in Ajaccio in 1797 under the protection of General Napoleon.", "Soon after Napoleon became First Consul and then emperor, using his office to spread revolution throughout Europe.", "In 1811 he made Ajaccio the capital of the new Department of Corsica.", "Despite his subsequent defeat by the Prussians, Russians, and British, his exile and his death, no victorious power reversed that decision or tried to remove Corsica from France.", "Among the natives, though Corsican nationalism is strong, and feeling often runs high in favour of a union with Italy; loyalty to France, however, as evidenced by elections, remains stronger.===19th and 20th centuries===In the 19th century Ajaccio became a winter resort of the high society of the time, especially for the English, in the same way as Monaco, Cannes, and Nice.", "An Anglican Church was even built.The first prison in France for children was built in Ajaccio in 1855: the Horticultural colony of Saint Anthony.", "It was a correctional colony for juvenile delinquents (from 8 to 20 years old), established under Article 10 of the Act of 5 August 1850.Nearly 1,200 children from all over France stayed there until 1866, when it was closed.", "Sixty percent of them perished, the victims of poor sanitation and malaria which infested the unhealthy areas that they were responsible to clean.===Contemporary history===Ajaccio: the first French town liberatedOn 9 September 1943, the people of Ajaccio rose up against the Nazi occupiers and became the first French town to be liberated from the domination of the Germans.", "General Charles de Gaulle went to Ajaccio on 8 October 1943 and said: \"We owe it to the field of battle the lesson of the page of history that was written in French Corsica.", "Corsica to her fortune and honour is the first morsel of France to be liberated; which was done intentionally and willingly, in the light of its liberation, this demonstrates that these are the intentions and the will of the whole nation.", "\"Throughout this period, no Jew was executed or deported from Corsica through the protection afforded by its people and its government.", "This event now allows Corsica to aspire to the title \"Righteous Among the Nations\", as no French region except for the commune Le Chambon-sur-Lignon in Haute-Loire carries this title.", "Their case is being investigated .Since the middle of the 20th century, Ajaccio has seen significant development.", "The city has seen population growth and considerable urban sprawl.", "Today Ajaccio is the capital of Corsica and the main town of the island and seeks to establish itself as a true regional centre.Ajaccio was a hotspot for violence during the violent unrest in March 2022." ], [ "Economy", "View of the old city of AjaccioThe Palace of congress of AjaccioThe city is, with Bastia, the economic, commercial and administrative centre of Corsica.", "Its urban area of nearly 90,000 inhabitants is spread over a large part of the Corse-du-Sud, on either side of the Gulf of Ajaccio and up the valley of the Gravona.", "Its business is primarily oriented towards the services sector.The services sector is by far the main source of employment in the city.", "Ajaccio is an administrative centre comprising communal, intercommunal, departmental, regional, and prefectural services.It is also a shopping centre with the commercial streets of the city centre and the areas of peripheral activities such as that of ''Mezzavia'' (hypermarket ''Géant Casino'') and along the ring road (hypermarket Carrefour and E. Leclerc).Tourism is one of the most vital aspects of the economy, split between the seaside tourism of summer, cultural tourism, and fishing.", "A number of hotels, varying from one star to five star, are present across the commune.Ajaccio is the seat of the ''Chamber of Commerce and Industry of Ajaccio and Corsica South''.", "It manages the ports of Ajaccio, Bonifacio, Porto-Vecchio, Propriano and the Tino Rossi marina.", "It also manages Ajaccio airport and Figari airport as well as the convention centre and the ''Centre of Ricanto''.Secondary industry is underdeveloped, apart from the aeronautical company ''Corsica Aerospace Composites CCA'', the largest company on the island with 135 employees at two sites.", "The storage sites of GDF Suez (formerly Gaz de France) and Antargaz in the district of ''Vazzio'' are classified as high risk.===Energy===The ''Centrale EDF du Vazzio'', a heavy oil power station, provides the south of the island with electricity.", "The Gravona Canal delivers water for consumption by the city." ], [ "Transport", "===Road access===Rue du Cardinal FeschBy road, the city is accessible from National Route NR194 from Bastia and NR193 via NR196 from Bonifacio.These two main axes, as well as the roads leading to suburban villages, connect Ajaccio from the north - the site of Ajaccio forming a dead end blocked by the sea to the south.", "Only the ''Cours Napoleon'' and the ''Boulevard du Roi Jerome'' cross the city.Along with the high urban density, this explains the major traffic and parking problems especially during peak hours and during the summer tourist season.", "A bypass through several neighbourhoods is nearing completion.===Communal bus services===The Muvistrada provide services on 21 urban routes, one \"city\" route for local links and 20 suburban lines.", "The frequency varies according to demand with intervals of 30 minutes for the most important routes:A park and ride with 300 spaces was built at ''Mezzana'' in the neighbouring commune of Sarrola-Carcopino in order to promote intermodality between cars and public transport.", "It was inaugurated on 12 July 2010.===Airport===Ajaccio AirportThe city is served by an Ajaccio Napoleon Bonaparte Airport which is the headquarters of Air Corsica, a Corsican airline.", "It connects Ajaccio to a number of cities in mainland France (including Paris, Marseille, Nice, and Brive) and to places in Europe to serve the tourist industry.The airline CCM Airlines also has its head office on the grounds of the Airport.===Port===View of the PortThe port of Ajaccio is connected to the French mainland on an almost daily basis (Marseille, Toulon, Nice).", "There are also occasional links to the Italian mainland (Livorno) and to Sardinia, as well as a seasonal service serving Calvi and Propriano.", "The two major shipping companies providing these links are Corsica Linea and Corsica Ferries.FerriesAjaccio has also become a stopover for cruises with a total of 418,086 passengers in 2007by far the largest in Corsica and the second-largest in France (after Marseille, but ahead of Nice/Villefranche-sur-Mer and Cannes).", "The goal is for Ajaccio to eventually become the premier French port for cruises as well as being a main departure point.The Fishing PortThe Port function of the city is also served by the commercial, pleasure craft, and artisanal fisheries (3 ports).===Railways===The railway station in Ajaccio belongs to ''Chemins de fer de la Corse'' and is located near the port at the ''Square Pierre Griffi''.", "It connects Ajaccio to Corte, Bastia (3 h 25 min) and Calvi.There are two optional stops:*''Salines Halt'' north of the city in the district of the same name*''Campo dell'Oro Halt'' near the airportIn addition, the municipality has introduced an additional commuter service between Mezzana station in the suburbs and Ajaccio station located in the centre." ], [ "Administration", "The PréfectureAjaccio was successively:*Capital of the district of the department of Corsica in 1790 to 1793*Capital of the ''department of Liamone'' from 1793 to 1811*Capital of the ''department of Corsica'' from 1811 to 1975*Capital of the region and the ''collectivité territoriale de Corse'' since 1970 and the department of Corse-du-Sud since 1976===Policy===Ajaccio remained (with some interruptions) an electoral stronghold of the Bonapartist (CCB) party until the municipal elections of 2001.The outgoing municipality was then beaten by a left-wing coalition led by Simon Renucci which gathered Social Democrats, Communists, and Charles Napoleon - the pretender to the imperial throne.", "'''List of Successive Mayors of Ajaccio''' Mayors from the French Revolution to 1935 From To Name Party Position 1790 1790 Jean Jèrome Levie 1791 1796 Vincenté Guitera 1796 1796 Lodovico Ornano 1798 1798 François Marie Levie 1798 1798 Thomas Tavera 1798 1798 Antoine Tagliafico 1799 1800 J.", "B. Pozzo di Borgo 1800 1801 Jean Jèrome Levie 1801 1805 Pierre Stephanopoli 1805 1815 François Levie 1815 1815 Jean Noël Martinenghi 1815 1816 François Levie 1816 1817 Georges Stephanopoli 1817 1819 Adorno de Baciocchi 1819 1822 J.", "B. Colonna de Bozzi 1822 1826 J.", "B. Spotorno 1826 1832 Constantin Stephanopoli 1832 1837 Cunéo d'Ornano 1837 1848 Paul François Peraldi 1848 1848 Bernardin Poli 1848 1855 Laurent Zevaco 1855 1860 Antoine Decosmi 1860 1867 François Xavier Braccini 1867 1870 Louis Nyer 1870 1870 Joseph Fil 1870 1871 Nicolas Peraldi 1871 1871 Joseph Fil 1871 1873 Nicolas Peraldi 1873 1876 F. X. Forcioli Conti 1876 1877 Nicolas Peraldi 1877 1877 Joseph Fil 1877 1884 Nicolas Peraldi Republicain 1884 1893 Joseph Pugliesi CCB 1893 1896 Pierre Petreto CCB 1896 1900 Joseph Pugliesi CCB 1900 1904 Pierre Bodoy CCB 1904 1919 Dominique Pugliesi Conti CCB 1919 1925 Jérôme Peri Radical 1925 1931 Dominique Paoli CCB 1931 1931 Joseph Marie François Spoturno 1931 1934 François Coty CCB 1934 1935 Hyacinthe Campiglia CCB Mayors from 1935 From To Name Party Position 1935 1943 Dominique Paoli CCB 1943 1945 Eugène Macchini CCB 1945 1947 Arthur Giovoni PCF 1947 1949 Nicéphore Stephanopoli de Commene CCB 1949 1953 Antoine Serafini CCB 1953 1959 François Maglioli CCB 1959 1964 Antoine Serafini CCB 1964 1975 Pascal Rossini CCB 1975 1994 Charles Napoléon Ornano CCB 1994 2001 Marc Marcangeli CCB Doctor 2001 2014 Simon Renucci CSD Doctor 2014 2014 Laurent Marcangeli 2014 2015 ''vacant'' 2015 2022 Laurent Marcangeli 2022 2026 Stéphane Sbraggia ===Quarters===10 Quarters are recognized by the municipality.", "*''Cannes-Binda'': an area north of the city, consisting of Housing estates, classed as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) with Les Salines, subject to a policy of urban renewal*''Centre Ville'': The tourist heart of the city consisting of shopping streets and major thoroughfares*''Casone'': a bourgeois neighbourhood with an affluent population located in the former winter resort on the heights of the southern city.", "*''Les Jardins de l'Empereur'': a neighbourhood classified as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) on the heights of the city, consisting of housing estates overlooking the city*''Mezzavia'': northern quarter of the town with several subdivisions and areas of business and economic activities*''Octroi-Sainte Lucie'': constitutes the northern part of the city centre near the port and the railway station*''Pietralba'': quarter northeast of the city, classified ZUS*''Résidence des Îles'': quarter to the south of the city near the tourist route of ''Sanguinaires'' in a quality environment*''Saint-Jean'': collection of buildings for a population with low incomes, close to the historic urban core of the city, classified as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS)*''Saline'': quarter north of the city, consisting of large apartment blocks, classed as a Sensitive urban zone (ZUS) with ''Les Cannes'', subject to a policy of urban renewal*''Vazzio'': quarter northeast of the city, near the airport, the EDF Central, and the Francois Coty stadium.===Intercommunality===Since December 2001, Ajaccio has been part of the ''Communauté d'agglomération du Pays Ajaccien'' with nine other communes: Afa, Alata, Appietto, Cuttoli-Corticchiato, Peri, Sarrola-Carcopino, Tavaco, Valle-di-Mezzana, and Villanova.===Origins===The geopolitical arrangements of the commune are slightly different from those typical of Corsica and France.", "Usually an arrondissement includes cantons and a canton includes one to several communes including the chef-lieu, \"chief place\", from which the canton takes its name.", "The city of Ajaccio is one commune, but it contains four cantons, Cantons 1–4, and a fraction of Canton 5.The latter contains three other communes: Bastelicaccia, Alata and Villanova, making a total of four communes for the five cantons of Ajaccio.Each canton contains a certain number of quartiers, \"quarters\".", "Cantons 1, 2, 3, 4 are located along the Gulf of Ajaccio from west to east, while 5 is a little further up the valleys of the Gravona and the Prunelli Rivers.", "These political divisions subdivide the population of Ajaccio into units that can be more democratically served but they do not give a true picture of the size of Ajaccio.", "In general language, \"greater Ajaccio\" includes about 100,000 people with all the medical, educational, utility and transportational facilities of a big city.", "Up until World War II it was still possible to regard the city as being a settlement of narrow streets localized to a part of the harbour or the Gulf of Ajaccio: such bucolic descriptions do not fit the city of today, and travelogues intended for mountain or coastal recreational areas do not generally apply to Corsica's few big cities.The arrondissement contains other cantons that extend generally up the two rivers into central Corsica." ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "Ajaccio is twinned with:* La Maddalena, Italy (1991)" ], [ "Population", "The population of Ajaccio increased sharply after 1960 due to migration from rural areas and the coming of \"Pied-Noirs\" (French Algerians), immigrants from the Maghreb and French from mainland France." ], [ "Health", "Ajaccio has three hospital sites:*the ''Misericordia Hospital'', built in 1950, is located on the heights of the city centre.", "This is the main medical facility in the region.", "*The Annex Eugenie.", "*the Psychiatric Hospital of ''Castelluccio'' is west of the city centre and is also home of cancer services and long-stay patients." ], [ "Education", "Ajaccio is the headquarters of the Academy of Corsica.The city of Ajaccio has:*18 nursery schools (16 public and 2 private)*17 primary schools (15 public and 2 private)*6 colleges**5 Public Schools:*** Collège Arthur-Giovoni*** Collège des Padule*** Collège Laetitia Bonaparte*** Collège Fesch*** EREA** 1 Private School: Institution Saint Paul* 3 sixth-form colleges/senior high schools** 2 public schools:*** Lycée Laetitia Bonaparte*** Lycée Fesch** 1 private: Institution Saint Paul* 2 LEP (vocational high schools)** Lycée Finosello** Lycée Jules AntoniniHigher education is undeveloped except for a few BTS and IFSI, the University of Corsica Pascal Paoli is located in Corte.", "A research facility of INRA is also located on Ajaccio." ], [ "Culture and heritage", "Ajaccio has a varied tourism potential, with both a cultural framework in the centre of the city and a natural heritage around the coves and beaches of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as the Natura 2000 reserve of the ''îles Sanguinaires''.===Civil heritage===The Bonaparte HouseThe commune has many buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments:*The '''Monument to General Abbatucci''' in the Place Abbatucci (1854)*The '''Monument to Napoleon I''' in the Place d'Austerlitz (20th century)*The '''Baciocchi Family Mansion''' at 9 Rue Bonaparte (18th century)*The '''Fesch Palace''' at 48 bis Rue Cardinal-Fesch (1827)*The '''Monument to the First Consul''' in the Place Foch (1850)*The '''Peraldi House''' at 18 Rue Forcioli-Conti (1820)*The '''Grand Hotel''' at Cours Grandval (1869)*The old '''Château Conti''' at Cours Grandval (19th century)*The '''Monument to Napoleon and his brothers''' in the Place du General de Gaulle (1864)*The '''Monument to Cardinal Fesch''' at the Cour du Musée Fesch (1856)*The old '''Alban Factory''' at 89 Cours Napoleon (1913)*The '''Milelli House''' in the Saint-Antoine Quarter (17th century)*The '''Hotel Palace-Cyrnos''' (1880), an old Luxury Hotel from the 19th century and a famous palace of the old days in the quarter \"for foreigners\" now converted into housing.", "*The '''Lantivy Palace''' (1837), an Italian palace now headquarters of the prefecture of Corsica.", "*The '''Hotel de Ville''' (1836)*'''Napoleon Bonaparte's House''' (17th century) now a national museum: the Maison Bonaparte*The old '''Lazaretto of Aspretto''' (1843)*The '''Citadel''' (1554)*The '''Sawmill''' at Les Salines (1944)*The '''Lighthouse''' on the Sanguinaires Islands (1844);Other sites of interest*The '''Monument in the Place du Casone'''*The '''old town''' and the '''Borgu''' are typically Mediterranean with their narrow streets and picturesque buildings*The '''Place Bonaparte''', a quarter frequented chiefly by winter visitors attracted by the mild climate of the town*The '''Musée Fesch''' houses a large collection of Italian Renaissance paintings*The '''Bandera Museum''', a History Museum of Mediterranean Corsica*The '''Municipal library''', in the north wing of Musée Fesch, has early printed books from as early as the 14th century*The area known as the Foreigners' Quarter has a number of old palaces, villas, and buildings once built for the wintering British in the Belle Époque such as the Anglican Church and the Grand Hotel Continental.", "Some of the buildings are in bad condition and very degraded, others were destroyed for the construction of modern buildings.", "*The '''Genoese towers''': Torra di Capu di Fenu, Torra di a Parata, and Torra di Castelluchju in the Îles Sanguinaires archipelago*The '''Square Pierre Griffi''' (in front of the railway station), named after a hero of the Corsican Resistance and one of the members of the , the first operation launched in occupied Corsica to coordinate resistance*The '''Statue of Commandant Jean L'Herminier''' (in front of the ferry terminal), commander of the French submarine Casabianca (1935) which actively participated in the struggle for the liberation of Corsica in September 1943" ], [ "Religious heritage", "Cathedral of Notre-Dame-de-l'AssomptionThe town is the seat of a bishopric dating at least from the 7th century.", "It has tribunals of first instance and of commerce, training colleges, a communal college, a museum and a library; the three latter are established in the Palais Fesch, founded by Cardinal Fesch, who was born at Ajaccio in 1763.The commune has several religious buildings and structures that are registered as historical monuments:*The former '''Episcopal Palace''' at 24 Rue Bonaparte (1622)*The '''Oratory of Saint Roch''' at Rue Cardinal-Fesch (1599)*The '''Chapel of Saint Erasme or Sant'Erasmu''' at 22 Rue Forcioli-Conti (17th century)*The '''Oratory of Saint John the Baptist''' at Rue du Roi-de-Dome (1565)*The '''Cathedral of Santa Maria Assunta''' at Rue Saint-Charles (1582) from the Renaissance which depended on the diocese of Ajaccio and where Napoleon was baptized with its organ from Cavaillé-Coll.", "*The '''Chapel of the Greeks''' on the Route des Sanguiunaires (1619)*The Early Christian '''Baptistery of Saint John''' (6th century)*The '''Imperial Chapel''' (1857) houses the graves of Napoleon's parents and his brothers and sisters.Church of Saint-Roch, on the ''Cours Napoléon'';Other religious sites of interest*The '''Church of Saint Roch''', Neoclassical architecture by Ajaccien project architect Barthélémy Maglioli (1885)" ], [ "Environmental heritage", "*'''Sanguinaires Archipelago''':**The '''Route des Sanguinaires''' runs along the southern coast of the city after the Saint François Beach.", "It is lined with villas and coves and beaches.", "Along the road is the Ajaccio cemetery with the grave of Corsican singer Tino Rossi.", "**At the mouth of the Route des Sanguinaires is the '''Pointe de la Parata''' near the archipelago and the lighthouse.File:Ajaccio Plage.jpg|The Saint François BeachFile:Ajaccio Golfe1JPG.jpg|Gulf of AjaccioFile:PSajaccio8440tonemapped.jpg|The ''iles sanguinaires'' and views of la Parata from the ''sentier des crêtes''File:PSajaccio8432tonemapped.jpg|Along the ''sentier des crêtes'': Skull Rock*The '''Sentier des Crêtes''' (Crest Trail) starts from the city centre and is an easy hike offering splendid views of the Gulf of Ajaccio.", "The shores of the Gulf are dotted with a multitude of small coves and beaches ideal for swimming and scuba diving.", "*Many small paths traversing the maquis (high ground covered in thick vegetation) in the commune from which the Maquis resistance network was named." ], [ "Interests", "*The city has two marinas and a casino.", "*The main activities are concentrated in the city centre on the ''Route des Sanguinaires'' (cinemas, bars, clubs etc.", ")." ], [ "In popular culture", "Films made in Ajaccio include:*'''Napoléon''', one of the last successful French silent films by Abel Gance in 1927.", "*'''Les Radonneurs''', a French film directed by Philippe Harel in 1997.", "*'''Les Sanguinaires''', a film by Laurent Cantet in 1998.", "*'''The Amazing Race''', an American TV series by Elise Doganieri and Bertram van Munster in 2001 (season 6 episode 9).", "*'''L'Enquête Corse''', directed by Alain Berberian in 2004.", "*'''Trois petites filles''', a French film directed by Jean-Loup Hubert in 2004.", "*'''Joueuse''' (Queen to Play), a French film directed by Caroline Bottaro in 2009." ], [ "Sports", "There are various sports facilities developed throughout the city.", "*AC Ajaccio is a French Ligue 2 football club which plays at the Stade François Coty (13,500 seats) in the north-east of the city*Gazélec Football Club Ajaccio, in Championnat National, football club which plays at the Stade Ange Casanova located at ''Mezzavia'', 2,900 seats.", "*GFCO Ajaccio handball*GFCO Ajaccio Volleyball*GFCO Ajaccio Basketball*Vignetta Racecourse" ], [ "Notable people", "Many members of the Bonaparte family were born in Ajaccio, including Napoleon*Carlo Buonaparte (1746–1785), politician, father of Napoleon Bonaparte*Felice Pasquale Baciocchi (1762–1841), general of the armies of the Revolution and the Empire, brother in law of the Emperor Napoleon 1st, Grand Duke of Tuscany*Joseph Fesch (1763–1839), cardinal*Joseph Bonaparte (1768-1844), French statesman, King of Naples, King of Spain*Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821), Emperor of France*Lucien Bonaparte (1775–1840), Prince of Canino and Musignano, Interior Minister of France*Elisa Bonaparte (1777–1820), Grand Duchess of Tuscany*Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846), King of Holland*Pauline Bonaparte (1780-1825), Duchess of Guastalla, Princess Consort of Sulmona and Rossano*Caroline Bonaparte (1782–1839), Queen Consort of Naples and Sicily*Jérôme Bonaparte (1784–1860), King of Westphalia*François Coty (1874–1934), perfumer, businessman, newspaper publisher and politician*Irène Bordoni (1895–1953), singer and actress*Tino Rossi (1907–1983), singer and actor*Michel Giacometti (1929–1990), ethnomusicologist*François Duprat (1941–1978), writer*Michel Ferracci-Porri (born 1949), writer*Jean-Michel Cavalli (born 1959), football player and manager*Alizée (born 1984), singer" ], [ "Military", "Units that were stationed in Ajaccio:*163rd Infantry Regiment, 1906*173rd Infantry Regiment*The Aspretto naval airbase for seaplanes 1938–1993" ], [ "Gallery", "File:Ajaccio.jpg|1914 city mapFile:Ajaccio MN1JPG.jpg|Napoleon's birth house" ], [ "See also", "*Diocese of Ajaccio*Communes of the Corse-du-Sud department" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Official website * The Communauté d'Agglomération du Pays Ajaccien (CAPA) website * Tourism Office of Ajaccio website * Tourist Info Visit Ajaccio" ] ]

[ [ "Ajaigarh" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ajaigarh''' or '''Ajaygarh''' is a town and a nagar panchayat in the Panna District of Madhya Pradesh state in central India.Ajaigarh State was one of the princely states of India during the period of the British Raj.", "The state was founded in 1785, and its capital was in Ajaigarh." ], [ "History", "Flag of Ajaigarh stateAjaigarh was the capital of a princely state of the same name during the British Raj.", "Ajaigarh was founded in 1765 by Guman Singh, a Bundela Rajput who was the nephew of Raja Pahar Singh of Jaitpur.", "After Ajaigarh was captured by the British in 1809, it became a princely state in the Bundelkhand Agency of the Central India Agency.", "It had an area of , and a population of 78,236 in 1901.The rulers bore the title of ''sawai maharaja''.", "He commanded an estimated annual revenue of about £15,000/-, and paid a tribute of £460/-.", "The chief resided at the town of Nowgong, at the foot of the hill-fortress of Ajaigarh, from which the state took its name.", "This fort, situated on a steep hill, towers more than above the eponymous township, and contains the ruins of several temples adorned with elaborately carved sculptures.", "The town was often afflicted by malaria, and suffered severely from famine in 1868–69 and 1896–97.The state acceded to the Government of India on 1 January 1950; the ruling chief was granted a privy purse of Rs.", "74,700/-, and the courtesy use of his styles and titles.", "All of these were revoked by the government of India in 1971, at the time when these privileges were revoked from all erstwhile princes.", "The former princely state became part of the new Indian state of Vindhya Pradesh, and most of the territory of the former state, including the town of Ajaigarh, became part of Panna District, with a smaller portion going to Chhatarpur District.", "Vindhya Pradesh was merged into Madhya Pradesh on 1 November 1956.Entrance gate of Ajaigarh PalaceInside of Ajaigarh Palace===Rulers of Ajaygarh=== Maharajadhiraja Chhatrasal : 1649–1731 (founder ruler of many kingdoms) ___________________________|______________________________ Hirdeshah Jagatraj Bhartichandra (Panna) (Jaitpur) (Jaso) ____________________________|______________________________ Vir Singh Kirat Singh Pahar Singh (1758–1765) ____________________________|______________________________ Khuman Singh Guman Singh (1765–1792) Durg Singh (Charkari) (Banda)(No issues) Bhakhat Singh :b.", "1792-d. 1837 (Founder ruler of Ajaigarh) _____________________________|_______________________________ Madho Singh (r. 1837–1849) Mahipat Singh (r. 1849–1853) (No male issue) Ranjore Singh (K.C.I.E)__________Vijay Singh (R. 1853–1855) (born 1844; died 1919) (died early, fell from horse) _____________________________|________________________________ Jaipal Singh Bhopal Singh (K.C.I.E.)", "Pakshpal Singh (born 1866; died 1942) Col. Deshpal Singh : (1914 - ) Punyapratap Singh: (born 1884; died 1958) Ajaiveer Singh Ashit Varn Singh (1953-2017) Devendra Vijay Singh (born 1913; died 1984) Hraday Shah ---------------| (Privy Purses, titles abolished) _____________________________|_________________________________ Mahipendra Singh Kaushalendra Singh Surendra Singh Shailendra Singh Ajayraj Singh Tarunendra Singh" ], [ "Ajaigarh Fort", "Ajaigarh or Ajaygarh Fort is among the top attractions of the region.", "It stands alone on a hilltop in the district of Panna and is easily accessible from Khajuraho.", "The fort is bordered by the Vindhya Hills and provides views of the Ken River.", "This fort is noted for its rich historical past and its architecture, which dates to the Chandela dynasty.The fort is visited by both history and art lovers.", "This fort has two gates (earlier there were five), two temples and two rock-cut tanks, close to the northern gate.", "These tanks have been named as Ganga and Yamuna." ], [ "Gallery", "Tope of Ajaigarh in Ajaigarh fort" ], [ "Demographics", "As of the 2001 India census, Ajaigarh had a population of 13,979.Males constitute 53% of the population and females 47%.", "Ajaigarh has an average literacy rate of 59%, which is lower than the national average of 59.5%; with 61% of the males and 39% of females literate.", "16% of the population is under 6 years of age." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "AJAYPAL Mahraj statue* Ajaigarh photo callery* Ajaigarh Fort & Valley" ] ]

[ [ "Ajanta Caves" ], [ "Introduction", "Cave 19, Ajanta 5th-century chaitya hall.The '''Ajanta Caves''' are 29 rock-cut Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century BCE to about 480 CE in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra state in India.", "Ajanta Caves are a UNESCO World Heritage Site.", "Universally regarded as masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, the caves include paintings and rock-cut sculptures described as among the finest surviving examples of ancient Indian art, particularly expressive paintings that present emotions through gesture, pose and form.The caves were built in two phases, the first starting around the second century BCE and the second occurring from 400 to 650 CE, according to older accounts, or in a brief period of 460–480 CE according to later scholarship.", "The Ajanta Caves constitute ancient monasteries (Viharas) and worship-halls (Chaityas) of different Buddhist traditions carved into a wall of rock.", "The caves also present paintings depicting the past lives and rebirths of the Buddha, pictorial tales from Aryasura's ''Jatakamala'', and rock-cut sculptures of Buddhist deities.", "Textual records suggest that these caves served as a monsoon retreat for monks, as well as a resting site for merchants and pilgrims in ancient India.", "While vivid colours and mural wall paintings were abundant in Indian history as evidenced by historical records, Caves 1, 2, 16 and 17 of Ajanta form the largest corpus of surviving ancient Indian wall-paintings.Panoramic view of Ajanta Caves from the nearby hillThe Ajanta Caves are mentioned in the memoirs of several medieval-era Chinese Buddhist travellers.", "They were covered by jungle until accidentally \"discovered\" and brought to Western attention in 1819 by a colonial British officer Captain John Smith on a tiger-hunting party.", "The caves are in the rocky northern wall of the U-shaped gorge of the river Waghur, in the Deccan plateau.", "Within the gorge are a number of waterfalls, audible from outside the caves when the river is high.With the Ellora Caves, Ajanta is one of the major tourist attractions of Maharashtra.", "It is about from the city of Jalgaon, Maharashtra, India, from the city of Aurangabad, and east-northeast of Mumbai.", "Ajanta is from the Ellora Caves, which contain Hindu, Jain and Buddhist caves, the last dating from a period similar to Ajanta.", "The Ajanta style is also found in the Ellora Caves and other sites such as the Elephanta Caves, Aurangabad Caves, Shivleni Caves and the cave temples of Karnataka." ], [ "History", "Map of Ajanta CavesThe Ajanta Caves are generally agreed to have been made in two distinct phases; first during the 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE, and second several centuries later.The caves consist of 36 identifiable foundations, some of them discovered after the original numbering of the caves from 1 through 29.The later-identified caves have been suffixed with the letters of the alphabet, such as 15A, identified between originally numbered caves 15 and 16.The cave numbering is a convention of convenience and does not reflect the chronological order of their construction.=== Caves of the first (Satavahana) period ===Cave 9, a first-period Hinayana-style chaitya worship hall with stupa but no idolsThe earliest group consists of caves 9, 10, 12, 13 and 15A.", "The murals in these caves depict stories from the Jatakas.", "Later caves reflect the artistic influence of the Gupta period, but there are differing opinions on which century in which the early caves were built.", "According to Walter Spink, they were made during the period 100 BCE to 100 CE, probably under the patronage of the Hindu Satavahana dynasty (230 BCE – c. 220 CE) who ruled the region.", "Other datings prefer the period of the Maurya Empire (300 BCE to 100 BCE).", "Of these, caves 9 and 10 are stupa containing worship halls of ''chaitya-griha'' form, and caves 12, 13, and 15A are ''vihāras'' (see the architecture section below for descriptions of these types).", "The first Satavahana period caves lacked figurative sculpture, emphasizing the stupa instead.According to Spink, once the Satavahana period caves were made, the site was not further developed for a considerable period until the mid-5th century.", "However, the early caves were in use during this dormant period, and Buddhist pilgrims visited the site, according to the records left by Chinese pilgrim Faxian around 400 CE.=== Caves of the later or Vākāṭaka period ===The second phase of construction at the Ajanta Caves site began in the 5th century.", "For a long time it was thought that the later caves were made over an extended period from the 4th to the 7th centuries CE, but in recent decades a series of studies by the leading expert on the caves, Walter M. Spink, have argued that most of the work took place over the very brief period from 460 to 480 CE, during the reign of Hindu Emperor Harishena of the Vākāṭaka dynasty.", "This view has been criticised by some scholars, but is now broadly accepted by most authors of general books on Indian art, for example, Huntington and Harle.The second phase is attributed to the theistic Mahāyāna, or Greater Vehicle tradition of Buddhism.", "Caves of the second period are 1–8, 11, 14–29, some possibly extensions of earlier caves.", "Caves 19, 26, and 29 are ''chaitya-grihas'', the rest ''viharas''.", "The most elaborate caves were produced in this period, which included some refurbishing and repainting of the early caves.Spink states that it is possible to establish dating for this period with a very high level of precision; a fuller account of his chronology is given below.", "Although debate continues, Spink's ideas are increasingly widely accepted, at least in their broad conclusions.", "The Archaeological Survey of India website still presents the traditional dating: \"The second phase of paintings started around 5th–6th centuries A.D. and continued for the next two centuries\".According to Spink, the construction activity at the incomplete Ajanta Caves was abandoned by wealthy patrons in about 480 CE, a few years after the death of Harishena.", "However, states Spink, the caves appear to have been in use for a period of time as evidenced by the wear of the pivot holes in caves constructed close to 480 CE.", "The second phase of constructions and decorations at Ajanta corresponds to the very apogee of Classical India, or India's golden age.", "However, at that time, the Gupta Empire was already weakening from internal political issues and from the assaults of the Hūṇas, so that the Vakatakas were actually one of the most powerful empires in India.", "Some of the Hūṇas, the Alchon Huns of Toramana, were precisely ruling the neighbouring area of Malwa, at the doorstep of the Western Deccan, at the time the Ajanta caves were made.", "Through their control of vast areas of northwestern India, the Huns may actually have acted as a cultural bridge between the area of Gandhara and the Western Deccan, at the time when the Ajanta or Pitalkhora caves were being decorated with some designs of Gandharan inspiration, such as Buddhas dressed in robes with abundant folds.According to Richard Cohen, a description of the caves by 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuanzang and scattered medieval graffiti suggest that the Ajanta Caves were known and probably in use subsequently, but without a stable or steady Buddhist community presence.", "The Ajanta caves are mentioned in the 17th-century text ''Ain-i-Akbari'' by Abu al-Fazl, as twenty four rock-cut cave temples each with remarkable idols.=== Colonial era ===On 28 April 1819 a British officer named John Smith, of the 28th Cavalry, while hunting tigers was shown the entrance to Cave No.", "10 when a local shepherd boy guided him to the location and the door.", "The caves were well known by locals already.", "Captain Smith went to a nearby village and asked the villagers to come to the site with axes, spears, torches, and drums, to cut down the tangled jungle growth that made entering the cave difficult.", "He then deliberately damaged an image on the wall by scratching his name and the date over the painting of a bodhisattva.", "Since he stood on a five-foot high pile of rubble collected over the years, the inscription is well above the eye-level gaze of an adult today.", "A paper on the caves by William Erskine was read to the Bombay Literary Society in 1822.Name and date inscribed by John Smith after he found Cave 10 in 1819Within a few decades, the caves became famous for their exotic setting, impressive architecture, and above all their exceptional and unique paintings.", "A number of large projects to copy the paintings were made in the century after rediscovery.", "In 1848, the Royal Asiatic Society established the \"Bombay Cave Temple Commission\" to clear, tidy and record the most important rock-cut sites in the Bombay Presidency, with John Wilson as president.", "In 1861 this became the nucleus of the new Archaeological Survey of India.During the colonial era, the Ajanta site was in the territory of the princely state of the Hyderabad and not British India.", "In the early 1920s, Mir Osman Ali Khan the last Nizam of Hyderabad appointed people to restore the artwork, converted the site into a museum and built a road to bring tourists to the site for a fee.", "These efforts resulted in early mismanagement, states Richard Cohen, and hastened the deterioration of the site.", "Post-independence, the state government of Maharashtra built arrival, transport, facilities, and better site management.", "The modern Visitor Center has good parking facilities and public conveniences and ASI operated buses run at regular intervals from Visitor Center to the caves.The Nizam's Director of Archaeology obtained the services of two experts from Italy, Professor Lorenzo Cecconi, assisted by Count Orsini, to restore the paintings in the caves.", "The Director of Archaeology for the last Nizam of Hyderabad said of the work of Cecconi and Orsini:Despite these efforts, later neglect led to the paintings degrading in quality once again.Since 1983, Ajanta caves have been listed among the UNESCO World Heritage Sites of India.The Ajanta Caves, along with the Ellora Caves, have become the most popular tourist destination in Maharashtra, and are often crowded at holiday times, increasing the threat to the caves, especially the paintings.", "In 2012, the Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation announced plans to add to the ASI visitor centre at the entrance complete replicas of caves 1, 2, 16 & 17 to reduce crowding in the originals, and enable visitors to receive a better visual idea of the paintings, which are dimly-lit and hard to read in the caves." ], [ "Sites and monasteries", "=== Sites ===Cave 24; the Ajanta Caves were carved into a massive rock on the Deccan plateauThe caves are carved out of flood basalt and granite rock of a cliff, part of the Deccan Traps formed by successive volcanic eruptions at the end of the Cretaceous geological period.", "The rock is layered horizontally, and somewhat variable in quality.", "This variation within the rock layers required the artists to amend their carving methods and plans in places.", "The inhomogeneity in the rock has also led to cracks and collapses in the centuries that followed, as with the lost portico to cave 1.Excavation began by cutting a narrow tunnel at roof level, which was expanded downwards and outwards; as evidenced by some of the incomplete caves such as the partially-built ''vihara'' caves 21 through 24 and the abandoned incomplete cave 28.The sculpture artists likely worked at both excavating the rocks and making the intricate carvings of pillars, roof, and idols; further, the sculpture and painting work inside a cave were integrated parallel tasks.", "A grand gateway to the site was carved, at the apex of the gorge's horseshoe between caves 15 and 16, as approached from the river, and it is decorated with elephants on either side and a nāga, or protective Naga (snake) deity.", "Similar methods and application of artist talent is observed in other cave temples of India, such as those from Hinduism and Jainism.", "These include the Ellora Caves, Ghototkacha Caves, Elephanta Caves, Bagh Caves, Badami Caves, Aurangabad Caves and Shivleni Caves.The caves from the first period seem to have been paid for by a number of different patrons to gain merit, with several inscriptions recording the donation of particular portions of a single cave.", "The later caves were each commissioned as a complete unit by a single patron from the local rulers or their court elites, again for merit in Buddhist afterlife beliefs as evidenced by inscriptions such as those in Cave 17.After the death of Harisena, smaller donors motivated by getting merit added small \"shrinelets\" between the caves or add statues to existing caves, and some two hundred of these \"intrusive\" additions were made in sculpture, with a further number of intrusive paintings, up to three hundred in cave 10 alone.=== Monasteries ===Cave 4: a monastery, or vihara, with its square hall surrounded by monks' cellsThe majority of the caves are ''vihara'' halls with symmetrical square plans.", "To each vihara hall are attached smaller square dormitory cells cut into the walls.", "A vast majority of the caves were carved in the second period, wherein a shrine or sanctuary is appended at the rear of the cave, centred on a large statue of the Buddha, along with exuberantly detailed reliefs and deities near him as well as on the pillars and walls, all carved out of the natural rock.", "This change reflects the shift from Hinayana to Mahāyāna Buddhism.", "These caves are often called monasteries.The central square space of the interior of the viharas is defined by square columns forming a more-or-less square open area.", "Outside this are long rectangular aisles on each side, forming a kind of cloister.", "Along the side and rear walls are a number of small cells entered by a narrow doorway; these are roughly square, and have small niches on their back walls.", "Originally they had wooden doors.", "The centre of the rear wall has a larger shrine-room behind, containing a large Buddha statue.The viharas of the earlier period are much simpler, and lack shrines.", "Spink places the change to a design with a shrine to the middle of the second period, with many caves being adapted to add a shrine in mid-excavation, or after the original phase.The plan of Cave 1 shows one of the largest viharas, but is fairly typical of the later group.", "Many others, such as Cave 16, lack the vestibule to the shrine, which leads straight off the main hall.", "Cave 6 is two viharas, one above the other, connected by internal stairs, with sanctuaries on both levels.File:Ajanta Cave 12 plan to scale.jpg|Cave 12 plan: an early type of vihara (1st century BCE) without internal shrineFile:GrundrissAjantaHoehle1.jpg|Cave 1 plan, a monastery known for its paintingsFile:Ajanta Cave 6 plan.jpg|Cave 6: a two-storey monastery with \"Miracle of Sravasti\" and \"Temptation of Mara\" paintedFile:Ajanta Cave 16 plan.jpg|Cave 16: a monastery featuring two side aisles=== Worship halls === The other type of main hall architecture is the narrower rectangular plan with high arched ceiling type ''chaitya-griha'' – literally, \"the house of stupa\".", "This hall is longitudinally divided into a nave and two narrower side aisles separated by a symmetrical row of pillars, with a stupa in the apse.", "The stupa is surrounded by pillars and concentric walking space for circumambulation.", "Some of the caves have elaborate carved entrances, some with large windows over the door to admit light.", "There is often a colonnaded porch or verandah, with another space inside the doors running the width of the cave.", "The oldest worship halls at Ajanta were built in the 2nd to 1st century BCE, the newest ones in the late 5th century CE, and the architecture of both resembles the architecture of a Christian church, but without the crossing or chapel chevette.", "The Ajanta Caves follow the Cathedral-style architecture found in still older rock-cut cave carvings of ancient India, such as the Lomas Rishi Cave of the Ajivikas near Gaya in Bihar dated to the 3rd century BCE.", "These chaitya-griha are called worship or prayer halls.The four completed ''chaitya'' halls are caves 9 and 10 from the early period, and caves 19 and 26 from the later period of construction.", "All follow the typical form found elsewhere, with high ceilings and a central \"nave\" leading to the stupa, which is near the back, but allows walking behind it, as walking around stupas was (and remains) a common element of Buddhist worship (''pradakshina'').", "The later two have high ribbed roofs carved into the rock, which reflect timber forms, and the earlier two are thought to have used actual timber ribs and are now smooth, the original wood presumed to have perished.", "The two later halls have a rather unusual arrangement (also found in Cave 10 at Ellora) where the stupa is fronted by a large relief sculpture of the Buddha, standing in Cave 19 and seated in Cave 26.Cave 29 is a late and very incomplete ''chaitya'' hall.The form of columns in the work of the first period is very plain and un-embellished, with both ''chaitya'' halls using simple octagonal columns, which were later painted with images of the Buddha, people and monks in robes.", "In the second period columns were far more varied and inventive, often changing profile over their height, and with elaborate carved capitals, often spreading wide.", "Many columns are carved over all their surface with floral motifs and Mahayana deities, some fluted and others carved with decoration all over, as in cave 1.File:Ajanta Chaitya 10 plan.jpg|Cave 10: a worship hall with Jataka tales-related art (1st century BCE)File:Ajanta Chaitya 9 plan.jpg|Cave 9: a worship hall with early paintings and animal friezes (1st century CE)File:Ajanta cave 19 plan.jpg|Cave 19: known for its figures of the Buddha, Kubera and other arts (5th century CE)File:Ajanta Cave 19 longitudinal section.jpg|Cave 19: another view (5th century CE)" ], [ "Paintings", "Painted ceiling depicting ''Life circle of Lord Buddha''Most of the Ajanta caves, and almost all the murals paintings date from nearly 600 years later, during a second phase of construction.", "The paintings in the Ajanta caves predominantly narrate the Jataka tales.", "These are Buddhist legends describing the previous births of the Buddha.", "These fables embed ancient morals and cultural lores that are also found in the fables and legends of Hindu and Jain texts.", "The Jataka tales are exemplified through the life example and sacrifices that the Buddha made in hundreds of his past incarnations, where he is depicted as having been reborn as an animal or human.Mural paintings survive from both the earlier and later groups of caves.", "Several fragments of murals preserved from the earlier caves (Caves 10 and 11) are effectively unique survivals of ancient painting in India from this period, and \"show that by Sātavāhana times, if not earlier, the Indian painters had mastered an easy and fluent naturalistic style, dealing with large groups of people in a manner comparable to the reliefs of the Sāñcī toraņa crossbars\".", "Some connections with the art of Gandhara can also be noted, and there is evidence of a shared artistic idiom.Four of the later caves have large and relatively well-preserved mural paintings which, states James Harle, \"have come to represent Indian mural painting to the non-specialist\", and represent \"the great glories not only of Gupta but of all Indian art\".", "They fall into two stylistic groups, with the most famous in Caves 16 and 17, and apparently later paintings in Caves 1 and 2.The latter group were thought to be a century or later than the others, but the revised chronology proposed by Spink would place them in the 5th century as well, perhaps contemporary with it in a more progressive style, or one reflecting a team from a different region.", "The Ajanta frescos are classical paintings and the work of confident artists, without cliches, rich and full.", "They are luxurious, sensuous and celebrate physical beauty, aspects that early Western observers felt were shockingly out of place in these caves presumed to be meant for religious worship and ascetic monastic life.The paintings are in \"dry fresco\", painted on top of a dry plaster surface rather than into wet plaster.", "All the paintings appear to be the work of painters supported by discriminating connoisseurship and sophisticated patrons from an urban atmosphere.", "We know from literary sources that painting was widely practised and appreciated in the Gupta period.", "Unlike much Indian mural painting, compositions are not laid out in horizontal bands like a frieze, but show large scenes spreading in all directions from a single figure or group at the centre.", "The ceilings are also painted with sophisticated and elaborate decorative motifs, many derived from sculpture.", "The paintings in cave 1, which according to Spink was commissioned by Harisena himself, concentrate on those Jataka tales which show previous lives of the Buddha as a king, rather than as deer or elephant or another Jataka animal.", "The scenes depict the Buddha as about to renounce the royal life.In general the later caves seem to have been painted on finished areas as excavating work continued elsewhere in the cave, as shown in caves 2 and 16 in particular.", "According to Spink's account of the chronology of the caves, the abandonment of work in 478 after a brief busy period accounts for the absence of painting in places including cave 4 and the shrine of cave 17, the later being plastered in preparation for paintings that were never done.File:Aurangabad - Ajanta Caves (55).JPG|Cave 2, showing the extensive paint loss of many areas.", "It was never finished by its artists, and shows Vidhura Jataka.File:Ajanta cave 17, frescoes above a lintel.JPG|Cave 17 verandah doorway; eight Buddhas above eight couplesFile:Coming Of Sinhala (Mural At Ajanta In Cave No 17).jpg|Section of the mural in Cave 17, the 'coming of Sinhala'.", "The prince (Prince Vijaya) is seen in both groups of elephants and riders.File:Hamsa jâtaka, Ajanta, India.jpg|Hamsa jâtaka, cave 17: the Buddha as the golden goose in his previous lifeFile:Aurangabad - Ajanta Caves (13).JPG|Cave 13" ], [ "Spink's chronology and cave history", "Walter Spink has over recent decades developed a very precise and circumstantial chronology for the second period of work on the site, which unlike earlier scholars, he places entirely in the 5th century.", "This is based on evidence such as the inscriptions and artistic style, dating of nearby cave temple sites, comparative chronology of the dynasties, combined with the many uncompleted elements of the caves.", "He believes the earlier group of caves, which like other scholars he dates only approximately, to the period \"between 100 BCE – 100 CE\", were at some later point completely abandoned and remained so \"for over three centuries\".", "This changed during the Hindu emperor Harishena of the Vakataka Dynasty, who reigned from 460 to his death in 477, who sponsored numerous new caves during his reign.", "Harisena's rule extended the Central Indian Vakataka Empire to include a stretch of the east coast of India; the Gupta Empire ruled northern India at the same period, and the Pallava dynasty much of the south.Buddhist monks praying in front of the Dagoba of Chaitya Cave 26According to Spink, Harisena encouraged a group of associates, including his prime minister Varahadeva and Upendragupta, the sub-king in whose territory Ajanta was, to dig out new caves, which were individually commissioned, some containing inscriptions recording the donation.", "This activity began in many caves simultaneously about 462.This activity was mostly suspended in 468 because of threats from the neighbouring Asmaka kings.", "Thereafter work continued on only Caves 1, Harisena's own commission, and 17–20, commissioned by Upendragupta.", "In 472 the situation was such that work was suspended completely, in a period that Spink calls \"the Hiatus\", which lasted until about 475, by which time the Asmakas had replaced Upendragupta as the local rulers.Work was then resumed, but again disrupted by Harisena's death in 477, soon after which major excavation ceased, except at cave 26, which the Asmakas were sponsoring themselves.", "The Asmakas launched a revolt against Harisena's son, which brought about the end of the Vakataka Dynasty.", "In the years 478–480 CE major excavation by important patrons was replaced by a rash of \"intrusions\" – statues added to existing caves, and small shrines dotted about where there was space between them.", "These were commissioned by less powerful individuals, some monks, who had not previously been able to make additions to the large excavations of the rulers and courtiers.", "They were added to the facades, the return sides of the entrances, and to walls inside the caves.", "According to Spink, \"After 480, not a single image was ever made again at the site\".", "However, there exists a Rashtrakuta inscription outside of cave 26 dateable to end of seventh or early 8th century, suggesting the caves were not abandoned until then.Spink does not use \"circa\" in his dates, but says that \"one should allow a margin of error of one year or perhaps even two in all cases\".=== Hindu and Buddhist sponsorship ===The Ajanta Caves were built in a period when both the Buddha and the Hindu gods were simultaneously revered in Indian culture.", "According to Spink and other scholars, the royal Vakataka sponsors of the Ajanta Caves probably worshipped both Hindu and Buddhist gods.", "This is evidenced by inscriptions in which these rulers, who are otherwise known as Hindu devotees, made Buddhist dedications to the caves.", "According to Spink,A terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini, also known as Durga, was also found in a burnt-brick vihara monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the river Waghora that has been recently excavated.", "This suggest that the deity was possibly under worship by the artisans.", "According to Yuko Yokoschi and Walter Spink, the excavated artifacts of the 5th century near the site suggest that the Ajanta caves deployed a huge number of builders.Ajanta Caves panorama with cave numbers.", "The caves are numbered from right to left, except for the later discovered cave 29, located high above Cave 21.Also, cave 30 is located between caves 15 and 16, nearer the river bed (cave invisible here).", "Chaitya halls are boxed (9, 10, 19, 26), and minor caves are indicated by a smaller type." ], [ "Cave 1", "Front of Cave 1Cave 1 was built on the eastern end of the horseshoe-shaped scarp and is now the first cave the visitor encounters.", "This cave, when first made, would have been in a less prominent position, right at the end of the row.", "According to Spink, it is one of the last caves to have been excavated, when the best sites had been taken, and was never fully inaugurated for worship by the dedication of the Buddha image in the central shrine.", "This is shown by the absence of sooty deposits from butter lamps on the base of the shrine image, and the lack of damage to the paintings that would have happened if the garland-hooks around the shrine had been in use for any period of time.", "Spink states that the Vākāṭaka Emperor Harishena was the benefactor of the work, and this is reflected in the emphasis on imagery of royalty in the cave, with those Jataka tales being selected that tell of those previous lives of the Buddha in which he was royal.The cliff has a steeper slope here than at other caves, so to achieve a tall grand facade it was necessary to cut far back into the slope, giving a large courtyard in front of the facade.", "There was originally a columned portico in front of the present facade, which can be seen \"half-intact in the 1880s\" in pictures of the site, but this fell down completely and the remains, despite containing fine carvings, were carelessly thrown down the slope into the river and lost.The frieze over the frontage of Cave 1 front shows elephants, horses, bulls, lions, apsaras and meditating monks.This cave (35.7 m × 27.6 m) has one of the most elaborate carved facades, with relief sculptures on entablature and ridges, and most surfaces embellished with decorative carving.", "There are scenes carved from the life of the Buddha as well as a number of decorative motifs.", "A two-pillared portico, visible in the 19th-century photographs, has since perished.", "The cave has a forecourt with cells fronted by pillared vestibules on either side.", "These have a high plinth level.", "The cave has a porch with simple cells at both ends.", "The absence of pillared vestibules on the ends suggests that the porch was not excavated in the latest phase of Ajanta when pillared vestibules had become customary.", "Most areas of the porch were once covered with murals, of which many fragments remain, especially on the ceiling.", "There are three doorways: a central doorway and two side doorways.", "Two square windows were carved between the doorways to brighten the interiors.Each wall of the hall inside is nearly long and high.", "Twelve pillars make a square colonnade inside, supporting the ceiling and creating spacious aisles along the walls.", "There is a shrine carved on the rear wall to house an impressive seated image of the Buddha, his hands being in the ''dharmachakrapravartana mudra.''", "There are four cells on each of the left, rear, and the right walls, though due to rock fault there are none at the ends of the rear aisle.The paintings of Cave 1 cover the walls and the ceilings.", "They are in a fair state of preservation, although the full scheme was never completed.", "The scenes depicted are mostly didactic, devotional, and ornamental, with scenes from the chalukya corutstories about Persian ambassador in pulikeshin 2nd corut tells the relationship btw chalukya empire and Persian Empire Jataka stories of the Buddha's former lives as a bodhisattva, the life of the Gautama Buddha, and those of his veneration.", "The two most famous individual painted images at Ajanta are the two over-lifesize figures of the protective bodhisattvas Padmapani and Vajrapani on either side of the entrance to the Buddha shrine on the wall of the rear aisle (see illustrations above).", "Other significant frescoes in Cave 1 include the Sibi, Sankhapala, Mahajanaka, Mahaummagga, and Champeyya Jataka tales.", "The cave-paintings also show the Temptation of Mara, the miracle of Sravasti where the Buddha simultaneously manifests in many forms, the story of Nanda, and the story of Siddhartha and Yasodhara.File:Meister des Mahâjanaka Jâtaka 001.jpg|One of four frescoes for the Mahajanaka Jataka tale: the king announces his abdication to become an ascetic.File:Ajanta Cave 1 Mahajanaka Jataka mural detail.jpg|Sibi Jataka: the king undergoes the traditional rituals for renunciants.", "He receives a ceremonial bath.File:Bodhisattva Padmapani, cave 1, Ajanta, India.jpg|The Bodhisattva of compassion Padmapani with lotusFile:023 Cave 1, Vajrapani (33896242100).jpg|The VajrapaniFile:Kinnara with kachchapa veena, part of the Bodhisattva Padmapani, Cave 1, Ajanta, India.jpg|Kinnara with kachchapa veena, part of Bodhisattva Padmapani painting in Cave 1.File:Ajanta_foreigner_2.jpg|Ajanta Cave 1 Group of foreigners on the ceiling" ], [ "Cave 2", "Cave 2, adjacent to Cave 1, is known for the paintings that have been preserved on its walls, ceilings, and pillars.", "It looks similar to Cave 1 and is in a better state of preservation.", "This cave is best known for its feminine focus, intricate rock carvings and paint artwork yet it is incomplete and lacks consistency.", "One of the 5th-century frescos in this cave also shows children at a school, with those in the front rows paying attention to the teacher, while those in the back row are shown distracted and acting.Cave 2 (35.7 m × 21.6 m) was started in the 460s, but mostly carved between 475 and 477 CE, probably sponsored and influenced by a woman closely related to emperor Harisena.", "It has a porch quite different from Cave 1.Even the façade carvings seem to be different.", "The cave is supported by robust pillars, ornamented with designs.", "The front porch consists of cells supported by pillared vestibules on both ends.Colonnades with high-reliefs in the verandaThe hall has four colonnades which are supporting the ceiling and surrounding a square in the center of the hall.", "Each arm or colonnade of the square is parallel to the respective walls of the hall, making an aisle in between.", "The colonnades have rock-beams above and below them.", "The capitals are carved and painted with various decorative themes that include ornamental, human, animal, vegetative, and semi-divine motifs.", "Major carvings include that of goddess Hariti.", "She is a Buddhist deity who originally was the demoness of smallpox and a child eater, who the Buddha converted into a guardian goddess of fertility, easy child birth and one who protects babies.The paintings on the ceilings and walls of Cave 2 have been widely published.", "They depict the Hamsa, Vidhurapandita, Ruru, Kshanti Jataka tales and the Purna Avadhana.", "Other frescos show the miracle of Sravasti, Ashtabhaya Avalokitesvara and the dream of Maya.", "Just as the stories illustrated in cave 1 emphasise kingship, those in cave 2 show many noble and powerful women in prominent roles, leading to suggestions that the patron was an unknown woman.", "The porch's rear wall has a doorway in the center, which allows entrance to the hall.", "On either side of the door is a square-shaped window to brighten the interior.File:044 Cave 2, Paintings and Pillar (34149165821).jpg|Cave 2 fresco above the right door shows Buddha in Tushita heavenFile:Ajanta Cave 2 Birth of the Buddha.jpg|A scene from Vidurapandita Jataka: the birth of the BuddhaFile:Ajanta cave 2, girls detail.jpg|The artworks of Cave 2 are known for their feminine focus, such as these two femalesFile:045 Cave 2, Many Buddhas (34122766502).jpg|The Miracle of Sravasti" ], [ "Cave 3", "Cave 3 is merely a start of an excavation; according to Spink it was begun right at the end of the final period of work and soon abandoned.This is an incomplete monastery and only the preliminary excavations of pillared veranda exist.", "The cave was one of the last projects to start at the site.", "Its date could be ascribed to circa 477 CE, just before the sudden death of Emperor Harisena.", "The work stopped after the scooping out of a rough entrance of the hall." ], [ "Cave 4", "Cave 4, a Vihara, was sponsored by Mathura, likely not a noble or courtly official, rather a wealthy devotee.", "This is the largest vihara in the inaugural group, which suggests he had immense wealth and influence without being a state official.", "It is placed at a significantly higher level, possibly because the artists realized that the rock quality at the lower and same level of other caves was poor and they had a better chance of a major vihara at an upper location.", "Another likely possibility is that the planners wanted to carve into the rock another large cistern to the left courtside for more residents, mirroring the right, a plan implied by the height of the forward cells on the left side.The Archaeological Survey of India dates it to the 6th century CE.", "Spink, in contrast, dates this cave's inauguration a century earlier, to about 463 CE, based on construction style and other inscriptions.", "Cave 4 shows evidence of a dramatic collapse of its ceiling in the central hall, likely in the 6th century, something caused by the vastness of the cave and geological flaws in the rock.", "Later, the artists attempted to overcome this geological flaw by raising the height of the ceiling through deeper excavation of the embedded basalt lava.Cave 4: The Buddha in a preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvasThe cave has a squarish plan, houses a colossal image of the Buddha in preaching pose flanked by bodhisattvas and celestial nymphs hovering above.", "It consists, of a verandah, a hypostylar hall, sanctum with an antechamber and a series of unfinished cells.", "This monastery is the largest among the Ajanta caves and it measures nearly (35 m × 28 m).", "The door frame is exquisitely sculpted flanking to the right is carved Bodhisattva as reliever of Eight Great Perils.", "The rear wall of the verandah contains the panel of litany of Avalokiteśvara.", "The cave's ceiling collapse likely affected its overall plan, caused it being left incomplete.", "Only the Buddha's statue and the major sculptures were completed, and except for what the sponsor considered most important elements all other elements inside the cave were never painted." ], [ "Cave 5", "Cave 5, an unfinished excavation, was planned as a monastery (10.32 × 16.8 m).", "Cave 5 is devoid of sculpture and architectural elements except the door frame.", "The ornate carvings on the frame has female figures with mythical ''makara'' creatures found in ancient and medieval-era Indian arts.", "The cave's construction was likely initiated about 465 CE but abandoned because the rock has geological flaws.", "The construction was resumed in 475 CE after Asmakas restarted work at the Ajanta caves, but abandoned again as the artists and sponsor redesigned and focussed on an expanded Cave 6 that abuts Cave 5." ], [ "Cave 6", "Cave 6 is two-storey monastery (16.85 × 18.07 m).", "It consists of a sanctum, a hall on both levels.", "The lower level is pillared and has attached cells.", "The upper hall also has subsidiary cells.", "The sanctums on both level feature a Buddha in the teaching posture.", "Elsewhere, the Buddha is shown in different mudras.", "The lower level walls depict the Miracle of Sravasti and the Temptation of Mara legends.", "Only the lower floor of cave 6 was finished.", "The unfinished upper floor of cave 6 has many private votive sculptures, and a shrine Buddha.The lower level of Cave 6 likely was the earliest excavation in the second stage of construction.", "This stage marked the Mahayana theme and Vakataka renaissance period of Ajanta reconstruction that started about four centuries after the earlier Hinayana theme construction.", "The upper storey was not envisioned in the beginning, it was added as an afterthought, likely around the time when the architects and artists abandoned further work on the geologically-flawed rock of Cave 5 immediately next to it.", "Both lower and upper Cave 6 show crude experimentation and construction errors.", "The cave work was most likely in progress between 460 and 470 CE, and it is the first that shows attendant Bodhisattvas.", "The upper cave construction probably began in 465, progressed swiftly, and much deeper into the rock than the lower level.The walls and sanctum's door frame of the both levels are intricately carved.", "These show themes such as ''makaras'' and other mythical creatures, apsaras, elephants in different stages of activity, females in waving or welcoming gesture.", "The upper level of Cave 6 is significant in that it shows a devotee in a kneeling posture at the Buddha's feet, an indication of devotional worship practices by the 5th century.", "The colossal Buddha of the shrine has an elaborate throne back, but was hastily finished in 477/478 CE, when king Harisena died.", "The shrine antechamber of the cave features an unfinished sculptural group of the Six Buddhas of the Past, of which only five statues were carved.", "This idea may have been influenced from those in Bagh Caves of Madhya Pradesh.File:075 Cave 6, Painting Fragments (34239868756).jpg|The most intact painting in Cave 6: Buddha seated in dharma-chakra-mudraFile:Gosh.jpg|Painting showing the Mahayana devotional worship to the BuddhaFile:Upper Floor, Cave No.", "6, Ajanta Caves - 1.jpg|Buddha in the upper level, deer below and apsaras above (artificial lighting)File:AJANTA CAVE NO.", "6.jpg|Bhagwan Buddha" ], [ "Cave 7", "Cave 7 is also a monastery (15.55 × 31.25 m) but a single storey.", "It consists of a sanctum, a hall with octagonal pillars, and eight small rooms for monks.", "The sanctum Buddha is shown in preaching posture.", "There are many art panels narrating Buddhist themes, including those of the Buddha with Nagamuchalinda and Miracle of Sravasti.Cave 7 has a grand facade with two porticos.", "The veranda has eight pillars of two types.", "One has an octagonal base with amalaka and lotus capital.", "The other lacks a distinctly shaped base, features an octagonal shaft instead with a plain capital.", "The veranda opens into an antechamber.", "On the left side in this antechamber are seated or standing sculptures such as those of 25 carved seated Buddhas in various postures and facial expressions, while on the right side are 58 seated Buddha reliefs in different postures, all placed on lotus.", "These Buddhas and others on the inner walls of the antechamber are a sculptural depiction of the Miracle of Sravasti in Buddhist theology.", "The bottom row shows two Nagas (serpents with hoods) holding the blooming lotus stalk.", "The antechamber leads to the sanctum through a door frame.", "On this frame are carved two females standing on ''makaras'' (mythical sea creatures).", "Inside the sanctum is the Buddha sitting on a lion throne in cross legged posture, surrounded by other Bodhisattva figures, two attendants with ''chauris'' and flying apsaras above.Perhaps because of faults in the rock, Cave 7 was never taken very deep into the cliff.", "It consists only of the two porticos and a shrine room with antechamber, with no central hall.", "Some cells were fitted in.", "The cave artwork likely underwent revisions and refurbishments over time.", "The first version was complete by about 469 CE, the myriad Buddhas added and painted a few years later between 476 and 478 CE.File:Plan of Ajanta Cave 7, 1850 sketch.jpg|Cave 7 plan (Robert Gill sketch, 1850)File:1880 sketch antechamber reliefs Cave 7 Ajanta Maharashtra India.jpg|Cave 7: Buddhas on the antechamber left wall (James Burgess sketch, 1880)File:Ajanta si01-0403.jpg|Buddhas on the antechamber's right wallFile:Ajanta Caves 47.jpg|The shallow corridor before the shrine" ], [ "Cave 8", "Cave 8 is another unfinished monastery (15.24 × 24.64 m).", "For many decades in the 20th century, this cave was used as a storage and generator room.", "It is at the river level with easy access, relatively lower than other caves, and according to Archaeological Survey of India it is possibly one of the earliest monasteries.", "Much of its front is damaged, likely from a landslide.", "The cave excavation proved difficult and probably abandoned after a geological fault consisting of a mineral layer proved disruptive to stable carvings.Spink, in contrast, states that Cave 8 is perhaps the earliest cave from the second period, its shrine an \"afterthought\".", "It may well be the oldest Mahayana monastery excavated in India, according to Spink.", "The statue may have been loose rather than carved from the living rock, as it has now vanished.", "The cave was painted, but only traces remain." ], [ "Cave 9", "Caves 9 and 10 are the two ''chaitya'' or worship halls from the 2nd to 1st century BCE – the first period of construction, though both were reworked upon the end of the second period of construction in the 5th century CE.Cave 9 (18.24 m × 8.04 m) is smaller than Cave 10 (30.5 m × 12.2 m), but more complex.", "This has led Spink to the view that Cave 10 was perhaps originally of the 1st century BCE, and cave 9 about a hundred years later.", "The small \"shrinelets\" called caves 9A to 9D and 10A also date from the second period.", "These were commissioned by individuals.", "Cave 9 arch has remnant profile that suggests that it likely had wooden fittings.The cave has a distinct apsidal shape, nave, aisle and an apse with an icon, architecture, and plan that reminds one of the cathedrals built in Europe many centuries later.", "The aisle has a row of 23 pillars.", "The ceiling is vaulted.", "The stupa is at the center of the apse, with a circumambulation path around it.", "The stupa sits on a high cylindrical base.", "On the left wall of the cave are votaries approaching the stupa, which suggests a devotional tradition.According to Spink, the paintings in this cave, including the intrusive standing Buddhas on the pillars, were added in the 5th century.", "Above the pillars and also behind the stupa are colorful paintings of the Buddha with Padmapani and Vajrapani next to him, they wear jewels and necklaces, while yogis, citizens and Buddhist ''bhikshu'' are shown approaching the Buddha with garlands and offerings, with men wearing ''dhoti'' and turbans wrapped around their heads.", "On the walls are friezes of Jataka tales, but likely from the Hinayana phase of early construction.", "Some of the panels and reliefs inside as well as outside Cave 10 do not make narrative sense, but are related to Buddhist legends.", "This lack of narrative flow may be because these were added by different monks and official donors in the 5th century wherever empty space was available.", "This devotionalism and the worship hall character of this cave is the likely reason why four additional shrinelets 9A, 9B, 9C, and 9D were added between Cave 9 and 10.File:098 Cave 9, Buddha with Ananda (34239733306).jpg|Buddha statue on the porch of Cave 9File:Ajanta caves aurangabad 12.JPG|The apsidal hall with plain hemispherical stupa at apse's centerFile:Ajanta Caves 57.jpg|Pillar paintingsFile:Cave 9, Paintings on and over pillars right side of the cave.jpg|Cave 9: fresco with Buddhas in orange robes and protected by chatra umbrellas" ], [ "Cave 10", "Cave 10, a vast prayer hall or Chaitya, is dated to about the 1st century BCE, together with the nearby vihara cave No 12.These two caves are thus among the earliest of the Ajanta complex.", "It has a large central apsidal hall with a row of 39 octagonal pillars, a nave separating its aisle and stupa at the end for worship.", "The stupa has a ''pradakshina patha'' (circumambulatory path).This cave is significant because its scale confirms the influence of Buddhism in South Asia by the 1st century BCE and its continued though declining influence in India through the 5th century CE.", "Further, the cave includes a number of inscriptions where parts of the cave are \"gifts of prasada\" by different individuals, which in turn suggests that the cave was sponsored as a community effort rather than a single king or one elite official.", "Cave 10 is also historically important because in April 1819, a British Army officer John Smith saw its arch and introduced his discovery to the attention of the Western audience.", ";ChronologySeveral others caves were also built in Western India around the same period under royal sponsorship.", "It is thought that the chronology of these early Chaitya Caves is as follows: first Cave 9 at Kondivite Caves and then Cave 12 at the Bhaja Caves, which both predate Cave 10 of Ajanta.", "Then, after Cave 10 of Ajanta, in chronological order: Cave 3 at Pitalkhora, Cave 1 at Kondana Caves, Cave 9 at Ajanta, which, with its more ornate designs, may have been built about a century later, Cave 18 at Nasik Caves, and Cave 7 at Bedse Caves, to finally culminate with the \"final perfection\" of the Great Chaitya at Karla Caves.", ";InscriptionAjanta Cave 10 dedicatory inscriptionCave 10 features a Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script that is archaeologically important.", "The inscription is the oldest of the Ajanta site, the Brahmi letters being paleographically dated to circa the 2nd century BCE.", "It reads:;PaintingsThe paintings in cave 10 include some surviving from the early period, many from an incomplete programme of modernisation in the second period, and a very large number of smaller late intrusive images for votive purposes, around the 479–480 CE, nearly all Buddhas and many with donor inscriptions from individuals.", "These mostly avoided over-painting the \"official\" programme and after the best positions were used up are tucked away in less prominent positions not yet painted; the total of these (including those now lost) was probably over 300, and the hands of many different artists are visible.", "The paintings are numerous and from two periods, many narrating the Jataka tales in a clockwise sequence.", "Both Hinayana and Mahayana stage paintings are discernable, though the former are more faded and begrimed with early centuries of Hinayana worship.", "Of interest here is the Saddanta Jataka tale – the fable about six tusked elephant, and the Shyama Jataka – the story about the man who dedicates his life serving his blind parents.", "According to Stella Kramrisch, the oldest layer of the Cave 10 paintings date from about 100 BCE, and the principles behind their composition are analogous to those from the same era at Sanchi and Amaravati.", "*Plate 3* == Ajunta-- Interior of Chaitya Cave, No.", "10.jpg|Cave 10, condition in 1839File:089 Cave 10, Buddha Drawing on Column (33896473480).jpg|The Buddha in long, heavy robe, a design derived from the art of GandharaFile:Ajanta Caves 71.jpg|Later painting with devotional figures, on pillars and ceilingFile:106 Cave 10, Paintings in Arches (33438399444).jpg|Paintings of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas on the arches" ], [ "Cave 11", "Cave 11 is a monastery (19.87 × 17.35 m) built during ''c.''", "462 to 478.The cave veranda has pillars with octagonal shafts and square bases.", "The ceiling of the veranda shows evidence of floral designs and eroded reliefs.", "Only the center panel is discernible wherein the Buddha is seen with votaries lining up to pray before him.", "Inside, the cave consists of a hall with a long rock bench opening into six rooms.", "Similar stone benches are found in Nasik Caves.", "Another pillared verandah ends in a sanctum with seated Buddha against an incomplete stupa, and has four cells.The cave has a few paintings showing Bodhisattvas and the Buddha.", "Of these, the Padmapani, a couple gathered to pray, a pair of peafowl, and a female figure painting have survived in the best condition.", "The sanctum of this cave may be among the last structures built at Ajanta because it features a circumambulation path around the seated Buddha." ], [ "Cave 12", "According to Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), Cave 12 is an early stage Hinayana (Theravada) monastery (14.9 × 17.82 m) from the 2nd to 1st century BCE.", "Spink however only dates it to the 1st century BCE.The cave is damaged with its front wall completely collapsed.", "Its three sides inside have twelve cells, each with two stone beds." ], [ "Cave 13", "Cave 13 is another small monastery from the early period, consisting of a hall with seven cells, each also with two stone beds, all carved out of the rock.", "Each cell has rock-cut beds for the monks.", "In contrast to ASI's estimate, Gupte and Mahajan date both these caves about two to three centuries later, between 1st and 2nd-century CE.==Cave 14== Cave 14 is another unfinished monastery (13.43 × 19.28 m) but carved above Cave 13.The entrance door frame shows ''sala bhanjikas''.==Cave 15== Cave 15 is a more complete monastery (19.62 × 15.98 m) with evidence that it had paintings.", "The cave consists of an eight-celled hall ending in a sanctum, an antechamber and a verandah with pillars.", "The reliefs show the Buddha, while the sanctum Buddha is shown seated in the Simhasana posture.", "Cave 15 door frame has carvings of pigeons eating grain." ], [ "Cave 15A", "Cave 15A is the smallest cave with a hall and one cell on each side.", "Its entrance is just to the right of the elephant-decorated entrance to Cave 16.It is an ancient Hinayana cave with three cells opening around a minuscule central hall.", "The doors are decorated with a rail and arch pattern.", "It had an inscription in an ancient script, which has been lost.File:Ajanta Cave 13 exterior.jpg|Cave 13File:Ajanta Cave 14 exterior.jpg|Cave 14File:Ajanta Cave 15 exterior.jpg|Cave 15File:Ajanta Cave 15A.jpg|Cave 15AFile:Interior of newly discovered vihara 15A at Ajanta 2nd century BCE.jpg|Interior of cave 15A" ], [ "Cave 16", "Cave 16 occupies a prime position near the middle of site, and was sponsored by Varahadeva, minister of Vakataka king Harishena (r. ).", "He was a follower of Buddhism.", "He devoted it to the community of monks, with an inscription that expresses his wish, may \"the entire world (...) enter that peaceful and noble state free from sorrow and disease\" and affirming his devotion to the Buddhist faith: \"regarding the sacred law as his only companion, (he was) extremely devoted to the Buddha, the teacher of the world\".", "He was, states Spink, probably someone who revered both the Buddha and the Hindu gods, as he proclaims his Hindu heritage in an inscription in the nearby Ghatotkacha Cave.", "The 7th-century Chinese traveler Xuan Zang described the cave as the entrance to the site.Cave 16 (19.5 m × 22.25 m × 4.6 m) influenced the architecture of the entire site.", "Spink and other scholars call it the \"crucial cave\" that helps trace the chronology of the second and closing stages of the entire cave's complex construction.", "Cave 16 is a Mahayana monastery and has the standard arrangement of a main doorway, two windows, and two aisle doorways.", "The veranda of this monastery is 19.5 m × 3 m, while the main hall is almost a perfect square with 19.5 m side.The paintings in Cave 16 are numerous.", "Narratives include various Jataka tales such as Hasti, Mahaummagga and the Sutasoma fables.", "Other frescos depict the conversion of Nanda, miracle of Sravasti, Sujata's offering, Asita's visit, the dream of Maya, the Trapusha and Bhallika story, and the ploughing festival.", "The Hasti Jataka frescos tell the story of a Bodhisattva elephant who learns of a large group of people starving, then tells them to go below a cliff where they could find food.", "The elephant proceeds to sacrifice himself by jumping off that cliff thereby becoming food so that the people can survive.", "These frescos are found immediately to the left of entrance, in the front corridor and the narrative follows a clockwise direction.The Mahaummagga Jataka frescos are found on the left wall of the corridor, which narrates the story of a child Bodhisattva.", "Thereafter, in the left corridor is the legend surrounding the conversion of Nanda – the half brother of the Buddha.", "The story depicted is one of the two major versions of the Nanda legend in the Buddhist tradition, one where Nanda wants to lead a sensuous life with the girl he had just wed and the Buddha takes him to heaven and later hell to show the spiritual dangers of a sensual life.", "After the Nanda-related frescos, the cave presents Manushi Buddhas, followed by flying votaries with offerings to worship the Buddha and the Buddha seated in teaching asana and ''dharma chakra mudra''.The right wall of the corridor show the scenes from the life of the Buddha.", "These include Sujata offering food to the Buddha with a begging bowl in white dress, Tapussa and Bhalluka next to the Buddha after they offering wheat and honey to the Buddha as monk, the future Buddha sitting alone under a tree, and the Buddha at a ploughing festival.", "One mural shows Buddha's parents trying to dissuade him from becoming a monk.", "Another shows the Buddha at the palace surrounded by men in ''dhoti'' and women in ''sari'' as his behavior presents the four signs that he is likely to renounce.", "On this side of the corridor are also paintings that show the future Buddha as a baby with sage Asita with rishi-like looks.", "According to Spink, some of the Cave 16 paintings were left incomplete.File:018 Cave 16, Bodhisattva Painting (34141156892).jpg|The conversion of sensuality-driven Nanda to Buddhism, left corridorFile:017 Cave 16, Colonnaned Hall (34141160892).jpg|Palace scene fresco, right corridor of Cave 16File:027 Cave 16, Buddha on Almsround (33914608490).jpg|The Buddha in asceticism stage, getting sweet milk-rice from SujataFile:019 Cave 16, Buddha Paintings, with Inscription (34141152992).jpg|Manushi Buddhas painting in Cave 16File:Ajanta Cave 16 King paying hommage to the Buddha.jpg|Cave 16: king paying homage to the Buddha" ], [ "Cave 17", "Cave 17 (34.5 m × 25.63 m) along with Cave 16 with two great stone elephants at the entrance and Cave 26 with sleeping Buddha, were some of the many caves sponsored by the Hindu Vakataka prime minister Varahadeva.", "Cave 17 had additional donors such as the local king Upendragupta, as evidenced by the inscription therein.The cave features a large and most sophisticated vihara design, along with some of the best-preserved and well-known paintings of all the caves.", "While Cave 16 is known for depicting the life stories of the Buddha, the Cave 17 paintings has attracted much attention for extolling human virtues by narrating the Jataka tales.", "The narration includes attention to details and a realism which Stella Kramrisch calls \"lavish elegance\" accomplished by efficient craftsmen.", "The ancient artists, states Kramrisch, tried to show wind passing over a crop by showing it bending in waves, and a similar profusion of rhythmic sequences that unroll story after story, visually presenting the metaphysical.The Cave 17 monastery includes a colonnaded porch, a number of pillars each with a distinct style, a peristyle design for the interior hall, a shrine antechamber located deep in the cave, larger windows and doors for more light, along with extensive integrated carvings of Indian gods and goddesses.", "The hall of this monastery is a square, with 20 pillars.", "The grand scale of the carving also introduced errors of taking out too much rock to shape the walls, states Spink, which led to the cave being splayed out toward the rear.Cave 17 has one long inscription by king Upendragupta, in which he explains that he has \"expended abundant wealth\" on building this vihara, bringing much satisfaction to the devotees.", "Altogether, Upendragupta is known to have sponsored at least 5 of the caves in Ajanta.", "He may have spent too much wealth on religious pursuits however, as he was ultimately defeated by the attacks of the Asmaka.Cave 17 has thirty major murals.", "The paintings of Cave 17 depict Buddha in various forms and postures – Vipasyi, Sikhi, Visvbhu, Krakuchchanda, Kanakamuni, Kashyapa and Sakyamuni.", "Also depicted are Avalokitesvara, the story of Udayin and Gupta, the story of Nalagiri, the Wheel of life, a panel celebrating various ancient Indian musicians and a panel that tells of Prince Simhala's expedition to Sri Lanka.", "The narrative frescos depict the various Jataka tales such as the Shaddanta, Hasti, Hamsa, Vessantara, Sutasoma, Mahakapi (in two versions), Sarabhamiga, Machchha, Matiposaka, Shyama, Mahisha, Valahassa, Sibi, Ruru and Nigrodamiga Jatakas.", "The depictions weave in the norms of the early 1st millennium culture and the society.", "They show themes as diverse as a shipwreck, a princess applying makeup, lovers in scenes of dalliance, and a wine drinking scene of a couple with the woman and man amorously seated.", "Some frescos attempt to show the key characters from various parts of a Jataka tale by co-depicting animals and attendants in the same scene.File:Ajanta amorous palace scene.jpg|Vessantara Jataka: the story of the generous king VessantaraFile:Ajanta Cave 17 Shada-Danta Jataka.jpg|Shaddanta Jataka: six-tusked elephant giving away his tusksFile:079 Cave 17, Beautiful Composition (34298740365).jpg|Painting depicting \"Darpana Sundari\", a lady with a mirrorFile:1880 sketch Buddha in sanctum Cave 17 Ajanta Maharashtra India.jpg|The Buddha in Cave 17 sanctumFile:Indra and Apsara mural.jpg|Musician with Alapini Vina (far left), next to Indra." ], [ "Cave 18", "Cave 18 is a small rectangular space (3.38 × 11.66 m) with two octagonal pillars and it joins into another cell.", "Its role is unclear." ], [ "Cave 19 (5th century CE)", "Cave 19 is a worship hall (chaitya griha, 16.05 × 7.09 m) datable to the fifth century CE.", "The hall shows painted Buddha, depicted in different postures.", "This worship hall is now visited through what was previously a carved room.", "The presence of this room before the hall suggests that the original plan included a mandala style courtyard for devotees to gather and wait, an entrance and facade to this courtyard, all of whose ruins are now lost to history.", "Cave 19 is one of the caves known for its sculpture.", "It includes Naga figures with a serpent canopy protecting the Buddha, similar to those found for spiritual icons in the ancient Jain and Hindu traditions.", "It includes Yaksha ''dvarapala'' (guardian) images on the side of its ''vatayana'' (arches), flying couples, sitting Buddha, standing Buddhas and evidence that its ceiling was once painted.Cave 19 drew upon on the plan and experimentation in Cave 9.It made a major departure from the earlier Hinayana tradition, by carving a Buddha into the stupa, a decision that states Spink must have come from \"the highest levels\" in the 5th-century Mahayana Buddhist establishment because the king and dynasty that built this cave was from the Shaivism Hindu tradition.", "Cave 19 excavation and stupa was likely in place by 467 CE, and its finishing and artistic work continued into the early 470s, but it too was an incomplete cave when it was dedicated in 471 CE.The entrance facade of the Cave 19 worship hall is ornate.", "Two round pillars with fluted floral patterns and carved garlands support a porch.", "Its capital is an inverted lotus connecting to an ''amalaka''.", "To its left is standing Buddha in ''varada hasta mudra'' with a devotee prostrating at his feet.", "On right is a relief of woman with one hand holding a pitcher and other touching her chin.", "Above is a seated Buddha in meditating mudra.", "Towards the right of the entrance is the \"Mother and Child\" sculpture.", "A figure with begging bowl is the Buddha, watching him are his wife and son.The worship hall is apsidal, with 15 pillars dividing it into two side aisles and one nave.", "The round pillars have floral reliefs and a fluted shaft topped with Buddha in its capitals.", "Next, to the Buddha in the capitals are elephants, horses and flying apsara friezes found elsewhere in India, reflecting the style of the Gupta Empire artwork.", "According to Sharma, the similarities at the Karla Caves Great Chaitya, built in the 2nd century CE, suggest that Cave 19 may have been modeled after it.The walls and the ceiling of the side aisles inside the worship hall are covered with paintings.", "These show the Buddha, flowers, and in the left aisle the \"Mother and Child\" legend again.File:Ajanta cave 19 plan.jpg|Cave 19 plan suggests that it once had a courtyard and additional artworkFile:Engravings in pathway of Ajanta.JPG|Nagaraja in ''ardhaparyanka asana'', with his wife holding lotus and wearing ''mangalasutra''File:013 Cave 19, Buddha Meditating (33535639164).jpg|The nave has 15 pillars with Buddha reliefsFile:027 Cave 19, Buddha Paintings (34219246102).jpg|Buddha paintings in the side aisle of Cave 19" ], [ "Cave 20", "Cave 20 is a monastery hall (16.2 × 17.91 m) from the 5th century.", "Its construction, states Spink, was started in the 460s by king Upendragupta, with his expressed desire \"to make the great tree of religious merit grow\".", "The work on Cave 20 was pursued in parallel with other caves.", "Cave 20 has exquisite detailing, states Spink, but it was relatively lower on priority than Caves 17 and 19.The work on Cave 20 was intermittently stopped and then continued in the following decade.The vihara consists of a sanctum, four cells for monks and a pillared verandah with two stone cut windows for light.", "Prior to entering the main hall, on the left of veranda are two Buddhas carved above the window and side cell.", "The ceiling of the main hall has remnants of painting.", "The sanctum Buddha is in preaching posture.", "The cave is known for the sculpture showing seven Buddhas with attendants on its lintel.", "The cave has a dedicatory Sanskrit inscription in Brahmi script in its verandah, and it calls the cave as a ''mandapa''.Many of the figural and ornamental carvings in Cave 20 are similar to Cave 19, and to a lesser degree to those found in Cave 17.This may be because the same architects and artisans were responsible for the evolution of the three caves.", "The door frames in Cave 20 are quasi-structural, something unique at the Ajanta site.", "The decorations are also innovative in Cave 20, such as one showing the Buddha seated against two pillows and \"a richly laden mango tree behind him\", states Spink.File:033 Cave 20, Buddha on Lion Throne (34246702601).jpg|The Buddha on Lion throneFile:037 Cave 20, Naga (33567164493).jpg|The sanctum has two Nagarajas on the side as guardians." ], [ "Cave 21", "Cave 21 is a hall (28.56 × 28.03 m) with twelve rock-cut rooms for monks, a sanctum, twelve pillared and pilastered verandah.", "The carvings on the pilaster include those of animals and flowers.", "The pillars feature reliefs of apsaras, Nagaraja and Nagarani, as well as devotees bowing with the Anjali mudra.", "The hall shows evidence that it used to be completely painted.", "The sanctum Buddha is shown in preaching posture.==Cave 22== Cave 22 is a small vihara (12.72 × 11.58 m) with a narrow veranda and four unfinished cells.", "It is excavated at a higher level and has to be reached by a flight of steps.", "Inside, the Buddha is seated in pralamba-padasana.", "The painted figures in Cave 22 show Manushi-Buddhas with Maitreya.", "A pilaster on the left side of the Cave 22 veranda has a Sanskrit prose inscription.", "It is damaged in parts, and the legible parts state that this is a \"meritorious gift of a mandapa by Jayata\", calling Jayata's family as \"a great Upasaka\", and ending the inscription with \"may the merit of this be for excellent knowledge to all sentient beings, beginning with father and mother\".==Cave 23== Cave 23 is also unfinished, consisting of a hall (28.32 × 22.52 m) but a design similar to Cave 21.The cave differs in its pillar decorations and the naga doorkeepers.==Cave 24== Cave 24 is like Cave 21, unfinished but much larger.", "It features the second largest monastery hall (29.3 × 29.3 m) after Cave 4.The cave 24 monastery has been important to scholarly studies of the site because it shows how multiple crews of workers completed their objectives in parallel.", "The cell construction began as soon as the aisle had been excavated and while the main hall and sanctum were under construction.", "The construction of Cave 24 was planned in 467 CE, but likely started in 475 CE, with support from Buddhabhadra, then abruptly ended in 477 with the sponsor king Harisena's death.", "It is significant in having one of the most complex capitals on a pillar at the Ajanta site, an indication of how the artists excelled and continuously improved their sophistication as they worked with the rock inside the cave.", "The artists carved fourteen complex miniature figures on the central panel of the right center porch pillar, while working in dim light in a cramped cave space.", "The medallion reliefs in Cave 24 similarly show loving couples and anthropomorphic arts, rather than flowers of earlier construction.", "Cave 24's sanctum has a seated Buddha in pralamba-padasana." ], [ "Cave 25", "Cave 25 is a monastery.", "Its hall (11.37 × 12.24 m) is similar to other monasteries, but has no sanctum, includes an enclosed courtyard and is excavated at an upper level.File:Ajanta caves Maharashtra 210.jpg|The Buddha of Cave 21File:060 Cave 22, Interior (34336161086).jpg|Cave 22: inside hallFile:064 Cave 23, Side View (34377438285).jpg|Cave 23: inside hallFile:075 Cave 24, Pillar in Unfinished Cave (34336108966).jpg|Sophisticated pillars of Cave 24 with embedded loving couples; evidence of parallel work" ], [ "Cave 26 (5th century CE)", "Cave 26 is a worship hall (chaityagriha, 25.34 × 11.52 m) similar in plan to Cave 19.It is much larger and with elements of a vihara design.", "An inscription states that a monk Buddhabhadra and his friend minister serving king of Asmaka gifted this vast cave.", "The inscription includes a vision statement and the aim to make \"a memorial on the mountain that will endure for as long as the moon and the sun continue\", translates Walter Spink.", "It is likely that the builders focussed on sculpture, rather than paintings, in Cave 26 because they believed stone sculpture will far more endure than paintings on the wall.The sculptures in Cave 26 are elaborate and more intricate.", "It is among the last caves excavated, and an inscription suggests late 5th or early 6th century according to ASI.", "The cave consists of an apsidal hall with side aisles for circumambulation (''pradikshana'').", "This path is full of carved Buddhist legends, three depictions of the Miracle of Sravasti in the right ambulatory side of the aisle, and seated Buddhas in various mudra.", "Many of these were added later by devotees, and therefore are intrusive to the aims of the original planners.", "The artwork begins on the wall of the aisle, immediately the left side of entrance.", "The major artworks include the Mahaparinirvana of Buddha (reclining Buddha) on the wall, followed by the legend called the \"Temptations by Mara\".", "The temptations include the seduction by Mara's daughters who are depicted below the meditating Buddha.", "They are shown scantly dressed and in seductive postures, while on both the left and right side of the Buddha are armies of Mara attempting to distract him with noise and threaten him with violence.", "In the top right corner is the image of a dejected Mara frustrated by his failure to disturb the resolve or focus of the ascetic Buddha.At the center of the apse is a rock-cut stupa.", "The stupa has an image of the Buddha on its front, 18 panels on its base, 18 panels above these, a three tiered ''torana'' above him, and apsaras are carved on the ''anda'' (hemispherical egg) stupa.", "On top of the dagoba is a nine-tiered ''harmika'', a symbolism for the nine saṃsāra (Buddhism) heavens in Mahayana cosmology.", "The walls, pillars, brackets and the triforium are extensively carved with Buddhist themes.", "Many of the wall reliefs and images in this cave were badly damaged, and have been restored as a part of the site conservation efforts.Between cave 26 and its left wing, there is an inscription by a courtier of Rashtrakuta Nanaraj (who is mentioned in the Multai and Sangaloda plates), from late 7th or early 8th century.", "It is the last inscription in Ajanta.File:Ajanta cave 26 plan.jpg|Cave 26 plan as completed.", "The etchings suggest the original plan was more ambitious.File:19th century sketch and 21st century photo collage, Cave 26 Ajanta, Digoba Stupa.jpg|The sculptured dagoba (stupa) in the worship hall.", "It has 36 carved panels.File:19th century sketch and 21st century photo collage, Cave 26 Ajanta, Temptation of the Buddha.jpg|Temptation of the Buddha; the daughters of Mara carved below are trying to seduce him.", "Mara is on the top right.File:19th century sketch and 21st century photo collage, Cave 26 Ajanta, Buddha Parinirvana.jpg|Cave 26, left aisle wall: Mahaparinirvana of Buddha, or Dying Buddha" ], [ "Cave 27", "Cave 27 is a monastery and may have been planned as an attachment to Cave 26.Its two storeys are damaged, with the upper level partially collapsed.", "Its plan is similar to other monasteries." ], [ "Cave 28", "Cave 28 is an unfinished monastery, partially excavated, at the westernmost end of the Ajanta complex and barely accessible." ], [ "Cave 29", "Cave 29 an unfinished monastery at the highest level of the Ajanta complex, apparently unnoticed when the initial numbering system was established, and physically located between Caves 20 and 21." ], [ "Cave 30", "In 1956, a landslide covered the footpath leading to Cave 16.In the attempts to clear and restore the walkway, a small aperture and votive stupa were noticed in the debris by the workers, in a location near the stream bed.", "Further tracing and excavations led to a previously unknown Hinayana monastery cave dated to the 2nd and 1st century BCE.", "Cave 30 may actually be the oldest cave of the Ajanta complex.", "It is a 3.66 m × 3.66 m cave with three cells, each with two stone beds and stone pillows on the side of each cell.", "The cell door lintels show lotus and garland carvings.", "The cave has two inscriptions in an unknown script.", "It also has a platform on its veranda with a fine view of the river ravine below and the forest cover.", "According to Gupte and Mahajan, this cave may have been closed at some point with large carefully carved pieces as it distracted the entrance view of Cave 16." ], [ "Other infrastructure", "Over 80% of the Ajanta caves were ''vihara'' (temporary traveler residences, monasteries).", "The designers and artisans who built these caves included facilities for collecting donations and storing grains and food for the visitors and monks.", "Many of the caves include large repositories cut into the floor.", "The largest storage spaces are found, states Spink, in the \"very commodious recesses in the shrines of both Ajanta Cave Lower 6 and Cave 11\".", "These caves were probably chosen because of their relative convenience and the security they offered due to their higher level.", "The choice of integrating covered vaults cut into the floor may have been driven by the need to provide sleeping space and logistical ease." ], [ "Recent excavations", "The vihara brick monastery facing the caves at Ajanta.", "The cells were built around a stupa set on a central platform.A burnt-brick vihara monastery facing the caves on the right bank of the river Waghora has been recently excavated.", "It has a number of cells facing a central courtyard, in which a stupa was established.", "A coin of the Western Satraps ruler Visvasena (ruled 293–304 CE) as well as a gold coin of the Byzantine Emperor Theodosius II (ruled 402-450 CE) were found in the excavations, giving further numismatic confirmation for the dating of the caves.", "A terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini was also found, which was possibly under worship by the artisans.File:Ajanta burnt-brick monastery.jpg|Buddhist vihara cell structure at the recently excavated brick monastery at AjantaFile:Ajanta Visvasena.jpg|Coin of Western Satrap Visvasena (293–304), found in the excavations at the monasteryFile:Ajanta Theodosius II 402-450.jpg|Coin of Byzantine Theodosius II (402–450), found in the excavations at the monasteryFile:Ajanta terracotta plaque of Mahishasuramardini.jpg|Terracotta plaque of Hindu goddess Mahishasuramardini found on the site" ], [ "Copies of the paintings", "Lady Herringham (1915) rightThe paintings have deteriorated significantly since they were rediscovered, and a number of 19th-century copies and drawings are important for a complete understanding of the works.", "A number of attempts to copy the Ajanta paintings began in the 19th century for European and Japanese museums.", "Some of these works have later been lost in natural and fire disasters.", "In 1846 for example, Major Robert Gill, an Army officer from Madras Presidency and a painter, was appointed by the Royal Asiatic Society to make copies of the frescos on the cave walls.", "Gill worked on his painting at the site from 1844 to 1863.He made 27 copies of large sections of murals, but all but four were destroyed in a fire at the Crystal Palace in London in 1866, where they were on display.", "Gill returned to the site, and recommenced his labours, replicating the murals until his death in 1875.Dancing girl in Ajanta fresco; a 2012 photograph (left) and Robert Gill's 19th-century copyAnother attempt was made in 1872 when the Bombay Presidency commissioned John Griffiths to work with his students to make copies of Ajanta paintings, again for shipping to England.", "They worked on this for thirteen years and some 300 canvases were produced, many of which were displayed at the Imperial Institute on Exhibition Road in London, one of the forerunners of the Victoria and Albert Museum.", "But in 1885 another fire destroyed over a hundred of the paintings in storage in a wing of the museum.", "The V&A still has 166 paintings surviving from both sets, though none have been on permanent display since 1955.The largest are some .", "A conservation project was undertaken on about half of them in 2006, also involving the University of Northumbria.", "Griffith and his students had painted many of the paintings with \"cheap varnish\" in order to make them easier to see, which has added to the deterioration of the originals, as has, according to Spink and others, recent cleaning by the ASI.Copy of an Ajanta painting, in Musée Guimet, Paris.", "Part of a mural probably relating the conversion of Nanda, Cave 1.A further set of copies were made between 1909 and 1911 by Christiana Herringham (Lady Herringham) and a group of students from the Calcutta School of Art that included the future Indian Modernist painter Nandalal Bose.", "The copies were published in full colour as the first publication of London's fledgling India Society.", "More than the earlier copies, these aimed to fill in holes and damage to recreate the original condition rather than record the state of the paintings as she was seeing them.", "According to one writer, unlike the paintings created by her predecessors Griffiths and Gill, whose copies were influenced by British Victorian styles of painting, those of the Herringham expedition preferred an 'Indian Renascence' aesthetic of the type pioneered by Abanindranath Tagore.Early photographic surveys were made by Robert Gill, whose photos, including some using stereoscopy, were used in books by him and Fergusson (many are available online from the British Library), then Victor Goloubew in 1911 and E.L. Vassey, who took the photos in the four volume study of the caves by Ghulam Yazdani (published 1930–1955).Reproduction of The Adoration of the Buddha, cave 17, Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur, IndiaSome slightly creative copies of Ajanta frescos, especially the painting of the Adoration of the Buddha from the shrine antechamber of Cave 17, were commissioned by Thomas Holbein Hendley (1847–1917) for the decoration of the walls of the hall of the Albert Hall Museum, Jaipur, India.", "He had the work painted by a local artist variously named Murli or Murali.", "The museum was opened to the public in 1887.This work is otherwise presented as characteristic of the end of the 19th century.Another attempt to make copies of the murals was made by the Japanese artist Arai Kampō (荒井寛方:1878–1945) after being invited by Rabindranath Tagore to India to teach Japanese painting techniques.", "He worked on making copies with tracings on Japanese paper from 1916 to 1918 and his work was conserved at Tokyo Imperial University until the materials perished during the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake." ], [ "Significance", "===Natives, society and culture in the arts at Ajanta===The Ajanta cave arts are a window into the culture, society and religiosity of the native population of India between the 2nd century BCE and 5th century CE.", "Different scholars have variously interpreted them from the perspective of gender studies, history, sociology, and the anthropology of South Asia.", "The dress, the jewelry, the gender relations, the social activities depicted showcase at least a lifestyle of the royalty and elite, and in others definitely the costumes of the common man, monks and rishi depicted therein.", "They shine \"light on life in India\" around mid 1st millennium CE.The Ajanta artworks provide a contrast between the spiritual life of monks who had given up all materialistic possessions versus the sensual life of those it considered materialistic, luxurious, symbols of wealth, leisurely and high fashion.", "Many frescos show scenes from shops, festivals, jesters at processions, palaces and performance art pavilions.", "These friezes share themes and details of those found in Bharhut, Sanchi, Amaravati, Ellora, Bagh, Aihole, Badami and other archaeological sites in India.", "Ajanta caves contributes to visual and descriptive sense of the ancient and early medieval Indian culture and artistic traditions, particularly those around the Gupta Empire era period.The early colonial era description of Ajanta caves was largely orientalist and critical, inconsistent with the Victorian values and stereotyping.", "According to William Dalrymple, the themes and arts in the Ajanta caves were puzzling to the 19th-century Orientalists.", "Lacking the Asian cultural heritage and with no knowledge of Jataka Tales or equivalent Indian fables, they could not comprehend it.", "They projected their own views and assumptions, calling it something that lacks reason and rationale, something that is meaningless crude representation of royalty and foreigners with mysticism and sensuousness.", "The 19th-century views and interpretations of the Ajanta Caves were conditioned by ideas and assumptions in the colonial mind, saw what they wanted to see.To many who are unaware of the premises of Indian religions in general, and Buddhism in particular, the significance of Ajanta Caves has been like rest of Indian art.", "According to Richard Cohen, Ajanta Caves to them has been yet another example of \"worship this stock, or that stone, or monstrous idol\".", "In contrast, to the Indian mind and the larger Buddhist community, it is everything that art ought to be, the religious and the secular, the spiritual and the social fused to enlightened perfection.According to Walter Spink – one of the most respected Art historians on Ajanta, these caves were by 475 CE a much-revered site to the Indians, with throngs of \"travelers, pilgrims, monks and traders\".", "The site was vastly transformed into its current form in just 20 years, between early 460 CE to early 480 CE, by regional architects and artisans.", "This accomplishment, states Spink, makes Ajanta, \"one of the most remarkable creative achievements in man's history\".===Foreigners in the paintings of Ajanta===The Ajanta Caves painting are a significant source of socio-economic information in ancient India, particularly in relation to the interactions of India with foreign cultures at the time most of the paintings were made, in the 5th century CE (Common Era).", "According to Indian historian Haroon Khan Sherwani: \"The paintings at Ajanta clearly demonstrate the cosmopolitan character of Buddhism, which opened its way to men of all races, Greek, Persian, Saka, Pahlava, Kushan and Huna\".", "Depictions of foreigners abound: according to Spink, \"Ajanta's paintings are filled with such foreign types.\"", "They have sometimes been a source of misinterpretation as in the so-called \"Persian Embassy Scene\".", "These foreigners may reflect the Sassanian merchants, visitors and the flourishing trade routes of the day.", ";The so-called \"Persian Embassy Scene\"Upper part of the so-called \"Persian Embassy Scene\", with detail of the foreigners.Cave 1, for example, shows a mural fresco with characters with foreigner faces or dresses, the so-called \"Persian Embassy Scene\".", "This scene is located at the right of the entrance door upon entering the hall.", "According to Spink, James Fergusson, a 19th-century architectural historian, had decided that this scene corresponded to the Persian ambassador in 625 CE to the court of the Hindu Chalukya king Pulakeshin II.", "An alternate theory has been that the fresco represents a Hindu ambassador visiting the Persian king Khusrau II in 625 CE, a theory that Fergusson disagreed with.", "These assumptions by colonial British era art historians, state Spink and other scholars, has been responsible for wrongly dating this painting to the 7th century, when in fact this reflects an incomplete Harisena-era painting of a Jataka tale (the Mahasudarsana jataka, in which the enthroned king is actually the Buddha in one of his previous lives as King) with the representation of trade between India and distant lands such as Sassanian near East that was common by the 5th century.", ";International trade, growth of BuddhismSasanian dress drinking wine, on the ceiling of the central hall of Cave 1, likely a generic scene from an object imported from Central Asia (460–480 CE) The men depicted in these paintings may also have been Bactrians, at that time under Hephthalite rule.Cave 1 has several frescos with characters with foreigners' faces or dresses.", "Similar depictions are found in the paintings of Cave 17.Such murals, states Pia Brancaccio, suggest a prosperous and multicultural society in 5th-century India active in international trade.", "These also suggest that this trade was economically important enough to the Deccan region that the artists chose to include it with precision.Additional evidence of international trade includes the use of the blue lapis lazuli pigment to depict foreigners in the Ajanta paintings, which must have been imported from Afghanistan or Iran.", "It also suggests, states Brancaccio, that the Buddhist monastic world was closely connected with trading guilds and the court culture in this period.", "A small number of scenes show foreigners drinking wine in Caves 1 and 2.Some show foreign Near East kings with wine and their retinue which presumably add to the \"general regal emphasis\" of the cave.", "According to Brancaccio, the Ajanta paintings show a variety of colorful, delicate textiles and women making cotton.", "Textile probably was one of the major exports to foreign lands, along with gems.", "These were exported first through the Red Sea, and later through the Persian Gulf, thereby bringing a period of economic and cultural exchange between the Indians, the Sasanian Empire and the Persian merchants before Islam was founded in the Arabian peninsula.Cave 17: many foreigners are included as devotees attending the Buddha's descent from Trayastrimsa HeavenWhile scholars generally agree that these murals confirm trade and cultural connections between India and Sassanian west, their specific significance and interpretation varies.", "Brancaccio, for example, suggests that the ship and jars in them probably reflect foreign ships carrying wine imported to India.", "In contrast, Schlinghoff interprets the jars to be holding water, and ships shown as Indian ships used in international trade.Similar depictions are found in the paintings of Cave 17, but this time in direct relation to the worship of the Buddha.", "In Cave 17, a painting of the Buddha descending from the Trayastrimsa Heaven shows he being attended by many foreigners.", "Many foreigners in this painting are thus shown as listeners to the Buddhist Dharma.", "The ethnic diversity is depicted in the painting in the clothes (kaftans, Sasanian helmets, round caps), hairdos and skin colors.", "In the Visvantara Jataka of Cave 17, according to Brancaccio, the scene probably shows a servant from Central Asia holding a foreign metal ewer, while a dark-complexioned servant holds a cup to an amorous couple.", "In another painting in Cave 17, relating to the conversion of Nanda, a man possibly from northeast Africa appears as a servant.", "These representations show, states Brancaccio, that the artists were familiar with people of Sogdia, Central Asia, Persia and possibly East Africa.", "Another hypothesis is offered by Upadhya, who states that the artists who built Ajanta caves \"very probably included foreigners\".File:Ajanta Cave 2 Veranda ceiling foreigners.jpg|Cave 2, ceiling: foreigners sharing a drink of wineFile:Ajanta foreigner 2.jpg|Cave 1, ceiling: another Persian-style foreign group, one of the four such groups (one now missing) at the center of each quadrant of the ceilingFile:Ajanta Cave 17 foreign servant.jpg|A servant from Central Asia, Cave 17.File:Ajanta Cave 17 Descent from Heaven Left Wall foreigners detail.jpg|Cave 17: foreigners attending the BuddhaFile:Ajanta Cave 17 Descent from Heaven Left Wall horsemen detail.jpg|Cave 17: foreigners on horses attending the BuddhaFile:Ajanta Cave 1, Padmapani attendant, Lady in blue dress with tiara.jpg|Lady in blue dress with tiara, of possible \"Persian origin\".\"" ], [ "Impact on later painting and other arts", "The Ajanta paintings, or more likely the general style they come from, influenced painting in Tibet and Sri Lanka.", "Some influences from Ajanta have also suggested in the Kizil Caves of the Tarim Basin, in particular in early caves such as the ''Peacock Cave''.The rediscovery of ancient Indian paintings at Ajanta provided Indian artists with examples from ancient India to follow.", "Nandalal Bose experimented with techniques to follow the ancient style which allowed him to develop his unique style.", "Abanindranath Tagore and Syed Thajudeen also used the Ajanta paintings for inspiration.Anna Pavlova's ballet ''Ajanta's Frescoes'' was inspired by her visit to Ajanta, choreographed by Ivan Clustine, with music by Nikolai Tcherepnin (one report says Mikhail Fokine in 1923).", "and premiered at Covent Garden in 1923.Jewish American poet Muriel Rukeyser wrote about the caves in \"Ajanta,\" the opening poem of her third collection ''Beast in View'' (1944).", "Rukeyser was inspired in part by writings on the caves by artist Mukul Dey in 1925 and art historian Stella Kramrisch in 1937." ], [ "See also", "* Cetiya* Bedse Caves* Bhaja Caves* Dambulla cave temple* Kanheri Caves* Karla Caves* Mogao Caves* Nasik Caves* Pitalkhora Caves* Shivneri Caves* List of colossal sculptures in situ" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Bibliography===* \"ASI\": Archaeological Survey of India website, with a concise entry on the Caves, accessed 20 October 2010* Burgess, James and Fergusson J.", "''Cave Temples of India''.", "(London: W.H.", "Allen & Co., 1880.Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 2005).", "* Burgess, James and Indraji, Bhagwanlal.", "''Inscriptions from the Cave Temples of Western India'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, Memoirs, 10 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1881).", "* Burgess, James.", "''Buddhist Cave Temples and Their Inscriptions'', Archaeological Survey of Western India, 4 (London: Trubner & Co., 1883; Varanasi: Indological Book House, 1964).", "* Burgess, James.", "\"Notes on the Bauddha Rock Temples of Ajanta, Their Paintings and Sculptures,\" Archaeological Survey of Western India, 9 (Bombay: Government Central Press, 1879).", "* Behl, Benoy K. ''The Ajanta Caves'' (London: Thames & Hudson, 1998.New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1998).", "* .", "* * Cohen, Richard S. \"Nāga, Yaksinī, Buddha: Local Deities and Local Buddhism at Ajanta,\" ''History of Religions''.", "37/4 (May 1998): 360–400.", "* Cohen, Richard S. \"Problems in the Writing of Ajanta's History: The Epigraphic Evidence,\" ''Indo-Iranian Journal''.", "40/2 (April 1997): 125–48.", "* Cohen, Richard S. ''Setting the Three Jewels: The Complex Culture of Buddhism at the Ajanta Caves.''", "A PhD dissertation (Asian Languages and Cultures: Buddhist Studies, University of Michigan, 1995).", "* Cowell, E.B.", "''The Jataka,'' I-VI (Cambridge: Cambridge, 1895; reprint, 1907).", "* Dhavalikar, M.K.", "''Late Hinayana Caves of Western India'' (Pune: 1984).", "* * * Griffiths, J.", "''Paintings in the Buddhist Cave Temples of Ajanta,'' 2 vols.", "(London: 1896–1897).", "* Halder, Asit Kumar.", "\"AJANTA\" Edited and annotated by Prasenjit Dasgupta and Soumen Paul, with a foreword by Gautam Halder LALMATI.", "Kolkata.", "2009* * * Kramrisch, Stella.", "''A Survey of Painting in the Deccan'' (Calcutta and London: The India Society in co-operation with the Dept.", "of Archaeology, 1937).", "Reproduced: \"Ajanta,\" ''Exploring India's Sacred Art: Selected Writings of Stella Kramrisch,'' ed.", "Miller, Barbara Stoler (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press: 1983), pp.", "273–307; reprint (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts, 1994), pp. 273–307.", "* * Majumdar, R.C.", "and A.S. Altekar, eds.", "''The Vakataka-Gupta Age.''", "New History of Indian People Series, VI (Benares: Motilal Banarasidass, 1946; reprint, Delhi: 1960).", "* Mirashi, V.V.", "\"Historical Evidence in Dandin's Dasakumaracharita,\" ''Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute'', 24 (1945), 20ff.", "Reproduced: Studies in Indology, 1 (Nagpur: Vidarbha Samshodhan Mandal, 1960), pp. 164–77.", "* Mirashi, V.V.", "''Inscription of the Vakatakas''.", "Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum Series, 5 (Ootacamund: Government Epigraphist for India, 1963).", "* Mirashi, V.V.", "''The Ghatotkacha Cave Inscriptions with a Note on Ghatotkacha Cave Temples by Srinivasachar, P''.", "(Hyderabad: Archaeological Department, 1952).", "* Mirashi, V.V.", "''Vakataka inscription in Cave XVI at Ajanta''.", "Hyderabad Archaeological Series, 14 (Calcutta: Baptist mission Press for the Archaeological Department of His Highness the Nizam's Dominions, 1941).", "* Mitra, Debala.", "''Ajanta'', 8th ed.", "(Delhi: Archaeological Survey of India, 1980).", "* Nagaraju, S. ''Buddhist Architecture of Western India'' (Delhi: 1981)* Parimoo, Ratan; et al.", "''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', 2 vols (New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991).", "* Schlingloff, Dieter.", "''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol.", "1; Narrative Wall Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.", "Ltd., 1999)* Schlingloff, Dieter.", "''Studies in the Ajanta Paintings: Identifications and Interpretations'' (New Delhi: 1987).", "* Shastri, Ajay Mitra, ed.", "''The Age of the Vakatakas'' (New Delhi: Harman, 1992).", "* Singh, Rajesh Kumar.", "''An Introduction to the Ajanta Caves'' (Baroda: Hari Sena Press, 2012).", "* Singh, Rajesh Kumar.", "'The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta,' ''South Asian Studies'' (London: March 2012), vol.", "28, No.", "1, pp. 37–68.", "* Singh, Rajesh Kumar.", "'Buddhabhadra's Dedicatory Inscription at Ajanta: A Review,' in ''Pratnakirti: Recent Studies in Indian Epigraphy, History, Archaeology, and Art'', 2 vols, Professor Shrinivas S. Ritti Felicitation volume, ed.", "by Shriniwas V. Padigar and Shivanand V (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 2012), vol.", "1, pp. 34–46.", "* Singh, Rajesh Kumar, et al.", "''Ajanta: Digital Encyclopaedia'' CD-Rom (New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for Arts, 2005).", "* Singh, Rajesh Kumar.", "\"Enumerating the Sailagrhas of Ajanta,\" ''Journal of the Asiatic Society of Mumbai'' 82, 2009: 122–26.", "* Singh, Rajesh Kumar.", "\"Ajanta: Cave 8 Revisited,\" ''Jnana-Pravah Research Journal'' 12, 2009: 68–80.", "* Singh, Rajesh Kumar.", "\"Some Problems in Fixing the Date of Ajanta Caves,\" ''Kala, the Journal of Indian Art History Congress'' 17, 2008: 69–85.", "* * * * * * * * Spink, Walter M. \"A Reconstruction of Events related to the development of Vakataka caves,\" ''C.S.", "Sivaramamurti felicitation volume'', ed.", "M.S.", "Nagaraja Rao (New Delhi: 1987).", "* Spink, Walter M. \"Ajanta's Chronology: Cave 1's Patronage,\" ''Chhavi'' 2, ed.", "Krishna, Anand (Benares: Bharat Kala Bhawan, 1981), pp. 144–57.", "* Spink, Walter M. \"Ajanta's Chronology: Cave 7's Twice-born Buddha,\" ''Studies in Buddhist Art of South Asia'', ed.", "Narain, A.K.", "(New Delhi: 1985), pp. 103–16.", "* Spink, Walter M. \"Ajanta's Chronology: Politics and Patronage,\" ''Kaladarsana'', ed.", "Williams, Joanna (New Delhi: 1981), pp. 109–26.", "* Spink, Walter M. \"Ajanta's Chronology: The Crucial Cave,\" ''Ars Orientalis'', 10 (1975), pp. 143–169.", "* Spink, Walter M. \"Ajanta's Chronology: The Problem of Cave 11,\" ''Ars Orientalis'', 7 (1968), pp. 155–168.", "* Spink, Walter M. \"Ajanta's Paintings: A Checklist for their Dating,\" ''Dimensions of Indian Art, Pupul Jayakar Felicitation Volume'', ed.", "Chandra, Lokesh; and Jain, Jyotindra (Delhi: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1987), p. 457.", "* Spink, Walter M. \"Notes on Buddha Images,\" ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol.", "2, ed.", "Parimoo, Ratan, et al.", "(New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 213–41.", "* Spink, Walter M. \"The Achievement of Ajanta,\" ''The Age of the Vakatakas'', ed.", "Shastri, Ajaya Mitra (New Delhi: Harman Publishing House, 1992), pp. 177–202.", "* Spink, Walter M. \"The Vakataka's Flowering and Fall,\" ''The Art of Ajanta: New Perspectives'', vol.", "2, ed.", "Parimoo, Ratan, et al.", "(New Delhi: Books & Books, 1991), pp. 71–99.", "* Spink, Walter M. \"The Archaeology of Ajanta,\" ''Ars Orientalis'', 21, pp. 67–94.", "* * Weiner, Sheila L. ''Ajanta: Its Place in Buddhist Art'' (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1977).", "* Yazdani, Gulam.", "''Ajanta: the Colour and Monochrome Reproductions of the Ajanta Frescos Based on Photography'', 4 vols.", "(London: Oxford University Press, 1930 31?, 1955).", "* Yazdani, Gulam.", "''The Early History of the Deccan'', Parts 7–9 (Oxford: 1960).", "* Zin, Monika.", "''Guide to the Ajanta Paintings, vol.", "2; Devotional and Ornamental Paintings'' (Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt.", "Ltd., 2003)" ], [ "External links", "* Ajanta Caves Bibliography, Akira Shimada (2014), Oxford University Press* The Early Development of the Cave 26-Complex at Ajanta* The Greatest Ancient Picture Gallery.", "William Dalrymple, New York Review of Books (23 Oct 2014)* Ajanta Caves in UNESCO List* Google Streetview Tours of each Cave of Ajanta* Inscriptions with Translations: Ajanta Caves, Richard Cohen" ] ]

[ [ "Ajmer" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ajmer''' () is one of the major and oldest cities in the Indian state of Rajasthan and the centre of the eponymous Ajmer District.", "It is located at the centre of Rajasthan.", "It is also known as heart of Rajasthan.", "The city was established as \"''Ajayameru''\" (translated as \"Invincible Hills\") by a Chahamana ruler, either Ajayaraja I or Ajayaraja II, and served as their capital until the 12th century CE.Ajmer is surrounded by the Aravalli Mountains.", "Ajmer has been a municipality since 1869.Ajmer has been selected as one of the heritage cities for the HRIDAY and Smart City Mission schemes of the Government of India." ], [ "History", "Jahangir receives Prince Khurram at Ajmer on his return from the Mewar campaignAjmer was originally known as ''Ajayameru''.", "The city was founded by an 11th-century Chahamana king Ajaydeva.", "Historian Dasharatha Sharma notes that the earliest mention of the city's name occurs in Palha's ''Pattavali'', which was copied in 1113 CE (1170 VS) at Dhara.", "This suggests that Ajmer was founded sometime before 1113 CE.", "A ''prashasti'' (eulogistic inscription), issued by Vigraharaja IV and found at Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra (Sanskrit college), states Ajayadeva (that is Ajayaraja II) moved his residence to Ajmer.A later text ''Prabandha-Kosha'' states that it was the 8th-century king Ajayaraja I who commissioned the Ajayameru fort, which later came to be known as the Taragarh fort of Ajmer.", "According to historian R. B. Singh, this claim appears to be true, as inscriptions dated to the 8th century CE have been found at Ajmer.", "Singh theorizes that Ajayaraja II later expanded the town area, constructed palaces, and moved the Chahamana capital from Shakambhari to Ajmer.In 1193, Ajmer was annexed by the Ghurids and later was returned to Rajput rulers under condition of tribute.By 15th century Ajmer was captured by Mewar and in 1506 Ajja Jhala was appointed as the Governer of Ajmer.In 1556, Ajmer came under the Mughal Empire after being conquered by Mughal Emperor Akbar.", "It was made the capital of the eponymous Ajmer Subah.", "The city enjoyed special favour under the Mughals, who made frequent pilgrimages to the city to visit the ''dargah'' of Moinuddin Chishti.", "The city was also used as a military base for campaigns against Rajput rulers, and on a number of occasions became the site of celebration when a campaign bore success.", "Mughal Emperors and their nobles made generous donations to the city, and endowed it with constructions such as Akbar's palace and pavilions along the Ana Sagar.", "Their most prominent building activities were in the ''dargah'' and its vicinity.", "Jahanara Begum and Dara Shikoh, children of Shah Jahan, were both born in the city in 1614 and 1615 respectively.Mughal patronage of the city had waned by the beginning of the 18th century.", "In 1752, the Scindias conquered the city, and in 1818, the British gained authority over the city.", "A municipality was established at Ajmer in 1866.Colonial-era Ajmer served as the headquarters of the Ajmer-Merwara Province and possessed a Central jail, a large General Hospital, and two smaller hospitals according to Gazetteer, 1908.It was the headquarters of a native regiment and of a Railway Volunteer corps.", "From the 1900s, the United Free Church of Scotland, the church of England, the Roman Catholics, and the American Episcopal Methodists have mission establishments here.", "At that time there were twelve printing presses in the city, from which eight weekly newspapers were published.At the time of India's independence in 1947, Ajmer continued as a separate state with its own legislature until its merger with erstwhile Rajputana province then called Rajasthan.", "The Legislature of Ajmer State was housed in the building which now houses T. T. College.", "It had 30 MLAs, and Haribhau Upadhyay was the first chief minister of the erstwhile state, with Bhagirath Chaudhary as the first Vidhan Sabha speaker.", "In 1956, after acceptance of the proposal by Fazil Ali, Ajmer was merged into Rajasthan to form Ajmer District with the addition of Kishangarh sub-division of Jaipur district.", "Colonial-era Ajmer served as the headquarters of the Ajmer-Merwara Province and possessed a Central jail, a large General Hospital, and two smaller hospitals according to Gazetteer, 1908.It was the headquarters of a native regiment and of a Railway Volunteer corps.", "From the 1900s, the United Free Church of Scotland, the church of England, the Roman Catholics, and the American Episcopal Methodists have mission establishments here.", "At that time there were twelve printing presses in the city, from which eight weekly newspapers were published." ], [ "Other names", "A Gujarati historic Novel named ''Gujaratno Jay'' written by Zaverchand Meghani, based on various Jain Prabandhas, describes the city as ''sapādalakṣaṇa'' (સપાદલક્ષણ)." ], [ "Geography", "Ajmer is in the northwest of India and is surrounded by the Aravali Mountains.", "It is situated on the lower slopes of the Taragarh Hill of that range.", "To the northwest is the Nagapathar Range of the Aravali Mountain Ranges which protects it from desertification from the Thar Desert." ], [ "Climate", "Ajmer has a hot, semi-arid climate with over of rain every year, but most of the rain occurs in the monsoon months, between June and September.", "Temperatures remain relatively high throughout the year, with the summer months of April to early July having an average daily temperature of about .", "During the monsoon there is frequent heavy rain and thunderstorms, but flooding is not a common occurrence.", "The winter months of November to February are mild and temperate with average temperatures ranging from with little or no humidity.", "There are, however, occasional cold weather fronts that cause temperatures to fall to near freezing levels." ], [ "Transportation", "227x227px===Air===The Kishangarh Airport is the nearest airport.", "It is 25 km from Ajmer city.", "The Ajmer Airport ground breaking ceremony was done by then Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh in 2012.The airport was finally completed and inaugurated by then Union Minister of State for Civil Aviation Jayant Sinha and Chief Minister Vasundhara Raje on 11 October 2017.The airport is operational since then and regular flights to/from Delhi, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Indore and Surat are currently available.", "The airport is now amongst main and busy airports of Rajasthan.", "Currently SpiceJet and Star Air operate from Ajmer Airport on daily basis.", "Kishangarh Airport, Ajmer is being managed and operated by Airports Authority of India (AAI).The Jaipur International Airport which is 135 km from Ajmer is the nearest international airport.===Rail===The Ajmer Junction is the main railway station situated in the city.", "It was built during colonial times." ], [ "Tourism", "Taragarh Fort|thumbthumbA Hindu Style Pillar in Adhai Din Ka Jhopara Monument.Soniji Ki Nasiyan|thumbthumbthumbBaradari on Lake Anasagarthumb*'''Pushkar''': Located few kilometres from Ajmer, is an important tourist and pilgrimage destination and a satellite town of Ajmer city.", "It is famous for '''Pushkar Lake''' and the 14th century '''Brahma Temple at Pushkar''', dedicated to Brahmā, according to the ''Padma Purāņa'', Pushkar is important pilgrimage site for Lord Brahmā.", "Around the world, '''Lord Brahma Temple''' is only situated at Pushkar Lake, Rajasthan, India.", "*'''Taragarh Fort''': It is reputed to be the oldest hill fort in India.", "It stands, with precipitous surroundings, at a height of 2,855 ft. above sea-level, and between 1,300 and 1,400 ft. above the valley at its base; and it is partially enclosed by a wall some 20 feet thick and as many high, built of huge blocks of stone, cut and squared and are about in circumference.", "This hill fort guarding Ajmer, was the seat of the Chauhan rulers.", "It was built by King Ajaypal Chauhan on the summit of Taragarh Hill and overlooks Ajmer.", "The battlements run along the top of the hill.", "When it fell to the British Raj, the fort was dismantled on the orders of Lord William Bentinck in 1832 and was converted into a sanatorium for the British troops stationed at the garrison town of Nasirabad.", "Within it stands the shrine of a Muhammadan saint, Saiyid Husain, known as the Ganj Shahldan.In the older city, lying in the valley beneath the Taragarh hill and now abandoned, the Nur-chashma, a garden-house used by the Mughals, still remains, as also a water-lift commenced by Maldeo Rathor, to raise water to the Taragarh citadel.", "*'''Ajmer Sharif Dargah''': It is a shrine of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti which is situated at the foot of the Taragarh hill, and consists of several white marble buildings arranged around two courtyards, including a massive gate donated by the Nizam of Hyderabad, and the Akbari Mosque, built by the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and containing the domed tomb of the saint.", "Akbar and his queen used to come here by foot every year on pilgrimage from Agra in observance of a vow when he prayed for a son.", "The large pillars called \"Kose ('Mile') Minars\" (Kos Minar), erected at intervals of about along the entire way between Agra and Ajmer mark the places where the royal pilgrims halted every day, they are also seen today, one such is near private bus station in Ajmer City.", "About 125,000 pilgrims visit the site every day.", "The ''Urs'' of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti is celebrated every year on the 6th and 7th of Rajab.", "*'''Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra:''' Literally meaning \"shed of two-and-a-half days\", it is an ASI protected monument near Ajmer Sharif Dargah and a converted mosque built after the partial destruction of earlier Hindu and Jain temples there on orders of Muhammad Ghori after he defeated Prithviraj Chauhan at the second battle of Tarain.Originally built as a Sanskrit college, the mosque underwent a transformative evolution in the 12th century under the reign of Qutb-ud-Din-Aibak.", "*'''Mayo College''': The college was founded in 1875 at the suggestion of Lord Mayo as a college where the sons of chiefs and nobles might receive an education to fit them for their high positions and important duties.", "It was known as \"Indian Eton\", as a number of Indian princes studied in this college.", "The main building, in white marble, is a classic example of Indo-Saracenic architecture.", "In front of the college is memorial marble statue of Lord Mayo.", "The boarding-houses are arranged in the form of a horseshoe, with the college in the centre of the base.", "Some of the Native States built boarding-houses, while the Government of India presented the college park, comprising 167 acres and formerly the site of the old Residency, and erected the main building, the residences of the principal and vice-principal, and the Ajmer boarding- house.", "It provided the salaries of the English staff.", "The foundation-stone of the college was laid in 1878, and the building was opened by the Marquis of Dufferin in 1885.John Lockwood Kipling, father of Nobel Laureate, Rudyard Kipling, had been principal of Mayo College.", "*'''Soni Ji Ki Nasiyaan''': It is architecturally rich Jain temple built in the late nineteenth century whose main chamber Swarna Nagari \"City of Gold\", has prominent depiction of ''Ayodhya'' made from 1000 kg of gold.", "*'''Akbari Fort & Museum''': The city's museum was once the residence of Prince Salīm, the son of the Emperor Akbar, and presently houses a collection of Mughal and Rajput armour and sculpture.", "This is a magnificent example of Mughal architecture, construction of which was commissioned by Akbar in 1570.This is where Salim, as the Emperor Jahangir, read out the firman permitting the British East India Company to trade with India.", "It is a massive square building, with lofty octagonal bastions at each corner.", "It was the headquarters of the administration in their time and in that of the Marathas.", "It was here that the emperors appeared in state, and that, as recorded by Sir Thomas Roe, criminals were publicly executed.", "The interior was used as a magazine during the British occupation until 1857; and the central building, used as a tahsil office.", "With the fort, the outer city walls, of the same period, are connected.", "These surround the city and are pierced by the Delhi, Madar, Usri, Agra, and Tirpolia gates.", "*'''Nareli Jain Temple''': is a Jain temple complex of fourteen temples recently built.", "It is known for its architecture and intricate stone carvings which gives it both a traditional and contemporary look.", "*'''Ana Sagar Lake''': This is an historic man-made lake built by Maharaja Anaji (1135–1150 CE).", "By the lake is the Daulat Bagh, a garden laid out by Emperor Jahangir.", "Emperor Shah Jahan later added five pavilions, known as the Baradari, between the garden and the lake embankment of the Ana Sagar supports the beautiful marble pavilions erected as pleasure-houses by Shah Jahan.", "The embankment, moreover, contains the - site of the former ''hammam'' (bath-room).", "Three of the five pavilions were at one time formed into residences for British officials, while the embankment was covered with office buildings and enclosed by gardens.", "The houses and enclosures were finally removed in 1900–1902, when the two south pavilions were re-erected, the marble parapet completed, and the embankment restored, as far as practicable, to its early condition.The Baradari has since been closed for the public because of increased crowd and pollution caused by people.A new garden called Subhash Udhyan has been opened in the recent years in place of Baradari.", "*'''Lake Foy Sagar''': It is a picturesque artificial lake that was created as a famine relief project in 1892 some 3 miles to the west of the city.", "It offers excellent views of Aravali mountains range as well migrating birds.", "The city used to derive its water-supply from it during colonial times.", "The water was conveyed into the city and suburbs through pipes which were laid underground.", "The capacity of the lake is 150,000,000 cubic feet.", "*'''Prithviraj Smark''': Prithviraj Smark is dedicated to Prithviraj Chauhan.", "It is located on the way to Taragarh Fort.", "This place has a life-size statue of King Prithviraj Chauhan mounted on a horse.", "*'''Tomb of Khwaja Husain Ajmeri''': Khwaja Husain Ajmeri also known as Shaikh Husain Ajmeri, he was a Grandson of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty of Ajmer from the line of Khwaja Fakhruddin's son Khwaja Husamuddin Jigar Sokhta, he was SajjadaNasheen and Mutwalli of Ajmer Dargah before and during the time of Emperor Akbar and Emperor Jahangir, his tomb is situated near the Sola Khamba (Tomb of Khwaja Alauddin another grandson of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishty of Ajmer), Behind Shahjahani Mosque Dargar Sharif Ajmer, he died sometime between the year 1619 and 1620.his tomb was built in the year 1637–38.", "*'''Manibandh''' : Also known as '''Chamunda Mata Mandir''' is one among the 108 Shakti Pitha at Gayatri hills near Pushkar, 11 km from Ajmer.", "It takes 14 minutes to travel from Pushkar Lake to Chamunda Mata Mandir (about 5–6 km)" ], [ "Education", "The city has many schools and colleges.", "Among them, Mayo College is a prominent college.", "The regional office of CBSE is located here." ], [ "Administration", "Divisional Commissner of Ajmer is '''Shri Bhanwar Lal Mehra''' and District Collector is '''Mr.", "Ansh Deep'''." ], [ "Demographics", "According to the 2011 census, Ajmer had a population of 542,321 in the city, 551,101 including its suburbs.The female to male ratio in the city was 947/1,000.The literacy rate in the city was 86.52%, male literacy being 92.08% and female literacy being 80.69%.Ajmer's population growth in the decade was 18.48%; this compares to a growth figure of 20.93% in the previous decade.===Villages===*Ajaysar Village, Rajasthan, located in Srinagar block of Ajmer district*Ashok Nagar Ajmer (1989), colony" ], [ "See also", "*Delhi Gate, Ajmer*Ajmeri Gate**Ajmeri Gate metro station*Qabil Ajmeri*Ajmeri Kalakand*Marwari language, also known as Ajmeri, spoken around Marwar and Ajmer" ], [ "References", "=== Bibliography ===* * * * W.D.", "Begg: The Holy Biography of Hazrat Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Millat Book Centre, Delhi, 1999).", "* Ajmer The Imperial Gazetteer of India, 1909, v. 5, p. 137-146." ], [ "External links", "* Ajmer District website* R. Nath Mughal Architecture Image Collection, Images from Ajmer - University of Washington Digital Collection" ] ]

[ [ "Ajmer-Merwara" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Ajmer-Merwara''' (also known as '''Ajmir Province''', and '''Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri''') was a former province of British India in the historical Ajmer region.", "The territory was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia by a treaty on 25 June 1818.It was under the Bengal Presidency until 1836 when it became part of the North-Western Provinces.", "Finally on 1 April 1871, it became a separate province as Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri.", "It became a part of independent India on 15 August 1947 when the British left India.The province consisted of the districts of Ajmer and Merwar, which were physically separated from the rest of British India forming an enclave amidst the many princely states of Rajputana.", "Unlike these states, which were ruled by local nobles who acknowledged British suzerainty, Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British.In 1842, the two districts were under a single commissioner, then they were separated in 1856 and were administered by the East India Company.", "Finally, after 1858, by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the Governor-General of India's agent for the Rajputana Agency." ], [ "Extent and geography", "The area of the province was .", "The plateau, on whose centre stands the town of Ajmer, may be considered as the highest point in the plains of North India; from the circle of hills which hem it in, the country slopes away on every side - towards river valleys on the east, south, west and towards the Thar Desert region on the north.", "The Aravalli Range is the distinguishing feature of the district.", "The range of hills which runs between Ajmer and Nasirabad marks the watershed of the continent of India.", "The rain which falls on the southeastern slopes drains into the Chambal, and so into the Bay of Bengal; that which falls on the northwest side into the Luni River, which discharges itself into the Rann of Kutch.The province is on the border of what may be called the arid zone; it is the debatable land between the north-eastern and south-western monsoons, and beyond the influence of either.", "The south-west monsoon sweeps up the Narmada valley from Bombay and crossing the tableland at Neemuch gives copious supplies to Malwa, Jhalawar and Kota and the countries which lie in the course of the Chambal River.The clouds which strike Kathiawar and Kutch are deprived of a great deal of their moisture by the hills in those countries (now the majority of this region is in Gujarat state within independent India), and the greater part of the remainder is deposited on Mount Abu and the higher slopes of the Aravalli Range, leaving but little for Merwara, where the hills are lower, and still less for Ajmer.", "It is only when the monsoon is in considerable force that Merwara gets a plentiful supply from it.", "The north-eastern monsoon sweeps up the valley of the Ganges from the Bay of Bengal and waters the northern part of Rajasthan, but hardly penetrates farther west than the longitude of Ajmer.", "The rainfall of the district depends on the varying strength of these two monsoons.", "The agriculturist of Ajmer-Merwara could never rely upon two good harvests in succession.===British rule===Part of the Ajmer region, the territory of the future province was ceded to the British by Daulat Rao Sindhia of Gwalior State as part of a treaty dated 25 June 1818.Then in May 1823 the Merwara (Mewar) part was ceded to Britain by Udaipur State.", "Thereafter Ajmer-Merwara was administered directly by the British East India Company.", "After the Indian Mutiny of 1857, in 1858 the powers of the company were transferred to the British Crown and the Governor-General of India.", "His administration of Ajmer-Merwara was controlled by a chief commissioner who was subordinate to the British agent for the Rajputana Agency.====Superintendents for Ajmer ====* 9 Jul 181817 Jul 1818 Nixon*18 Jul 181815 Dec 1824 Francis Boyle Shannon Wilder (1785–1849) *16 Dec 182421 Apr 1825 Richard Moore (1st time)*22 Apr 182523 Oct 1827 Henry Middleton*24 Oct 182728 Nov 1831 Richard Cavendish*29 Nov 18311 Jul 1832 Richard Moore (2nd time)* 2 Jul 183216 Apr 1834 Alexander Speirs*17 Apr 183430 Jun 1836 George Frederick Edmonstone (1813–1864)* 1 Jul 183625 Jul 1837 Charles E. Trevelyan (1807–1886)*26 Jul 1837Feb 1842 J.D.", "Macnaghten====Superintendents for Merwara (from Feb 1842, Ajmer-Merwara)====*18231836 Henry Hall (1789–1875)*18361857 Charles George Dixon (died 1857)====Agents of the Governors-general for the Rajputana agency==== *183229 Nov 1833 Abraham Lockett (1781–1834)*29 Nov 1833Jun 1834 Alexander Speirs*Jun 18341 Feb 1839 Nathaniel Alves * 1 Feb 18391839 John Ludlow (acting) (1788–1880)*Apr 1839Dec 1847 James Sutherland (died 1848) *Jan 1844Oct 1846 Charles Thoresby (died 1862) (acting for Sutherland)*Dec 1847Jan 1853 John Low (1788–1880)*25 Jun 184819 Nov 1848 Showers (acting for Low)* 8 Sep 18511 Dec 1851 D.A.", "Malcolm (acting for Low)*18521853 George St. Patrick Lawrence (1804–1884) (1st time) * 5 Mar 1853Feb 1857 Henry Montgomery Lawrence (1806–1857) *15 Mar 1857Apr 1864 George St. Patrick Lawrence (s.a.) (2nd time) *10 Apr 185924 Nov 1860 William Frederick Eden (1814–1867) (acting for Lawrence)*Apr 18641867 William Frederick Eden (s.a.) *18671870 Richard Harte Keatinge (1825–1904) *15 Jun 18701 Apr 1871 John Cheap Brooke (1818–1899) (acting for Keatinge)====Chief Commissioners====* 1 Apr 187121 Jun 1873 Richard Harte Keatinge (s.a.) * 1 Apr 187121 Jun 1873 John Cheape Brooke (s.a.) (acting for Keatinge)*21 Jun 18736 Apr 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (1st time) (1825–1892) (acting to 6 Feb 1874)* 6 Apr 18746 Jul 1874 William H. Beynon (acting) (1903)* 6 Jul 187412 Nov 1874 Sir Lewis Pelly (2nd time) (s.a.) *12 Nov 187418 Aug 1876 Alfred Comyns Lyall (acting) (1835–1911) *18 Aug 18765 Mar 1877 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833–1892) (1st time)(acting)* 5 Mar 187712 Dec 1878 Sir Lewis Pelly (3rd time) (s.a.) *12 Dec 187827 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (1836–1911) (1st time)*17 Mar 188128 Nov 1882 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (s.a.) (2nd time) (acting)*28 Nov 188227 Mar 1887 Edward Ridley Colborne Bradford (s.a.) (2nd time)*27 Mar 188720 Mar 1890 Charles Kenneth Mackenzie Walter (1833–1892) (3rd time)(acting to 1 Apr 1887)*20 Mar 189027 Aug 1891 George Herbert Trevor (1st time) (1840–1927) *27 Aug 18912 Dec 1891 P.W.", "Powlett (acting)* 2 Dec 189122 Nov 1893 George Herbert Trevor (2nd time) (s.a.) *22 Nov 189311 Jan 1894 William Francis Prideaux (acting) (1840–1914)*11 Jan 189520 Mar 1895 George Herbert Trevor (3rd time) (s.a.) *20 Mar 189510 Mar 1898 Robert Joseph Crosthwaite (1841–1917) *10 Mar 18981 May 1900 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (1854–1942) (1st time)* 1 May 19001 Apr 1901 William Hutt Curzon Wyllie (acting)(1848–1909)* 1 Apr 19013 Feb 1902 A.P.", "Thornton (acting)* 3 Feb 19021 Apr 1905 Arthur Henry Temple Martindale (s.a.) (2nd time) * 1 Apr 19054 Jan 1918 Elliot Graham Colvin (1861–1940) * 4 Jan 191822 Dec 1919 John Manners Smith (1864–1920) *22 Dec 19197 Aug 1925 Robert Erskine Holland (1873–1965) * 7 Aug 192518 Mar 1927 Stewart Blakeley Agnew Patterson (1872–1942) *18 Mar 192714 Oct 1932 Leonard William Reynolds (1874–1946) *14 Oct 193228 Oct 1937 George Drummond Ogilvie (1882–1966) *28 Oct 19371 Dec 1944 Arthur Cunningham Lothian (1887–1962) *May 1939Oct 1939 Conrad Corfield (1893–1980) (acting for Lothian)* 1 Dec 194415 Aug 1947 Hiranand Rupchand Shivdasani (1904–1949)===Post-independence===From the date of partition and independence in 1947 until 1950, Ajmer-Merwara remained a province of the new Dominion of India.", "In 1950 it became Ajmer State, which on 1 November 1956, was merged into the state of Rajasthan.The Rajasthan Land Reforms and Resumption of Jagirs Act, 1952 was the landmark in the legal history of land reforms in Rajasthan which was followed by Rajasthan Tenancy Act, 1955 that became applicable to the whole of Rajasthan.", "The overriding effect of this Act provided relief to the existing tenants and the rights accrued to tenants accordingly.", "Now the Jats are major land holders in the region." ], [ "See also", "*Rawat Rajputs*The Mer (community) are a Hindu caste from the Gujarat and Central India who emigrated hundred of years ago from Ajmer-Merwara and the surrounding regions of Rajputana.", "*Mair Rajputs of Punjab are a Hindu caste who emigrated hundreds of years ago to Punjab from Ajmer-Merwara and the surrounding regions of Rajputana." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Abatement of debts and legacies" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abatement of debts and legacies''' is a common law doctrine of wills that holds that when the equitable assets of a deceased person are not sufficient to satisfy fully all the creditors, their debts must abate proportionately, and they must accept a dividend.Also, in the case of legacies when the funds or assets out of which they are payable are not sufficient to pay them in full, the legacies abate in proportion, unless there is a priority given specially to any particular legacy.", "Annuities are also subject to the same rule as general legacies.The order of abatement is usually:# Intestate property# The residuary of the estate# General Devises—''i.e.", "'', cash gifts# Demonstrative Devises—''i.e.", "'', cash gifts from a specific account, stocks, bonds, securities, etc.# Specific Devises—''i.e.", "'', specified items of personal property, real property, etc.Non-probate property—''i.e.", "'', life insurance policies—do not abate." ], [ "Definitions", "A '''specific devise''', is a specific gift in a will to a specific person other than an amount of money.", "For example, if James's will states that he is leaving his $500,000 yacht to his brother Mike, the yacht would be a specific devise.A '''general devise''', is a monetary gift to a specific person to be satisfied out of the overall estate.", "For example, if James's will states that he is leaving $500,000 to his son Sam then the money would be a general devise.A '''demonstrative devise''', is money given from a particular account.", "For example, \"$10,000 to be paid from the sale of my GM stock.", "\"A '''residual devise''' is one left to a devisee after all specific and general devices have been made.", "For example, James's will might say: \"I give all the rest, residue and remainder of my estate to my daughter Lilly.\"", "Lilly would be the residual devisee and entitled to James's residuary estate." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Affection" ], [ "Introduction", "Two children showing affection'''Affection''' or '''fondness''' is a \"disposition or state of mind or body\" commonly linked to a feeling or type of love.", "It has led to multiple branches in philosophy and psychology that discuss emotion, disease, influence, and state of being.", "Often, \"affection\" denotes more than mere goodwill or friendship.", "Writers on ethics generally use the word to refer to distinct states of feeling, both lasting and temporary.", "Some contrast it with ''passion'' as being free from the distinctively sensual element.Affection can elicit diverse emotional reactions such as embarrassment, disgust, pleasure, and annoyance.", "The emotional and physical effect of affection also varies between the giver and the receiver." ], [ "Restricted definition", "A young girl kisses a baby on the cheek.Sometimes the term is restricted to emotional states directed towards living entities, including humans and animals.", "Affection is often compared with passion, stemming from the Greek word .", "Consequently, references to affection are found in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and early British ethicists.", "Despite these associations, it's commonly differentiated from passion on various grounds.", "Some definitions of affection exclude feelings of anxiety or heightened excitement, elements typically linked to passion.", "In this narrower context, the term holds significance in ethical frameworks, particularly concerning social or parental ''affections'', forming a facet of moral duties and virtue.", "Ethical perspectives may hinge on whether affection is perceived as voluntary." ], [ "Expression", "Affection can be communicated by looks, words, gestures, or touches.", "It conveys love and social connection.", "The five love languages explains how couples can communicate affections to each other.", "Affectionate behavior may have evolved from parental nurturing behavior due to its associations with hormonal rewards.", "Such affection has been shown to influence brain development in infants, especially their biochemical systems and prefrontal development.", "Affectionate gestures can become undesirable if they insinuate potential harm to one's welfare.", "However, when welcomed, such behavior can offer several health benefits.", "Some theories suggest that positive sentiments enhance individuals' inclination to engage socially, and the sense of closeness fostered by affection contributes to nurturing positive sentiments among them.===Benefits of affection===Affection exchange is an adaptive human behavior that benefits well-being.", "Expressing affection brings emotional, physical, and relational gains for people and their close connections.", "Sharing positive emotions yields health advantages like reduced stress hormones, lower cholesterol, lower blood pressure, and a stronger immune system.", "Expressing affection, not merely feeling affection, is internally rewarding.", "Even if not reciprocated, givers still experience its effects.===Parental relationships===Affectionate behavior is frequently considered an outcome of parental nurturing, tied to hormonal rewards.", "Both positive and negative parental actions may health issues in later life.", "Neglect and abuse result in poorer well-being and mental health, contrasting with affection's positive effects.", "A 2013 study highlighted the impact of early child abuse and lack of affection on physical health." ], [ "Affectionism", "Affectionism is a school of thought that considers affections to be of central importance.", "Although it is not found in mainstream Western philosophy, it does exist in Indian philosophy." ], [ "See also", "* * * * * * * * * * * * * *" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Affiliation (family law)" ], [ "Introduction", "In law, '''affiliation '''(from Latin '''', \"to adopt as a son\") was previously the term to describe legal establishment of paternity.", "The following description, for the most part, was written in the early 20th century, and it should be understood as a historical document." ], [ "Affiliation procedures in England", "In England a number of statutes on the subject have been passed, the chief being the Bastardy Act of the Parliament of 1845, and the Bastardy Laws Amendment Acts of 1872 and 1873.The mother of a bastard may summon the putative father to petty sessions within 12 months of the birth (or at any later time if he is proved to have contributed to the child's support within 12 months after the birth), and the justices, after hearing evidence on both sides, may, if the mother's evidence be corroborated in some material particular, adjudge the man to be the putative father of the child, and order him to pay a sum not exceeding five shillings a week for its maintenance, together with a sum for expenses incidental to the birth, or the funeral expenses, if it has died before the date of order, and the costs of the proceedings.", "An order ceases to be valid after the child reaches the age of 13, but the justices (also referred to as Gold writers under these circumstances) may in the order direct the payments to be continued until the child is 16 years of age.An appeal to quarter sessions is open to the defendant, and a further appeal on questions of law to the King's Bench by rule ''nisi'' or ''certiorari''.", "Should the child afterwards become chargeable to the parish, the sum due by the father may be received by the parish officer.", "When a bastard child, whose mother has not obtained an order, becomes chargeable to the parish, the guardians may proceed against the putative father for a contribution.Any woman who is single, a widow, or a married woman living apart from her husband, may make an application for a summons, and it is immaterial where the child is begotten, provided it is born in England.", "An application for a summons may be made before the birth of the child, but in this case, the statement of the mother must be in the form of a sworn deposition.", "The defendant must be over 14 years of age.", "No agreement on the part of the woman to take a sum down in a discharge of the liability of the father is a bar to the making of an affiliation order.", "In the case of twins, it is usual to make separate applications and obtain separate summonses.The Summary Jurisdiction Act (1879) makes due provision for the enforcement of an order of affiliation.", "In the case of soldiers an affiliation order cannot be enforced in the usual way, but by the Army Act (1881), if an order has been made against a soldier of the regular forces, and a copy of such order be sent to the secretary of state, he may order a portion of the soldier's pay to be retained.", "There is no such special legislation with regard to sailors in the Royal Navy." ], [ "Affiliation procedures in other countries", "In the British colonies, and in the states of the United States (except for California, Idaho, Missouri, Oregon, Texas and Utah), there is some procedure (usually termed filiation) akin to that described above, by means of which a mother can obtain a contribution to the support of her illegitimate child from the putative father.", "The amount ordered to be paid may subsequently be increased or diminished (1905; 94 N.Y. Supplt.", "372).On the continent of Europe, however, the legislation of the various countries differs rather widely.", "France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, Russia, Serbia and the Canton of Geneva provide no means of inquiry into the paternity of an illegitimate child, and consequently all support of the child falls upon the mother; on the other hand, Germany, Austria, Norway, Sweden, Denmark and the majority of the Swiss cantons provide for an inquiry into the paternity of illegitimate children, and the law casts a certain amount of responsibility upon the father.Affiliation, in France, is a term applied to a species of adoption by which the person adopted succeeds equally with other heirs to the acquired, but not to the inherited, property of the deceased.In India, affiliation cases are decided by section 125 of Criminal Procedure Code.", "According to this section - among other things - if a person having sufficient means neglects or refuses to maintain his illegitimate child, a magistrate of the first class may, upon proof of such neglect or refusal, order such person to make a monthly allowance for the maintenance of such child." ], [ "See also", "* Adoption* Illegitimacy* Paternity (law)* Poor Laws" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Affinity" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Affinity''' may refer to:" ], [ "Commerce, finance and law", "* Affinity (law), kinship by marriage* Affinity analysis, a market research and business management technique * Affinity Credit Union, a Saskatchewan-based credit union* Affinity Equity Partners, an Asian private equity firm* Affinity fraud, a type of scam targeting a specific demographic* Affinity marketing, a method of extending market reach by forming partnerships and cross-selling relationships* Affinity Partners, an American private equity firm" ], [ "Religion and belief", "* Affinity (canon law), a kinship arising from the sexual intercourse of a man and a woman* Affinity (Christian organisation), network of conservative evangelical churches and Christian agencies* Affinity group, a private, non-commercial and non-governmental organisation formed around a shared interest or goal" ], [ "Science and technology", "* ''Affinity'', the UK's first road-legal solar car, built by Cambridge University Eco Racing* Affinity (mathematics), an affine transformation preserving collinearity* Affinity (pharmacology), a characterisation of protein-ligand binding strength* Affinity (sociology), a shared interest and commitment between persons in groups and/or willingness to associate* Affinity (taxonomy), a suggestion of common descent or type* Affinity chromatography, method of separating a biomolecule from a mixture* Affinity electrophoresis, general name for many analytical methods used in biochemistry and biotechnology* Affinity laws, laws used in hydraulics to express relationships between variables involved in fan or pump performance* Binding affinity, a measure of the interaction of ligands with their binding sites* Chemical affinity, used to describe or characterise elements' or compounds' readiness to form bonds* Electron affinity, energy released on formation of anions* Processor affinity, a computing term for the assignment of a task to a given core of a multicore CPU* Serif Europe's Affinity series of programs** Affinity Designer, a vector illustration editor** Affinity Photo, a raster graphics editor** Affinity Publisher, a desktop publishing application" ], [ "Media-related", "===Music===* Affinity (band), a jazz/rock band** ''Affinity'' (Affinity album)* ''Affinity'' (Bill Evans album)* ''Affinity'' (Haken album)* ''Affinity'' (Oscar Peterson album)* ''Affinity'' (EP), a 2013 EP by the English band Press to Meco* Johnny Alegre A, a jazz collective based in Manila===Other media===* ''Affinity'' (novel), a 1999 novel by Sarah Waters** ''Affinity'' (film), a 2008 feature film based on the novel* \"Affinity\" (''Stargate SG-1''), an episode from season 8 of the TV sci-fi spin-off series ''Stargate SG-1''* ''Elective Affinities'', a novel by Goethe" ], [ "Other uses", "* Affinity (medieval), late medieval retainers of a monarch in \"bastard feudalism\"* Affinity, West Virginia" ], [ "See also", "* Affine (disambiguation)** Affine transformation, a type of transformation applied to a geometry** Refining, also known as \"affining\"* Afinidad (disambiguation)" ] ]

[ [ "Affray" ], [ "Introduction", "Ernest Meissonier, ''The Brawl'', 1855In many legal jurisdictions related to English common law, '''affray''' is a public order offence consisting of the fighting of one or more persons in a public place to the terror (in ) of ordinary people.", "Depending on their actions, and the laws of the prevailing jurisdiction, those engaged in an affray may also render themselves liable to prosecution for assault, unlawful assembly, or riot; if so, it is for one of these offences that they are usually charged." ], [ "United Kingdom", "===England and Wales===The common law offence of affray was abolished for England and Wales on 1 April 1987.Affray is now a statutory offence that is triable either way.", "It is created by section 3 of the Public Order Act 1986 which provides:The term \"violence\" is defined by section 8.Section 3(6) once provided that a constable could arrest without warrant anyone he reasonably suspected to be committing affray, but that subsection was repealed by paragraph 26(2) of Schedule 7 to, and Schedule 17 to, the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005, which includes more general provisions for police to make arrests without warrant.The ''mens rea'' of affray is that person is guilty of affray only if he intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his conduct may be violent or threaten violence.The offence of affray has been used by HM Government to address the problem of drunken or violent individuals who cause serious trouble on airliners.In ''R v Childs & Price'' (2015), the Court of Appeal quashed a murder verdict and replaced it with affray, having dismissed an allegation of common purpose.===Northern Ireland===Affray is a serious offence for the purposes of Chapter 3 of the Criminal Justice (Northern Ireland) Order 2008." ], [ "Australia", "In New South Wales, section 93C of Crimes Act 1900 defines that a person will be guilty of affray if he or she threatens unlawful violence towards another and his or her conduct is such as would cause a person of reasonable firmness present at the scene to fear for his or her personal safety.", "A person will only be guilty of affray if the person intends to use or threaten violence or is aware that his or her conduct may be violent or threaten violence.", "The maximum penalty for an offence of affray contrary to section 93C is a period of imprisonment of 10 years.In Queensland, section 72 of the Criminal Code of 1899 defines affray as taking part in a fight in a public highway or taking part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access.", "This definition is taken from that in the English Criminal Code Bill of 1880, cl.", "96.Section 72 says \"Any person who takes part in a fight in a public place, or takes part in a fight of such a nature as to alarm the public in any other place to which the public have access, commits a misdemeanour.", "Maximum penalty—1 year’s imprisonment.\"" ], [ "India", "The Indian Penal Code (sect.", "159) adopts the old English common law definition of affray, with the substitution of \"actual disturbance of the peace for causing terror to the ''lieges''\"." ], [ "New Zealand", "In New Zealand affray has been codified as \"fighting in a public place\" by section 7 of the Summary Offences Act 1981." ], [ "South Africa", "Under the Roman-Dutch law in force in South Africa affray falls within the definition of ''vis publica''." ], [ "United States", "In the United States, the English common law as to affray applies, subject to certain modifications by the statutes of particular states." ], [ "See also", "*Assault*Battery*Combat" ], [ "References", "* ''Blackstones Police Manual Volume 4: General police duties'', Fraser Simpson (2006).", "pp.", "247.Oxford University Press." ] ]

[ [ "Afghan Turkestan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Afghan Turkestan''', also known as '''Southern Turkestan''', is a region in northern Afghanistan, on the border with the former Soviet republics of Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan.", "In the 19th century, there was a province in Afghanistan named Turkestan with Mazari Sharif as provincial capital.", "The province incorporated the territories of the present-day provinces of Balkh, Kunduz, Jowzjan, Sar-e Pol, and Faryab.", "In 1890, Qataghan-Badakhshan Province was separated from Turkestan Province.", "It was later abolished by Emir Abdur Rahman.The whole territory of Afghan Turkestan, from the junction of the Kokcha river with the Amu Darya on the north-east to the province of Herat on the south-west, was some in length, with an average width from the Russian frontier to the Hindu Kush of .", "It thus comprised about or roughly two-ninths of the former Kingdom of Afghanistan." ], [ "Geography", "Afghan Turkestan Province in 1929The area is agriculturally poor except in the river valleys, being rough and mountainous towards the south, but subsiding into undulating wastes and pasture-lands towards the Karakum Desert.The province included the khanates of Kunduz, Tashkurgan, Balkh, and Akcha in the east and the four khanates or ''Chahar Wilayat'' (\"four domains\") of Saripul, Shibarghan, Andkhoy (city), and Maymana in the west." ], [ "Demographics", "A CIA map showing the various Afghan tribal territoriesThe bulk of the people are Uzbek and Turkmen with large concentrations of Hazara, Qizilbash, Tajik and Pashtun." ], [ "History", "Ancient Balkh or Bactria was an integral part of Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex, and was occupied by Indo-Iranians.", "In the 5th century BCE, it became a province of the Achaemenian Empire and later became part of the Seleucid Empire.", "About 250 BC Diodotus (Theodotus), governor of Bactria under the Seleucidae, declared his independence, and commenced the history of the Greco-Bactrian dynasties, which succumbed to Parthian and nomadic movements about 126 BC.", "After this came a Buddhist era which has left its traces in the gigantic sculptures at Bamian and the rock-cut topes of Haibak.", "The district was devastated by Genghis Khan, and has never since fully recovered its prosperity.", "For about a century it belonged to the Delhi empire, and then fell into Uzbek hands.", "In the 18th century it formed part of the dominion of Ahmad Shah Durrani, and so remained under his son Timur.", "But under the fratricidal wars of Timur's sons the separate khanates fell back under the independent rule of various Uzbek chiefs.", "At the beginning of the 19th century they belonged to Bukhara; but under the emir Dost Mohammad, the Afghans recovered Balkh and Tashkurgan in 1850, Akcha and the four western khanates in 1855, and Kunduz in 1859.Dost Mohammad's earliest campaigns begin in the 1830's in the Afghan Turkestan Campaign of 1838-39.The sovereignty over Andkhoy, Shibarghan, Saripul, and Maymana was in dispute between Bukhara and Kabul until settled by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873 in favour of the Afghan claim.", "Under the strong rule of Abdur Rahman these outlying territories were closely welded to Kabul; but after the accession of Habibullah the bonds once more relaxed.", "In the late 19th and 20th centuries, many ethnic Pashtuns either voluntarily or involuntarily settled in Afghan Turkestan.In 1890, the district of Qataghan and Badakhshan was divided from Afghan Turkestan and made into the Qataghan-Badakhshan Province.", "Administration of the province was assigned to the Northern Bureau in Kabul." ], [ "See also", "* Chinese Turkestan* Russian Turkestan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading" ] ]

[ [ "Afyonkarahisar" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Afyonkarahisar''' (, \"poppy, opium\", ''kara'' \"black\", ''hisar'' \"fortress\") is a city in western Turkey.", "It is the administrative centre of Afyonkarahisar Province and Afyonkarahisar District.", "Its population is 251,799 (2021).", "Afyon is in the mountainous countryside inland from the Aegean coast, south-west of Ankara along the Akarçay River.", "In Turkey, Afyonkarahisar stands out as a capital city of hot springs and spas, an important junction of railway, highway and air traffic in West-Turkey, and the place where independence was won.In addition, Afyonkarahisar is one of the top leading provinces in agriculture, globally renowned for its marble and is the world's largest producer of pharmaceutical opium.", "In antiquity the city was called '''Akroinon''' and it is the site of Afyonkarahisar Castle." ], [ "Etymology", "The name '''Afyon Kara Hisar''' literally means ''opium black castle'' in Turkish, since opium was widely grown here and there is a castle on a black rock.", "Also known simply as '''Afyon'''.", "Older spellings include '''Karahisar-i Sahip''', '''Afium-Kara-hissar''' and '''Afyon Karahisar'''.", "The city was known as Afyon (opium), until the name was changed to Afyonkarahisar by the Turkish Parliament in 2004." ], [ "History", "Statue of Zeus at Afyonkarahisar Archaeological Museum in Afyonkarahisar, TurkeyAn old mansion in the historic part of AfyonkarahisarSultan Divani Tomb Mevlevi Mosque in Afyonkarahisar===Ancient times===The top of the rock in Afyon has been fortified for a long time.", "It was known to the Hittites as '''Hapanuwa''', and was later occupied by Phrygians, Lydians and Achaemenid Persians until it was conquered by Alexander the Great.", "After the death of Alexander the city (now known as '''Akroinοn''' (Ακροϊνόν) or '''Nikopolis''' (Νικόπολις) in Ancient Greek), was ruled by the Seleucids and the kings of Pergamon, then Rome and Byzantium.===Medieval period===Akroinοn became an important fortress in the Armeniakon theme due to its strategic location and natural defences and was first mentioned in Byzantine history when it was attacked in 716 and 732 by Arabs invaders.", "The Byzantine emperor Leo III renamed the city '''Nicopolis''' (Greek for \"city of victory\") after his victory over Arab besiegers under Abdallah al-Battal (who would become the famous Turkish literature figure of Battal Gazi) in 740.Since the 10th century it was also a bishopric of Phrygia Salutaris.After 1071 the town became part of the frontier zone between the Byzantine Empire and the invading Turks.", "The city was still held by the former in 1112 but was lost to the Sultanate of Rum at some time before 1146 when Manuel I Komnenos won a victory here.", "The Turks were unable to firmly control the city until around 1210, renaming it to '''Kara Hissar''' (\"black castle\") after the ancient fortress situated upon a volcanic rock 201 meters above the town.", "Following the dispersal of the Seljuqs the town was occupied by the Sâhib Ata and then the Germiyanids.The castle was finally conquered by the Ottoman Sultan Beyazid I in 1392 but was lost after the invasion of Timur Lenk in 1402.It was recaptured in 1428 or 1429.===Modern times===The area thrived during the Ottoman Empire, as the centre of opium production and Afyon became a wealthy city.", "From 1867 until 1922, Afyon was part of the Hüdavendigâr vilayet of the Ottoman Empire.", "In 1902, a fire burning for 32 hours destroyed parts of the city.Ottoman architecture in AfyonkarahisarDuring the 1st World War British prisoners of war who had been captured at Gallipoli were housed here in an empty Armenian church at the foot of the rock.", "During the Greco-Turkish War (1919-1922) campaign (part of the Turkish War of Independence) Afyon and the surrounding hills were occupied by Greek forces.", "However, it was recovered on 27 August 1922, a key moment in the Turkish counter-attack in the Aegean region.", "After 1923 Afyon became a part of the Republic of Turkey.The region was a major producer of raw opium (hence the name ''Afyon'') until the late 1960s when under international pressure, from the US in particular, the fields were burnt and production ceased.", "Now poppies are grown under a strict licensing regimen.", "They do not produce raw opium any more but derive Morphine and other opiates using the poppy straw method of extraction.Afyon was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50 lira banknote of 1927–1938." ], [ "Economy", "The economy of Afyonkarahisar is based on agriculture, industries and thermal tourism.", "Especially its agriculture is strongly developed from the fact, a large part of its population living in the countrysides.", "Which stimulated agricultural activities greatly.===Marble===Pantheon, Rome.", "White Docimian marble is used on the floor and some of the columns such as the two protruding columns of the main apse.", "The white Docimian color on the floor is very dominant.Afyonkarahisar produces an important chunk of Turkish processed marbles, it ranks second on processed marble exports and fourth on travertine.", "Afyon holds an important share of Turkish marble reserves, with some 12,2% of total Turkish reserves.Historically marble from Afyon was generally referred to as \"Docimeaen marble\" due to the place where it was mined, Docimium.", "Afyon has unique marble types and colors, which were historically very renown and are unique to Afyon such as \"Afyon white\", historically known as \"Synnadic white\", \"Afyon Menekse\", historically known as \"Pavonazzetto\", and \"Afyon kaplan postu\", a less popular type.Docimian marble was highly admired and valued for its unique colors and fine grained quality by ancient people such as the Romans.", "When the Romans took control over Docimaean quarries, they were impressed by the beautiful color combinations of the Docimaean Pavonazzetto, which is a type of white marble with purple veins.", "Emperors such as Augustus, Trajan and Hadrian made extensive use of Docimaean marble to many of their major building projects.", "These include the Pantheon, Trajan's Forum and the Basilica Aemilia.===Thermal sector===The geography of Afyon has great geothermal activity.", "Hence, the place has plenty of thermal springs.", "There are five main springs and all of them have high mineral content with temperatures ranging between 40 and 100 °C.", "The waters have strong healing properties to some diseases.", "As a result, plenty of thermal facilities formed over time.In time, Afyon has developed its thermal sector with more capacity, comfort and innovation.", "Afyon combined the traditional bath houses with 5-star resorts, the health benefits of the natural springs have put the thermal resorts further then a mere attraction.Hospitals and universities have come in association with thermal resorts, to utilize the full health potentials of the thermals.", "As such, Afyon Kocatepe University Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Hospital opened for that purpose.", "Afyon now has the largest residence capacity of thermal resorts, of which a large part are 5-star thermal hotels which give medical care with qualified personnel.===Spa water===Kızılay, was the first mineral water factory in Turkey which opened in Afyon, in 1926 by Atatürk.", "After the mineral water from Gazligöl springs, healed Atatürk's kidneys and proved its health benefits.", "Since its foundation, \"Kızılay Spa Water\" grew as the biggest spa water distributor in Turkey, Middle-East and Balkans.===Pharmaceuticals and morphine===Almost a third of all the morphine produced in the world derives from alkaloids factory in Afyon, named as \"Afyon Alkaloids\".", "this large capacity is the byproduct of Afyon's poppy plantations.", "The pharmaceuticals derive from the opium of the poppy capsules.", "\"Afyon Alkaloids\" factory is the largest of its kind in the world, with high capacity processing ability and modern laboratories.", "The raw opium is put through a chain of biochemical processes, resulting into several types of morphine.In the Alkaloid Extraction Unit only base morphine is produced.", "In the adjacent Derivatives Unit half of the morphine extracted is converted to morphine hydrochloride, codeine, codeine phosphate, codeine sulphate, codeine hydrochloride, morphine sulphate, ethylmorphine hydrochloride.===Agriculture==='''Livestocks'''Afyon breeds a large amount of livestocks, its landscape and demography is suitable for this field.", "As such it ranks in the top 10 within Turkey in terms of amounts of sheep and cattle it has.", "'''Meat and meat products'''As a result of being an important source of livestock, related sectors such as meat and meat products are also very productive in Afyon.", "Its one of the leading provinces in red meat production and has very prestigious brand marks of sausages, such as \"Cumhuriyet Sausages\".", "'''Eggs'''Afyon is the sole leader in egg production within Turkey.", "It has the largest amount of laying hens, with a figure of 12,7 million.", "And produces a record amount of 6 million eggs per day.", "'''Cherries and sour cherries'''Sour cherries are cultivated in Afyon in very large numbers, so much so that it became very iconic to Afyon.", "Every year, a sour cherry festival takes place in the Cay district.", "It is the largest producer of sour cherries in Turkey.", "The sour cherries grown in Afyon are of excellent quality because of the ideal climate they're grown in.", "For the same reason Afyon is also an ideal place for cherry cultivation.", "First quality cherries known as \"Napolyon Cherries\" are grown in abundance, its one of the top 5 leading provinces.", "'''Poppy'''One of the iconic agricultural practices of Afyon is the cultivation of poppy.", "Afyon's climate is ideal for the cultivation of this plant, hence a large amount of poppy plantation occurs in this region.", "Though, a strong limitation came some decades ago from international laws, cause of the opium content of poppy plants peels.", "Nevertheless, Afyon is the largest producer of poppy in Turkey and accounts for a large amount of global production.", "'''Potatoes and sugar-beets'''Afyon has a durable reputation in potato production, it produces around 8% of Turkish potato need.", "It ranks in the top 5 in potato, sugar-beets, cucumber and barley production." ], [ "Climate", "Afyonkarahisar has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) under the Köppen classification and an oceanic climate with a warm summer and a cool winter (Dobk) under the Trewartha classification.", "The winters are cool and the summers are warm and dry with cool nights.", "Rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn." ], [ "Transport", "Afyon is also an important rail junction between İzmir, Konya, Ankara and Istanbul.", "Afyon is on the route of the planned high-speed rail line between Ankara and Izmir.Zafer AirportZafer Airport, located 60 km from city center, serves Afyonkarahisar.", "Four flights per week to Istanbul, and seasonal flights to international destinations are available." ], [ "Afyon today", "A view from the Cumhuriyet Square and Utku Monument in AfyonkarahisarAfyon is the centre of an agricultural area and the city has a country town feel to it.", "There is little in the way of bars, cafes, live music or other cultural amenities, and the standards of education are low for a city in the west of Turkey.", "Nonetheless, the city does host one seat of higher education, Afyon Kocatepe University.", "Afyonkarahisar streetsAfyon is known for its marble (in 2005 there were 355 marble quarries in the province of Afyon producing high quality white stone), its ''sucuk'' (spiced sausages), its ''kaymak'' (meaning either ''cream'' or a white Turkish delight) and various handmade weavings.", "There is also a large cement factory.This is a natural crossroads, the routes from Ankara to İzmir and from Istanbul to Antalya intersect here and Afyon is a popular stopping-place on these journeys.", "There are a number of well-established roadside restaurants for travellers to breakfast on the local cuisine.", "Some of these places are modern well-equipped hotels and spas; the mineral waters of Afyon are renowned for their healing qualities.", "There is also a long string of roadside kiosks selling the local Turkish delight." ], [ "Cuisine", "=== Courses ===** ''sucuk'' - the famed local speciality, a spicy beef sausage, eaten fried or grilled.", "The best known brands include ''Cumhuriyet'', Ahmet İpek, İkbal, İtimat and Danet but only 2 brands has the geographical indication and these are Cumhuriyet & Danet (Vahdet Et).", "** ağzaçık or bükme - filo-style pastry stuffed with cheese or lentils.", "** keşkek - boiled wheat and chick peas stewed with meat.Kaymak lokum, Turkish delight of cream, a speciality of Afyonkarahisar.|169x169px=== Sweets ===* local cream kaymak eaten with honey, with a bread pudding ekmek kadayıfı, or with pumpkin simmered in syrup.", "Best eaten at the famous Ikbal restaurants (either the old one in the town centre or the big place on the main road).", "* Turkish delight.", "* helva - sweetened ground sesame" ], [ "Main sights", "* Afyonkarahisar Castle* Victory Museum (Zafer Müzesi), a national military and war museum, which was used as headquarters by then Commander-in-Chief Mustafa Kemal Pasha (Atatürk), his chief general staff and army commanders before the Great Offensive in August 1922.In the very city center, across the fortress, featuring maps, uniforms, photos, guns from the Greco-Turkish War.", "* The partly ruined fortress which has given the city its name.", "To reach at the top, eight hundred stairs need to be climbed.", "* The Afyonkarahisar Archaeological Museum which houses thousands of Hellenic, Frigian, Hittite, Roman, Ottoman finds.", "* Afyon Grand Mosque* Altıgöz Bridge, like the Ulu Camii built by the Seljuqs in the 13th century.", "* Afyon mansion () situated on a hill overlooking the panoramic plain.", "* the White Elephant - Afyon is twinned with the town of Hamm in Germany, and now has a large statue of Hamm's symbolic white elephant.With its rich architectural heritage, the city is a member of the European Association of Historic Towns and Regions .+ '''Table of population over years''' '''Year''' 1914 1990 1995 2000 '''Population''' 285,750 95,643 103,000 128,516" ], [ "Twin towns – sister cities", "* Nyíregyháza, Hungary, since 1992* Greece, Athens, since 1999* Turkistan, Kazakhstan* Hamm, Germany, since 2005* Peć, Kosovo, since 2008* Yunfu, China, since 2007* Latakia, Syria, since 2009" ], [ "Notable natives", "Following list is alphabetically sorted after family name.", "* Mihran Mesrobian (1889-1975), architect and decorated Ottoman soldier* İlker Başbuğ (1943), former Chief of the General Staff of Turkey* Ali Çetinkaya (1879-1949), Ottoman Army officer and Turkish politician* Fikret Emek (1963), retired military personnel of the Special Forces Command* Veysel Eroğlu (1948), Minister of Environment and Forestry* Bülent İplikçioğlu (1952), historian* Fazıl Şenel (1972), High Commissioner / Board Member of EMRA (EPDK), Ex-President of BOTAŞ* Ahmed Karahisari (1468- 1566), Ottoman calligrapher* Gülcan Mıngır (1989), European Champion Middle-distance runner* Ahmet Necdet Sezer (1941), former President of Turkey* Sibel Özkan Öz (1988), Olympic medalist female weightlifter* Nurgül Yeşilçay (1976), actress* Gunay Uslu (1972), Secretary of State Netherlands" ], [ "See also", "* 2012 Afyonkarahisar arsenal explosion" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* Afyon Karahisar * City council website" ] ]

[ [ "Abba Arikha" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Rav Abba bar Aybo''' (; 175–247 CE), commonly known as '''Abba Arikha''' () or simply as '''Rav''' (), was a Jewish amora of the 3rd century.", "He was born and lived in Kafri, Asoristan, in the Sasanian Empire.In Sura, Arikha established the systematic study of the rabbinic traditions, which, using the Mishnah as a foundational text, led to the compilation of the Talmud.", "With him began the long period of ascendancy of the prestigious Talmudic academies in Babylonia around the year 220.In the Talmud, he is frequently associated with Samuel of Nehardea, a fellow amora with whom he debated many issues." ], [ "Biography", "His surname, '''Arikha''' (English: '''''the Tall'''''), he owed to his height, which exceeded that of his contemporaries.", "Others, reading '''Arekha,''' consider it an honorary title, \"Lecturer\".", "In the traditional literature he is referred to almost exclusively as '''Rav''', \"the Master\", (both his contemporaries and posterity recognizing in him a master), just as his teacher, Judah HaNasi, was known simply as ''Rabbi''.", "He is called Rabbi Abba only in the ''tannaitic'' literature, where a number of his sayings are preserved.", "He occupies a middle position between the ''Tannaim'' and the ''Amoraim'', and is accorded the right, rarely conceded to one who is only an ''amora'', of disputing the opinion of a ''tanna''.Rav was a descendant of a distinguished Babylonian family which claimed to trace its origin to Shimei, brother of King David.", "His father, Aibo, was a brother of Hiyya the Great who lived in Palestine, and was a highly esteemed scholar in the collegiate circle of the patriarch Judah haNasi.", "From his associations in the house of his uncle, and later as his uncle's disciple and as a member of the academy at Sepphoris, Rav acquired such knowledge of the tradition as to make him its foremost exponent in Babylonia.", "While Judah haNasi was still living, Rav, having been ordained as teacher (with certain restrictions), returned to Asoristan, referred to as \"Babylonia\" in Jewish writings, where he at once began a career that was destined to mark an epoch in the development of Babylonian Judaism.In the annals of the Babylonian schools, the year of his arrival is recorded as the starting-point in the chronology of the Talmudic age.", "It was the 530th year of the Seleucid era and the 219th year of the Common Era.", "As the scene of his activity, Rav first chose Nehardea, where the exilarch appointed him ''agoranomos'', or market-master, and Rabbi Shela made him lecturer (''amora'') of his college.", "Then he moved to Sura, on the Euphrates, where he established a school of his own, which soon became the intellectual center of the Babylonian Jews.", "As a renowned teacher of the Law and with hosts of disciples, who came from all sections of the Jewish world, Rav lived and worked in Sura until his death.", "Samuel of Nehardea, another disciple of Judah haNasi, at the same time brought to the academy at Nehardea a high degree of prosperity; in fact, it was at the school of Rav that Jewish learning in Babylonia found its permanent home and center.", "Rav's activity made Babylonia independent of Palestine, and gave it that predominant position which it was destined to occupy for several centuries.Little is known of Rav's personal life.", "That he was rich seems probable; for he appears to have occupied himself for a time with commerce and afterward with agriculture.", "He is referred to as the son of noblemen, but it is not clear if this is an affectionate term or a true description of his status.", "Rashi does tell us that he is being described as the son of great men.", "He was highly respected by the Gentiles as well as by the Jews of Babylonia, as shown by the friendship which existed between him and the last Parthian emperor, Artabanus IV.", "He was deeply affected by the death of Artaban in 226 and the downfall of the Parthian rulers, and does not appear to have sought the friendship of Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian Empire, although Samuel of Nehardea probably did so.Rav became closely related, through the marriage of one of his daughters, to the family of the exilarch.", "Her sons, Mar Ukban and Nehemiah, were considered types of the highest aristocracy.", "Rav had many sons, several of whom are mentioned in the Talmud, the most distinguished being the eldest, Chiyya.", "Chiyya did not, however, succeed his father as head of the academy: this post fell to Rav's disciple Rav Huna.", "Two of his grandsons occupied in succession the office of exilarch.Rav died at an advanced age, deeply mourned by numerous disciples and the entire Babylonian Jewry, which he had raised from comparative insignificance to the leading position in Judaism." ], [ "Legacy", "The method of treatment of the traditional material to which the Talmud owes its origin was established in Babylonia by Rav.", "That method takes the Mishnah of Judah haNasi as a text or foundation, adding to it the other ''tannaitic'' traditions, and deriving from all of them the theoretical explanations and practical applications of the religious Law.", "The legal and ritual opinions recorded in Rav's name and his disputes with Samuel constitute the main body of the Babylonian Talmud.", "His numerous disciples—some of whom were very influential and who, for the most part, were also disciples of Samuel—amplified and, in their capacity as instructors and by their discussions, continued the work of Rav.", "In the Babylonian schools, Rav was rightly referred to as \"our great master.\"", "Rav also exercised a great influence for good upon the moral and religious conditions of his native land, not only indirectly through his disciples, but directly by reason of the strictness with which he repressed abuses in matters of marriage and divorce, and denounced ignorance and negligence in matters of ritual observance.Rav, says tradition, found an open, neglected field and fenced it in." ], [ "Teachings", "He gave special attention to the liturgy of the synagogue.", "The Aleinu prayer first appeared in the manuscript of the Rosh Hashana liturgy by Rav.", "He included it in the Rosh Hashana mussaf service as a prologue to the Kingship portion of the Amidah.", "For that reason some attribute to Rav the authorship, or at least the revising, of Aleinu.", "In this noble prayer are evinced profound religious feeling and exalted thought, as well as ability to use the Hebrew language in a natural, expressive, and classical manner.The many homiletic and ethical sayings recorded of him show similar ability.", "The greatest aggadist among Babylonian ''Amoraim'', he is the only one of them whose aggadic utterances approach in number and contents those of the Palestinian haggadists.", "The Jerusalem Talmud has preserved a large number of his halakhic and aggadic utterances; and the Palestinian ''Midrashim'' also contain many of his ''aggadot''.", "Rav delivered homiletic discourses, both in the beit midrash and in the synagogues.", "He especially loved to discuss in his homilies the events and personages of Biblical history; and many beautiful and genuinely poetic embellishments of the Biblical record, which have become common possession of the aggadah, are his creations.", "His ''aggadah'' is particularly rich in thoughts concerning the moral life and the relations of human beings to one another.", "A few of these teachings may be quoted here:* \"The commandments of the Torah were only given to purify men's morals\"* \"Whatever may not properly be done in public is forbidden even in the most secret chamber\"* \"In the future, a person will give a judgement and accounting over everything that his eye saw and he did not eat.", "\"* \"Whoever lacks pity for his fellow man is no child of Abraham\"* \"Better to cast oneself into a fiery furnace than to publicly shame one's fellow man.", "\"* \"One should never betroth himself to a woman without having seen her; one might subsequently discover in her a blemish because of which one might loathe her and thus transgress the commandment: 'Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself'\"* \"A father should never prefer one child above another; the example of Joseph shows what evil consequences may result.", "\"* \"While the dates are still in the borders of your skirt, run off with them to the distillery!\"", "Meaning, before one wastes what he has, let him convert it into something more productive* \"Receive the payment.", "Deliver the goods!\"", "i.e.", "do not sell on credit* \"Better to come under the displeasure of Ishmael (i.e.", "the Arabs) than the displeasure of Rome; better to come under the displeasure of Rome than the displeasure of a Persian; better to come under the displeasure of a Persian than the displeasure of a disciple of the Sages; better to come under the displeasure of a disciple of the Sages than the displeasure of an orphan and widow.", "\"* \"A man ought always to occupy himself in the words of the Law, and in the commandments, even if it were not for their own sake.", "For eventually he will do it for their own sake\"* \"A man ought always to look about in search of a good city whose settlement is only of late, considering that since its settlement is relatively new, its iniquities are also few.", "\"* \"A disciple of the Sages ought to have in him one-eighth of one-eighth of pride, and no more.", "\"Rav loved the ''Book of Ecclesiasticus'' (Sirach), and warned his disciple Hamnuna Saba against unjustifiable asceticism by quoting its advice that considering the transitoriness of human life, one should not despise the good things of this world.To the celestial joys of the future he was accustomed to refer in the following poetic words:Rav also devoted much attention to mystical and transcendental speculations regarding Maaseh Bereshit, Maaseh Merkabah, and the Divine Name.", "Many of his important utterances testify to his tendency in this direction." ], [ "References", "=== Citations ====== Sources ===* * ." ] ]

[ [ "Abbahu" ], [ "Introduction", "Rabbi '''Abbahu''' () was a Jew and Talmudist of the Talmudic Academies in Syria Palaestina from about 279 to 320 CE and is counted a member of the third generation of Amoraim.", "He is sometimes cited as '''Rabbi Abbahu of Kisrin''' (Caesarea Maritima)." ], [ "Biography", "His rabbinical education was acquired mainly at Tiberias in the academy presided over by Johanan bar Nappaha, with whom his relationship was almost that of a son.", "He frequently made pilgrimages to Tiberias even after he had become well known as rector of the Caesarean academy.Abbahu was an authority on weights and measures.", "He encouraged the study of Koine Greek by Jews.", "He learned Greek in order to become useful to his people, then under the Roman ''proconsuls'', that language having become, to a considerable extent, the rival of Hebrew even in prayer.", "In spite of the bitter protests of Shimon bar Abba, he also taught his daughters Greek.", "Indeed, it was said of Abbahu that he was a living illustration of the biblical maxim: \"It is good that you should take hold of this the study of the Law; yea, also from that other branches of knowledge withdraw not your hand: for he that fears God shall come forth of them all\".===Rector in Caesarea===Being wise, handsome, and wealthy, Abbahu became not only popular with his coreligionists, but also influential with the proconsular government.", "On one occasion, when his senior colleagues, Hiyya bar Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi, had punished a certain woman, and feared the wrath of the proconsul, Abbahu was deputed to intercede for them.", "He had, however, anticipated the rabbis' request, and wrote to them that he had appeased the informers but not the accuser.", "The witty enigmatic letter describing this incident, preserved in the Talmud, is in the main pure Hebrew, and even includes Hebrew translations of Greek proper names, to avoid the danger of possible exposure should the letter have fallen into the hands of enemies and informers.After his ordination he declined a teacher's position, recommending in his stead a more needy friend, Abba of Acre, as worthier than himself.", "He thereby illustrated his own doctrine that it is a divine virtue to sympathise with a friend in his troubles as well as to partake of his joys.", "Later he assumed the office of rector in Caesarea, the former seat of Hoshaiah Rabbah, and established himself at the so-called Kenishta Maradta (Insurrectionary Synagogue); from which some of the most prominent teachers of the next generation issued.", "In Caesarea he originated several ritual rules, one of which (regulating the sounding of the shofar) has since been universally adopted, and is referred to by rishonim as \"the Enactment of R. Abbahu\".He did not confine his activity to Caesarea, but also visited and taught in many other Jewish towns.", "On these journeys, Abbahu gathered so many ''halakhot'' that scholars turned to him for information on mooted questions.", "In the course of these travels he made a point of complying with all local enactments, even where such compliance laid him open to the charge of inconsistency.", "On the other hand, where circumstances required it, he did not spare even the princes of his people.", "Where, however, the rigorous exposition of laws created hardship for the common people, he did not scruple to modify the decisions of his colleagues for the benefit of the community.", "As for himself, he was very strict in the observance of the laws.", "Once he ordered some Samaritan wine, but subsequently heard that the Samaritans no longer strictly observed the dietary laws.", "With the assistance of his colleagues (Hiyya bar Abba, Rabbi Ammi, and Rabbi Assi) he investigated the report and, ascertaining it to be well founded, ruled the Samaritans to be equivalent to Gentiles for all ritual purposes.===Abbahu and Hiyya bar Abba===Abbahu's chief characteristic seems to have been modesty.", "While lecturing in different towns, he met R. Hiyya bar Abba, who was lecturing on intricate halakhic themes.", "As Abbahu delivered popular sermons, the peopole naturally crowded to hear him, and deserted the halakhist.", "At this apparent slight, Hiyya manifested chagrin, and Abbahu hastened to comfort him by comparing himself to the peddler of glittering fineries that always attracted the eyes of the masses, while his rival was a trader in precious stones, the virtues and values of which were appreciated only by the connoisseur.", "This speech not having the desired effect, R. Abbahu showed special respect for his slighted colleague by following him for the remainder of that day.", "\"What,\" said Abbahu, \"is my modesty as compared with that of Abba of Acre, who does not even remonstrate with his interpreter for interpolating his own comments in the lecturer's expositions.\"", "When his wife reported to him that his interpreter's wife had boasted of her own husband's greatness, Abbahu simply said, \"What difference does it make which of us is really the greater, so long as through both of us heaven is glorified?\"", "His principle of life he expressed in the maxim, \"Let man ever be of the persecuted, and not of the persecutors; for there are none among the birds more persecuted than turtle-doves and pigeons, and the Scriptures declare them worthy of the altar.", "\"===Later years===Abbahu had two sons, Zeira and Hanina.", "Some writers ascribe to him a third son, Abimi.", "Abbahu sent Hanina to the academy at Tiberias, where he had studied, but the youth occupied himself with the burial of the dead, and on hearing of this, the father sent him a reproachful message in this laconic style: \"Is it because there are no graves in Caesarea that I have sent you off to Tiberias?", "Study must precede practice\".", "Abbahu left behind him a number of disciples, the most prominent among whom were the leaders of the 4th amoraic generation, R. Jonah and R. Jose.", "At Abbahu's death the mourning was so great that it was said \"even the statues of Caesarea shed tears\"." ], [ "Against the Christians", "R. Abbahu, although eminent as a halakhist, was more distinguished as an aggadist and controversialist.", "He had many interesting disputes with the Christians of his day.", "Sometimes these disputes were of a humorous nature.", "Thus, a heretic bearing the name of Sason (=Joy) once remarked to him, \"In the next world your people will have to draw water for me; for thus it is written in the Bible, 'With joy shall ye draw water.'\"", "To this R. Abbahu replied, \"Had the Bible said 'for joy' ''le-sason'', it would mean as you say, but since it says 'with joy' ''be-sason'', it means that we shall make bottles of your skin and fill them with water\".", "These controversies, although forced on him, provoked resentment, and it was even related that his physician, Jacob the Schismatic (''Minaah)'', was slowly poisoning him, but Rabbi Ammi and Rabbi Assi discovered the crime in time.A Christian (''Minaah'') once asked Abbahu \"When does your Messiah come?\"", "in a tone of mockery.", "Abbahu replied: \"When you will be wrapped in darkness, for it says, 'Behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the nations; then shall the Lord rise upon you and His glory shall be seen on you'.\"", "A Christian came to Abbahu with the quibbling question: \"How could your God in His priestly holiness bury Moses without providing for purificatory rites, yet oceans are declared insufficient?\"", "Abbahu replied: \"Does it not say, 'The Lord comes with fire'?", "Fire is the true element of purification, according to Numbers 31:23.\"", "Another question of the same character: \"Why the boastful claim, 'What nation on earth is like Your people Israel', since we read, 'All the nations are as nothing before Him'?\"", "Abbahu replied: \"Do we not read of Israel, he 'shall not be reckoned among the nations'?", "\"Abbahu made a notable exception with reference to the Tosefta's statement that the ''Gilyonim'' (Gospels) and other books of the heretics (''Minnin'') are not to be saved from a fire on Shabbat: \"the books of those written by ''Minnin'' for the purpose of debating with Jews at Abidan may or may not be saved.\"", "In regard to the line \"''Barukh Shem Kevod Malkhuto''\" (Blessed be the Name of His glorious Kingdom) recited after the Shema, Abbahu says that in Palestine, where the Christians look for points of controversy, the words should be recited aloud (lest the Jews be accused of silently tampering with the unity of God proclaimed in the ''Shema''), whereas in the Babylonian city of Nehardea, where there are no Christians, the words are recited with a low voice.", "Preaching directly against the Christian dogma, Abbahu says: \"A king of flesh and blood may have a father, a brother, or a son to share in or dispute his sovereignty, but the Lord says, 'I am the Lord your God!", "I am the first - that is, I have no father; and I am the last - that is, I have no brother; and besides me there is no God - that is, I have no son'\".", "His comment on Numbers 23:19 has a still more polemical tone: \"God is not a man that he should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent; if a man says: 'I am God,' he is a liar; if he says: 'I am a son of man,' he will have cause to regret it; and if he says, 'I will go up to heaven,' he has said ''something'' but will not keep his word\".Some of his controversies on Christian theological subjects, as on Adam, on Enoch, and on the resurrection, are less clear and direct." ], [ "Other Abbahus", "There are several other Abbahus mentioned in the Talmudim and Midrashim, prominent among whom is Abbahu (Abuha, Aibut) b. Ihi (Ittai), a Babylonian halakhist, contemporary of Samuel and Anan, and brother of Minyamin (Benjamin) bar Ihi.", "While this Abbahu repeatedly applied to Samuel for information, Samuel in return learned many halakhot from him." ], [ "References", " It has the following bibliography:*Grätz, Gesch.", "d. Juden, 2d ed., iv.", "304, 307–317;* Jost, ''Gesch.", "des Judenthums und seiner Sekten'', ii.161-164;* Frankel, ''Mebo'', pp.", "58a-60;* Weiss, ''Dor'', iii.", "103–105;* Bacher, ''Ag.", "Pal.", "Amor.''", "ii.", "88–142." ] ]

[ [ "Abbreviator" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''abbreviator''' (plural \"abbreviators\" in English, ''abbreviatores'' in Latin) or '''breviator''' was a writer of the Papal Chancery who adumbrated and prepared in correct form Papal bulls, briefs, and consistorial decrees before these were written out ''in extenso'' by the ''scriptores''.They are first mentioned in the Papal bull ''Extravagantes'' of Pope John XXII and in a Papal bull of Pope Benedict XII.After the protonotaries left the adumbration of the minutes to the Abbreviators, those ''de Parco majori'' of the dignity of prelate were the most important officers of the Papal Chancery.", "By the pontificate of Pope Martin V their signature was essential to the validity of the acts of the Chancery.", "Over time they obtained many important privileges." ], [ "Roman lay origin", "Abbreviators make an abridgment or abstract of a long writing or discourse by contracting the parts, i. e., the words and sentences; an abbreviated form of writing common among the ancient Romans.", "Abbreviations were of two kinds: the use of a single letter for a single word and the use of a sign, note, or mark for a word or phrase.The Emperor Justinian forbade the use of abbreviations in the compilation of the ''Digest'' and afterward extended his prohibition to all other writings.", "This prohibition was not universally obeyed.", "The Abbreviators found it convenient to use the abbreviated form, and this was especially the case in Rome.", "The early Christians practised the abbreviated mode, no doubt as an easy and safe way of communicating with one another and safeguarding their secrets from enemies and false brethren." ], [ "Ecclesiastical ''abbreviatores''", "In course of time the Papal Chancery adopted this mode of writing as the \"curial\" style, still further abridging by omitting the diphthongs \"ae\" and \"oe\", and likewise all lines and marks of punctuation.", "The ''Abbreviatores'' were officials of the Roman Curia.The scope of its labour, as well as the number of its officials, varied over time.", "Up to the twelfth or thirteenth century, the duty of the Apostolic—or Roman—Chancery was to prepare and expedite the Papal letters and writs for collation of ecclesiastical dignitaries and other matters of grave importance which were discussed and decided in Papal consistory.", "About the thirteenth or fourteenth century, the Popes, then residing in Avignon, France, began to reserve the collation of a great many benefices, so that all the benefices, especially the greater ones, were to be conferred through the Roman Curia (Lega, ''Praelectiones Jur.", "Can.", "'', 1, 2, 287).", "As a consequence, the labour was immensely augmented, and the number of ''Abbreviatores'' necessarily increased.", "To regulate the proper expedition of these reserved benefices, Pope John XXII instituted the rules of chancery to determine the competency and mode of procedure of the Chancery.", "Afterwards the establishment of the ''Dataria Apostolica'' and the Secretariate of Briefs lightened the work of the Chancery and led to a reduction in the number of ''Abbreviatores''.According to Ciampini (''Lib.", "de abbreviatorum de parco majore etc.", "'', Cap.", "1) the institution of curial abbreviators was very ancient, succeeding after the persecutions to the notaries who recorded the acts of the martyrs.", "Other authors reject this early institution and ascribe it to Pope John XXII in 1316.It is certain that he uses the name \"''abbreviatores''\", but speaks as if they had existed before his time, and had, by over-taxation of their labour, caused much complaint and protest.", "He (''Extravag.", "Joan.", "'', Tit.", "13, \"Cum ad Sacrosanctae Romanae Ecclesiae\") prescribed their work, determined how much they could charge for their labour, fixed a certain tax for an abstract or abridgment of twenty-five words or their equivalent at 150 letters, forbade them to charge more, even though the abstract was over twenty-five words but less than fifty words, enacted that the basis of the tax was the labour employed in writing, expediting, etc.", "the bulls, and by no means the emoluments that accrued to the recipient of the favour or benefice conferred by the bull, and declared that whoever charged more than the tax fixed by him was suspended for six months from office, and upon a second violation of the law, was deprived of it altogether, and if the delinquent was an abbreviator, he was excommunicated.", "Should a large letter have to be rewritten, owing to the inexact copy of the abbreviator, the abbreviator and not the receiver of the bull had to pay the extra charge for the extra labour to the Apostolic writer.Whatever may be the date of the institution of the office of abbreviator, it is certain that it became of greater importance and more highly privileged upon its erection into a college of prelates.", "Pope Martin V (Constit.", "3 \"In Apostolicae\", 2 and 5) fixed the manner for their examination and approbation and also the tax they could demand for their labour and the punishment for overcharge.", "He also assigned to them certain remunerations.", "The Abbreviators of the lower, or lesser, were to be promoted to the higher, or greater, bar or presidency.", "Their offices were compatible with other offices, i. e. they could hold two benefices or offices simultaneously, some conferred by the Cardinal Vice Chancellor, others by the Pope." ], [ "Institution of the College of Abbreviators", "In the pontificate of Pope Pius II, their number, which had been fixed at twenty-four, had overgrown to such an extent as to diminish considerably the individual remuneration, and, as a consequence, competent men no longer sought the office, and hence the old style of writing and expediting the bulls was no longer used, to the great injury of justice, the interested parties, and the dignity of the Apostolic See.", "To remedy this and to restore the old established chancery style, the Pope selected out of the many then living Abbreviators seventy, and formed them into a college of prelates denominated the \"'''College of Abbreviators'''\", and decreed that their office should be perpetual, that certain remunerations should be attached to it, and granted certain privileges to the possessors of the same.", "He ordained further that some should be called \"Abbreviators of the Upper Bar\" (''Abbreviatores de Parco Majori''; the name derived from a place in the Chancery that was surrounded by a grating, in which the officials sat, which is called higher or lower (major or minor) according to the proximity of the seats to that of the Vice Chancellor), the others of the Lower Bar (''Abbreviatores de Parco Minori''); that the former should sit upon a slightly raised portion of the chamber, separated from the rest of the chamber by lattice work, assist the Cardinal Vice-Chancellor, subscribe the letters and have the principal part in examining, revising, and expediting the Apostolic letters to be issued with the leaden seal; that the latter, however, should sit among the Apostolic writers upon benches in the lower part of the chamber, and their duty was to carry the signed schedules or supplications to the prelates of the Upper Bar.", "Then one of the prelates of the Upper Bar made an abstract, and another prelate of the same bar revised it.", "Prelates of the Upper Bar formed a quasi-tribunal, in which as a college they decided all doubts that might arise about the form and quality of the letters, of the clauses and decrees to be adjoined to the Apostolic letters, and sometimes about the payment of the remunerations and other contingencies.", "Their opinion about questions concerning Chancery business was held in the highest estimation by all the Roman tribunals.Pope Paul II suppressed the college; but Pope Sixtus IV (''Constitutio'' 16, \"Divina\") re-instituted it.", "He appointed seventy-two abbreviators, of whom twelve were of the upper, or greater, and twenty-two of the lower, or lesser, presidency (\"parco\"), and thirty-eight examiners on first appearance of letters.", "They were bound to be in attendance on certain days under penalty of fine, and sign letters and diplomas.", "Ciampini mentions a decree of the Vice Chancellor by which absentees were mulcted in the loss of their share of the remuneration of the following session of the Chancery.", "The same Pope also granted many privileges to the College of Abbreviators, but especially to the members of the greater presidency.Pope Pius VII suppressed many of the offices of the Chancery, and so the Tribunal of Correctors and the Abbreviators of the lower presidency disappeared.", "Of the Tribunal of Correctors, a substitute-corrector alone remains.", "Bouix (''Curia Romana'', edit.", "1859) chronicled the suppression of the lower presidency and put the number of Abbreviators at that date at eleven.", "Later the College consisted of seventeen prelates, six substitutes, and one sub-substitute, all of whom, except the prelates, were clerics or laity.", "Although the duty of Abbreviators was originally to make abstracts and abridgments of the Apostolic letters, diplomas, et cetera, using the legal abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, in course of time, as their office grew in importance they delegated that part of their office to their substitute and confined themselves to overseeing the proper expedition of the Apostolic letters.", "Prior to 1878, all Apostolic letters and briefs requiring for their validity the leaden seal were engrossed upon rough parchment in Gothic characters or round letters, also called \"Gallicum\" and commonly \"Bollatico\", but in Italy \"Teutonic\", without lines, diphthongs, or marks of punctuation.", "Bulls engrossed on a different parchment, or in different characters with lines and punctuation marks, or without the accustomed abbreviations, clauses, and formularies, were rejected as spurious.", "Pope Leo XIII in his ''Constitutio Universae Eccles.''", "of 29 December 1878 ordained that they should be written henceforth in ordinary Latin characters upon ordinary parchment and that no abbreviations were to be used except those easily understood." ], [ "Titles and privileges", "Many great privileges were conferred upon Abbreviators.", "By decree of Pope Leo X they were elevated as Papal nobles, ranking as ''Comes palatinus'' (\"Count Palatine\"), familiars and members of the Papal household, so that they might enjoy all the privileges of domestic prelates and of prelates in actual attendance on the Pope, as regards plurality of benefices as well as expectatives.", "They and their clerics and their properties were exempt from all jurisdiction except the immediate jurisdiction of the Pope, and they were not subject to the judgments of the Auditor of Causes or the Cardinal Vicar.", "He also empowered them to confer, later within strict limitations, the degree of Doctor, with all university privileges, institute notaries (later abrogated), legitimize children so as to make them eligible to receive benefices vacated by their fathers (later revoked), also to ennoble three persons and to make Knights of the Order of St. Sylvester (''Militiae Aureae''), the same to enjoy and to wear the insignia of nobility.", "Pope Gregory XVI rescinded this privilege and reserved to the Pope the right of institution of such knights (''Acta Pont.", "Greg.", "XVI'', Vol.", "3, 178-179-180).Pope Paul V, who in early manhood was a member of the college (Const.", "2, \"Romani\"), made them Referendaries of Favours, and after three years of service, Referendaries of Justice, enjoying the privileges of Referendaries and permitting one to assist in the signatures before the Pope, giving all a right to a portion in the Papal palace and exempting them from the registration of favours as required by Pope Pius IV (Const., 98) with regard to matters pertaining to the Apostolic Chamber.They followed immediately after the twelve voting members of the Signature ''in capella''.", "Abbreviators of the greater presidency were permitted to wear the purple cassock and ''cappa'', as also rochet ''in capella''.", "Abbreviators of the lower presidency before their suppression were simple clerics, and according to permission granted by Pope Sixtus IV (loc.", "cit.)", "might be even married.These offices becoming vacant by death of the Abbreviator, no matter where the death occurred, were reserved to the Roman Curia.", "The prelates could resign their office in favour of others.", "Formerly these offices as well as those of the other Chancery officers from the Regent down were occasions of venality, until Popes, especially Pope Benedict XIV and Pope Pius VII, gradually abolished that.", "Pope Leo XIII in a motu proprio of 4 July 1898 most solemnly decreed the abolition of all venality in the transfer or collation of the said offices.As domestic prelates, prelates of the Roman Curia, they had personal preeminence in every diocese of the world.", "They were addressed as \"Reverendissimus\", \"Right Reverend\", and \"Monsignor\".", "As prelates, and therefore possessing the legal dignity, they were competent to receive and execute Papal commands.", "Pope Benedict XIV (Const.", "3, \"Maximo\") granted prelates of the greater presidency the privilege of wearing a hat with a purple band, which right they held even after they ceased to be abbreviators." ], [ "Suppression", "Pope Pius X abrogated the College in 1908 and their obligations were transferred to the ''protonotarii apostolici participantes''." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī''' (, 1162 Baghdad–1231 Baghdad), short for '''Muwaffaq al-Dīn Muḥammad ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī''' (), was a physician, philosopher, historian, Arabic grammarian and traveller, and one of the most voluminous writers of his time." ], [ "Biography", "Many details of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's life are known from his autobiography as presented in Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah's literary history of medicine.", "As a young man, he studied grammar, law, tradition, medicine, alchemy and philosophy.", "He focused his studies on ancient authors, in particular Aristotle, after first adopting Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) as his philosophical mentor at the suggestion of a wandering scholar from the Maghreb.", "He travelled extensively and resided in Mosul (in 1189) where he studied the works of al-Suhrawardi before travelling on to Damascus (1190) and the camp of Saladin outside Acre (1191).", "It was at this last location that he met Baha al-Din ibn Shaddad and Imad al-Din al-Isfahani and acquired the Qadi al-Fadil's patronage.", "He went on to Cairo, where he met Abu'l-Qasim al-Shari'i, who introduced him to the works of al-Farabi, Alexander of Aphrodisias, and Themistius and (according to al-Latif) turned him away from Avicenna and alchemy.In 1192 he met Saladin in Jerusalem and enjoyed his patronage, then went to Damascus again before returning to Cairo.", "He journeyed to Jerusalem and to Damascus in 1207-8, and eventually made his way via Aleppo to Erzindjan, where he remained at the court of the Mengujekid Ala’-al-Din Da’ud (Dāwūd Shāh) until the city was conquered by the Rūm Seljuk ruler Kayqubād II (Kayqubād Ibn Kaykhusraw).", "‘Abd al-Latif returned to Baghdad in 1229, travelling back via Erzerum, Kamakh, Divriği and Malatya.", "He died in Baghdad two years later." ], [ "''Account of Egypt''", "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf was a man of great knowledge and of an inquisitive and penetrating mind.", "Of the numerous works (mostly on medicine) which Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah ascribes to him, one only, his graphic and detailed ''Account of Egypt'' (in two parts), appeared to be known in Europe.In addition to measuring the structure, alongside the other pyramids at Giza, al-Baghdadi also writes that the structures were surely tombs, although he thought the Great Pyramid was used for the burial of Agathodaimon or Hermes.", "Al-Baghdadi ponders whether the pyramid pre-dated the Great flood as described in Genesis, and even briefly entertained the idea that it was a pre-Adamic construction.===Archeology===ʿAbd-al-Laṭīf was well aware of the value of ancient monuments.", "He praised some Muslim rulers for preserving and protecting pre-Islamic artefacts and monuments, but he also criticized others for failing to do so.", "He noted that the preservation of antiquities presented a number of benefits for Muslims:* \"monuments are useful historical evidence for chronologies\";* \"they furnish evidence for Holy Scriptures, since the Qur'an mentions them and their people\";* \"they are reminders of human endurance and fate\";* \"they show, to a degree, the politics and history of ancestors, the richness of their sciences, and the genius of their thought\".While discussing the profession of treasure hunting, he notes that poorer treasure hunters were often sponsored by rich businessmen to go on archeological expeditions.", "In some cases, an expedition could turn out to be fraudulent, with the treasure hunter disappearing with large amounts of money extracted from sponsors.===Egyptology===His manuscript was one of the earliest works on Egyptology.", "It contains a vivid description of a famine which occurred during the author's residence in Egypt.", "The famine was caused by the Nile failing to overflow its banks and according to ‘Abd al-Latif's detailed account, the food situation became so dire that many people turned to cannibalism.", "He also wrote detailed descriptions on ancient Egyptian monuments.===Autopsy===Al-Baghdādī wrote that during the famine in Egypt in 597 AH (1200 AD), he had the opportunity to observe and examine a large number of skeletons, through which he came to the view that Galen was incorrect regarding the formation of the bones of the lower jaw mandible, coccyx and sacrum.===Translation===Al-Baghdādī's Arabic manuscript was discovered in 1665 by the English orientalist Edward Pococke and is preserved in the Bodleian Library.", "Pococke published the Arabic manuscript in the 1680s.", "His son, Edward Pococke the Younger, translated the work into Latin, although he was only able to publish less than half of his work.", "Thomas Hunt attempted to publish Pococke's complete translation in 1746, although his attempt was unsuccessful.", "Pococke's complete Latin translation was eventually published by Joseph White of Oxford in 1800.The work was then translated into French, with valuable notes, by Silvestre de Sacy in 1810." ], [ "Philosophy", "As far as philosophy is concerned, one may adduce that ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī regarded philosophers as paragons of real virtue and therefore he refused to accept as a true philosopher one lacking not only true insight, but also a truly moral personality as true philosophy was in the service of religion, verifying both belief and action.", "Apart from this he regarded the philosophers’ ambitions as vain (Endress, in Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, xi).", "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf composed several philosophical works, among which is an important and original commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics (''Kitāb fī ʿilm mā baʿd al-ṭabīʿa'').", "This is a critical work in the process of the Arabic assimilation of Greek thought, demonstrating its author's acquaintance with the most important Greek metaphysical doctrines, as set out in the writings of al-Kindī (d. circa 185-252/801-66) and al-Fārābī (d. 339/950).", "The philosophical section of his Book of the Two Pieces of Advice (''Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn'') contains an interesting and challenging defence of philosophy and illustrates the vibrancy of philosophical debate in the Islamic colleges.", "It moreover emphasises the idea that Islamic philosophy did not decline after the twelfth century CE (Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey; Gutas).", "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī may therefore well be an exponent of what Gutas calls the “golden age of Arabic philosophy” (Gutas, 20)." ], [ "Alchemy", "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf also penned two passionate and somewhat grotesque pamphlets against the art of alchemy in all its facets.", "Although he engaged in alchemy for a short while, he later abandoned the art completely by rejecting not only its practice, but also its theory.", "In ʿAbd al-Laṭīf's view alchemy could not be placed in the system of the sciences, and its false presumptions and pretensions must be distinguished from true scientific knowledge, which can be given a rational basis (Joosse, Rebellious intellectual, 29–62; Joosse, Unmasking the craft, 301–17; Martini Bonadeo, Philosophical journey, 5-6 and 203–5; Stern, 66–7; Allemann)." ], [ "Spiritualism", "During the years following the First World War, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's name reappeared within the spiritualistic movement in the United Kingdom.", "He was introduced to the public by the Irish medium Eileen J. Garrett, the author Sir Arthur Conan Doyle and the spiritualist R.H. Saunders and became known by the name Abduhl Latif, the great Arab physician.", "He is said to have acted as a control of mediums until the mid 1960s (Joosse, Geest, 221–9).", "The Bodleian Library (MS Pococke 230) and the interpretation of the Videans (Zand-Videan, 8–9) may also have prompted the whimsical short-story ‘Ghost Writer’, as told to Tim Mackintosh-Smith, in which ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī speaks in the first person." ], [ "References" ], [ "Bibliography", "*Allemann, Franz, ʿAbdallaṭīf al-Baġdādī: Risālah fī Mudjādalat al-ḥakīmain al-kīmiyāʾī wan-naẓarī (“Das Streitgespräch zwischen dem Alchemisten und dem theoretischen Philosophen” or ''The Argument Between the Alchemist and the Theoretical Philosopher'').", "Eine textkritische Bearbeitung der Handschrift: Bursa, Hüseyin Çelebi 823, fol.", "100-123 mit Übersetzung und Kommentar, PhD dissertation Bern 1988.", "** Degen, Rainer, Zum Diabetestraktat des ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī, ''Annali Istituto Universitario Orientale di Napoli'', 37 (N.S.", "27) (1977), 455–62.", "* Dietrich, Albert, Ein Arzneimittelverzeichnis des Abdallaṭīf Ibn Yūsuf al-Baġdādī, in: Wilhelm Hoenerbach, ''Der Orient in der Forschung.", "Festschrift für Otto Spies zum 5.April 1966'' (Wiesbaden 1967), 42–60.", "* Gannagé, Emma, “Médecine et philosophie à Damas à l’aube du XIIIème siècle: un tournant post-avicennien?”, ''Oriens'', 39 (2011), 227–256.", "* Gutas, Dimitri, 'Philosophy in the Twelfth Century: One View from Bagdad, or the Reputation of al-Ghazālī, in: Peter Adamson, ''In the Age of Averroes: Arabic Philosophy in the Sixth/Twelfth Century'', London/Torino: Nino Aragno Editore, 2011, 9-26.", "* Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿa, ''ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ fī ṭabaqāt al-atibbāʾ'', ed.", "Imruʾulqais ibn aṭ-Ṭaḥḥān (August Müller), 2 vols.", "(Cairo-Königsberg 1299/1882), 2: 201-13 Reprint by Fuat Sezgin et al.", ": Islamic Medicine 1–2, 2 vols., Frankfurt am Main 1995.The entry on ALB has been translated, annotated, and edited by N. Peter Joosse and Geert Jan van Gelder, in: ''A Literary History of medicine: The ʿUyūn al-anbāʾ fī ṭabaqāt al-aṭibbāʾ of Ibn Abī Uṣaybiʿah, ''HdO 134, volume 3-1 ed.", ": 1295–1323; 3-2 trl.", ": 1470-1506 (Brill: Leiden/Boston, 2019).", "''* Joosse, N. Peter, art.", "\"ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī\" in: Encyclopaedia of Islam ''Three''.", "* Joosse, N. Peter, ''The Physician as a Rebellious Intellectual.", "The Book of the Two Pieces of Advice or Kitāb al-Naṣīḥatayn by ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī (1162-1231): Introduction, Edition and Translation of the Medical Section'' (Frankfurt am Main and Bern: Peter Lang Edition 2014).", "Beihefte zur Mediaevistik, Band 18.", "* Joosse, N. Peter, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī as a philosopher and a physician.", "Myth or reality, topos or truth?, in Peter Adamson, ''In the age of Averroes.", "Arabic philosophy in the sixth/twelfth century'' (Nino Aragno Editore: London/Torino 2011), 27-43.", "* Joosse, N. Peter, ‘Pride and prejudice, praise and blame’.", "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī’s views on good and bad medical practitioners, in Arnoud Vrolijk and Jan P. Hogendijk, ''O ye gentlemen.", "Arabic studies on science and literary culture in honour of Remke Kruk'' (Brill: Leiden/Boston 2007), 129–41.", "* Joosse, N. Peter, 'ʿUnmasking the Craftʾ.", "ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's Views on Alchemy and Alchemists: in: Anna A. Akasoy and Wim Raven, ''Islamic Thought in the Middle Ages.", "Studies in Text, Transmission and Translation in Honour of Hans Daiber'' (Brill: Leiden/Boston, 2008), 301–17.", "* Joosse, N. Peter, ‘De geest is uit de fles’.", "De middeleeuwse Arabische arts ʿAbd al-Laṭīf ibn Yūsuf al-Baghdādī: zijn medische werk en zijn bizarre affiliatie met het twintigste-eeuwse spiritisme, ''Gewina'' 30/4 (2007), 211–29.", "* Joosse, N. Peter and Peter E. Pormann, 'Decline and Decadence in Iraq and Syria after the Age of Avicenna?", ": ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī (1162-1231) between Myth and History, in: ''Bulletin of the History of Medicine'' 84 (2010), 1-29.", "* Joosse, N. Peter and Peter E. Pormann, ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī's commentary on Hippocrates’ ‘Prognostic’.", "A preliminary exploration, in Peter E. Pormann (ed.", "), ''>Epidemics.", "* * * Pormann, Peter E. and N. Peter Joosse, Commentaries on the Hippocratic Aphorisms in the Arabic tradition: The example of melancholy, in Peter E. Pormann (ed.", "), ''>Epidemics< in context.", "Greek commentaries on Hippocrates in the Arabic tradition'' (De Gruyter: Berlin and Boston 2012), 211–49.", "* Pormann, Peter E. and Emilie Savage-Smith, ''Medieval Islamic medicine'' (Edinburgh University Press: Edinburgh 2007), 60, 73–4.", "* ** Stern, Samuel Miklos, A collection of treatises by ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī, ''Islamic Studies'' 1 (1962), 53–70.Reprint, in Fritz W. Zimmermann (ed.", "), S.M.", "Stern, ''Medieval Arabic and Hebrew thought'' (London 1983), No.", "XVIII.", "* Thies, Hans-Jürgen, ''Der Diabetestraktat ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī's.", "Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Krankheitbildes in der arabischen Medizin'', Diss.", "Bonn, Selbstverlag Uni Bonn, 1971.", "* * Toorawa, Shawkat M., A portrait of ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baghdādī's education and instruction, in Joseph E. Lowry, Devin J. Stewart and Shawkat M. Toorawa, ''Law and education in medieval Islam.", "Studies in memory of professor George Makdisi'' (Oxford 2004), 91-109.", "* Ullmann, Manfred, ''Die Medizin im Islam'' (Brill: Leiden/Köln 1970), 170–2.", "* Ullmann, Manfred, review of Hans-Jürgen Thies, Der Diabetestraktat ʿAbd al-Laṭīf al-Baġdādī's.", "Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Krankheitsbildes in der arabischen Medizin, (Selbstverlag Uni Bonn: Bonn 1971), ''Der Islam'' 48 (1972), 339–40.", "* Zand, K.H.", "and J.A.", "and I.E.", "Videan, ''Kitāb al-Ifāda wa l-iʿtibār fī l-umūr al-mushāhada wa l-ḥawādith al-muʿāyana bi-arḍ miṣr''.", "Facsimile edition of the autograph manuscript at the Bodleian Library, Oxford and English translation by Kamal Hafuth Zand and John A. and Ivy E. Videan under the name The Eastern Key (London and Cairo 1204/1964)." ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Abd al-Rahman I" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham''' (; 7 March 731 – 30 September 788), commonly known as '''Abd al-Rahman I''', was the founder of the Umayyad dynasty that ruled the greater part of Iberia in Al-Andalus for nearly three centuries (including the succeeding Caliphate of Córdoba).", "Abd al-Rahman was a member of the Umayyad dynasty in Damascus, and his establishment of a government in Iberia represented a break with the Abbasids, who had overthrown the Umayyads in Damascus in 750.He was also known by the surnames ''al-Dakhil'', ''Saqr Quraysh'' and as ''Saqr al-Andalus.''" ], [ "Biography", "===Flight from Damascus===Abd al-Rahman was born in Palmyra, near Damascus in the heartland of the Umayyad Caliphate, the son of the Umayyad prince Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and his concubine Raha, a Berber woman from the Nafza tribe, and thus the grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, caliph from 724 to 743.He was twenty when his family, the ruling Umayyads, were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750.Abd al-Rahman and a small part of his family fled Damascus, where the center of Umayyad power had been; people moving with him included his brother Yahya, his four-year-old son Sulayman, and some of his sisters, as well as his Greek ''mawla'' (freedman or client), Bedr.", "The family fled from Damascus to the River Euphrates.", "All along the way the path was filled with danger, as the Abbasids had dispatched horsemen across the region to try to find the Umayyad prince and kill him.", "The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found.", "Abbasid agents closed in on Abd al-Rahman and his family while they were hiding in a small village.", "He left his young son with his sisters and fled with Yahya.", "Accounts vary, but Bedr likely escaped with Abd al-Rahman.", "Some histories indicate that Bedr met up with Abd al-Rahman at a later date.Abd al-Rahman, Yahya, and Bedr quit the village, narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins.", "On the way south, Abbasid horsemen again caught up with the trio.", "Abd al-Rahman and his companions then threw themselves into the River Euphrates.", "The horsemen urged them to return, promising that no harm would come to them; and Yahya, perhaps from fear of drowning, turned back.", "The 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari poignantly described Abd al-Rahman's reaction as he implored Yahya to keep going: \"O brother!", "Come to me, come to me!\"", "Yahya returned to the near shore, and was quickly dispatched by the horsemen.", "They cut off his head and left his body to rot.", "Al-Maqqari quotes earlier historians reporting that Abd al-Rahman was so overcome with fear that from the far shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him.", "Only he and Bedr were left to face the unknown.===Exile years===After barely escaping with their lives, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr continued south through Palestine, the Sinai, and then into Egypt.", "Abd al-Rahman had to keep a low profile as he traveled.", "It may be assumed that he intended to go at least as far as northwestern Africa (Maghreb), the land of his mother, which had been partly conquered by his Umayyad predecessors.", "The journey across Egypt would prove perilous.", "At the time, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri was the semi-autonomous governor of Ifriqiya (roughly, modern Tunisia) and a former Umayyad vassal.", "The ambitious Ibn Habib, a member of the illustrious Fihrid family, had long sought to carve out Ifriqiya as a private dominion for himself.", "At first, he sought an understanding with the Abbasids, but when they refused his terms and demanded his submission, Ibn Habib broke openly with the Abbasids and invited the remnants of the Umayyad dynasty to take refuge in his dominions.", "Abd al-Rahman was only one of several surviving Umayyad family members to make their way to Ifriqiya at this time.But Ibn Habib soon changed his mind.", "He feared the presence of prominent Umayyad exiles in Ifriqiya, a family more illustrious than his own, might become a focal point for intrigue among local nobles against his own usurped powers.", "Around 755, believing he had discovered plots involving some of the more prominent Umayyad exiles in Kairouan, Ibn Habib turned against them.", "At the time, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr were keeping a low profile, staying in Kabylie, at the camp of a Nafza Berber chieftain friendly to their plight.", "Ibn Habib dispatched spies to look for the Umayyad prince.", "When Ibn Habib's soldiers entered the camp, the Berber chieftain's wife Tekfah hid Abd al-Rahman under her personal belongings to help him go unnoticed.", "Once they were gone, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr immediately set off westwards.In 755, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr reached modern-day Morocco near Ceuta.", "Their next step would be to cross the sea to al-Andalus, where Abd al-Rahman could not have been sure whether or not he would be welcomed.", "Following the Berber Revolt of the 740s, the province was in a crisis, with the Muslim community torn by tribal dissensions among the Arabs (the Qays–Yemeni feud) and racial tensions between the Arabs and Berbers.", "At that moment, the nominal ruler of al-Andalus, emir Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri—another member of the Fihrid family and a favorite of the old Arab settlers (''baladiyun''), mostly of south Arabian or \"Yemeni\" tribal stock—was locked in a contest with his vizier (and son-in-law) al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi, the head of the \"Syrians\"—the ''shamiyun'', drawn from the ''junds'' or military regiments of Syria, mostly of north Arabian Qaysid tribes—who had arrived in 742.Among the Syrian ''junds'' were contingents of old Umayyad clients, numbering perhaps 500, and Abd al-Rahman believed he might tug on old loyalties and get them to receive him.", "Bedr was dispatched across the straits to make contact.", "Bedr managed to line up three Syrian commanders—Ubayd Allah ibn Uthman and Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both originally of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin.", "The trio approached the Syrian arch-commander al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Abd al-Rahman would try to make himself emir.", "As a result, Bedr and the Umayyad clients sent out feelers to their rivals, the Yemeni commanders.", "Although the Yemenis were not natural allies (the Umayyads are a Qaysid tribe), their interest was piqued.", "The emir Yusuf al-Fihri had proven himself unable to keep the powerful al-Sumayl in check and several Yemeni chieftains felt their future prospects were poor, whether in a Fihrid or Syrian-dominated Spain, so that they had a better chance of advancement if they hitched themselves to the glitter of the Umayyad name.", "Although the Umayyads did not have a historical presence in the region (no member of the Umayyad family was known to have ever set foot in al-Andalus before) and there were grave concerns about young Abd al-Rahman's inexperience, several of the lower-ranking Yemeni commanders felt they had little to lose and much to gain, and agreed to support the prince.Bedr returned to Africa to tell Abd al-Rahman of the invitation of the Umayyad clients in al-Andalus.", "Shortly thereafter, they set off with a small group of followers for Europe.", "When some local Berber tribesmen learned of Abd al-Rahman's intent to set sail for al-Andalus, they quickly rode to catch up with him on the coast.", "The tribesmen might have figured that they could hold Abd al-Rahman as hostage, and force him to buy his way out of Africa.", "He did indeed hand over some amount of dinars to the suddenly hostile local Berbers.", "Just as Abd al-Rahman launched his boat, another group of Berbers arrived.", "They also tried to obtain a fee from him for leaving.", "One of the Berbers held on to Abd al-Rahman's vessel as it made for al-Andalus, and allegedly had his hand cut off by one of the boat's crew.Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east of Málaga, in September 755; however, his landing site was unconfirmed.===Fight for power===The domains of the Fihrids in Al-Andalus between 750-755Upon landing in Torrox, al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and an escort of 300 cavalry.", "During his brief time in Málaga, he was able to amass local support quickly.", "Waves of people made their way to Málaga to pay respect to the prince they thought was dead, including many of the aforementioned Syrians.", "One famous story that persisted through history related to a gift Abd al-Rahman was given while in Málaga.", "The gift was a beautiful young slave girl, but Abd al-Rahman humbly returned her to her previous master.News of the prince's arrival spread like wildfire throughout the peninsula.", "During this time, emir al-Fihri and the Syrian commander al-Sumayl pondered what to do about the new threat to their shaky hold on power.", "They decided to try to marry Abd al-Rahman into their family.", "If that did not work, then Abd al-Rahman would have to be killed.", "Abd al-Rahman was apparently sagacious enough to expect such a plot.", "In order to help speed his ascension to power, he was prepared to take advantage of the feuds and dissensions.", "However, before anything could be done, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus.", "Zaragoza, an important trade city on the Upper March of al-Andalus, made a bid for autonomy.", "Al-Fihri and al-Sumayl rode north to quash the rebellion.", "This might have been fortunate timing for Abd al-Rahman, since he was still getting a solid foothold in al-Andalus.", "By March 756, Abd al-Rahman and his growing following of Umayyad clients and Yemeni ''junds'', were able to take Sevilla without violence.", "He managed to break the rebellion attempt in Zaragoza, but just about that time the Cordovan governor received news of a Basque rebellion in Pamplona.", "An important detachment was sent by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman to quash it, but his troops were annihilated.", "After the setback, al-Fihri turned his army back south to face the \"pretender\".", "The fight for the right to rule al-Andalus was about to begin.", "The two contingents met on opposite sides of the River Guadalquivir, just outside the capital of Córdoba on the plains of Musarah.The river was, for the first time in years, overflowing its banks, heralding the end of a long drought.", "Nevertheless, food was still scarce, and Abd al-Rahman's army suffered from hunger.", "In an attempt to demoralize Abd al-Rahman's troops, al-Fihri ensured that his troops not only were well fed, but also ate gluttonous amounts of food in full view of the Umayyad lines.", "An attempt at negotiations soon followed in which it is likely that Abd al-Rahman was offered the hand of al-Fihri's daughter in marriage and great wealth.", "Abd al-Rahman, however, would settle for nothing less than control of the emirate, and an impasse was reached.", "Even before the fight began, dissension spread through some of Abd al-Rahman's lines.", "Specifically, the Yemeni Arabs were unhappy that the prince was mounted on a fine Spanish steed and that his mettle was untried in battle.", "The Yemenis observed significantly that such a fine horse would provide an excellent mount to escape from battle.Being the ever-wary politician, Abd al-Rahman acted quickly to regain Yemeni support, and rode to a Yemeni chief who was mounted on a mule named \"Lightning\".", "Abd al-Rahman averred that his horse proved difficult to ride and was wont to buck him out of the saddle.", "He offered to exchange his horse for the mule, a deal to which the surprised chief readily agreed.", "The swap quelled the simmering Yemeni rebellion.", "Soon both armies were in their lines on the same bank of the Guadalquivir.", "Abd al-Rahman had no banner, and so one was improvised by unwinding a green turban and binding it round the head of a spear.", "Subsequently, the turban and the spear became the banner and symbol of the Andalusian Umayyads.", "Abd al-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's army.", "Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his cavalry out to meet the Umayyad threat.", "After a long and difficult fight \"Abd ar-Rahman obtained a most complete victory, and the field was strewn with the bodies of the enemy.\".", "Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed to escape the field (probably) with parts of the army too.", "Abd al-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Córdoba.", "Danger was not far behind, as al-Fihri planned a counter attack.", "He reorganized his forces and set out for the capital Abd al-Rahman had usurped from him.", "Again Abd al-Rahman met al-Fihri with his army; this time negotiations were successful, although the terms were somewhat changed.", "In exchange for al-Fihri's life and wealth, he would be a prisoner and not allowed to leave the city limits of Córdoba.", "Al-Fihri would have to report once a day to Abd al-Rahman, as well as turn over some of his sons and daughters as hostages.", "For a while al-Fihri met the obligations of the one-sided truce, but he still had many people loyal to him--people who would have liked to see him back in power.Al-Fihri eventually did make another bid for power.", "He quit Córdoba and quickly started gathering supporters.", "While at large, al-Fihri managed to gather an army allegedly numbering 20,000.It is doubtful, however, that his troops were \"regular\" soldiers, but rather a hodge-podge of men from various parts of al-Andalus.", "Abd al-Rahman's appointed governor in Sevilla took up the chase, and after a series of small fights, managed to defeat al-Fihri's army.", "Al-Fihri himself managed to escape to the former Visigoth capital of Toledo in central al-Andalus; once there, he was promptly killed.", "Al-Fihri's head was sent to Córdoba, where Abd al-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge.", "With this act, Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself the emir of al-Andalus.", "However, in order to take over southern Iberia, al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, and he was garroted in Córdoba's jail.", "Still, most of central and northern al-Andalus (Toledo, Zaragoza, Barcelona, etc.)", "was out of his rule, with large swathes remaining in the hands of Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri's supporters until 779 (submission of Zaragoza).===Rule===Portrait of Abd al Rahman IIt is unclear whether Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself caliph.", "There are documents in the archives of Cordoba that state that this was his first act upon entering the city.", "However, historically he is recorded as Emir and not Caliph.", "Abd al-Rahman's 7th descendant, Abd al-Rahman III, would, however, take up the title of caliph.", "In the meantime, a call went out through the Muslim world that al-Andalus was a safe haven for friends of the house of Umayya, if not for Abd al-Rahman's scattered family that managed to evade the Abbasids.", "Abd al-Rahman probably was quite happy to see his call answered by waves of Umayyad faithful and family.", "He was finally reacquainted with his son Sulayman, whom he last saw weeping on the banks of the Euphrates with his sisters.", "Abd al-Rahman's sisters were unable to make the long voyage to al-Andalus.", "Abd al-Rahman placed his family members in high offices across the land, as he felt he could trust them more than non-family.", "The Umayyad family would again grow large and prosperous over successive generations.", "One of these kinsmen, Abd al-Malik ibn Umar ibn Marwan, persuaded Abd al-Rahman in 757 to drop the name of the Abbasid caliph from the Friday prayers (a traditional recognition of sovereignty in medieval Islam), and became one of his top generals and his governor in Seville.By 763 Abd ar-Rahman had to get back to the business of war.", "Al-Andalus had been invaded by an Abbasid army.", "Far away in Baghdad, the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, had long been planning to depose the Umayyad who dared to call himself emir of al-Andalus.", "Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor of Africa (whose title gave him dominion over the province of al-Andalus).", "It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid army that landed in al-Andalus, possibly near Beja (in modern-day Portugal).", "Much of the surrounding area of Beja capitulated to al-Ala, and in fact rallied under the Abbasid banners against Abd al-Rahman.", "Abd al-Rahman had to act quickly.", "The Abbasid contingent was vastly superior in size, said to have numbered 7,000 men.", "The emir quickly made for the redoubt of Carmona with his army.", "The Abbasid army was fast on their heels, and laid siege to Carmona for approximately two months.", "Abd al-Rahman must have sensed that time was against him as food and water became scarce, and his troops morale likely came into question.", "Finally Abd al-Rahman gathered his men as he was \"resolved on an audacious sally\".", "Abd al-Rahman hand-picked 700 fighters from his army and led them to Carmona's main gate.", "There, he started a great fire and threw his scabbard into the flames.", "Abd al-Rahman told his men that time had come to go down fighting rather than die of hunger.", "The gate lifted and Abd al-Rahman's men fell upon the unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them.", "Most of the Abbasid army was killed.", "The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off, preserved in salt, identifying tags pinned to their ears, and then bundled together in a gruesome package and sent to the Abbasid caliph, who was on pilgrimage at Mecca.", "Upon receiving the evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur is said to have gasped, \"God be praised for placing a sea between us!\"", "Al-Mansur hated, and yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman to such a degree that he dubbed him the \"Hawk of Quraysh\" (the Umayyads were from a branch of the Quraysh tribe).Despite such a tremendous victory, Abd al-Rahman had to continuously put down rebellions in al-Andalus.", "Various Arab and Berber tribes fought each other for varying degrees of power, some cities tried to break away and form their own state, and even members of Abd al-Rahman's family tried to wrest power from him.", "During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Córdoba itself; However, Abd al-Rahman always managed to stay one step ahead, and crushed all opposition; as he always dealt severely with dissidents in al-Andalus.", "===Problems in the Upper March===Zaragoza proved to be a most difficult city to reign over for not only Abd ar-Rahman, but his successors as well.", "In the year 777–778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi, the self-appointed governor of Zaragoza, met with delegates of the leader of the Franks, Charlemagne.", "\"Charlemagne's army was enlisted to help the Muslim governors of Barcelona and Zaragoza against the Umayyad emir in Cordoba....\" Essentially Charlemagne was being hired as a mercenary, even though he likely had other plans of acquiring the area for his own empire.", "After Charlemagne's columns arrived at the gates of Zaragoza, Sulayman got cold feet and refused to let the Franks into the city, after his subordinate, al-Husayn ibn Yahiya, had successfully defeated and captured Abd al-Rahman's most trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Ubayd.", "It is possible that he realized that Charlemagne would want to usurp power from him.", "After capturing Sulayman, Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to France via a narrow pass in the Pyrenees, where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster inspired the epic Chanson de Roland).", "Charlemagne was also attacked by Sulayman's relatives, who had freed Sulayman.An illustration of The Song of Roland from the Grandes Chroniques de France, A romanticization of Battle of Roncevaux Pass.Now Abd al-Rahman could deal with Sulayman and the city of Zaragoza without having to fight a massive Christian army.", "In 779 Abd al-Rahman offered Husayn, one of Sulayman's allies, the job of Zaragoza's governorship.", "The temptation was too much for al-Husayn, who murdered his colleague Sulayman.", "As promised, al-Husayn was awarded Zaragoza with the expectation that he would always be a subordinate of Córdoba.", "However, within two years al-Husayn broke off relations with Abd al-Rahman and announced that Zaragoza would be an independent city-state.", "Once again Abd al-Rahman had to be concerned with developments in the Upper March.", "He was intent on keeping this important northern border city within the Umayyad fold.", "By 783 Abd al-Rahman's army advanced on Zaragoza.", "It appeared as though Abd al-Rahman wanted to make clear to this troublesome city that independence was out of the question.", "Included in the arsenal of Abd al-Rahman's army were thirty-six siege engines.", "Zaragoza's famous white granite defensive walls were breached under a torrent of ordnance from the Umayyad lines.", "Abd al-Rahman's warriors spilled into the city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for independence." ], [ "Legacy and death", "===Social dynamics and construction works===After the aforementioned period of conflict, Abd al-Rahman continued in his improvement of al-Andalus' infrastructure.", "He ensured roadways were begun, aqueducts were constructed or improved, and that a new mosque was well funded in his capital at Córdoba.", "Construction on what would in time become the world-famous Great Mosque of Córdoba was started circa the year 786.Abd al-Rahman knew that one of his sons would one day inherit the rule of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife.", "In order to successfully rule in such a situation, Abd al-Rahman needed to create a reliable civil service and organize a standing army.", "He felt that he could not always rely on the local populace in providing a loyal army; and therefore bought a massive standing army consisting mainly of Berbers from North Africa as well as slaves from other areas.", "The total number of soldiers under his command was nearly 40,000.As was common during the years of Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious tolerance was practiced.", "Abd al-Rahman continued to allow Jews and Christians and other monotheistic religions to retain and practice their faiths, in exchange for the ''jizya''.", "Possibly because of tribute taxes, \"the bulk of the country's population must have become Muslim\".", "However, other scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam, it did not truly occur until near the 10th century.horseshoe arches of the grand Mosque of Cordoba, built by Abd al Rahman I.Christians more often converted to Islam than Jews although there were converted Jews among the new followers of Islam.", "There was a great deal of freedom of interaction among the groups: for example, Sarah, the granddaughter of the Visigoth king Wittiza, married a Muslim man and bore two sons who were later counted among the ranks of the highest Arab nobility.Abd al-Rahman I was able to forge a new Umayyad dynasty by standing successfully against Charlemagne, the Abbasids, the Berbers, and other Muslim Spaniards.", "His legacy started a new chapter for the Umayyad Dynasty ensuring their survival and culminating in the new Umayyad Caliphate of Cordoba by his descendants.===Death===Abd al-Rahman died c. 788 in Córdoba, and was supposedly buried under the site of the Mezquita.", "Abd al-Rahman's alleged favorite son was his choice for successor, and would later be known as Hisham I. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would continue to rule al-Andalus in the name of the house of Umayya for several generations, with the zenith of their power coming during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III." ], [ "Family", "Abd al-Rahman was the son of Mu'awiya, son of Hisham, son of Abd al-Malik, according to Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi when reciting his ancestry.", "Abd al-Rahman's mother was a member of the Nafza Berbers with whom he found refuge after the murder of his family in 750.Abd al-Rahman married a Spanish Sephardi woman named Hulal.", "She is said to have been very beautiful and was the mother of Hisham.", "Abd al-Rahman was the father of several sons, but the identity of their mother(s) is not clear:* Sulayman (745–800), Governor of Toledo.", "Exiled after he refused to accept his brother Hisham's rule.", "Returned to challenge his nephew in 796, captured and executed in 800.", "* Omar (died before 758), captured in battle and executed by Fruela I of Asturias.", "* Hisham I (757–17 Apr 796), Emir of Cordoba.", "* Abdallah" ], [ "Legends", "In his lifetime, Abd al-Rahman was known as ''al Dakhil'' (\"the Entrant\"), but he was also known as ''Saqr Quraish'' (\"The Falcon of the Quraish\"), bestowed on him by one of his greatest enemies, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur.According to the chroniclers, al-Mansur once asked his courtiers who deserved the exalted title of \"Falcon of the Quraysh\" (''Saqr Quraish'', foremost of the Quraysh).", "The obsequious courtiers naturally replied \"You, O Commander of the Faithful!", "\", but the Caliph denied this.", "Then they suggested Mu'awiya (founder of the Umayyad Caliphate), but the Caliph again denied it.", "Then they suggested Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (one of the greatest of the Umayyad caliphs), but again no.", "They asked who it was, and al-Mansur replied:" ], [ "See also", "* Timeline of the Muslim presence in the Iberian peninsula* Abbasid Revolution* al-Andalus* Caliphate of Córdoba* Abd al-Malik ibn Umar* Sara al-Qutiyya" ], [ "Further reading", "* Maria Rosa Menocal, The Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain (2002)* Andrea Pancini, L'immigrante (2016)" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Abd ar-Rahman II" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abd ar-Rahman II''' () (792–852) was the fourth ''Umayyad'' Emir of Córdoba in al-Andalus from 822 until his death.", "A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.Abd ar-Rahman was born in Toledo, the son of Emir al-Hakam I.", "In his youth he took part in the so-called \"massacre of the ditch\", when 72 nobles and hundreds of their attendants were massacred at a banquet by order of al-Hakam.He succeeded his father as Emir of Córdoba in 822 and for 20 years engaged in nearly continuous warfare against Alfonso II of Asturias, whose southward advance he halted.", "In 825, he had a new city, Murcia, built, and proceeded to settle it with Arab loyalists to ensure stability.", "In 835, he confronted rebellious citizens of Mérida by having a large internal fortress built.", "In 837, he suppressed a revolt of Christians and Jews in Toledo with similar measures.", "He issued a decree by which the Christians were forbidden to seek martyrdom, and he had a Christian synod held to forbid martyrdom.In 839 or 840, he sent an embassy under al-Ghazal to Constantinople to sign a pact with the Byzantine Empire against the Abbasids.", "Another embassy was sent which may have either went to Ireland or Denmark, likely encouraging trade in fur and slaves.In 844, Abd ar-Rahman repulsed an assault by Vikings who had disembarked in Cádiz, conquered Seville (with the exception of its citadel) and attacked Córdoba itself.", "Thereafter he constructed a fleet and naval arsenal at Seville to repel future raids.He responded to William of Septimania's requests of assistance in his struggle against Charles the Bald who had claimed lands William considered to be his.Statue of Abd ar-Rahman II in Murcia, SpainAbd ar-Rahman was famous for his public building program in Córdoba.", "He made additions to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.", "A vigorous and effective frontier warrior, he was also well known as a patron of the arts.", "He was also involved in the execution of the \"Martyrs of Córdoba\", and was a patron of the great composer Ziryab.", "He died in 852 in Córdoba." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Abd al-Rahman III" ], [ "Introduction", "'''ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd Allāh ibn Muḥammad ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn al-Ḥakam al-Rabdī ibn Hishām ibn ʿAbd al-Raḥmān al-Dākhil''' (; 890–961), or simply '''ʿAbd al-Raḥmān III''', was the Umayyad Emir of Córdoba from 912 to 929, at which point he founded the Caliphate of Córdoba, serving as its first caliph until his death.", "Abd al-Rahman won the ''laqab'' (sobriquet) '''''' () in his early 20s when he supported the Maghrawa Berbers in North Africa against Fatimid expansion and later claimed the title of Caliph for himself.", "His half-century reign was known for its religious tolerance." ], [ "Life", "===Early years=======Lineage and appearance====Abd al-Rahman was born in Córdoba, on 18 December 890.His year of birth is also given as 889 and 891.He was the grandson of Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi, seventh independent Umayyad emir of al-Andalus.", "His parents were Abdullah's son Muhammad and Muzna (or Muzayna), a Christian concubine.", "His paternal grandmother was also a Christian, the royal ''infanta'' Onneca Fortúnez, daughter of the captive king Fortún Garcés of Pamplona.", "Abd al-Rahman was thus nephew in the half-blood of queen Toda of Pamplona.", "He is described as having \"white skin, blue eyes and attractive face; good looking, although somewhat sturdy and stout.", "His legs were short, to the point that the stirrups of his saddle were mounted just one palm under it.", "When mounted, he looked tall, but on his feet he was quite short.", "He dyed his beard black.\"", "His natural hair was described as being reddish-blond, and he apparently wished to avoid looking like a Visigoth (from many European concubines in his ancestry), desiring to look more like an Umayyad Arab.", "Due to the fact that each successive Caliph had children almost exclusively with European Christian slave girls, the \"Arab\" gene was reduced in half, so that the last Umayyad Caliph, Hisham II was around only .09% Arab.====Harem youth====Muhammad was assassinated by his brother Al-Mutarrif, who had allegedly grown jealous of the favour Muhammad had gained in the eyes of their father Abdallah.", "Al-Mutarrif had accused Muhammad of plotting with the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun, and Muhammad had been imprisoned.", "According to some sources, the emir himself was behind Muhammad's fall, as well as Al-Mutarrif's death in 895.Abd al-Rahman spent his youth in his mother's harem.", "Al-Mutarrif's sister, known as ''al-Sayyida'' (\"the Lady\"), was entrusted with his education.", "She made sure that Abd al-Rahman's education was conducted with some rigour.", "It was claimed that he had learned and known the local Mozarabic language.===Accession to throne===Emir Abdallah died at the age of 72.Despite four of his sons (Aban, Abd al Rahman, Muhammad and Ahmad) being alive at the time of his death, all of them were passed over for succession.", "Abdallah instead chose as his successor his grandson, Abd al-Rahman III (the son of his first son).", "This came as no surprise, since Abdallah had already demonstrated his affection for his grandson in many ways, namely by allowing him to live in his own tower (something he did not allow for any of his sons), and allowing him to sit on the throne on some festive occasions.", "Most importantly, Abdallah gave Abd al-Rahman his ring, the symbol of power, when Abdallah fell ill prior to his death.", "Abd al-Rahman succeeded Abdallah the day after his death, 16 October 912.Historiographers of the time, such as ''Al-Bayan al-Mughrib'' and the ''Crónica anónima de Abd al-Rahman III'', state that his succession was \"without incident\".", "At the time, Abd al-Rahman was about 21 or 22 years old.", "He inherited an emirate on the verge of dissolution, his power extending not far beyond the vicinity of Córdoba.", "To the north, the Christian Kingdom of Asturias was continuing its program of ''Reconquista'' in the Douro valley.", "To the south in Ifriqiya, the Fatimids had created an independent caliphate that threatened to attract the allegiance of the Muslim population, who had suffered under the harsh rule of Abdullah.", "On the internal front the discontented Muwallad families (Muslims of Iberian origin) represented a constant danger for the Córdoban emir.", "The most powerful of the latter was Umar ibn Hafsun, who, from his impregnable fortress of Bobastro, controlled much of eastern Al-Andalus.From the very early stages of his reign, Abd al-Rahman showed a firm resolve to quash the rebels of al-Andalus, consolidate and centralise power, and re-establish internal order within the emirate.", "Within 10 days of taking the throne, he exhibited the head of a rebel leader in Cordoba.", "From this point on he led annual expeditions against the northern and southern tribes to maintain control over them.", "To accomplish his aims he introduced into the court the ''saqalibah'', slaves of East European origin.", "The ''saqalibah'' represented a third ethnic group that could neutralise the endless strife between his subjects of Muslim Arab heritage, and those of Muslim Berber heritage.Hasdai ibn Shaprut, a Jewish courtier in the king's court who served as financier to the king, wrote of the king's revenues:===Early rule===During the first 20 years of his rule, Abd al-Rahman avoided military action against the northern Christian kingdoms, Asturias and the Kingdom of Navarre.", "The Muwallad rebels were the first problem he confronted.", "Those powerful families were supported by Iberians who were openly or secretly Christians and had acted with the rebels.", "These elements, which formed the bulk of the population, were not averse to supporting a strong ruler who would protect them against the Arab aristocracy.", "Abd al-Rahman moved to subdue them by means of a mercenary army that included Christians.The Mosque–Cathedral of CórdobaHe first had to suppress the rebel Umar ibn Hafsun.", "On 1 January 913 an army, led by the eunuch Badr, conquered the fortress of Écija, at some from the capital.", "All the city's fortifications were destroyed, aside from the citadel, which was left as the residence of the governor and a garrison for the emirati troops.", "In the following spring, after sixty-five days of meticulous preparations, Abd al-Rahman personally led an expedition to the south of his realm.", "His troops were able to recover the ''Kūra''s (provinces) of Jaén and Granada, while a cavalry detachment was sent to free Málaga from ibn Hafsun's siege.", "He also obtained the capitulation of Fiñana (in the modern province of Almería), after setting fire to its suburbs.", "Subsequently, he moved against the castle of Juviles in the Alpujarras.", "After devastating the surrounding countryside to deprive the castle of any resources, he encircled it.", "Finding it difficult to bombard with catapults, he ordered the construction of a platform where his siege engines could be mounted to greater effect, and cut the water supply.", "The Muwallad defenders surrendered after a few days: their lives, apart from fifty-five die-hards who were beheaded, were spared in exchange for their allegiance to the emir.", "The campaign continued in a similar vein, lasting for a total of ninety days.", "Abd al-Rahman forced the defeated Muwallad to send hostages and treasures to Córdoba, in order to secure their continued submission.During the first year of his reign, Abd al-Rahman took advantage of the rivalries between the Banu Hajjaj lords of Seville and Carmona to force them to submit.", "He initially sent a special corps (''hasam'') under Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Hudayr, governor of Écija, to Seville, to obtain their submission.", "This attempt failed, but gained him the support of Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Hayyay, lord of Carmona, and a cousin of the Sevillan lord, Ahmad ibn Maslama.", "When the latter was surrounded by Umayyad troops, he sued for help to Ibn Hafsun, but the latter was defeated by the besiegers and returned to Bobastro.", "Abd al-Rahman next went after the forts in the provinces of Elvira, Granada, and Jaén, all of which were either directly or indirectly controlled by Hafsun.", "Seville finally capitulated on 20 December 913.Ibn al-Mundhir al-Qurays, a member of the royal family, was named governor of the city, while the Lord of Carmona obtained the title of vizier.", "Muhammad ibn Ibrahim enjoyed his office for only a single day, for Abd al-Rahman soon discovered his collusion with the rebel governor of Carmona.", "Muhammad was sent to prison, where he later met his death.The region of Valencia submitted peacefully in 915.===Ibn Hafsun and other rebels===Abd al-Rahman's next objective was to quash the long-standing rebellion of Umar ibn Hafsun.His troops left Córdoba on 7 May 914 and, after a few days, encamped before the walls of Balda (identified with today's Cuevas de San Marcos).", "His cavalry ravaged the nearby woods and the countryside, while the rest of the troops moved to Turrus, a castle located in the present municipality of Algarinejo, which was surrounded within five days, while its environs were also devastated.The Umayyad army then moved to the citadel of ʿUmar ibn Hafsun, while the cavalry was sent to the castle of Sant Batir, which was abandoned by the defenders, allowing Abd al-Rahman's troops to secure a large booty.", "Then it was the turn of the castles of Olías and Reina.", "The latter fell after a violent fight, leaving the road open to the major city and provincial capital of Málaga, which he captured after one day.", "Abd al-Rahman then turned and followed the coast by Montemayor, near Benahavís, Suhayl (Fuengirola) and another castle called ''Turrus'' or ''Turrus Jusayn'' (identified by Évariste Lévi-Provençal as Ojén).", "He finally arrived at Algeciras on 1 June 914.He ordered a patrol of the coast to destroy the boats that supplied the citadel of Umar ibn Hafsun from the Maghreb.", "Many of them were captured and set afire in front of the emir.", "The rebellious castles near Algeciras surrendered as soon as the Cordoban army appeared.Abd al-Rahman launched three different campaigns against Ibn Hafsun (who died in 917) and his sons.", "One of Ibn Hafsun's sons, Jaʿfar ibn Hafsun, held the stronghold of Toledo.", "Abd al-Rahman ravaged the countryside around the city.", "Ja'far, after two years of siege, escaped from the city to ask for help in the northern Christian kingdoms.", "In the meantime Abd al-Rahman obtained the surrender of the city from its population, after promising them immunity, although 4,000 rebels escaped in a night sally.", "The city surrendered on 2 August 932, after a siege of two years.In 921 the Banu Muhallab of Guadix submitted, followed by those of Jerez de la Frontera and Cádiz, as well as the trading republic of Pechina a year later.", "In 927, Abd al-Rahman also launched a campaign against the rebel Banu Qasi, but was forced to break it off following the intervention of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona.The last of the sons of Ibn Hafsun to fall was Hafs, who commanded his powerful fortress of Umar ibn Hafsun.", "Surrounded by troops commanded by Abd al-Rahman's vizier, Said ibn al-Mundhir, who had ordered the construction of bastions around the city, he resisted the siege for six months, until he surrendered in 928 and had his life spared.===The Levente and Algarve rebels===The continued expeditions against the Hafsunids did not distract Abd al-Rahman III from the situation in other regions in al-Andalus, which recognized him only nominally, if not being in open revolt.", "Most of the loyal governors of the cities were in a weak position, such as the governor of Évora, who could not prevent an attack by the king of Galicia (and future king of León), Ordoño II, who captured the city in the summer of 913, taking back a sizable booty and 4,000 prisoners and massacring many Muslims.", "In most of the eastern and western provinces, Abd al-Rahman's authority was not recognized.", "The lord of Badajoz, Abd Allah ibn Muhammad, grandson of Abd al-Rahman ibn Marwan al-Yilliqi, not only fortified his city against a possible attack from Ordoño, but also acted in complete independence from Córdoba.", "To avoid the fall of Évora into the hands of the Berber groups of the region, the governor ordered the destruction of its defensive towers and lowered the walls, though a year later he decided to reconstruct it, giving its control to his ally Masud ibn Sa' dun al-Surunbaqi.", "The Algarve was dominated completely by a muladí coalition led by Saʿid ibn Mal, who had expelled the Arabs from Beja, and the lords of Ocsónoba, Yahya ibn Bakr, and of Niebla, Ibn Ufayr.", "Alcácer do Sal and Lisbon were under the control of the Banu Dānis.The absence of royal authority enabled Ordoño II to easily campaign in this area, his main objective being the city of Mérida, in the summer of 915.Abd al-Rahman III did not send an army and only several local Berber ''jefes'' offered some resistance which was ineffective.===Assumption of the Caliphate===Despite having defeated only some of the rebels, Abd al-Rahman III considered himself powerful enough to declare himself Caliph of Córdoba on 16 January 929, effectively breaking his allegiance to, and ties with, the Fatimid and Abbasid caliphs.", "The caliphate was thought only to belong to the Emperor who ruled over the sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, and his ancestors had until then been content with the title of emir.", "But the force of this tradition had weakened over time; and the title increased Abd al-Rahman's prestige with his subjects, both in Iberia and Africa.", "He based his claim to the caliphate on his Umayyad ancestors who had held undisputed control of the caliphate until they were overthrown by the Abbasids.Abd al-Rahman's move made him both the political and the religious leader of all the Muslims in al-Andalus, as well as the protector of his Christian and Jewish subjects.", "The symbols of his new caliphal power were a sceptre (''jayzuran'') and the throne (''sarir'').", "In the mint he had founded in November 928, Abd al-Rahman started to mint gold dinars and silver dirhams, replacing the \"al-Andalus\" title with his name.In his new role as caliph, he achieved the surrender of Ibn Marwan of Badajoz in 930 as well as the surrender of the Banu Dānis of Alcácer do Sal.", "On the southern front, to counter the increasing Fatimid power in North Africa, abd al-Rahmad ordered the construction of a fleet based in Almeria.", "The caliph helped the Maghrawa Berbers conquer Melilla (927), Ceuta (931) and Tangiers (951), who, in return, accepted his suzerainty.", "However, he was unable to defeat Jawhar al-Siqilli of the Fatimids.", "In 951 he signed a peace with the new king of León, Ordoño III, in order to have a free hand against the Fatimids whose ships were harassing caliphal shipping in the Mediterranean and had even launched an assault against Almeria.", "Abd al-Rahman's force, led by prime minister Ahmad ibn Said, besieged the Fatimid port of Tunis, which bought its safety by paying a huge sum.In the end he was able to create a protectorate covering the northern and central Maghreb, supporting the Idrisid dynasty; the Caliphate's influence in the area disappeared after a Fatimid offensive in 958, after which abd al-Rahman kept only the strongholds of Ceuta and Tangiers.===War with the Christian kingdoms of the north===Even before al-Andalus was firmly under his rule, he had restarted the war against King Ordoño II of León, who had taken advantage of the previous troublesome situation to capture some boundary areas and menace the Umayyad territory.", "In 917 the then emir had sent a large army under his general Ahmad ibn Abi Abda against León, but this force was destroyed at the Battle of San Esteban de Gormaz in September of that year.Recognizing he had underestimated the power of Ordoño II, in 920 Abd al-Rahman mustered another powerful army to reclaim the territories lost after the previous campaign.", "He captured the forts of Osma and San Esteban de Gormaz.", "After defeating King Sancho Garcés I of Navarre and the king of León at Valdejunquera on 26 July, he penetrated into Navarre, overcoming Aragon by the classic route of the invasions from the south.", "Abd al-Rahman reached the Basque city of Pamplona, which was sacked and its cathedral church demolished.In 924 Abd al-Rahman felt obliged to avenge the massacre of Viguera castle perpetrated by King Sancho Ordóñez of Navarre one year earlier.", "He launched a counter offensive against Sancho in which Abd al-Rahman devastated a large area of Basque territory.The succession crisis which struck León after Ordoño II's death in the same year caused hostilities to cease until Ramiro II gained the throne in 932; a first attempt by him to assist the besieged rebels in Toledo was repelled in 932, despite the Christian king capturing Madrid.In 934, after reasserting supremacy over Pamplona and Álava, Abd al-Rahman forced Ramiro to retreat to Burgos, and forced the Navarrese queen Toda, his aunt, to submit to him as a vassal and withdraw from direct rule as regent for her son García Sánchez I.", "In 937 Abd al-Rahman conquered some thirty castles in León.", "Next he turned to Muhammad ibn Hashim al-Tugib, governor of Zaragoza, who had allied with Ramiro but was pardoned after the capture of his city.Despite early defeats, Ramiro and García were able to crush the caliphal army in 939 at the Battle of Simancas, and almost kill Abd al-Rahman, due to treason by Arab elements in the caliph's army.", "After this defeat, Abd al-Rahman stopped taking personal command of his military campaigns.", "His cause was helped, however, by Fernán González of Castile, one of the Christian leaders at Simancas, who subsequently launched a sustained rebellion against Ramiro.", "The victory of Simancas enabled the Christian kingdom to maintain the military initiative in the peninsula until the defeat of Ramiro's successor, Ordoño III of León, in 956.However, they did not press this advantage as civil war broke out in the Christian territories.Dirham of Abd al-Rahman III, minted in Medina Azahara in 959/960 AD In 950 Abd al-Rahman received in Córdoba an embassy from count Borrell II of Barcelona, by which the northern county recognized caliphal supremacy in exchange for peace and mutual support.", "In 958, Sancho, the exiled king of León, King García Sánchez of Pamplona, and his mother Queen Toda all paid homage to Abd al-Rahman in Córdoba.Until 961, the caliphate played an active role in the dynastic strife characterising the Christian kingdoms during the period.", "Ordoño III's half-brother and successor, Sancho the Fat, had been deposed by his cousin Ordoño IV.", "Together with his grandmother Toda of Pamplona, Sancho sought an alliance with Córdoba.", "In exchange for some castles, Abd al-Rahman helped them to take back Zamora (959) and Oviedo (960) and to overthrow Ordoño IV.===Later years===Abd al-Rahman was accused of retreating in his later years into the \"self-indulgent\" comforts of his harem.", "Indeed, he is known to have openly kept a male as well as a female harem (common with a few previous rulers such as Hisham II and Al-Mu'tamid).", "This likely influenced the polemical story of his sexual attraction for a 13-year-old boy (later enshrined as a Christian martyr and canonised as Saint Pelagius of Córdoba) who refused the Caliph's advances.", "This story may have been a construct on top of an original tale, however, in which he ordered the boy-slave to convert to Islam.", "Either way, enraged, he had the boy tortured and dismembered, thus contributing to the Christian perception of Muslim brutality.Abd al-Rahman spent the rest of his years in his new palace outside Córdoba.", "He died on 15 October 961 and was succeeded by his son al-Hakam II." ], [ "Legacy", "Abd al-Rahman was a great humanist and patron of arts, especially architecture.", "A third of his revenue sufficed for the ordinary expenses of government, a third was hoarded, and a third was spent on buildings.", "After declaring the caliphate, he had a massive palace complex, known as the Medina Azahara, built some five kilometres north of Córdoba.", "The Medina Azahara was modelled after the old Umayyad palace in Damascus and served as a symbolic tie between the new caliph and his ancestors.", "It was said that Córdoba contained 3000 mosques and 100,000 shops and homes during his reign.Under his reign, Córdoba became the most important intellectual centre of Western Europe.", "He expanded the city's library, which would be further enriched by his successors.He also reinforced the Iberian fleet, which became the most powerful in Mediterranean Europe.", "Iberian raiders moved up to Galicia, Asturias, and North Africa.", "The colonisers of Fraxinetum came from al-Andalus as well.Due to his consolidation of power, Muslim Iberia became a power for a few centuries.", "It also brought prosperity, and with this he created mints where pure gold and silver coins were created.", "He renovated and added to the Mosque–Cathedral of Córdoba.He was very wary of losing control and kept tight reins on his family.", "In 949, he executed one of his sons for conspiring against him.", "He was tolerant of non-Muslims, and Jews and Christians were treated fairly.", "European kingdoms sent emissaries, including from Otto I of Germany and the Byzantine emperor." ], [ "Ancestry", "Abd al-Rahman III's mother Muzna was a Christian captive, possibly from the Pyrenean region.", "His paternal grandmother Onneca Fortúnez was a Christian princess from the Kingdom of Pamplona.", "In his immediate ancestry, Abd al-Rahman III was Arab and Hispano–Basque." ], [ "Notes and references" ], [ "Bibliography", "* * * * * * *" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Abd al-Rahman IV" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abd ar-Rahman IV Mortada''' () was the Caliph of Córdoba in the Umayyad dynasty in Al-Andalus, succeeding Sulayman ibn al-Hakam, in 1018.That same year, he was murdered at Cadiz while fleeing from a battle in which he had been deserted by the very supporters which had brought him into power.", "His brief reign was similar to that of Abd ar-Rahman V Mostadir." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Abd al-Rahman V" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abd ar-Rahman V''' () was an Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba.In the agony of the Umayyad dynasty in the Al-Andalus (Moorish Iberia), two princes of the house were proclaimed Caliph of Córdoba for a very short time, '''Abd-ar-Rahman IV''' Mortada (1017), and '''Abd-ar-Rahman V''' Mostadir (1023–1024).", "Both were the mere puppets of factions, who deserted them at once.", "Abd-ar-Rahman IV was murdered the same year he was proclaimed at Cadiz, in flight from a battle in which he had been deserted by his supporters.", "Abd-ar-Rahman V was proclaimed caliph in December 1023 at Córdoba, and murdered in January 1024 by a mob of unemployed workmen, headed by one of his own cousins." ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Abdulaziz" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abdulaziz''' (; ; 8 February 18304 June 1876) was the sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 25 June 1861 to 30 May 1876, when he was overthrown in a government coup.", "He was a son of Sultan Mahmud II and succeeded his brother Abdulmejid I in 1861.Abdulaziz's reign began with the Ottoman Empire resurgent following victory over Russia and two decades of Tanzimat reform.", "By the end of his reign, the Ottoman Navy became the world's third largest fleet in 1875 (after the British and French navies).", "He was the first Ottoman sultan that traveled to Western Europe, visiting a number of important European capitals including Paris, London, and Vienna in the summer of 1867.However, the empire continued to spiral into debt, and competent ministers like Fuad Pasha and Aali Pasha were dead by the 1870s.", "In reaction to the Young Ottomans agitating for a constitution, Abdul Aziz promulgated reactionary ministries.", "In his last years as sultan, famine, economic crisis, diplomatic isolation, and uprisings by Christian minorities culminated into a general international crisis.", "He was deposed by the Young Ottomans on the grounds of having mismanaged the Ottoman economy on 30 May 1876, and was found dead six days later in mysterious circumstances." ], [ "Early life", "A portrait of Sultan AbdulazizAbdulaziz was born at Eyüp Palace, Constantinople (Istanbul) on 8 February 1830, .", "His parents were Mahmud II and Pertevniyal Sultan, originally named Besime, a Circassian.", "In 1868 Pertevniyal was residing at Dolmabahçe Palace.", "That year Abdulaziz took the visiting Eugénie de Montijo, Empress of France, to see his mother.", "Pertevniyal considered the presence of a foreign woman within her private quarters of the seraglio to be an insult.", "She reportedly slapped Eugénie across the face, which almost caused an international incident.", "According to another account, Pertevniyal was outraged by the forwardness of Eugénie in taking the arm of one of her sons while he gave a tour of the palace garden, and she gave the Empress a slap on the stomach as a possibly more subtly intended reminder that they were not in France.The Pertevniyal Valide Sultan Mosque was built under the patronage of his mother.", "The construction work began in November 1869 and the mosque was finished in 1871.His paternal grandparents were Sultan Abdul Hamid I and Sultana Nakşidil Sultan.", "Several accounts identify his paternal grandmother with Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, a cousin of Empress Joséphine.", "Pertevniyal was a sister of Khushiyar Qadin, third wife of Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt.", "Khushiyar and Ibrahim were the parents of Isma'il Pasha.Abdulaziz received an Ottoman education but was nevertheless an ardent admirer of the material progress that was being achieved in the West.", "He was the first Ottoman sultan who traveled to Western Europe, visiting a number of important European capitals including Paris, London, and Vienna in the summer of 1867.In addition to his interest in literature, Abdulaziz was also a classical music composer.", "He took a special interest in documenting the Ottoman Empire.", "Some of his compositions, together with those of the other members of the Ottoman dynasty, have been collected in the album ''European Music at the Ottoman Court'' by the London Academy of Ottoman Court Music." ], [ "Reign", "Sultan Abdulaziz during his visit to the United Kingdom in 1867.Between 1861 and 1871, the Tanzimat reforms which began during the reign of his brother Abdulmejid I were continued under the leadership of his chief ministers, Mehmed Fuad Pasha and Mehmed Emin Âli Pasha.", "New administrative districts (''vilayets'') were set up in 1864 and a Council of State was established in 1868.Public education was organized on the French model and Istanbul University was reorganised as a modern institution in 1861.He was also integral in establishing the first Ottoman civil code.", "Under his reign, Turkey's first postage stamps were issued in 1863, and the Ottoman Empire joined the Universal Postal Union in 1875 as a founding member.=== European tour ===Abdulaziz cultivated good relations with France and the United Kingdom.", "In 1867 he was the first Ottoman sultan to visit Western Europe.", "His voyage in visiting order (from 21 June 1867 to 7 August 1867): Istanbul – Messina – Naples – Toulon – Marseille – Paris – Boulogne – Dover – London – Dover – Calais – Brussels – Koblenz – Vienna – Budapest – Orșova – Vidin – Ruse – Varna – Istanbul.", "His trip included a visit to the Exposition Universelle (1867) in Paris and a trip to the United Kingdom, where he was made a Knight of the Garter by Queen Victoria and shown a Royal Navy Fleet Review with Ismail Pasha.", "He travelled by a private rail car, which today can be found in the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul.", "His fellow Knights of the Garter created in 1867 were Charles Gordon-Lennox, 6th Duke of Richmond, Charles Manners, 6th Duke of Rutland, Henry Somerset, 8th Duke of Beaufort, Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (a son of Queen Victoria), Franz Joseph I of Austria and Alexander II of Russia.", "Impressed by the museums in Paris (30 June – 10 July 1867), London (12–23 July 1867) and Vienna (28–30 July 1867) he ordered the establishment of an Imperial Museum in Istanbul: the Istanbul Archaeology Museum.In 1869, Abdulaziz received visits from Eugénie de Montijo, Empress consort of Napoleon III of France and other foreign monarchs on their way to the opening of the Suez Canal.", "The Prince of Wales, the future Edward VII, twice visited Istanbul.=== Railroads ===The first Ottoman railroads were opened between İzmir–Aydın and Alexandria–Cairo in 1856, during the reign of Sultan Abdulmejid I.", "The first large railway terminal within present-day Turkey, the Alsancak Terminal in İzmir, was opened in 1858.However, these were individual, unconnected railroads, without a railway network.", "Sultan Abdulaziz established the first Ottoman railway networks.", "On 17 April 1869, the concession for the Rumelia Railway (i.e.", "Balkan Railways, ''Rumeli'' (Rumelia) meaning the Balkan peninsula in Ottoman Turkish) which connected Istanbul to Vienna was awarded to Baron Maurice de Hirsch (Moritz Freiherr Hirsch auf Gereuth), a Bavaria-born banker from Belgium.", "The project foresaw a railway route from Istanbul via Edirne, Plovdiv and Sarajevo to the shore of the Sava River.", "In 1873, the first Sirkeci Terminal in Istanbul was opened.", "The temporary Sirkeci terminal building was later replaced with the current one which was built between 1888 and 1890 (during the reign of Abdülhamid II) and became the final destination terminus of the Orient Express.", "In 1871, Sultan Abdulaziz established the Anatolia Railway.", "Construction works of the on the Asian side of Istanbul, from Haydarpaşa to Pendik, began in 1871.The line was opened on 22 September 1872.The railway was extended to Gebze, which opened on 1 January 1873.In August 1873 the railway reached Izmit.", "Another railway extension was built in 1871 to serve a populated area along Bursa and the Sea of Marmara.", "The Anatolia Railway was then extended to Ankara and eventually to Mesopotamia, Syria and Arabia during the reign of Sultan Abdulhamid II, with the completion of the Baghdad Railway and Hejaz Railway.=== Further decline of the empire ===Imperial Coach used by Sultan Abdulaziz during his visit to Paris, London and Vienna in 1867, currently at the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul.Queen Victoria and Sultan Abdulaziz on the royal yacht HMY ''Victoria and Albert'' during the Sultan's visit to the United Kingdom in 1867.Also in 1867, Abdulaziz became the first Ottoman Sultan to formally recognize the title of Khedive (Viceroy) to be used by the Governor of the Ottoman Eyalet of Egypt and Sudan (1517–1867), which thus became the autonomous Ottoman Khedivate of Egypt and Sudan (1867–1914).", "Muhammad Ali Pasha and his descendants had been the governors of Ottoman Egypt and Sudan since 1805, but were willing to use the higher title of Khedive, which was unrecognized by the Ottoman government until 1867.In return, the first Khedive, Ismail Pasha, had agreed a year earlier (in 1866) to increase the annual tax revenues which Egypt and Sudan would provide for the Ottoman treasury.", "Between 1854 and 1894, the revenues from Egypt and Sudan were often declared as a surety by the Ottoman government for borrowing loans from British and French banks.", "The Ottoman Empire in 1875Abdulaziz gave special emphasis on modernizing the Ottoman Navy.", "In 1875, the Ottoman Navy had 21 battleships and 173 warships of other types, ranking as the third largest navy in the world after the British and French navies.", "His passion for the Navy, ships and sea can be observed in the wall paintings and pictures of the Beylerbeyi Palace, which was constructed during his reign.", "However, the large budget for modernizing and expanding the Navy (combined with a severe drought in 1873 and incidents of flooding in 1874 which damaged Ottoman agriculture and reduced the government's tax revenues) contributed to the financial difficulties which caused the Porte to declare a sovereign default with the \"Ramazan Kanunnamesi\" on 30 October 1875.The subsequent decision to increase agricultural taxes for paying the Ottoman public debt to foreign creditors (mainly British and French banks) triggered the Great Eastern Crisis in the empire's Balkan provinces.", "The crisis culminated in the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) that devastated the already struggling Ottoman economy, and the establishment of the Ottoman Public Debt Administration in 1881, during the early years of Sultan Abdulhamid II's reign.Sultan Abdulaziz in 1863.This financial turmoil increased the importance of Britain for the sureties regarding the Ottoman revenues from Egypt and Sudan.", "Combined with the much more important Suez Canal which was opened in 1869, these sureties were influential in the British government's decision to occupy Egypt and Sudan in 1882, with the pretext of helping the Ottoman-Egyptian government to put down the ʻUrabi revolt (1879–1882).", "Egypt and Sudan (together with Cyprus) nominally remained Ottoman territories until 5 November 1914, when the British Empire declared war against the Ottoman Empire during World War I.By 1871, both Fuad Pasha and Âli Pasha were dead.", "The Second French Empire, his Western European model, had been defeated in the Franco-Prussian War.", "Abdulaziz turned to the Russian Empire for friendship, as unrest in the Balkan provinces continued.", "In 1875, the Herzegovinian rebellion was the beginning of further unrest in the Balkan provinces.", "In 1876, the April Uprising saw insurrection spreading among the Bulgarians.", "Ill feeling mounted against Russia for its encouragement of the rebellions.While no one event led to his being deposed, the crop failure of 1873 and his lavish expenditures on the Ottoman Navy and on new palaces which he had built, along with mounting public debt, helped to create an atmosphere conducive to his being overthrown.", "Abdulaziz was deposed by his ministers on 30 May 1876." ], [ "Death", "The ''türbe'' (mausoleum) of Sultan Mahmud II (his father) on Divan Yolu street, where Abdulaziz was also buried.", "''Death of Abdulaziz'' (1876), an imaginary depiction by French artist Victor Masson (1849–1917).Following Sultan Abdulaziz's dethronement, he was taken into a room at Topkapi Palace.", "This room happened to be the same room that Sultan Selim III was murdered in.", "The room caused him to be concerned for his life and he subsequently requested to be moved to Beylerbeyi Palace.", "His request was denied for the palace was considered inconvenient for his situation and he was moved to Feriye Palace instead.", "He nevertheless had grown increasingly nervous and paranoid about his security.", "In the morning of 5 June, Abdulaziz asked for a pair of scissors to trim his beard.", "Shortly after this, he was found dead in a pool of blood flowing from two wounds in his arms.Bedroom of Sultan Abdulaziz at Dolmabahçe Palace in Istanbul.Sarcophagus of Sultan Abdulaziz in the mausoleum of his father, Sultan Mahmud II.", "Some of the sultans' descendants are also buried nearby.Several physicians were allowed to examine his body.", "Among which \"Dr. Marco, Nouri, A. Sotto, Physician attached to the Imperial and Royal Embassy of Austria‐Hungary; Dr. Spagnolo, Marc Markel, Jatropoulo, Abdinour, Servet, J. de Castro, A. Marroin, Julius Millingen, C. Caratheodori; E. D. Dickson, Physician of the British Embassy; Dr. O. Vitalis, Physician of the Sanitary Board; Dr. E. Spadare, J. Nouridjian, Miltiadi Bey, Mustafa, Mehmed\" certified that the death had been \"caused by the loss of blood produced by the wounds of the blood‐vessels at the joints of the arms\" and that \"the direction and nature of the wounds, together with the instrument which is said to have produced them, lead us to conclude that suicide had been committed\".", "One of those physicians also stated that \"His skin was very pale, and entirely free from bruises, marks or spots of any kind whatever.", "There was no lividity of the lips indicating suffocation nor any sign of pressure having been applied to the throat\".", "Abdulaziz's death at was documented as a suicide.===Conspiracy theories===There are several sources claiming the death of Abdulaziz was due to an assassination.", "Islamic nationalist author Necip Fazıl Kısakürek claimed that it was a clandestine operation carried out by the British.Another similar claim is based on the book ''The Memoirs of Sultan Abdulhamid II''.", "In the book, which turned out to be a fraud, Abdulhamid II claims that Sultan Murad V had begun to show signs of paranoia, madness, and continuous fainting and vomiting until the day of his coronation, and he even threw himself into a pool yelling at his guards to protect his life.", "High-ranking politicians of the time were afraid the public would become outraged and revolt to bring Abdulaziz back to power.", "Thus, they arranged the assassination of Abdulaziz by cutting his wrists and announced that \"he committed suicide\".", "This book of memoir was commonly referred to as a first-hand testimony of the assassination of Abdulaziz.", "Yet it was proven, later on, that Abdulhamid II never wrote nor dictated such a document.Abdülaziz's family was also convinced that he was murdered, according to the statements of one of his consorts Neşerek Kadın and his daughter Nazime Sultan." ], [ "Honours, emblem", "=== Honours ===* Mexican Empire: Grand Cross of the Mexican Eagle, with Collar, ''1865''* : Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter, ''14 August 1867''* : Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword* : Knight of the Golden Fleece, ''24 June 1870''* : Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig, with Golden Crown, ''14 December 1874''=== Emblem ===Order of the Garter emblem of Sultan Abdul Aziz" ], [ "Family", "Abdülaziz's harem was known because, although slavery in the Ottoman Empire had already been abolished, his mother Pertevniyal Sultan continued to send slave girls from the Caucasus.=== Consorts ===Abdülaziz had six consorts:Thomas Gabriel's reception of H.I.M.", "The Sultan Abd-ul-Aziz Khan at The Guildhall on 18 July 1867, issued to The Chairman of the P. & O.", "Steam Navigation Company.", "* Dürrinev Kadın (15 March 1835 - 4 December 1895).", "BaşKadin.", "Called also Dürrunev Kadın.", "Georgian, born Princess Melek Dziapş-lpa, before becoming a consort she was a lady-in-waiting to Servetseza Kadin, consort of Abdülmecid I.", "She had two sons and a daughter.", "* Edadil Kadın (1845 - 12 December 1875).", "Second Kadın.", "She was Abkhazian, born Princess Aredba.", "She became Abdülaziz's consort at the time of his accession to the throne.", "She had a son and a daughter.", "* Hayranidil Kadın (2 Novembre 1846 - 26 November 1895).", "Second Kadın after Edadil's death.", "She perhaps was of slave origin.", "She had a son and a daughter.", "* Neşerek Kadın (1848 - 11 June 1876).", "Third Kadin.", "Called also Nesrin Kadın or Nesteren Kadin.", "Circassian, born in Sochi as Princess Zevş-Barakay.", "She had a son and a daughter.", "* Gevheri Kadın (8 July 1856 - 6 September 1884).", "Fourth Kadın.", "She was Abkhazian and her real name was Emine Hanim.", "She had a son and a daughter.", "* Yıldız Hanim.", "Baş Ikbal.", "Sister of Safinaz Nurefsun Kadın, consort of Abdülhamid II.", "She had two daughters.In addition to these, Abdülaziz planned to marry the Egyptian princess Tawhida Hanim, daughter of the Egyptian chedive Isma'il Pasha.", "His Grand Vizier, Mehmed Fuad Pasha, was opposed to marriage and wrote a note for the sultan explaining that marriage would be politically counterproductive and would give Egypt an undue advantage.", "However, the Grand Chamberlain, instead of handing the note to the sultan, read it to him in public, humiliating him.", "Although the marriage project was abandoned, Fuad was fired for the accident.=== Sons ===Abdülaziz had six sons: * Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin (11 October 1857 - 1 February 1916) - with Dürrinev Kadın.", "Favorite son of his father, he was born when Abdülaziz was still a prince and therefore was kept hidden until his accession to the throne.", "During his reign, Abdülaziz unsuccessfully attempted to change the law of succession to allow him to inherit the throne.", "He had six consorts, two sons and two daughters.", "* Şehzade Mahmud Celaleddin (14 November 1862 - 1 September 1888) - with Edadil Kadin.", "He was vice admiral, pianist and flutist.", "He was the favorite nephew of Adile Sultan, who dedicated several poetic components to him.", "He had a consort but no child.", "* Şehzade Mehmed Selim (28 October 1866 - 21 October 1867) - with Dürrinev Kadın.", "Born and died in Dolmabahçe Palace, buried in Mahmud II mausoleum.", "* Abdülmecid II (29 May 1868 - 23 August 1944) - with Hayranidil Kadin.", "He never became sultan due to the abolition of the Sultanate in 1922, and was the last caliph of the Ottoman Empire.", "* Şehzade Mehmed Şevket (5 June 1872 - 22 October 1899) - with Neşerek Kadın.", "Parentsless at the age of four, he was welcomed in Yıldız Palace by Abdülhamid II, who raised him with his children.", "He had a consort and a son.", "* Şehzade Mehmed Seyfeddin (22 September 1874 - 19 October 1927) - with Gevheri Kadin.", "Fatherless at the Age of two, he was welcomed by Şehzade Yusuf Izzeddin.", "Vice admiral and musician.", "He had four consorts, three sons and a daughter.=== Daughters ===Abdülaziz had seven daughters: * Fatma Saliha Sultan (10 August 1862 - 1941) - with Dürrinev Kadın.", "She married once and had a daughter.", "* Nazime Sultan (February 25, 1866 - 9 November 1947) - with Hayranidil Kadin.", "She married once but had no children.", "* Emine Sultan (30 November 1866 - 23 January 1867) - with Edadil Kadin.", "Born and died in Dolmabahçe Palace.", "Buried in the Mahmud II mausoleum.", "* Esma Sultan (21 March 1873 - 7 May 1899) - with Gevheri Kadin.", "Fatherless at the age of three, she was welcomed with her mother by her half-brother Şehzade Yusuf Izzedin.", "She married once and had four sons and a daughter.", "She died in childbirth.", "* Fatma Sultan (1874 - 1875) - with Yıldız Hanim.", "She was born and died in Dolmabahçe Palace, buried in Mahmud II mausoleum.", "* Emine Sultan (24 August 1874 - 29 January 1920) - with Neşerek Kadın.", "Parentsless at the age of two, she was welcomed with her mother by her half-brother Şehzade Yusuf Izzedin.", "She married once and had a daughter.", "* Münire Sultan (1876/1877 - 1877) - with Yıldız Hanim.", "She born posthumously and died as a newborn." ], [ "Annotations" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "***" ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Abdera, Spain" ], [ "Introduction", "__NOTOC__ As of Tiberius from Abdera, Spain'''Abdera''' was an ancient Carthaginian and Roman port on a hill above the modern Adra on the southeastern Mediterranean coast of Spain.", "It was located between Malaca (now Málaga) and Carthago Nova (now Cartagena) in the district inhabited by the Bastuli." ], [ "Name", "Abdera shares its name with a city in Thrace and another in North Africa.", "Its coins bore the inscription ().", "The first element in the name appears to be the Punic word for \"servant\" or \"slave\"; the second element seems shared by the Phoenician names for Gadir (now Cadiz) and Cythera but of unclear meaning.It appears in Greek sources as ''tà Ábdēra'' () and ''Aúdēra'' (), ''Ábdara'' (), and ''tò Ábdēron'' ()." ], [ "History", "Abdera was founded in the 8th century BCE as a Phoenician colony.", "It became a Carthaginian trading station and, after a period of decline, became one of the more important towns in the Roman province of Hispania Baetica.", "Tiberius seems to have made the place a Roman colony." ], [ "Coins", "The most ancient coins bear its name with the head of Melqart and a tuna.", "Coins from the time of Tiberius show the town's main temple with two erect tunas as its columns.", "Early Roman coins were bilingual with Latin inscriptions on one side stating the name of the emperor and the town and with Punic text on the other side simply stating the name of the town." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Bibliography===* ." ], [ "Further reading", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Abdera, Thrace" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abdera''' () is a municipality in the Xanthi regional unit of Thrace, Greece.", "In classical antiquity, it was a major Greek ''polis'' on the Thracian coast.The ancient polis is to be distinguished from the municipality, which was named in its honor.", "The polis lay 17 km east-northeast of the mouth of the Nestos River, almost directly opposite the island of Thasos.", "It was a colony placed in previously unsettled Thracian territory, not then a part of Hellas, during the age of Greek colonization.", "The city that developed from it became of major importance in ancient Greece.", "After the 4th centuryAD it declined, contracted to its acropolis, and was abandoned, never to be reoccupied except by archaeologists.During the Early Middle Ages, a new settlement emerged near the ancient city.", "It was called Polystylon (), and later considered as the New Abdera ().", "In 2011 the modern municipality of Abdera was synoecized from three previous municipalities comprising a number of modern settlements.", "The ancient site remains in it as a ruin.", "The municipality of Abdera has 19,005 inhabitants (2011).", "The seat of the municipality is the town Genisea." ], [ "Name", "The name ''Abdera'' is of Phoenician origin and was shared in antiquity by Abdera, Spain and a town near Carthage in North Africa.", "It was variously Hellenized as (''Ábdēra''), (''Aúdēra''), (''Ábdara''), (''Ábdēron''), and (''Ábdēros''), before being Latinized as ''Abdera''.", "Greek legend attributed the name to an eponymous Abderus who fell nearby and was memorialized by Hercules's founding of a city at the location.The present-day town is written '''Avdira''' () and pronounced in modern Greek." ], [ "History", "===Antiquity===Location of Abdera and its two successive metropolises, Clazomenae and Teos.griffon.The Phoenicians apparently began the settlement of Abdera at some point before the mid-7th century and the town long maintained Phoenician standards in its coinage.The Greek settlement was begun as a failed colony from Klazomenai, traditionally dated to 654BC.", "(Evidence in 7th-century-BC Greek pottery tends to support the traditional date but the exact timing remains uncertain.)", "Herodotus reports that the leader of the colony had been Timesios but, within his generation, the Thracians had expelled the colonists.", "Timesios was subsequently honored as a local protective spirit by the later Abderans from Teos.", "Others recount various legends about this colony.", "Plutarch and Aelian relate that Timesios grew insufferable to his colonists because of his desire to do everything by himself; when one of their children let him know how they all really felt, he quit the settlement in disgust; modern scholars have tried to split the difference between the two accounts of early Abdera's failure by giving the latter as the reason for Timesios's having left Klazomenai.Strabo describes Abdera as \"a Thracian city\" at the time of Anacreon and the migration of people from Teos to that area.", "The successful colonisation occurred in 544BC, when the majority of the people of Teos (including the poet Anacreon) migrated to Abdera to escape the Persian yoke.", "The chief coin type, a ''griffon'', is identical with that of Teos; the rich silver coinage is noted for the beauty and variety of its reverse types.In 513 and 512BC, the Persians, under Darius conquered Abdera, by which time the city seems to have become a place of considerable importance, and is mentioned as one of the cities which had the expensive honour of entertaining the great king on his march into Greece.", "In 492BC, after the Ionian Revolt, the Persians again conquered Abdera, again under Darius I but led by his general Mardonius.", "On his flight after the Battle of Salamis, Xerxes stopped at Abdera and acknowledged the hospitality of its inhabitants by presenting them with a tiara and scimitar of gold.", "Thucydides mentions Abdera as the westernmost limit of the Odrysian kingdom when at its height at the beginning of the Peloponnesian war.", "It later became part of the Delian League and fought on the side of Athens in the Peloponnesian war.Abdera was a wealthy city, the third richest in the League, due to its status as a prime port for trade with the interior of Thrace and the Odrysian kingdom.", "In 408BC, Abdera was reduced under the power of Athens by Thrasybulus, then one of the Athenian generals in that quarter.A valuable prize, the city was repeatedly sacked: by the Triballi in 376BC, Philip II of Macedon in 350BC; later by Lysimachos of Thrace, the Seleucids, the Ptolemies, and again by the Macedonians.", "In 170BC the Roman armies and those of Eumenes II of Pergamon besieged and sacked it.The town seems to have declined in importance after the middle of the 4th centuryBC.", "Cicero ridicules the city as a byword for stupidity in his letters to Atticus, writing of a debate in the Senate, \"Here was Abdera, but I wasn't silent\" (\"Hic, Abdera non tacente me\").", "The ''Philogelos'', a Greek-language joke book compiled in the 4th century AD, has a chapter dedicated to jokes about dumb Abderans.", "Nevertheless, the city counted among its citizens the philosophers Democritus, Protagoras and Anaxarchus, historian and philosopher Hecataeus of Abdera, and the lyric poet Anacreon.", "Pliny the Elder speaks of Abdera as being in his time a free city.The west gate of classical AbderaAbdera had flourished especially in ancient times mainly for two reasons: because of the large area of their territory and their highly strategic position.", "The city controlled two great road passages (one of Nestos river and other through the mountains north of Xanthi).", "Furthermore, from their ports passed the sea road, which from Troas led to the Thracian and then the Macedonian coast.The ruins of the town may still be seen on Cape Balastra (40°56'1.02\"N 24°58'21.81\"E); they cover seven small hills, and extend from an eastern to a western harbor; on the southwestern hills are the remains of the medieval settlement of Polystylon ().", "Since the 9th century, Byzantine Polystylon was an episcopal see, under the jurisdiction of the metropolitan bishop of Philippi.", "By the end of the 14th century it fell under the Ottoman rule.===Modern===Avdira as a modern administrative unit (community) was established in 1924, and consisted of the villages Avdira, Myrodato (Kalfalar), Pezoula, Giona, Veloni and Mandra, but Myrodato and Mandra became separate communities in 1928.The municipality Avdira was formed in 1997 by the merger of the former communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani.", "At the 2011 local government reform it merged with the former municipalities Selero and Vistonida, and the town Genisea became its seat.The municipality has an area of 352.047 km2, the municipal unit 161.958 km2.The municipal unit Avdira is subdivided into the communities Avdira, Mandra, Myrodato and Nea Kessani.", "The community Avdira consists of the settlements Avdira, Giona, Lefkippos, Pezoula and Skala." ], [ "Landmarks", "Landmarks of Abdera include the Archaeological Museum of Abdera, the Kütüklü Baba Tekke, and Agios Ioannis Beach (also ''Paralia Avdiron'') near the village Lefkippos." ], [ "Famous people", "* Democritus* Protagoras* Hecateus* Nicaenetus" ], [ "See also", "* List of ancient Greek cities" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "===Citations======Sources===* *" ], [ "External links", "* * * ." ] ]

[ [ "Apollos" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Apollos''' () was a 1st-century Alexandrian Jewish Christian mentioned several times in the New Testament.", "A contemporary and colleague of Paul the Apostle, he played an important role in the early development of the churches of Ephesus and Corinth." ], [ "Biblical account", "===Acts of the Apostles===Apollos is first mentioned as a Christian preacher who had come to Ephesus (probably in AD 52 or 53), where he is described as \"being fervent in spirit: he spoke and taught accurately the things concerning Jesus, though he knew only the baptism of John\".", "Priscilla and Aquila, a Jewish Christian couple who had come to Ephesus with the Apostle Paul, instructed Apollos::\"When Priscilla and Aquila heard him, they took him aside and explained to him the way of God more adequately.", "\"The differences between the two understandings probably related to the Christian baptism, since Apollos \"knew only the baptism of John\".", "Later, during Apollos' absence, the writer of the Acts of the Apostles recounts an encounter between Paul and some disciples at Ephesus:Before Paul's arrival, Apollos had moved from Ephesus to Achaia and was living in Corinth, the provincial capital of Achaia.", "Acts reports that Apollos arrived in Achaia with a letter of recommendation from the Ephesian Christians and \"greatly helped those who through grace had believed, for he powerfully refuted the Jews in public, showing by the Scriptures that the Christ was Jesus.===1 Corinthians===Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians (AD 55) mentions Apollos as an important figure at Corinth.", "Paul describes Apollos' role at Corinth::''I planted, Apollos watered, but God gave the growth.", "''Paul's Epistle refers to a schism between four parties in the Corinthian church, of which two attached themselves to Paul and Apollos respectively, using their names (the third and fourth were Peter, identified as Cephas, and Jesus Christ himself).", "It is possible, though, that, as Msgr.", "Ronald Knox suggests, the parties were actually two, one claiming to follow Paul, the other claiming to follow Apollos.", "\"It is surely probable that the adherents of St. Paul ... alleged in defence of his orthodoxy the fact that he was in full agreement with, and in some sense commissioned by, the Apostolic College.", "Hence 'I am for Cephas'.", "... What reply was the faction of Apollos to make?", "It devised an expedient which has been imitated by sectaries more than once in later times; appealed behind the Apostolic College itself to him from whom the Apostolic College derived its dignity; 'I am for Christ'.\"", "Paul states that the schism arose because of the Corinthians' immaturity in faith.Apollos was a devout Jew born in Alexandria.", "Apollos' origin in Alexandria has led to speculations that he would have preached in the allegorical style of Philo.", "Theologian Jerome Murphy-O'Connor, for example, commented: \"It is difficult to imagine that an Alexandrian Jew ... could have escaped the influence of Philo, the great intellectual leader ... particularly since the latter seems to have been especially concerned with education and preaching.", "\"There is no indication that Apollos favored or approved an overestimation of his person.", "Paul urged him to go to Corinth at the time, but Apollos declined, stating that he would come later when he had an opportunity.===Epistle to Titus===Apollos is mentioned one more time in the New Testament.", "In the Epistle to Titus, the recipient is exhorted to \"speed Zenas the lawyer and Apollos on their way\"." ], [ "Extrabiblical information", "Jerome states that Apollos was so dissatisfied with the division at Corinth that he retired to Crete with Zenas; and that once the schism had been healed by Paul's letters to the Corinthians, Apollos returned to the city and became one of its elders.", "Less probable traditions assign to him the bishopric of Duras, or of Iconium in Phrygia, or of Caesarea.Pope Benedict XVI suggested that the name \"Apollos\" was probably short for Apollonius or Apollodorus.", "He also suggested there were those in Corinth \"...fascinated by Apollo's way of speaking....\"" ], [ "Significance", "Martin Luther and some modern scholars have proposed Apollos as the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews, rather than Paul or Barnabas.", "Both Apollos and Barnabas were Jewish Christians with sufficient intellectual authority.", "The Pulpit Commentary treats Apollos' authorship of Hebrews as \"generally believed\".", "Other than this, there are no known surviving texts attributed to Apollos.Apollos is regarded as a saint by several Christian churches, including the Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod, which hold a commemoration for him, together with saints Aquila and Priscilla, on 13 February.", "Apollos is considered one of the 70 apostles and his feast day is December 8 in the Eastern Orthodox church.Apollos is not to be confused with St. Apollo of Egypt, a monk who died in 395 and whose feast day is January 25.Apollos does not have a feast day of his own in the traditional Roman Martyrology, nor is he reputed to have ever been a monk (as most monks come after St. Anthony the Great)." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* Articles in** ''Encyclopaedia Biblica''** Herzog-Hauck, ''Realencyklopadie''** ''The Jewish Encyclopedia'' ( Jewish Encyclopedia: Apollos)* James Hastings, ''Dictionary of the Bible''* Karl Heinrich von Weizsäcker, ''Das apostolische Zeitalter'' (1886)* A. C. McGiffert, ''History of Christianity in the Apostolic Age''.", "* ''Initial text from Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religion''" ] ]

[ [ "Acquis communautaire" ], [ "Introduction", "The '''Community acquis''' or '''''acquis communautaire''''' (; ), sometimes called the '''EU acquis''' and often shortened to '''acquis''', is the accumulated legislation, legal acts and court decisions that constitute the body of European Union law that came into being since 1993.The term is French: ''acquis'' meaning \"that which has been acquired or obtained\", and ''communautaire'' meaning \"of the community\"." ], [ "Chapters", "During the process of the enlargement of the European Union, the acquis was divided into 31 chapters for the purpose of negotiation between the EU and the candidate member states for the fifth enlargement (the ten that joined in 2004 plus Romania and Bulgaria which joined in 2007).", "These chapters were:#Free movement of goods#Free movement of persons#Freedom to provide services#Free movement of capital#Company law#Competition policy#Agriculture#Fisheries#Transport policy#Taxation#Economic and Monetary Union#Statistics#Social policy and employment#Energy#Industrial policy#Small and medium-sized enterprises#Science and research#Education and training#Telecommunication and information technologies#Culture and audio-visual policy#Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments#Environment#Consumers and health protection#Cooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs#Customs union#External relations#Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP)#Financial control#Financial and budgetary provisions#Institutions#OthersBeginning with the negotiations with Croatia (which joined in 2013), the acquis is split up into 35 chapters instead, with the purpose of better balancing between the chapters: (dividing the most difficult ones into separate chapters for easier negotiation, uniting some easier chapters, moving some policies between chapters, as well as renaming a few of them in the process)#Free movement of goods#Freedom of movement for workers#Right of establishment and freedom to provide services#Free movement of capital#Public procurement#Company law#Intellectual property law#Competition policy#Financial services#Information society and media#Agriculture and rural development#Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy#Fisheries#Transport policy#Energy#Taxation#Economic and monetary policy#Statistics#Social policy and employment (including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men)#Enterprise and industrial policy#Trans-European networks#Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments#Judiciary and fundamental rights#Justice, freedom and security#Science and research#Education and culture#Environment#Consumer and health protection#Customs union#External relations#Foreign, security and defence policy#Financial control#Financial and budgetary provisions#Institutions#Other issuesCorrespondence between chapters of the 5th and the 6th Enlargement: 5th Enlargement 6th Enlargement 1.Free movement of goods 1.Free movement of goods  7.Intellectual property law  2.Free movement of persons 2.Freedom of movement for workers  3.Right of establishment and freedom to provide services  3.Freedom to provide services 9.Financial services  4.Free movement of capital 4.Free movement of capital  5.Company law 6.Company law  6.Competition policy 8.Competition policy  5.Public procurement  7.Agriculture 11.Agriculture and rural development  12.Food safety, veterinary and phytosanitary policy  8.Fisheries 13.Fisheries  9.Transport policy 14.Transport policy  21.Trans-European networks '''(one half of it)'''  10.Taxation 16.Taxation  11.Economic and Monetary Union 17.Economic and monetary policy  12.Statistics 18.Statistics  13.Social policy and employment 19.Social policy and employment(including anti-discrimination and equal opportunities for women and men)  14.Energy 15.Energy  21.Trans-European networks '''(one half of it)'''  15.Industrial policy 20.Enterprise and industrial policy  16.Small and medium-sized enterprises  17.Science and research 25.Science and research  18.Education and training 26.Education and culture10.Information society and media  19.Telecommunication and information technologies  20.Culture and audio-visual policy  21.Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments 22.Regional policy and co-ordination of structural instruments  22.Environment 27.Environment  23.Consumer and health protection 28.Consumer and health protection  24.Cooperation in the field of Justice and Home Affairs 23.Judiciary and fundamental rights  24.Justice, freedom and security  25.Customs union 29.Customs union  26.External relations 30.External relations  27.Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) 31.Foreign, security and defence policy  28.Financial control 32.Financial control  29.Financial and budgetary provisions 33.Financial and budgetary provisions  30.Institutions 34.Institutions  31.Others 35.Other issues Such negotiations usually involved agreeing transitional periods before new member states needed to implement the laws of the European Union fully and before they and their citizens acquired full rights under the ''acquis''." ], [ "Terminology", "The term ''acquis'' is also used to describe laws adopted under the Schengen Agreement, prior to its integration into the European Union legal order by the Treaty of Amsterdam, in which case one speaks of the ''Schengen acquis''.The term ''acquis'' has been borrowed by the World Trade Organization Appellate Body, in the case ''Japan – Taxes on Alcoholic Beverages'', to refer to the accumulation of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) and WTO law (\"''acquis gattien''\"), though this usage is not well established.It has been used to describe the achievements of the Council of Europe (an international organisation unconnected with the European Union):It has also been applied to the body of \"principles, norms and commitments\" of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE):The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) introduced the concept of the OECD Acquis in its \"Strategy for enlargement and outreach\", May 2004." ], [ "See also", "* ''Official Journal of the European Union''* Primacy of European Union law" ], [ "References" ], [ "External links", "* EUR-Lex: European Union Law.", "* JRC-Acquis, Aligned multilingual parallel corpus: 23,000 Acquis-related texts per language, available in 22 languages.", "Total size: 1 Billion words.", "* Translation Memory of the EU-Acquis: Up to 1 Million translation units each, for 231 language pairs." ] ]

[ [ "Antacid" ], [ "Introduction", "Calcium carbonate antacid tabletsAn '''antacid''' is a substance that neutralizes stomach acidity and is used to relieve heartburn, indigestion, or an upset stomach.", "Some antacids have been used in the treatment of constipation and diarrhea.", "Marketed antacids contain salts of aluminum, calcium, magnesium, or sodium.", "Some preparations contain a combination of two salts, such as magnesium carbonate and aluminum hydroxide (e.g., hydrotalcite)." ], [ "Medical uses", "Antacids are available over the counter and are taken by mouth to quickly relieve occasional heartburn, the major symptom of gastroesophageal reflux disease and indigestion.", "Treatment with antacids alone is symptomatic and only justified for minor symptoms.", "Alternative uses for antacids include constipation, diarrhea, hyperphosphatemia, and urinary alkalization.", "Some antacids are also used as an adjunct to pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy in the treatment of pancreatic insufficiency.Non-particulate antacids (sodium citrate) increase gastric pH with little or no effect on gastric volume, and therefore may see some limited use in pre-operative procedures.", "Sodium citrate should be given within 1 hour of surgery to be the most effective." ], [ "Side effects", "Conventional effervescent tablets contain a significant amount of sodium and are associated with increased odds of adverse cardiovascular events according to a 2013 study.", "Alternative sodium-free formulations containing magnesium salts may cause diarrhea, whereas those containing calcium or aluminum may cause constipation.", "Long-term use of antacids containing aluminum may increase the risk of developing osteoporosis.", "In vitro studies have found a potential for acid rebound to occur due to antacid overuse, however the significance of this finding has been called into question." ], [ "Properties of antacids", "When an excess amount of acid is produced in the stomach, the natural mucous barrier that protects the lining of the stomach can degrade, leading to pain and irritation.", "There is also potential for the development of acid reflux, which can cause pain and damage to the esophagus.", "Antacids contain alkaline ions that chemically neutralize stomach gastric acid, reducing damage to the stomach lining and esophagus, and relieving pain.", "Some antacids also inhibit pepsin, an enzyme that can damage the esophagus in acid reflux.Antacids do not directly inhibit acid secretion, and thus are distinct from acid-reducing drugs like H2-receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitors.", "Antacids do not kill the bacteria ''Helicobacter pylori'', which causes most ulcers." ], [ "Interactions", "Structural depiction of tetracycline metal chelation, where 'M' is a metal such as those found in antacidsAntacids are known to interact with several oral medications, including fluoroquinolone and tetracycline antibiotics, iron, itraconazole, and prednisone.", "Metal chelation is responsible for some of these interactions (e.g.", "fluoroquinolones, tetracyclines), leading to decreased absorption of the chelated drug.", "Some interactions may be due to the pH increase observed in the stomach following antacid ingestion, leading to increased absorption of weak acids, and decreased absorption of weak bases.", "Antacids also cause an increase in pH of the urine (alkalization), which may cause increased blood concentrations of weak bases, and increased excretion of weak acids.A proposed method to mitigate the effects of stomach acidity and chelation on drug absorption is to space out the administration of antacids with interacting medications by at least two hours, however this method has not been well studied for drugs affected by urine alkalization.There are concerns regarding interactions between delayed-release tablets and antacids, as antacids may increase the stomach pH to a point at which the coating of the delayed-release tablet will dissolve, leading to degradation of the drug if it is pH sensitive." ], [ "Formulations", "Antacids may be formulated with other active ingredients such as simethicone to control gas, or alginic acid to act as a physical barrier to acid.=== Liquids ===Several liquid antacid preparations are marketed.", "Common liquid preparations include milk of magnesia and magnesium/aluminum combinations.", "A potential advantage of using a liquid preparation over a tablet is that liquids may provide quicker relief, however this may coincide with a shorter duration of action.=== Tablets ======= Chewable tablets ====Chewable tablets are one of the most common forms of antacids, most frequently made from carbonate or hydroxide salts, and are readily available over the counter.", "Upon reaching the stomach, the powdered antacid salts bind to hydronium (H+) ions, producing chloride salts, carbon dioxide, and water.", "This process reduces the concentration of H+ ions in the stomach, raising the pH and neutralizing the acid.", "Common carbonate salts available in tablet form include those of calcium, magnesium, aluminum, and sodium.Some common American brands are Tums, Gaviscon chewable tablets, and Maalox chewable tablets.==== Effervescent tablets ====Effervescent tablets are tablets which are designed to dissolve in water, and then release carbon dioxide.", "Common ingredients include citric acid and sodium bicarbonate, which react when in contact with water to produce carbon dioxide.", "Effervescent antacids may also contain aspirin, sodium carbonate, or tartaric acid.", "Those containing aspirin may cause further gastric irritation and ulceration due to aspirin's effects on the mucous membrane of the stomach." ], [ "Brand names", "Some brands include Alka-Seltzer, Gaviscon, Tums and Eno." ], [ "References" ], [ "External links" ] ]

[ [ "Antidiarrheal" ], [ "Introduction", "An '''anti-diarrheal drug''' (or '''anti-diarrhoeal drug''' in British English) is any medication which provides symptomatic relief for diarrhea." ], [ "Types", "* Electrolyte solutions, while not true antidiarrheals, are used to replace lost fluids and salts in acute cases.", "* Bulking agents like methylcellulose, guar gum or plant fibre (bran, sterculia, isabgol, etc.)", "are used for diarrhoea in functional bowel disease and to control ileostomy output.", "* Absorbents absorb toxic substances that cause infective diarrhoea, methylcellulose is an absorbent.", "* Anti-inflammatory compounds such as bismuth subsalicylate.", "* Anticholinergics reduce intestinal movement and are effective against both diarrhoea and accompanying cramping.", "* Opioids' classical use besides pain relief is as an anti-diarrhoeal drug.", "Opioids have agonist actions on the intestinal opioid receptors, which when activated cause constipation.", "Drugs such as morphine or codeine can be used to relieve diarrhoea this way.", "A notable opioid for the purpose of relief of diarrhoea is loperamide which is only an agonist of the μ opioid receptors in the large intestine and does not have opioid affects in the central nervous system as it doesn't cross the blood–brain barrier in significant amounts.", "This enables loperamide to be used to the same benefit as other opioid drugs but without the CNS side effects or potential for abuse.", "*Octreotide (somatostatin analogue) may be used in hospitalized patients to treat secretory diarrhea." ], [ "See also", "* ATC code A07 ''Antidiarrheals, intestinal anti-inflammatory/anti-infective agents''" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Áed mac Cináeda" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Áed mac Cináeda''' (Modern Scottish Gaelic: ''Aodh mac Choinnich''; ; Anglicized: Hugh; died 878) was a son of Cináed mac Ailpín.", "He became king of the Picts in 877, when he succeeded his brother Constantín mac Cináeda.", "He was nicknamed '''Áed of the White Flowers''', '''the wing-footed''' () or '''the white-foot''' ()." ], [ "Sources", "The ''Chronicle of the Kings of Alba'' says of Áed: \"Edus Áed held the same ''i.e.", "'', the kingdom for one year.", "The shortness of his reign has bequeathed nothing memorable to history.", "He was slain in the civitas of Nrurim.\"", "Nrurim is unidentified.The Annals of Ulster say that, in 878, \"Áed mac Cináeda, king of the Picts, was killed by his associates.\"", "Tradition, reported by George Chalmers in his ''Caledonia'' (1807), and by the New Statistical Account (1834–1845), has it that the early-historic mound of the Cunninghillock by Inverurie is the burial place of Áed.", "This is based on reading Nrurim as ''Inruriu''.A longer account is interpolated in Andrew of Wyntoun's ''Orygynale Cronykil of Scotland''.", "This says that Áed reigned one year and was killed by his successor Giric in Strathallan and other king lists have the same report.It is uncertain which, if any, of the ''Prophecy of Berchán'''s kings should be taken to be Áed.", "William Forbes Skene presumed that the following verses referred to Áed:129.Another king will take sovereignty; small is the profit that he does not divide.", "Alas for Scotland thenceforward.", "His name will be the Furious.130.He will be but a short time over Scotland.", "The will be no word uncertain unplundered.", "Alas for Scotland, through the youth; alas for their books, alas for their bequests.131.He will be nine years in the kingdom.", "I shall tell you—it will be a tale of truth—he dies without bell, with communion, at evening, in a fatal pass.Áed's son, Constantín mac Áeda, became king in 900." ], [ "See also", "*Kingdom of Alba" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "* Anderson, Alan Orr, ''Early Sources of Scottish History A.D 500–1286'', volume 1.Reprinted with corrections.", "Paul Watkins, Stamford, 1990.", "* Anderson, Marjorie Ogilvie, ''Kings and Kingship in Early Scotland.''", "Scottish Academic Press, Edinburgh, revised edition 1980.", "* Duncan, A.", "A. M., ''The Kingship of the Scots 842–1292: Succession and Independence.''", "Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2002.", "* Smyth, Alfred P., ''Warlords and Holy Men: Scotland AD 80–1000.''", "E.J.", "Arnold, London, 1984 (reprinted Edinburgh UP)." ], [ "External links", "* The Chronicle of the Kings of Alba (CKA)* Friends of Grampian Stones - history of Inverurie* Second Statistical Account vol.", "XII (County of Aberdeen), p. 681* Aed at the official website of the British monarchy" ] ]

[ [ "Abdul Hamid I" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abdulhamid''' or '''Abdul Hamid I''' (, ''`Abdü’l-Ḥamīd-i evvel''; ; 20 March 1725 – 7 April 1789) was the 27th sultan of the Ottoman Empire from 1774 to 1789.Abdul Hamid I" ], [ "Early life", "Abdul Hamid was born on 20 March 1725, in Constantinople.", "He was a younger son of Sultan Ahmed III (reigned 1703–1730) and his consort Şermi Kadın.", "Ahmed III abdicated his power in favour of his nephew Mahmud I, who was then succeeded by his brother Osman III, and Osman by Ahmed's elder son Mustafa III.", "As a potential heir to the throne, Abdul Hamid was imprisoned in comfort by his cousins and older brother, which was customary.", "His imprisonment lasted until 1767.During this period, he received his early education from his mother Rabia Şermi, who taught him history and calligraphy." ], [ "Reign", "===Accession===On the day of Mustafa's death on 21 January 1774, Abdul Hamid ascended to the throne with a ceremony held in the palace.", "The next day Mustafa III's funeral procession was held.", "The new sultan sent a letter to the Grand Vizier Serdar-ı Ekrem Muhsinzade Mehmed Pasha on the front and informed him to continue with the war against Russia.", "On 27 January 1774, he went to the Eyüp Sultan Mosque, where he was given the Sword of Osman.===Rule===Abdul Hamid's long imprisonment had left him indifferent to state affairs and malleable to the designs of his advisors.", "Yet he was also very religious and a pacifist by nature.", "At his accession, the financial straits of the treasury were such that the usual donative could not be given to the Janissary Corps.", "The new Sultan told the Janissaries \"There are no longer gratuities in our treasury, as all of our soldier sons should learn.", "\"The Ottoman Army advances from Sofia, its largest garrison in Rumelia, in the year 1788.Abdul Hamid sought to reform the Empire's armed forces including the Janissary corps and the navy.", "He also established a new artillery corps and is credited with the creation of the Imperial Naval Engineering School.Abdul Hamid tried to strengthen Ottoman rule over Syria, Egypt and Iraq.", "However, small successes against rebellions in Syria and the Morea could not compensate for the loss of the Crimean Peninsula, which had become nominally independent in 1774 but was in practice actually controlled by Russia.Russia repeatedly exploited its position as protector of Eastern Christians to interfere in the Ottoman Empire.", "Ultimately, the Ottomans declared war against Russia in 1787.Austria soon joined Russia.", "Turkey initially held its own in the conflict, but on 6 December 1788, Ochakov fell to Russia (all of its inhabitants being massacred).", "Upon hearing this, Abdul Hamid I had a stroke, which resulted in his death.In spite of his failures, Abdul Hamid was regarded as the most gracious Ottoman Sultan.", "He personally directed the fire brigade during the Constantinople fire of 1782.He was admired by the people for his religious devotion and was even called a ''Veli'' (\"saint\").", "He also outlined a reform policy, supervised the government closely, and worked with statesmen.Abdul Hamid, I turned to internal affairs after the war with Russia ended.", "He tried to suppress internal revolts through Algerian Gazi Hasan Pasha, and to regulate the reform works through Silâhdar Seyyid Mehmed Pasha (Karavezir) and Halil Hamid Pasha.In Syria, the rebellion led by Zahir al-Umar, who cooperated with the admirals of the Russian navy in the Mediterranean, benefiting from the confusion caused by the Russian expedition of 1768 Russian campaign, and suppressed the rebellion in Egypt in 1775, as well as the Kölemen who were in rebellion in Egypt, was brought to the road.", "On the other hand, the confusion in Peloponnese was ended, and calm was achieved.", "Kaptanıderyâ Gazi Hasan Pasha and Cezzâr Ahmed Pasha played an important role in suppressing all these events.===Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca===Despite his pacific inclinations, the Ottoman Empire was forced to renew the ongoing war with Russia almost immediately.", "This led to complete Ottoman defeat at Kozludzha and the humiliating Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, signed on 21 July 1774.The Ottomans ceded territory to Russia, and also the right to intervene on behalf of the Orthodox Christians in the Empire.With the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca, the territory left, as well as Russia's ambassador at the Istanbul level and an authorised representative, this ambassador's participation in other ceremonies at the state ceremonies, the right to pass through the Straits to Russia, as the envoys of the Russian envoy were given immunity.", "Marketing opportunities for all kinds of commodities in Istanbul and other ports, as well as the full commercial rights of England and France, were given.", "It was also in the treaty that the Russian state had a church built in Galata.", "Under the circumstances, this church would be open to the public, referred to as the Russo-Greek Church, and forever under the protection of Russian ambassadors in Istanbul.", "===Relations with Tipu Sultan===In 1789, Tipu Sultan, ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore sent an embassy to Abdul Hamid, urgently requesting assistance against the British East India Company, and proposed an offensive and defensive alliance.", "Abdul Hamid informed the Mysore ambassadors that the Ottomans were still entangled and exhausted from the ongoing war with Russia and Austria." ], [ "Architecture", "Abdul Hamid, I left behind many architectural works, mostly in Istanbul.", "The most important of these is his mausoleum (I. Abdülhamid Türbesi) in Sirkeci erected 1776/77.He built a fountain, an imaret (soup kitchen), a madrasah, and a library next to this building.", "The books in the library are kept in the Süleymaniye Library today and the madrasah is used as a stock exchange building.", "During the construction of the Vakıf Inn, the imaret was, the fountain removed by construction and transferred to the corner of Zeynep Sultan Mosque opposite Gülhane Park.In addition to these works, in 1778 he built the Beylerbeyi Mosque, dedicated to Râbia Şermi Kadın, and built fountains in Çamlıca Kısıklı Square.", "He additionally built a mosque, a fountain, a bath, and shops around Emirgi in Emirgân in 1783, and another one for Hümâşah Sultan and his son Mehmed.", "In addition to these, there is a fountain next to Neslişah Mosque in Istinye, and another fountain on the embankment between Dolmabahçe and Kabataş." ], [ "Character", "He wrote down the troubles he saw before, to the grand vizier or to the governor of his empire.", "He accepted the invitations of his grand vizier and went to his mansions, followed by the reading of the Quran.", "He was humble and a religious Sultan.", "It is known that Abdul Hamid I was fond of his children, was interested in family life, and spent the summer months in Karaağaç, Beşiktaş with his consorts, sons and daughters.", "His daughter Esma Sultan's dressing styles, her passion for entertainment, and her journey to the objects with her journeymen and concubines have set an example for Istanbul ladies." ], [ "Family", "Abdülhamid I is famous for having concubines even during the period of confinement in the Kafes, thus violating the rules of the harem.", "From these relationships at least one daughter was conceived, secretly born and raised outside the Palace until the enthronement of Abdülhamid, when she was accepted at court as the sultan's \"adopted daughter\".===Consorts===Abdülhamid I had at least fourteen consorts:*Ayşe Kadın.", "BaşKadin (first consort) until her death in 1775.She was buried in Yeni Cami.", "* Hace Hatice Ruhşah Kadın.", "BaşKadin after Ayşe's death.", "She was Abdulhamid's most beloved consort.", "She was his concubine even before he became sultan.", "Five incredibly intense love letters that the sultan wrote to her around that time have been preserved.", "Mother of at least a son.", "After Abdülhamid's death she made the pilgrimage to Mecca by proxy, which earned her the name \"''Hace''\".", "She died in 1808 and was buried in mausoleum Abdülhamid I.", "*Binnaz Kadın.", "She was born around 1743.Childless, after Abdülhamid's death she married Çayırzade İbrahim Ağa.", "She died in May or June 1823, and was buried in the garden of the Hamidiye Mausoleum.", "*Nevres Kadın.", "Before she became a consort she was the treasurer of the harem.", "She died in 1797.", "*Ayşe Sineperver Kadın.", "She is the mother of at least two sons, including Mustafa IV, and two daughters.", "She was Valide sultan for less than a year before the deposition of her son, and spent the rest of her life in her daughter's palace.", "She died on 11 December 1828.", "*Mehtabe Kadın.", "Initially a Kalfa (servant) of the harem, she became consort through the favour of kızları agasi Beşir Ağa.", "She died in 1807.", "*Muteber Kadın.", "Called also Mutebere Kadın.", "Mother of at least a son.", "Her personal seal read: “'' Devletlü beşinci Muteber Kadın Hazretleri ''”.", "She died on 16 May 1837 and was buried in the Abdülhamid I mausoleum.", "*Fatma Şebsefa Kadın.", "Also called Şebisefa, Şebsafa or Şebisafa Kadin.", "Mother of at least a son and three daughters.", "She owned farms in Thessaloniki, which she left to her daughter when she died in 1805.She was buried near the Zeyrek Mosque.", "*Nakşidil Kadın.", "Originally Georgian or Circassian, she became famous for the disproved legend that she was actually the disappearance Aimée du Buc de Rivéry, distant cousin of the Empress Josephine Bonaparte.", "She is a mother of two sons and a daughter, including Mahmud II.", "She died on 22 August 1817 and was buried in her mausoleum inside her Fatih Mosque.", "*Hümaşah Kadın.", "Mother of at least a son, she built a fountain near Dolmabahçe and another in Emirgân.", "She died in 1778 and was buried in the Yeni Cami.", "*Dilpezir Kadın.", "She died in 1809 and was buried in the garden of the Hamidiye Mausoleum.", "*Mislinayab Kadın.", "She was buried in the Nakşıdil Valide Sultan mausoleum.", "*Mihriban Kadın.", "Misidentified by Oztüna as Esma Sultan's mother, she died in 1812 and was buried in Edirne.", "*Nükhetseza Hanım.", "BaşIkbal, she was the youngest consort.", "She died in 1851.===Sons===Abdülhamid I had at least eleven sons:* Şehzade Abdüllah (1 January 1776 - 1 January 1776).", "Born dead, he was buried in Yeni Cami.", "* Şehzade Mehmed (22 August 1776 - 20 February 1781) - with Hümaşah Kadın.", "Died of smallpox, he was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Şehzade Ahmed (8 December 1776 - 18 November 1778) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın.", "Buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Şehzade Abdürrahman (8 September 1777 - 8 September 1777).", "Born dead, he was buried in the Yeni Cami.", "* Şehzade Süleyman (13 March 1778 - 19 January 1786) - with Muteber Kadın.", "Died of smallpox, he was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Şehzade Ahmed (1779 - 1780).", "He was buried in the Yeni Cami.", "* Şehzade Abdülaziz (19 June 1779 - 19 June 1779) - with Ruhşah Kadin.", "Born dead, he was buried in the Yeni Cami.", "* Mustafa IV (8 September 1779 - 16 November 1808) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın.", "29th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, was executed after less than a year.", "* Şehzade Mehmed Nusret (20 September 1782 - 23 October 1785) - with Şebsefa Kadın.", "Her mother dedicated a mosque to his memory.", "He was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Şehzade Seyfullah Murad (22 October 1783 - 21 January 1785) - with Nakşidil Kadin.", "He was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Mahmud II (20 July 1785 - 1 July 1839) - with Nakşidil Kadin.", "30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire.===Daughters===Abdülhamid I had at least sixteen daughters:* Ayşe Athermelik Dürrüşehvar Hanım (c.1767 - 11 May 1826).", "Called also Athermelek.", "She was conceived while her father was still Şehzade and confined in the Kafes, thus violating the rules of the harem.", "Her mother was smuggled out of the palace and her birth kept secret, otherwise both would have been killed.", "When Abdülhamid, who adored her, ascended the throne, he returned her to court with the status of \"adopted daughter\", which gave her the rank of imperial princess as the other daughters, but he could not grant her the title of \"Sultan\", so she never came.", "fully equal to the stepsisters.", "She married once and had two daughters.", "* Hatice Sultan (12 January 1776 - 8 November 1776).", "First daughter born after her father's accession to the throne, her birth was celebrated for ten days.", "She was buried in the Yeni Cami.", "* Ayşe Sultan (30 July 1777 - 9 September 1777).", "She was buried in the Yeni Cami.", "* Esma Sultan (17 July 1778 - 4 June 1848) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın.", "She nicknamed Küçük Esma (Esma '' the younger '') to distinguish her from her aunt, Esma '' the eldest''.", "Close to her brother Mustafa IV, she attempted to put him back on the throne with the help of their half-sister Hibetullah Sultan, but eventually she became the new sultan's favorite sister, his half-brother Mahmud II, which gave her a degree of freedom never before granted to a princess.", "She married once but had no children.", "* Melekşah Sultan (19 February 1779 - 1780).", "* Rabia Sultan (20 March 1780 - 28 June 1780).", "She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Aynışah Sultan (9 July 1780 - 28 July 1780).", "She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Melekşah Sultan (28 January 1781 - December 24, 1781).", "She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Rabia Sultan (10 August 1781 - 3 October 1782).", "She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Fatma Sultan (12 December 1782 - 11 January 1786) - with Ayşe Sineperver Kadın.", "Died of smallpox, she was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "A fountain was dedicated to her memory.", "* Hatice Sultan (6 October 1784 - 1784).", "* Alemşah Sultan (11 October 1784 - 10 March 1786) - with Şebsefa Kadın.", "Her birth was celebrated for three days.", "She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Saliha Sultan (27 November 1786 - 10 April 1788) - with Nakşidil Kadin.", "She was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Emine Sultan (4 February 1788 - 9 March 1791) - with Şebsefa Kadın.", "Her father strongly hoped she would live and showered her with gifts, including the properties of her later aunt Esma Sultan and a court of Chechen entertainers.", "She died of smallpox and was buried in the Hamidiye mausoleum.", "* Zekiye Sultan (?", "- 20 March 1788).", "She died in infancy.", "* Hibetullah Sultan (16 March 1789 - 19 September 1841) - with Şebsefa Kadın.", "She married once but had no children.", "She collaborated with her half-sister Esma Sultan to restore Mustafa IV, Esma's brother and Hibetullah's half-brother, to the throne, but she was discovered by Mahmud II, the new sultan and also their half-brother, and placed under house arrest for life, unable to communicate with anybody." ], [ "Death", "Tomb of Abdul Hamid I in Eminönü quarter of Fatih, Istanbul.Abdul Hamid died on 7 April 1789, at the age of sixty-four, in Istanbul.", "He was buried in Bahcekapi, a tomb he had built for himself.He bred Arabian horses with great passion.", "One breed of Küheylan Arabians was named \"Küheylan Abdülhamid\" after him." ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "***" ], [ "External links", "*aged 64" ] ]

[ [ "Abdur Rahman Khan" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abdur Rahman Khan''' (Pashto/Dari: ) (between 1840 and 1844 – 1 October 1901) also known by his epithets, '''The Iron Amir''', or '''The Dracula Amir''', was Amir of Afghanistan from 1880 to his death in 1901.He is known for uniting the country after years of internal fighting and negotiation of the Durand Line Agreement with British India.Abdur Rahman Khan was the first child and only son of Mohammad Afzal Khan, and grandson of Dost Mohammad Khan, founder of the Barakzai dynasty.", "Abdur Rahman Khan re-established the writ of the Afghan government after the disarray that followed the second Anglo-Afghan war.", "He became known as ''The Iron Amir'' because his government was a military despotism.", "This despotism rested upon a well-appointed army and was administered through officials subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage.The nickname, ''The Iron Amir'', is also associated due to his victory over a number of rebellions by various tribes who were led by his relatives.", "One source says that during his reign there were over 40 rebellions throughout his rule.", "Abdur Rahman Khan's rule was termed by one British official as a \"reign of terror\", as he was considered despotic and had up to 100,000 people judicially executed during his 21 years as Emir.", "Thousands more starved to death, caught deadly diseases and died, were massacred by his army, or were killed during his forceful migrations of tribes.", "However, he was perhaps the greatest military genius Afghanistan ever produced." ], [ "Early life", "Abdur Rahman Khan was a Pashtun, born in Kabul in 1844.He spent most of his youth in Balkh with his father, Mohammad Afzal Khan.", "Abdul Rahman learned conventional warfare tactics from the British soldier William Campbell." ], [ "Background and early career", "Before his death in Herat, on 9 June 1863, Abdur Rahman's grandfather, Dost Mohammad Khan, nominated his third son, Sher Ali Khan, as his successor, passing over the two elder half brothers of Sher Ali, Afzal Khan and Azam Khan.", "At first, the new Amir was quietly recognized.", "But after a few months, Afzal Khan raised an insurrection in the north of the country, where he had been governing when his father died.", "This began a fierce internecine conflict for power between Dost Mohammad's sons, which lasted for nearly five years.", "The Musahiban are descendants of Dost Mohammad Khan's older brother, Sultan Mohammad Khan.Described by the American scholar and explorer Eugene Schuyler as \"a tall well-built man, with a large head, and a marked Afghan, almost Jewish, face\", Abdur Rahman distinguished himself for his ability and energetic daring.", "Although his father, Afzal Khan came to terms with Amir Sher Ali, Abdur's behavior in the northern province soon excited Amir's suspicion and, when he was summoned to Kabul, fled across the Oxus into Bukhara.", "Sher Ali threw Afzal Khan into prison, and a revolt followed in southern Afghanistan.The Amir had scarcely suppressed it by winning a desperate battle when Abdur Rahman's reappearance in the north was a signal for a mutiny by troops stationed in those parts and a gathering of armed bands to his standard.", "After some delay and desultory fighting, he and his uncle, Azam Khan, occupied Kabul in March 1866.The Amir Sher Ali marched up against them from Kandahar; but in the battle that ensued at Sheikhabad on 10 May, he was deserted by a large body of his troops, and after his signal defeat Abdur Rahman released his father, Afzal Khan, from prison in Ghazni, and installed him upon the throne as Amir of Afghanistan.", "Notwithstanding the new Amir's incapacity, and some jealousy between the real leaders, Abdur Rahman and his uncle, they again routed Sher Ali's forces and occupied Kandahar in 1867.When Afzal Khan died at the end of the year, Azam Khan became the new ruler, with Abdur Rahman installed as governor in the northern province.", "But towards the end of 1868, Sher Ali's return and a general rising in his favor resulted in Abdur Rahman and Azam Khan's defeat at ''Tinah Khan'' on 3 January 1869.Both sought refuge to the east in Central Asia, where Abdur Rahman placed himself under Russian protection at Samarkand.", "Azam died in Kabul in October 1869." ], [ "Exile and return to power", "Upon the death of Sher Ali Khan, Abdur Rahman Khan, serving exile in Turkestan, requested from the Russians to enter Afghanistan as a claimant of the throne.", "This request was denied.", "However, following Yaqub Khan's abdication, as well as the British occupation of Kabul, the Russians allowed Abdur Rahman Khan to re-enter Afghanistan.", "Abdur Rahman made way for Badakhshan, whose ruler he had marriage ties with.", "While on route, he did a pilgrimage to the shrine of Khwaja Ahrar, taking his banner after claiming he had a vision that ensured victory.", "The ruler of Badakhshan did not permit Abdur Rahman to ford the Amu Darya, to which Abdur Rahman did so further downstream.", "He then crossed a mountain pass while it snowed, arriving at Rostaq, where its garrison defected.", "With the fall of Rostaq, Abdur Rahman met the Mir of Badakhshan in battle, forcing him to flee to Chitral while Abdur Rahman annexed Badakhshan.", "Abdur Rahman requested from Sultan Murad of Kunduz for military access so he could advance on Kabul.", "This request was denied.", "However, Ghulam Haidar Khan, Yaqub's governor of Balkh, attacked Kunduz, occupying it, and forcing Sultan Murad to flee to Fayzabad.", "Sultan Murad then alligned with Abdur Rahman, and encouraged rebellion against Ghulam Haidar, with the commander of Takhtapul declaring for Abdur Rahman.", "Ghulam Haidar fled across the Amu Darya, leaving the entirety of Afghan Turkestan under Abdur Rahman's control.The British, eyeing for a suitable candidate to be the ruler of Afghanistan, scouted Abdur Rahman Khan, and began negotiating with him.", "Abdur Rahman was reluctant to accept such a proposal, as he considered himself an opponent of the British, with his own men wishing for Jihad against them.", "While negotiations continued, the British considered numerous political solutions, including dividing Afghanistan into numerous kingdoms.", "The British were seeking to a quick conclusion to the war due to the resignation of Lytton, with his successor, the Marquis of Ripon, wishing to withdraw all British troops from Afghanistan as quickly as possible.", "With this, the British no longer wished to uphold a British envoy in Afghanistan.", "However, both sides continued to differ, with the British wishing to keep Kandahar under their control with Sardar Sher Ali as governor, while Abdur Rahman saw it imperative as apart of Afghanistan.Believing that the British might withdraw, Abdur Rahman Khan arrived in Charikar sometime in July 1880, where religious leaders from regions such as Panjshir, Kohistan, and Tagab welcomed his arrival.", "On 19 July, the British informed Abdur Rahman that they were prepared to recognize him as the ruler of Afghanistan, inviting him to Kabul for a ceremony.", "Abdur Rahman called a Jirga, with many tribal leaders declaring for him, while Abdur Rahman was declared the Amir of Kabul.Griffin described Abdur Rahman as a man of middle height, with an exceedingly intelligent face and frank and courteous manners, shrewd and able in conversation on the business in hand." ], [ "Reign", "At the ''durbar'' on 22 July 1880, Abdur Rahman was officially recognized as Amir, granted assistance in arms and money, and promised, in case of unprovoked foreign aggression, such further aid as might be necessary to repel it, provided that he align his foreign policy with the British.", "The British evacuation of Afghanistan was settled on the terms proposed, and in 1881, the British troops also handed over Kandahar to the new ''Amir''.One of Abdur Rahman's guest houses and its gardens, KabulHowever, Ayub Khan, one of Sher Ali Khan's sons, marched upon that city from Herat, defeated Abdur Rahman's troops, and occupied the place in July 1880.This serious reverse roused the ''Amir'', who had not displayed much activity.", "Instead, Ayub Khan was defeated in Kandahar by the British General Frederick Roberts on 1 September 1880.Ayub Khan was forced to flee into Persia.", "From that time Abdur Rahman was fairly seated firm on the throne at Kabul, thanks to the unwavering British protections in terms of giving large supplies of arms and money.", "In the course of the next few years, Abdul Rahman consolidated his grip over all Afghanistan, suppressing insurrection by a relentless and brutal use of his despotic authority.", "The powerful Ghilzai revolted against the severity of his measures several times.", "In that same year, Ayub Khan made a fruitless inroad from Persia.In 1885, at the moment when the ''Amir'' was in conference with the British viceroy, Lord Dufferin, in India, the news came of a skirmish between Russian and Afghan troops at Panjdeh, over a disputed point in the demarcation of the northwestern frontier of Afghanistan.", "Abdur Rahman's attitude at this critical juncture is a good example of his political sagacity.", "To one who had been a man of war from his youth, who had won and lost many fights, the rout of a detachment and the forcible seizure of some debatable frontier lands was an untoward incident; but it was not a sufficient reason for calling upon the British, although they had guaranteed his territory's integrity, to vindicate his rights by hostilities which would certainly bring upon him a Russian invasion from the north, and would compel his British allies to throw an army into Afghanistan from the southeast.", "He also published his autobiography in 1885, which served more as an advice guide for princes than anything else.His interest lay in keeping powerful neighbours, whether friends or foes, outside his kingdom.", "He knew this to be the only policy that would be supported by the Afghan nation; and although for some time a rupture with Russia seemed imminent, while the Government of India made ready for that contingency, the Amir's reserved and circumspect tone in the consultations with him helped to turn the balance between peace and war, and substantially conduced towards a pacific solution.", "Abdur Rahman left on those who met him in India the impression of a clear-headed man of action, with great self-reliance and hardihood, not without indications of the implacable severity that too often marked his administration.", "His investment with the insignia of the highest grade of the Order of the Star of India appeared to give him much pleasure.Tashkurgan, built for the AmirHis adventurous life, his forcible character, the position of his state as a barrier between the Indian and the Russian empires, and the skill with which he held the balance in dealing with them, combined to make him a prominent figure in contemporary Asian politics and will mark his reign as an epoch in the history of Afghanistan.", "The Amir received an annual subsidy from the British government of 1,850,000 rupees.", "He was allowed to import munitions of war.", "He succeeded in imposing an organized government upon the fiercest and most unruly population in Asia; he availed himself of European inventions for strengthening his armament, while he sternly set his face against all innovations which, like railways and telegraphs, might give Europeans a foothold within his country.He also built himself several summer and guest houses, including the Bagh-e Bala Palace and Chihil Sutun Palace in Kabul, and the Jahan Nama Palace in Kholm.The Amir found himself unable, by reason of ill-health, to accept an invitation from Queen Victoria to visit England; but his second son Nasrullah Khan, the crown prince, went instead." ], [ "Durand Line", "In 1893, Mortimer Durand was deputed to Kabul by the government of British India for this purpose of settling an exchange of territory required by the demarcation of the boundary between northeastern Afghanistan and the Russian possessions, and in order to discuss with Amir Abdur Rahman Khan other pending questions.", "Abdur Rahman Khan showed his usual ability in diplomatic argument, his tenacity where his own views or claims were in debate, with a sure underlying insight into the real situation.In the agreement that followed relations between the British Indian and Afghan governments, as previously arranged, were confirmed; and an understanding was reached upon the important and difficult subject of the border line of Afghanistan on the east, towards India.", "A Royal Commission was set up to determine the boundary between Afghanistan and British-governed India, and was tasked to negotiate terms for agreeing to the Durand Line, between the two parties camped at Parachinar, now part of FATA Pakistan, which is near Khost, Afghanistan.", "From the British side the camp was attended by Mortimer Durand and Sahibzada Abdul Qayyum, British Political Agent in Khyber.", "Afghanistan was represented by Sahibzada Abdul Latif and the Governor Sardar Shireendil Khan representing Amir Abdur Rahman Khan.In 1893, Mortimer Durand negotiated with Abdur Rahman Khan the Durand Line Treaty for the demarcation of the frontier between Afghanistan, the FATA, North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan, now provinces of Pakistan as a successor state of British India.", "In 1905, Amir Habibullah Khan signed a new agreement with the United Kingdom which confirmed the legality of the Durand Line.", "Similarly, the legality of the Durand Line was once again confirmed by King Amanullah Khan through the Treaty of Rawalpindi in 1919.The Durand Line was once again recognised as international border between Pakistan and Afghanistan by Sardar Mohammed Daoud Khan (former prime minister and later president of Afghanistan) during his visit to Pakistan in August 1976." ], [ "Dictatorship and the \"Iron Amir\"", "leftAbdur Rahman Khan in 1897Abdur Rahman Khan's government was a military despotism resting upon a well-appointed army; it was administered through officials absolutely subservient to an inflexible will and controlled by a widespread system of espionage; while the exercise of his personal authority was too often stained by acts of unnecessary cruelty.", "He held open courts for the receipt of petitioners and the dispensation of justice; and in the disposal of business he was indefatigable.In the 1880s, the \"Iron Emir\" decided to strategically displace some members of different ethnic groups in order to bring better security.", "For example, he \"uprooted troublesome Durrani and Ghilzai Pashtun tribes and transported them to Uzbek and Tajik populated areas in the north, where they could spy on local Dari-speaking, non-Pashtun ethnic groups and act as a screen against further Russian encroachments on Afghan territory.\"", "From the end of 1888, the Amir spent eighteen months in his northern provinces bordering upon the Oxus, where he was engaged in pacifying the country that had been disturbed by revolts, and in punishing with a heavy hand all who were known or suspected to have taken any part in rebellion.In 1895–1896, Abdur Rahman directed the invasion of Kafiristan and the conversion of its indigenous peoples to Islam.", "The region was subsequently renamed Nuristan.", "In 1896, he adopted the title of ''Zia-ul-Millat-Wa-ud Din'' (\"Light of the nation and religion\"), and his zeal for the cause of Islam induced him to publish treatises on ''jihad''.Chitral, Yarkand and Ferghana became shelters for refugees in 1887 and 1883 from Badakhshan who fled from the campaigns of Abdul Rahman.===Hazara genocide===In the early 1890s Hazaras revolted against Abdur Rahman.", "As the Kabul Newsletters written by the British agents indicate, Abdur Rahman was an extremely ruthless man.", "He has been called 'The Dracula Amir' by some writers.", "Due to Abdur Rahman's depredations, over 50–60 percent of the total Hazara population was massacred and numerous towers of Hazara heads were made from the defeated rebels.", "Upon each victory Abdur Rahman claimed, it unleashed a reign of terror.", "This resulted in Hazara women being forcibly married to Pashtuns, as well as Hazara territories, specifically in largely ethnic Hazara areas such as Urzugan, Ghazni, Maiden Shah, and Zawar being depopulated of Hazara populations.", "The territories of prominent Hazara chiefs in these areas were given to Mohammadzai sardars, or other closely related government loyalists.", "Alongside this, the Jizya tax was also enforced on Shias, which was only meant to be for non-Muslims.", "It caused some Hazaras to migrate to Quetta in Balochistan, and to Mashhad in northeastern Iran.", "In the Bamyan region, Abdur Rahman ordered soldiers to destroy the faces of the Buddhas of Bamiyan during a military campaign against a Hazara rebellion in the area." ], [ "Death and descendants", "Site of Amir Abdur Rahman Khan's tomb, located in Zarnegar Park, Kabul.Abdur Rahman died on 1 October 1901, inside his summer palace, being succeeded by his son Habibullah Khan who is the father of Amanullah Khan.Today, his descendants can be found in many places outside Afghanistan, such as in America, France, Germany, and even in Scandinavian countries such as Denmark.", "His two eldest sons, Habibullah Khan and Nasrullah Khan, were born at Samarkand.", "His youngest son, Mahomed Omar Jan, was born in 1889 of an Afghan mother, connected by descent with the Barakzai family.", "One of the Amir’s grandchildren, Azizullah Khan Ziai was the ambassador of Iran from 1930-1932, he was the son of Nasrullah Khan." ], [ "Legacy", "Afghan society has mixed feelings about his rule.", "A majority of Pashtuns (his native ethnics) remember him as a ruler who initiated many programs for modernization, and effectively prevented the country from being occupied by Russia by using the \"financial and advisory\" support of British Empire during the Great Game.", "The Emir was effectively dependent on British arms and money to stay in power." ], [ "Honours and awards", "* Honorary Grand Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India, ''11 April 1885''* Honorary Grand Cross of the Most Honourable Order of the Bath (civil division), ''29 December 1893''" ], [ "Writings", "* ''Pandnamah-i dunya va din'' (Advice on the worldly life and religion), 1883.Autobiography.", "* ''Risalah-i Khirad’namah-i Amiri'' (Epistle of princely wisdom), 1886.On the notion of aql or intellect in Islam.", "* ''Risalah-i najiyah'', 1889.On the importance of jihad in the Qur’an and hadith.", "* ''Taj al-Tavarikh'' (Crown of histories), 1904, Autobiography in 2 volumes." ], [ "In popular culture", "* In the film Kesari, Abdur Rahman is briefly mentioned." ], [ "See also", "*European influence in Afghanistan*Lillias Hamilton (court physician to Abdur Rahman Khan in the 1890s)*List of heads of state of Afghanistan*Pashtun colonization of northern Afghanistan" ], [ "Notes" ], [ "References", "* * * *" ], [ "Further reading", "* Embree, Ainslie T. ed.", "''Encyclopedia of Asian history'' (4 vol.", "1988) 1:5." ], [ "External links", "*" ] ]

[ [ "Abencerrages" ], [ "Introduction", "''El último abencerraje''(The last Abencerrage) by Ignacio Merino''The Slaying of the Abencerrages'', by Marià Fortuny (1870)The '''Abencerrages''' or '''Abencerrajes''' (from the Arabic for \"Saddler's Son\") were a family or faction that is said to have held a prominent position in the Kingdom of Granada in the 15th century.The name appears to have been derived from Yussuf ben-Serragh, the head of the tribe in the time of Muhammed VII, Sultan of Granada (1370–1408), who did that sovereign good service in his struggles to retain the crown of which he was three times deprived.Little is known of the family with certainty.", "The Chambers Biographical Dictionary records that they arrived in Spain in the 8th century but the name is familiar from the romance by Ginés Pérez de Hita, ''Guerras civiles de Granada'', which celebrates the feuds of the Abencerrages and the rival family of the Benedin (Arabic banu Edin), and the cruel treatment to which the former were subjected.", "J. P. de Florian's ''Gonsalve de Cordoue'' and Chateaubriand's ''Le dernier des Abencerrages'' are adaptations of Pérez de Hita's story.The story is told that one of the Abencerrages, having fallen in love with a lady of the royal family, was caught in the act of climbing up to her window.", "The assassinations were ordered by Ibrahim Benedin, who had a feud with the family.", "He was enraged and shut up the whole family in one of the halls of the Alhambra, and gave orders to kill them all.", "The apartment where this is said to have taken place is one of the most beautiful courts of the Alhambra, and is still called the Hall of the Abencerrages.Washington Irving in ''Tales of the Alhambra'' (1832) disagrees, saying the massacre was a fiction, but that a number of Abencerrages were killed in one of the battles at the time.", "Nonetheless, many poems and plays, the novella ''The Abencerraje'' and two operas (''Les Abencérages'', by Luigi Cherubini, and ''L'esule di Granata'', by Giacomo Meyerbeer) mention the legend." ], [ "Notes" ], [ "External links", "**** ''The Abencerrages''–Part 17 of Washington Irving's ''Tales of the Alhambra''" ] ]

[ [ "Aberavon (UK Parliament constituency)" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aberavon''' (Welsh: ''Aberafan'') is a constituency represented in the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom since 2015 by Stephen Kinnock of the Welsh Labour Party.", "It includes the town of Aberavon, although the largest town in the constituency is Port Talbot.The constituency is set to be abolished, as part of the 2023 Periodic Review of Westminster constituencies and under the June 2023 final recommendations of the Boundary Commission for Wales for the next United Kingdom general election.", "Its wards is to be split between Aberafan Maesteg and Neath and Swansea East." ], [ "History", "The constituency was created for the 1918 general election by the dividing of the Swansea District.", "With the exception of the first term, it has always been held by the Labour Party.", "Ramsay MacDonald, who became Labour's first Prime Minister in 1924, held the seat from 1922 to 1929.Its current MP, Stephen Kinnock, is the son of Neil Kinnock, who was Labour leader and Leader of the Opposition from 1983 to 1992.It is one of the most consistently safe seats for Labour; since the end of the Second World War, the Labour candidate has always won Aberavon with a majority at least 33%, and with the exception of 2015, the Labour candidate has also always won an overall majority of the vote in the seat.", "In 2015, Kinnock only won 48.9% of the vote in Aberavon, against a surge in the vote for the UKIP candidate; however, in 2017, Kinnock's vote share rose by 19.2 percentage points, the biggest increase in the Labour vote in the seat's history, and his majority increased to 50.4%, the highest for an Aberavon MP since 2001.The 2017 result also made Aberavon the safest Labour seat in Wales, however the seat saw a significant swing against Labour in 2019." ], [ "Boundaries", "'''1918–1950''': The Borough of Aberavon, the Urban Districts of Briton Ferry, Glencorwg, Margam, and Porthcawl and part of the Rural Districts of Neath and Penybont.", "'''1950–1983''': The Borough of Port Talbot, the Urban Districts of Glyncorrwg and Porthcawl, and part of the Rural District of Penybont.", "'''1983–1997''': The Borough of Afan, and the Borough of Neath wards nos.", "3 and 6.", "'''1997–2010''': The Borough of Port Talbot; and the Borough of Neath wards of Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, and Coedffranc West.", "'''2010–present''': The Neath Port Talbot County Borough electoral divisions of Aberavon, Baglan, Briton Ferry East, Briton Ferry West, Bryn and Cwmavon, Coedffranc Central, Coedffranc North, Coedffranc West, Cymmer, Glyncorrwg, Gwynfi, Margam, Port Talbot, Sandfields East, Sandfields West, and Tai-bach.The constituency is in South Wales, situated on the right bank of the River Afan, near its mouth in Swansea Bay.Commenting on the 1983 boundary changes to the constituency when moving the 2000 Loyal Address of the Blair Government in Parliament, the seat's then-MP Sir John Morris, who would retire at the next general election, said:" ], [ "Members of Parliament", "ElectionMemberParty1918Jack EdwardsCoalition Liberal1922Rt Hon.", "Ramsay MacDonald Labour1929William Cove1959Sir John Morris2001Hywel Francis2015Stephen Kinnock" ], [ "Elections", "Aberavon Election Results 1918-2019===Elections in the 1910s===*Jones withdrew in favour of Edwards on 13 December 1918.===Elections in the 1920s===Ramsay MacDonaldHenry Williams===Elections in the 1930s======Elections in the 1940s======Elections in the 1950s======Elections in the 1960s======Elections in the 1970s======Elections in the 1980s======Elections in the 1990s=== ===Elections in the 2000s======Elections in the 2010s===Of the 44 rejected ballots:*29 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.", "*14 voted for more than one candidate.", "*1 had writing or mark by which the voter could be identified.Stephen KinnockOf the 57 rejected ballots:*37 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.", "*20 voted for more than one candidate.Of the 57 rejected ballots:*41 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.", "*16 voted for more than one candidate.Of the 82 rejected ballots:*61 were either unmarked or it was uncertain who the vote was for.", "*19 voted for more than one candidate.", "*2 had writing or mark by which the voter could be identified." ], [ "See also", "* Aberavon (Senedd constituency)* List of parliamentary constituencies in West Glamorgan* List of parliamentary constituencies in Wales" ], [ "References" ], [ "Further reading", "*" ], [ "External links", "* Politics Resources (election results from 1922 onwards)* Electoral Calculus (election results from 1955 onwards)* 2017 Election House Of Commons Library 2017 Election report* A Vision Of Britain Through Time (constituency elector numbers)" ] ]

[ [ "Abercarn" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Abercarn''' is a town and community in Caerphilly county borough, Wales.", "It is 10 miles (16 km) northwest of Newport on the A467 between Cwmcarn and Newbridge, within the historic boundaries of Monmouthshire." ], [ "History", "An estate at Abercarn was owned by the ironmaster Richard Crawshay; in 1808, it passed to his son-in-law, the industrialist and politician Benjamin Hall.The district was traditionally associated with the coal mining collieries, ironworks and tinplate works of the South Wales coalfield and South Wales Valleys, although all have now closed; the town, which lies in the middle portion of the Ebbw valley, being situated on the south-eastern flank of the once great mining region of Glamorgan and Monmouthshire.On 11 September 1878, an underground explosion at the Prince of Wales Colliery killed 268 coal miners.Abercarn High Street" ], [ "Local government", "The area was part of the ancient Monmouthshire parish of Mynyddislwyn until the late 19th century.", "In 1892 a local board of health and local government district of Abercarn was formed.", "This became Abercarn urban district in 1894, governed by an urban district council of twelve members.", "Under the Local Government Act 1972 the urban district was abolished in 1974, becoming part of the borough of Islwyn, Gwent.", "Further local government organisation in 1996 placed the area in the county borough of Caerphilly.", "The former urban district corresponds to the three communities of Abercarn, Crumlin and Newbridge." ], [ "Sport", "Abercarn is home to Abercarn Rugby Club which is a member of the Welsh Rugby Union, and to Abercarn United Football Club which plays in division one of the Gwent County League." ], [ "Transport", "=== Bus ===The town is served by Stagecoach South Wales services including:* X15 (from Newport to Brynmawr)* 151 gold (from Newport to Blackwood Interchange)=== Rail ===The town is lies between Newbridge railway station and Crosskeys railway station, with the latter is slightly the closer of the two.", "Both are approximately a four-minute drive or thirty minute walk away.", "The town was formerly served by Abercarn railway station, which closed to passengers in April 1962." ], [ "Military", "Following the formation of the Territorial Force in 1908, the Abercarn Territorial Cadet Company was formed within the wider Army Cadet Force.", "Following its formation the company was assigned to the 2nd Battalion, Monmouthshire Regiment.", "In 1912 the company was affiliated with the new formed 1st Cadet Battalion, The Monmouthshire Regiment." ], [ "Notable people", "The surgeon Sir Clement Price Thomas (1893–1973) was born in Abercarn.", "He was famous for his 1951 operation on King George VI." ], [ "Education", "*Abercarn Primary School * Ysgol Gymraeg Cwm Gwyddon (Welsh Medium Education School)" ], [ "References" ] ]

[ [ "Aberdare" ], [ "Introduction", "'''Aberdare''' ( ; ) is a town in the Cynon Valley area of Rhondda Cynon Taf, Wales, at the confluence of the Rivers Dare (Dâr) and Cynon.", "Aberdare has a population of 39,550 (mid-2017 estimate).", "Aberdare is south-west of Merthyr Tydfil, north-west of Cardiff and east-north-east of Swansea.", "During the 19th century it became a thriving industrial settlement, which was also notable for the vitality of its cultural life and as an important publishing centre." ], [ "Etymology", "The name ''Aberdare'' means \"mouth/confluence of the river Dare\", as the town is located where the Dare river () meets the Cynon ().", "While the town's Welsh spelling uses formal conventions, the English spelling of the name reflects the town's pronunciation in the local Gwenhwyseg dialect of South East Wales.", "''Dâr'' is an archaic Welsh word for oaks (''derwen'' is the singulative), and the valley was noted for its large and fine oaks as late as the 19th century.", "In ancient times, the river may have been associated with ''Daron'', an ancient Celtic goddess of oak.", "As such, the town would share an etymology with Aberdaron and the Daron river.", "As with many Welsh toponyms, it is likely that the locality was known by this name long before the development of the town." ], [ "History", "===Early history===There are several cairns and the remains of a circular British encampment on the mountain between Aberdare and Merthyr.", "This may have led to the mountain itself being named ''Bryn-y-Beddau'' (hill of graves) although other local traditions associate the name with the Battle of Hirwaun Wrgant.===Middle Ages===Aberdare lies within the commote (cwmwd) of Meisgyn, in the cantref of Penychen.", "The area is traditionally given as the scene of the ''battle of Hirwaun Wrgant'', where the allied forces of the Norman Robert Fitzhamon and Iestyn ap Gwrgant, the last Welsh prince of Glamorgan, defeated Rhys ap Tewdwr, prince of Dyfed.", "The battle is thought to have started at Aberdare, with the areas now known as Upper and Lower ''Gadlys'' (The battle Court(s)), traditionally given as each armies' headquarters.The settlement of Aberdare dates from at least this period, with the first known reference being in a monastic chapter of 1203 concerning grazing right on Hirwaun Common.", "It was originally a small village in an agricultural district, centred around the Church of St John the Baptist, said to date from at least 1189.By the middle of the 15th century, Aberdare contained a water mill in addition to a number of thatched cottages, of which no evidence remains.===Industrial Aberdare===Aberdare grew rapidly in the early 19th century through two major industries: first iron, then coal.", "A branch of the Glamorganshire Canal (1811) was opened to transport these products; then the railway became the main means of transport to the South Wales coast.", "From the 1870s onwards, the economy of the town was dominated by the coal mining industry, with only a small tinplate works.", "There were also several brickworks and breweries.", "During the latter half of the 19th century, considerable improvements were made to the town, which became a pleasant place to live, despite the nearby collieries.", "A postgraduate theological college opened in connection with the Church of England in 1892, but in 1907 it moved to Llandaff.Aberdare in the 1910sWith the ecclesiastical parishes of St Fagan's (Trecynon) and Aberaman carved out of the ancient parish, Aberdare had 12 Anglican churches and one Catholic church, built in 1866 in Monk Street near the site of a cell attached to Penrhys monastery; and at one time there were over 50 Nonconformist chapels (including those in surrounding settlements such as Cwmaman and Llwydcoed).", "The services in the majority of the chapels were in Welsh.", "Most of these chapels have now closed, with many converted to other uses.", "The former urban district included what were once the separate villages of Aberaman, Abernant, Cwmaman, Cwmbach, Cwmdare, Llwydcoed, Penywaun and Trecynon." ], [ "Population growth", "In 1801, the population of the parish of Aberdare was just 1,486, but the early 19th century saw rapid industrial growth, first through the ironworks, and later through the iron and steam coal industries.", "By the 1840s the parish population was increasing by 1,000 people every year, almost exclusively migrant workers from west Wales, which was suffering from an agricultural depression.", "This growth was increasingly concentrated in the previously agricultural areas of Blaengwawr and Cefnpennar to the south of the town.", "The population of the Aberdare District (centred on the town) was 9,322 in 1841, 18,774 in 1851, and 37,487 in 1861.Despite a small decline in the 1870s, population levels continued to increase, with the first decade of the 20th century seeing a notably sharp increase, largely as a result of the steam coal trade, reaching 53,779 in 1911.The population has since declined owing to the loss of most of the heavy industry.Aberdare skyline in 2015The Aberdare population at the 2001 census was 31,705 (ranked 13th largest in Wales).", "By 2011 it was 29,748, though the figure includes the surrounding populations of Aberaman, Abercwmboi, Cwmbach and Llwydcoed." ], [ "Language", "Welsh was the prominent language until the mid 20th century and Aberdare was an important centre of Welsh language publishing.", "A large proportion of the early migrant population were Welsh speaking, and in 1851 only ten per cent of the population had been born outside of Wales.In his controversial evidence to the 1847 Inquiry into the State of Education in Wales (the report of which is known in Wales as the ''Brad y Llyfrau Gleision'', ''Treason of the Blue Books''), the Anglican vicar of Aberdare, John Griffith, stated that the English language was \"generally understood\" and referred to the arrival of people from anglicised areas such as Radnorshire and south Pembrokeshire.", "Griffith also made allegations about the Welsh-speaking population and what he considered to be the degraded character of the women of Aberdare, alleging sexual promiscuity was an accepted social convention, that drunkenness and improvidence amongst the miners was common and attacking what he saw as exaggerated emotion in the religious practices of the Nonconformists.Rev Thomas Price (1820–88), minister of Capel CalfariaThis evidence helped inform the findings of the report which would go on to stigmatise Welsh people as \"ignorant\", \"lazy\" and \"immoral\" and found the reason for this was the continued use of the Welsh language, which it described as \"evil\".", "The controversial reports allowed the local nonconformist minister Thomas Price of Calfaria to arrange public meetings, from which he would emerge as a leading critic of the vicar's evidence and, by implication, a defender of both the Welsh language and the morality of the local population, It is still contended that Griffiths was made vicar of Merthyr in the neighbouring valley to escape local anger, even though it was over ten years before he left Aberdare.", "The reports and subsequent defence would maintain the perceptions of Aberdare, the Cynon Valley and even the wider area as proudly nonconformist and defiantly Welsh speaking throughout its industrialised history.By 1901, the census recorded that 71.5% of the population of Aberdare Urban District spoke Welsh, but this fell to 65.2% in 1911.The 1911 data shows that Welsh was more widely spoken among the older generation compared to the young, and amongst women compared to men.", "A shift in language was expedited with the loss of men during the First World War and the resulting economic turmoil.", "English gradually began to replace Welsh as the community language, as shown by the decline of the Welsh language press in the town.", "This pattern continued after the Second World War despite the advent of Welsh medium education.", "Ysgol Gymraeg Aberdâr, the Welsh-medium primary school, was established in the 1950s with Idwal Rees as head teacher.According to the 2011 Census, 11.6% of Aberdare residents aged three years and over could speak Welsh, with 24.8% of 3- to 15-year-olds stating that they could speak it." ], [ "Industry", "===Iron industry===Ironworks were established at Llwydcoed and Abernant in 1799 and 1800 respectively, followed by others at Gadlys and Aberaman in 1827 and 1847.The iron industry began to expand in a significant way around 1818 when the Crawshay family of Merthyr purchased the Hirwaun ironworks and placed them under independent management.", "In the following year, Rowland Fothergill took over the ironworks at Abernant and a few years later did the same at Llwydcoed.", "Both concerns later fell into the hands of his nephew Richard Fothergill.", "The Gadlys Ironworks was established in 1827 by Matthew Wayne, who had previously managed the Cyfarthfa ironworks at Merthyr.", "The Gadlys works, now considered an important archaeological site, originally comprised four blast furnaces, inner forges, rowing mills and puddling furnaces.", "The development of these works provided impetus to the growth of Aberdare as a nucleated town.", "The iron industry was gradually superseded by coal and all the five iron works had closed by 1875, as the local supply of iron ore was inadequate to meet the ever-increasing demand created by the invention of steel, and as a result the importing of ore proved more profitable.===Coal industry===The iron industry had a relatively small impact upon the economy of Aberdare and in 1831 only 1.2% of the population was employed in manufacturing, as opposed to 19.8% in neighbouring Merthyr Tydfil.", "In the early years of Aberdare's development, most of the coal worked in the parish was coking coal, and was consumed locally, chiefly in the ironworks.", "Although the Gadlys works was small in comparison with the other ironworks it became significant as the Waynes also became involved in the production of sale coal.", "In 1836, this activity led to the exploitation of the \"Four-foot Seam\" of high-calorific value steam coal began, and pits were sunk in rapid succession.In 1840, Thomas Powell sank a pit at Cwmbach, and during the next few years he opened another four pits.", "In the next few years, other local entrepreneurs now became involved in the expansion of the coal trade, including David Williams at Ynysgynon and David Davis at Blaengwawr, as well as the latter's son David Davis, Maesyffynnon.", "They were joined by newcomers such as Crawshay Bailey at Aberaman and, in due course, George Elliot in the lower part of the valley.", "This coal was valuable for steam railways and steam ships, and an export trade began, via the Taff Vale Railway and the port of Cardiff.", "The population of the parish rose from 6,471 in 1841 to 14,999 in 1851 and 32,299 in 1861 and John Davies described it as \"the most dynamic place in Wales\".", "In 1851, the Admiralty decided to use Welsh steam coal in ships of the Royal Navy, and this decision boosted the reputation of Aberdare's product and launched a huge international export market.", "Coal mined in Aberdare parish rose from in 1844 to in 1850, and the coal trade, which after 1875 was the chief support of the town, soon reached huge dimensions.The growth of the coal trade inevitably led to a number of industrial disputes, some of which were local and others which affected the wider coalfield.", "Trade unionism began to appear in the Aberdare Valley at intervals from the 1830s onwards but the first significant manifestation occurred during the Aberdare Strike of 1857–8.The dispute was initiated by the depression in trade which followed the Crimean War and saw the local coal owners successfully impose a reduction in wages.", "The dispute did, however, witness an early manifestation of mass trade unionism amongst the miners of the valley and although unsuccessful the dispute saw the emergence of a stronger sense of solidarity amongst the miners.Steam coal was subsequently found in the Rhondda and further west, but many of the great companies of the Welsh coal industry's Gilded Age started operation in Aberdare and the lower Cynon Valley, including those of Samuel Thomas, David Davies and Sons, Nixon's Navigation and Powell Duffryn.During the early years of the twentieth century, the Aberdare valley became the focus of increased militancy among the mining workforce and an unofficial strike by 11,000 miners in the district from 20 October 1910 unyil 2 February 1911 attracted much attention at the time, although it was ultimately overshadowed by the Cambrian dispute in the neighbouring Rhondda valley which became synonymous with the so-called Tonypandy Riots.In common with the rest of the South Wales coalfield, Aberdare's coal industry commenced a long decline after World War I, and the last two deep mines still in operation in the 1960s were the small Aberaman and Fforchaman collieries, which closed in 1962 and 1965 respectively.Aberdare Co-operative store fire, 11 May 1919On 11 May 1919, an extensive fire broke out on Cardiff Street, Aberdare.With the decline of both iron and coal, Aberdare has become reliant on commercial businesses as a major source of employment.", "Its industries include cable manufacture, smokeless fuels, and tourism." ], [ "Government", "As a small village in the upland valleys of Glamorgan, Aberdare did not play any significant part in political life until its development as an industrial settlement.", "It was part of the lordship of Miskin, and the ancient office of High Constable continued in ceremonial form until relatively recent times.===Parliamentary elections===In 1832, Aberdare was removed from the Glamorgan county constituency and became part of the parliamentary borough (constituency) of Merthyr Tydfil.", "For much of the nineteenth century, the representation was initially controlled by the ironmasters of Merthyr, notably the Guest family.", "From 1852 until 1868 the seat was held by Henry Austen Bruce whose main industrial interests lay in the Aberdare valley.", "Bruce was a Liberal but was viewed with suspicion by the more radical faction which became increasingly influential within Welsh Liberalism in the 1860s.", "The radicals supported such policies as the disestablishment of the Church of England and were closely allied to the Liberation Society.====1868 general election====Nonconformist ministers played a prominent role in this new politics and, at Aberdare, they found an effective spokesman in the Rev Thomas Price minister of Calfaria, Aberdare.", "Following the granting of a second parliamentary seat to the borough of Merthyr Tydfil in 1867, the Liberals of Aberdare sought to ensure that a candidate from their part of the constituency was returned alongside the sitting member, Henry Austen Bruce.", "Their choice fell upon Richard Fothergill, owner of the ironworks at Abernant, who was enthusiastically supported by the Rev Thomas Price.", "Shortly before the election, however, Henry Richard intervened as a radical Liberal candidate, invited by the radicals of Merthyr.", "To many people's surprise, Price was lukewarm about his candidature and continued to support Fothergill.", "Ultimately, Henry Richard won a celebrated victory with Fothergill in second place and Bruce losing his seat.", "Richard thus became one of the-first radical MPs from Wales.====1874–1914====At the 1874 General Election, both Richard and Fothergill were again returned, although the former was criticised for his apparent lack of sympathy towards the miners during the industrial disputes of the early 1870s.", "This led to the emergence of Thomas Halliday as the first labour or working-class candidate to contest a Welsh constituency.", "Although he polled well, Halliday fell short of being elected.", "For the remainder of the nineteenth century, the constituency was represented by industrialists, most notably David Alfred Thomas.", "In 1900, however, Thomas was joined by Keir Hardie, the ILP candidate, who became the first labour representative to be returned for a Welsh constituency independent of the Liberal Party.====20th century====The Aberdare constituency came into being at the 1918 election.", "The first representative was Charles Butt Stanton, who had been elected at a by-election following Hardie's death in 1915.However, in 1922, Stanton was defeated by a Labour candidate, and Labour has held the seat ever since.", "The only significant challenge came from Plaid Cymru at the 1970 and February 1974 General Elections, but these performances have not since been repeated.", "From 1984 until 2019 the parliamentary seat, now known as Cynon Valley, was held by Ann Clwyd of Labour.View over Aberdare===Local government===Aberdare was an ancient parish within Glamorgan.", "Until the mid-19th century the local government of Aberdare and its locality remained in the hands of traditional structures such as the parish vestry and the High Constable, who was chosen annually.", "However, with the rapid industrial development of the parish, these traditional bodies could not cope with the realities of an urbanised, industrial community which had developed without any planning or facilities.", "During the early decades of the 19th century the ironmasters gradually imposed their influence over local affairs, and this remained the case following the formation of the Merthyr Board of Guardians in 1836.During the 1850s and early 1860s, however, as coal displaced iron as the main industry in the valley, the ironmasters were displaced as the dominant group in local government and administration by an alliance between mostly indigenous coal owners, shopkeepers and tradesmen, professional men and dissenting ministers.", "A central figure in this development was the Rev Thomas Price.", "The growth of this alliance was rooted in the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports and the subsequent efforts to establish a British School at Aberdare.In the 1840s there were no adequate sanitary facilities or water supply, and mortality rates were high.", "Outbreaks of cholera and typhus were commonplace.", "Against this background, Thomas Webster Rammell prepared a report for the General Board of Health on the sanitary condition of the parish, which recommended that a local board of health be established.", "The whole parish of Aberdare was formally declared a local board district on 31 July 1854, to be governed by the Aberdare Local Board of Health.", "Its first chairman was Richard Fothergill and the members included David Davis, Blaengwawr, David Williams (''Alaw Goch''), Rees Hopkin Rhys and the Rev.", "Thomas Price.", "It was followed by the Aberdare School Board in 1871.By 1889, the Local Board of Health had initiated a number of developments: these included the purchase of local reservoirs from the Aberdare Waterworks Company for £97,000, a sewerage scheme costing £35,000, as well as the opening of Aberdare Public Park and a local fever hospital.", "The lack of a Free Library, however, remained a concern.Later, the formation of the Glamorgan County Council (upon which Aberdare had five elected members) in 1889, followed by the Aberdare Urban District Council, which replaced the Local Board in 1894, transformed the local politics of the Aberdare valley.Aberdare in January 2013At the 1889 Glamorgan County Council Elections most of the elected representatives were coalowners and industrialists, and the only exception in the earlier period was the miners' agent David Morgan (Dai o'r Nant), elected in 1892 as a labour representative.", "From the early 1900s, however, Labour candidates began to gain ground and dominated local government from the 1920s onwards.", "The same pattern was seen on the Aberdare UDC.Aberdare Urban District was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972.The area became part of the borough of Cynon Valley within the new county of Mid Glamorgan.", "The area of the former urban district was made a community, later being subdivided in 1982 into five communities: Aberaman, Cwmbach, Llwydcoed, Penywaun, and a smaller Aberdare community.", "The Aberdare community was further divided in 2017 into two communities called Aberdare East and Aberdare West.", "Aberdare East includes Aberdare town centre and the village of Abernant.", "Aberdare West includes Cwmdare, Cwm Sian and Trecynon.", "No community council exists for either of the Aberdare communities.Cynon Valley Borough Council and Mid Glamorgan County Council were both abolished in 1996, since when Aberdare has been governed by Rhondda Cynon Taf County Borough Council.", "The town lies mainly in the Aberdare East ward, represented by two county councillors.", "Nearby Cwmdare, Llwydcoed and Trecynon are represented by the Aberdare West/Llwydcoed ward.", "Both wards have been represented by the Labour Party since 2012." ], [ "Culture", "Caradog statue in Victoria SquareAberdare, during its boom years, was considered a centre of Welsh culture: it hosted the first National Eisteddfod in 1861, with which David Williams (Alaw Goch) was closely associated.", "The town erected a monument in the local park to commemorate the occasion.", "A number of local eisteddfodau had long been held in the locality, associated with figures such as William Williams (Carw Coch) The Eisteddfod was again held in Aberdare in 1885, and also in 1956 at Aberdare Park, where the Gorsedd standing stones still exist.", "At the last National Eisteddfod held in Aberdare in 1956 Mathonwy Hughes won the chair.", "From the mid 19th century, Aberdare was an important publishing centre where a large number of books and journals were produced, the majority of which were in the Welsh language.", "A newspaper entitled Y Gwladgarwr (the Patriot) was published at Aberdare from 1856 until 1882 and was circulated widely throughout the South Wales valleys.", "From 1875 a more successful newspaper, Tarian y Gweithiwr (the Workman's Shield) was published at Aberdare by John Mills.", "''Y Darian'', as it was known, strongly supported the trade union movements among the miners and ironworkers of the valleys.", "The miners' leader, William Abraham, derived support from the newspaper, which was also aligned with radical nonconformist liberalism.", "The rise of the political labour movement and the subsequent decline of the Welsh language in the valleys, ultimately led to its decline and closure in 1934.The Coliseum Theatre is Aberdare's main arts venue, containing a 600-seat auditorium and cinema.", "It is situated in nearby Trecynon and was built in 1938 using miners' subscriptions.The Second World War poet Alun Lewis was born near Aberdare in the village of Cwmaman; there is a plaque commemorating him, including a quotation from his poem ''The Mountain over Aberdare''.The founding members of the rock band Stereophonics originated from Cwmaman.", "It is also the hometown of guitarist Mark Parry of Vancouver rock band The Manvils.", "Famed anarchist-punk band Crass played their last live show for striking miners in Aberdare during the UK miners' strike.Griffith Rhys Jones − or Caradog as he was commonly known − was the conductor of the famous 'Côr Mawr' (\"great choir\") of some 460 voices (the South Wales Choral Union), which twice won first prize at Crystal Palace choral competitions in London in the 1870s.", "He is depicted in the town's most prominent statue by sculptor Goscombe John, unveiled on Victoria Square in 1920.Aberdare was culturally twinned with the German town of Ravensburg." ], [ "Religion", "===Anglican Church===The original parish church of St John the Baptist was originally built in 1189.Some of its original architecture is still intact.St John the Baptist's ChurchWith the development of Aberdare as an industrial centre in the nineteenth century it became increasingly apparent that the ancient church was far too small to service the perceived spiritual needs of an urban community, particularly in view of the rapid growth of nonconformity from the 1830s onwards.", "Eventually, John Griffith, the rector of Aberdare, undertook to raise funds to build a new church, leading to the rapid construction of St Elvan's Church in the town centre between 1851 and 1852.This Church in Wales church still stands the heart of the parish of Aberdare and has had extensive work since it was built.", "The church has a modern electrical, two-manual and pedal board pipe organ, that is still used in services.", "St Elvan's ChurchJohn Griffith, vicar of Aberdare, who built St Elvan's, transformed the role of the Anglican church in the valley by building a number of other churches, including St Fagan's, Trecynon.", "Other churches in the parish are St Luke's (Cwmdare), St James's (Llwydcoed) and St Matthew's (1891) (Abernant).In the parish of Aberaman and Cwmaman is St Margaret's Church, with a beautiful old pipe organ with two manuals and a pedal board.", "Also in this parish is St Joseph's Church, Cwmaman.", "St Joseph's has recently undergone much recreational work, almost converting the church into a community centre, surrounded by a beautiful floral garden and leading to the Cwmaman Sculpture Trail.", "However, regular church services still take place.", "Here, there is a two-manual and pedal board electric organ, with speakers at the front and sides of the church.In 1910 there were 34 Anglican churches in the Urban District of Aberdare.", "A survey of the attendance at places of worship on a particular Sunday in that year recorded that 17.8% of worshippers attended church services, with the remainder attending nonconformist chapels.===Nonconformity===The Aberdare Valley was a stronghold of Nonconformity from the mid-nineteenth century until the inter-war years.", "In the aftermath of the 1847 Education Reports nonconformists became increasingly active in the political and educational life of Wales and in few places was this as prevalent as at Aberdare.", "The leading figure was Thomas Price, minister of Calfaria, Aberdare.Aberdare was a major centre of the 1904–05 Religious Revival, which had begun at Loughor near Swansea.", "The revival aroused alarm among ministers for the revolutionary, even anarchistic, impact it had upon chapel congregations and denominational organisation.", "In particular, it was seen as drawing attention away from pulpit preaching and the role of the minister.", "The local newspaper, the ''Aberdare Leader'', regarded the revival with suspicion from the outset, objecting to the 'abnormal heat' which it engendered.", "Trecynon was particularly affected by the revival, and the meetings held there were said to have aroused more emotion and excitement than the more restrained meetings in Aberdare itself.", "The impact of the revival was significant in the short term, but in the longer term was fairly transient.Once the immediate impact of the revival had faded, it was clear from the early 20th century that there was a gradual decline in the influence of the chapels.", "This can be explained by several factors, including the rise of socialism and the process of linguistic change which saw the younger generation increasingly turn to the English language.", "There were also theological controversies such as that over the New Theology propounded by R.J. Campbell.Of the many chapels, few are still used for their original purpose and a number have closed since the turn of the millennium.", "Many have been converted for housing or other purposes (including one at Robertstown which has become a mosque), and others demolished.", "Among the notable chapels were Calfaria, Aberdare and Seion, Cwmaman (Baptist); Saron, Aberaman and Siloa, Aberdare (Independent); and Bethania, Aberdare (Calvinistic Methodist).====Independents====The earliest Welsh Independent, or Congregationalist chapel in the Aberdare area was Ebenezer, Trecynon, although meetings had been held from the late 18th century in dwelling houses in the locality, for example at Hirwaun.", "During the 19th century, the Independents showed the biggest increases in terms of places of worship: from two in 1837 to twenty-five (four of them being English causes), in 1897.By 1910 there were 35 Independent chapels, with a total membership of 8,612.Siloa Chapel was the largest of the Independent chapels in Aberdare and is one of the few that remain open today, having been 're-established' as a Welsh language chapel.", "The Independent ministers of nineteenth-century Aberdare included some powerful personalities, but none had the kind of wider social authority which Thomas Price enjoyed amongst the Baptists.Siloa Chapel, AberdareOf the other Independent chapels in the valley, Saron, in Davis Street, Aberaman, was used for regular services by a small group of members until 2011.For many years, these were held in a small side-room, and not the chapel itself.", "The chapel has a large vestry comprising rows of two-way-facing wooden benches and a stage, with a side entrance onto Beddoe Street and back entrance to Lewis Street.", "Although the building is not in good repair, the interior, including pulpit and balcony seating area (back and sides), was in good order but the chapel eventually closed due to the very small number of members remaining.", "In February 1999, Saron became a Grade II Listed Building.====Baptists====The Baptists were the most influential of the nonconformist denominations in Aberdare and their development was led by the Rev.", "Thomas Price who came to Aberdare in the early 1840s as minister of Calfaria Chapel.", "In 1837 the Baptists had three chapels, but in 1897 there were twenty, seventeen of them being Welsh.", "By 1910 the number of chapels had increased to 30, with a total membership of 7,422.Most of these Baptist chapels were established under the influence of Thomas Price who encouraged members to establish branch chapels to attract migrants who flocked to the town and locality from rural Wales.", "The chapels came together for regular gatherings, including baptismal services which were held in the River Cynon As a result, Price exerted an influence in the religious life of the locality which was far greater than that of any other minister.====Calvinistic Methodists====By 1910 there were 24 Calvinistic Methodist chapels in the Aberdare Urban District with a total membership of 4,879.The most prominent of these was Bethania, Aberdare, once the largest chapel in Aberdare.", "Derelict for many years, it was demolished in 2015.The Methodists were numerically powerful and while some of their ministers such as William James of Bethania served on the Aberdare School Board and other public bodies, their constitution militated against the sort of active political action which came more naturally to the Baptists and Independents.====Other denominations====In 1878 Mother Shepherd, a native Welsh speaker, was sent to Aberdare by the Salvation Army at the start of a period of growth for their mission.", "After five years she had created seven new stations before she was recalled to London.", "Shepherd would return to Aberdare working for the community.", "In 1930 she was given a public funeral.The Wesleyan Methodists had 14 places of worship by 1910.There was also a significant Unitarian tradition in the valley and three places of worship by 1910.Highland Place Unitarian Church celebrated its 150th anniversary in 2010, with a number of lectures on its history and the history of Unitarianism in Wales taking place there.", "The church has a two-manual pipe organ with pedal board that is used to accompany all services.", "The current organist is Grace Jones, the sister of the former organist Jacob Jones.", "The connected schoolroom is used for post-service meetings and socialising.===Judaism===Seymour Street was once home to a synagogue which opened its doors in the late 1800s but closed in 1957.The site now has a blue plaque." ], [ "Education", "The state of education in the parish was a cause for concern during the early industrial period as is illustrated by the reaction to the 1847 Education Reports.", "Initially, there was an outcry, led by the Rev Thomas Price against the comments made by the vicar of Aberdare in his submission to the commissioners.", "However, on closer reflection, the reports related the deficiencies of educational provision, not only in Aberdare itself but also in the communities of the valleys generally.", "In so doing they not only criticised the ironmasters for their failure to provide schools for workers' children but also the nonconformists for not establishing British Schools.", "At the ten schools in Aberdare there was accommodation for only 1,317 children, a small proportion of the population.", "Largely as a result of these criticisms, the main nonconformist denominations worked together to establish a British School, known locally as Ysgol y Comin, which was opened in 1848, accommodating 200 pupils.", "Funds were raised which largely cleared the debts and the opening of the school was marked by a public meeting addressed by Price and David Williams (''Alaw Goch'').Much energy was expended during this period on conflicts between Anglicans and nonconformists over education.", "The establishment of the Aberdare School Board in 1871 brought about an extension of educational provision but also intensified religious rivalries.", "School Board elections were invariably fought on religious grounds.", "Despite these tensions the Board took over a number of existing schools and established new ones.", "By 1889, fourteen schools were operated by the Board but truancy and lack of attendance remained a problem, as in many industrial districts.In common with other public bodies at the time (see 'Local Government' above), membership of the School Board was dominated by coal owners and colliery officials, nonconformist ministers, professional men and tradesmen.", "Only occasionally was an Anglican clergyman elected and, with the exception of David Morgan (''Dai o'r Nant''), no working class candidates were elected for more than one term.===Colleges===*Coleg y Cymoedd===Secondary schools===*Aberdare Community School*St. John the Baptist School (Aberdare)*Ysgol Gyfun Rhydywaun" ], [ "Transport", "The town is served by Aberdare railway station and Aberdare bus station, opposite each other in the town centre.", "The town has also been subject to an extensive redevelopment scheme during 2012–13." ], [ "Sports", "The newly redeveloped Sobell Leisure Centre in 2015Aberdare was noted as \"very remarkable\" for its traditions of ''Taplasau Hâf'' (summer games/dances), races and ''gwrolgampau'' (\"manly sports\") which were said to have been a feature of the area since at least the 1640s.", "The town is also home to ''Yr Ynys'', an historic sports ground which has the distinction of hosting the first Rugby League international, a professional Rugby League team, a football League side and an All Blacks' tour match.", "Today the Ynys hosts the town's Rugby union and cricket teams, as well as the Sobell Leisure Centre and the Ron Jones Athletics Stadium, a 263-seat stadium with crumb rubber track and field sports facilities, home to Aberdare Valley AAC.=== Cricket ===A cricket club was re-established at the Ynys in 1968 and was named Riverside Cricket Club in reference to its location near the banks of the river.", "The club would later be renamed Dare Valley CC, before finally changing its name to Aberdare CC.", "In 2008 the club was granted a 25-year lease on the land outside the boundary of the Ynys' pitch 1, where a club house and training nets were soon constructed.", "This was followed by the building of a Community Hub and Café in the 2010s.", "Today, the club runs 3 adult teams and 4 junior sides.=== Rugby League ===Dai \"Tarw\" Jones would score the decisive try in Wales' victory in the first ever international Rugby League match, played at the Ynys.The Northern Union hired the Ynys on 1 January 1908 to host what would be the first ever international rugby league match.", "Played on a near frozen pitch, the match between Wales and the New Zealand All Golds proved to be a close and exciting game.", "The decisive score came from local star and former Aberdare RFC player, Dai \"Tarw\" Jones, who scored a try just minutes before the final whistle, giving Wales a 9–8 victory.The match attracted 15,000 paying spectators, with the gate receipts of £560 highlighting the commercial potential of rugby league at the Ynys.", "This took place at a time when the Northern Union was looking to establish professional teams across south Wales and just months after the Welsh Rugby Union had sanctioned Aberdare RFC for professionalism (banning Jones for life).", "As such, discussions on the establishment of a Rugby League club in Aberdare advanced quickly and on 21 July 1908, Aberdare RLFC were admitted to the Northern Union's Rugby League.", "On 5 September 1908 the new team played their first match against Wigan in front of a crowd of 3,000 at the Ynys.The potential for crowd support was again demonstrated on 10 November 1908, when the Ynys hosted its second international side as 5,000 spectators watched Aberdare take on the first touring Australian team.", "However the Aberdare club side could not replicate the heroics of the Welsh team, losing the match 10–37.Indeed, Aberdare struggled under Northern Union rules and initially high crowd numbers deteriorated with the poor results, which saw Aberdare finishing their only season in the Rugby Football League as the bottom club.", "Finally on 10 July 1909, Aberdare reported 'unexpected difficulties' in its finances and resigned from the Northern Rugby League.=== Rugby Union ===The modern Aberdare Rugby Club near the Ynys.", "The signage displays the initials as RUFC rather than RFC, distinguishing it as the town's rugby union club.A rugby club representing Aberdare was recorded as early as 1876, but the modern Aberdare RFC traces its history back to a foundation of 1890.The club had great success in the early twentieth century with local star Dai 'Tarw' Jones captaining the club from 1905 to 1907.Jones gained recognition as a player in club, representative and international games.", "Most notably, Jones played an important part in the \"''Match of the century''\", when Wales defeated the New Zealand All Blacks.", "In 1907, Jones and the Aberdare club played a pivotal role in the professionalism scandal, with the Welsh Rugby Union permanently suspending the club's entire committee and a number of players (including a lifetime ban for Jones).", "These events would quickly lead to many of the town's players and fans switching to rugby league, with the first ever rugby league international and the founding of Aberdare RLFC in 1908.Despite the suspensions, rugby union continued in the town as the club (renamed Aberaman RFC) moved to Aberaman Park.", "The Ynys Stadium would host its first international rugby union side on 12 December 1935, when the 1935-36 All Blacks played a tour match against a Mid-Districts side.", "The All Blacks won the match 31–10 in front of a crowd of 6,000.Aberaman RFC returned to the Ynys in the 1960s.", "In February 1971, a clubhouse was opened at the old Crown Hotel in Gloucester Street, this was followed by the construction of a grand stand at the Ynys costing £20,000.Following the advent of professionalism in rugby union, the WRU sanctions against Aberdare were no longer applicable.", "As such, the club took the name Aberdare RUFC once again.", "Aberdare is also home to Abercwmboi RFC and Hirwaun RFC.=== Soccer ===Aberaman Park was once home to Aberdare RFC and is the current home ground of Abrdare Town FC.The Ynys stadium was also home to Aberdare Athletic F.C., members of the Football League between 1921 and 1927.Aberdare finished bottom in their final season and folded in 1928 after failing to be re-elected to the league.Aberaman Athletic F.C.", "continued to play until World War II, and was succeeded by Aberdare & Aberaman Athletic in 1945 and Aberdare Town F.C.", "in 1947.The club continue to play in the Welsh Football League.", "Today, Aberdare Town plays in the South Wales Alliance League and are based at Aberaman Park." ], [ "Notable people", ":''See also :Category:People from Aberdare''===Arts and broadcasting===*Ieuan Ddu ap Dafydd ab Owain – 15th century bard*Edward Evans - 18th century bard*Ioan Gruffudd – actor, born in Llwydcoed, Aberdare*Griffith Rhys Jones – known as Caradog, conductor of the famous choirs ''Côr Caradog'' (which won events at multiple Eisteddfodau) and ''Côr Mawr'' who won first prize at The Crystal Palace choral competitions in 1872 and 1873.", "*Alun Lewis – war poet*Mihangel Morgan – Welsh language writer, born in Trecynon whose works often feature Aberdare*John Morgan – comedian, most notably with Royal Canadian Air Farce*Roy Noble – writer and broadcaster who has lived much of his life in Llwydcoed, Aberdare*Ieuan Rhys – actor from Trecynon*Rhian Samuel – composer and professor of music*Stereophonics – all three original members, Kelly Jones, Richard Jones and Stuart Cable were brought up in Cwmaman, Aberdare*Jo Walton – fantasy novelist, now living in Montreal, Quebec===Politicians===*Henry Austin Bruce – 1st Baron Aberdare & Home Secretary (1868–1873)*Rose Davies – Labour politician and feminist*Patrick Hannan – political journalist, author and a presenter on television and radio.", "*Rhys Hopkin Rhys – 19th century industrialist and prominent local politician*Bethan Sayed – Member of the Senedd for South Wales West===Religion===*R. Ifor Parry – Congregationalist Minister and schoolteacher*Thomas Price (Baptist minister) – Baptist Minister and radical politician===Science===*Lyn Evans – particle physicist and project leader of the Large Hadron Collider===Sportspeople===*Jon Bryant – Wales international rugby union player*Les Cartwright – Wales international association footballer*Isaak Davies – association Footballer*Neil Davies – Wales rugby league international*Amy Evans – Wales international rugby union player*Ian Evans – Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player*Rosser Evans – Wales international rugby union player*David \"Tarw\" Jones – dual code rugby international for Wales rugby league and Wales rugby union international teams*Arthur Linton – cyclist*Jimmy Michael – world cycling champion*'Big' Jim Mills – Wales & Great Britain rugby league international*Teddy Morgan – Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player*William Llewellyn Morgan – Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player*Darren Morris – Wales international and British & Irish Lions rugby union player*Jason Price – association footballer*Martin Roberts – Wales international rugby union player*Rees Thomas – association footballer*Lee Williams – Wales rugby league international*Dai Young – Wales international rugby union player and coach and three times British & Irish Lions tourist*Thomas Young – Wales international rugby union player" ], [ "See also", "* List of twin towns and sister cities in the United Kingdom*Aberdare Park" ], [ "References" ], [ "Sources", "===Books===* * * * * * *===Journals===** * *** ===Newspapers===*Aberdare Leader*Cardiff and Merthyr Guardian===Online===*===External sources===* BBC website on Aberdare* Website of the Parish of St Fagans Aberdare" ], [ "External links", "* www.geograph.co.uk : photos of Aberdare and surrounding area" ] ]