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986 | The Plague (novel) | {{short description|1947 novel by Albert Camus}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{use American English|date=November 2024}}
{{infobox book <!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Novels -->
| name = The Plague
| image = La Peste book cover.jpg
| image_size | border yes
| alt | caption Cover of the first edition
| author = Albert Camus
| title_orig = La Peste
| orig_lang_code = fr
| title_working | translator
| illustrator | cover_artist
| country = France
| language = French
| series | release_number
| subject | genre Philosophical novel
| set_in = Oran, French Algeria
| published = {{plainlist|
* 1947 (Gallimard, French)
* 1948 (Hamish Hamilton, English)
}}
| media_type | pages 308
| awards | isbn 978-0679720218
| isbn_note | oclc
| dewey | congress
| preceded_by = Resistance, Rebellion, and Death
| followed_by = The State of Siege
| native_wikisource | wikisource
| notes | exclude_cover
| website =
}}
The Plague ({{langx|fr|La Peste}}) is a 1947 absurdist novel by Albert Camus. The plot centers around the French Algerian city of Oran as it combats a plague outbreak and is put under a city-wide quarantine. The novel presents a snapshot into life in Oran as seen through Camus's absurdist lens.<ref name"acra">{{cite journal |last1Aronson |first1Ronald |editor1-lastZalta |editor1-firstEdward N. |titleAlbert Camus |journalThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date27 October 2011 |volumeSummer 2017 Edition |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2017/entries/camus/}}</ref>
Camus used as source material the cholera epidemic that killed a large proportion of Oran's population in 1849, but set the novel in the 1940s.<ref>Magill 1989:683</ref> Oran and its surroundings were struck by disease several times before Camus published his novel. According to an academic study, Oran was decimated by the bubonic plague in 1556 and 1678, but all later outbreaks (in 1921: 185 cases; 1931: 76 cases; and 1944: 95 cases) were very far from the scale of the epidemic described in the novel.<ref name"bertherat03">{{cite journal |doi10.3201/eid1310.070284|titlePlague Reappearance in Algeria after 50 Years, 2003|year2007|last1Bertherat|first1Eric|last2Bekhoucha|first2Souad|last3Chougrani|first3Saada|last4Razik|first4Fathia|last5Duchemin|first5Jean B.|last6Houti|first6Leila|last7Deharib|first7Larbi|last8Fayolle|first8Corinne|last9Makrerougrass|first9Banaouda|last10Dali-Yahia|first10Radia|last11Bellal|first11Ramdan|last12Belhabri|first12Leila|last13Chaieb|first13Amina|last14Tikhomirov|first14Evgueni|last15Carniel|first15Elisabeth|journalEmerging Infectious Diseases|volume13|issue10|pages1459–1462|pmid18257987|pmc2851531}}</ref>
The Plague is considered an existentialist classic despite Camus's objection to the label.<ref>Camus (in Thody, 1970):345. In an interview on 15 November 1945, Camus said: "No, I am not an existentialist."</ref><ref>Forsdick 2007:119</ref> The novel stresses the powerlessness of the individual characters to affect their own destinies. The narrative tone is similar to Kafka's, especially in The Trial, whose individual sentences potentially have multiple meanings; the material often pointedly resonating as stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition.
Plot
In 1940s Oran, rats, initially unnoticed by the populace, begin dying en masse. Hysteria develops soon afterward, prompting local newspapers to report the incident; authorities begin disposing of the rats. Bernard Rieux, a local physician, learns that a concierge in his building has died from a fever and consults a colleague about the illness. They conclude that a plague is sweeping the town and approach other doctors and town authorities about their theory, which is met with denial. As more deaths ensue, it becomes apparent that an epidemic is imminent.
Authorities are slow to accept that the situation is serious and quibble over the appropriate action to take. Official notices enacting control measures are posted, but they downplay the seriousness of the situation. As the death toll begins to rise, homes are quarantined and corpses are strictly supervised. A supply of anti-plague serum arrives, but there is only enough to treat existing cases and the national emergency reserves are depleted. Eventually, the town is quarantined and an epidemic is officially declared.
Raymond Rambert, a visiting journalist, devises a plan to escape to join his girlfriend in Paris by courting criminals to smuggle him out. The local Jesuit priest, Father Paneloux, suggests during a sermon that the plague is God punishing the city's sinfulness. His diatribe leads many citizens of the town to turn to religion who would not have done so under normal circumstances. Cottard, a remorseful criminal who attempted suicide earlier, becomes wealthy as a major smuggler. Meanwhile, Jean Tarrou, a vacationer; Joseph Grand, a civil engineer; assist Rieux in treating patients in their homes and in the hospital.
Rambert informs Tarrou of his escape plan. Tarrou tells him that there are others in the city who have loved ones outside the city; Rambert becomes sympathetic and offers to help until he leaves. By mid-August, people trying to escape the town are shot by armed sentries. Violence and looting break out, leading authorities to declare martial law and impose a curfew. Funerals are conducted with more speed, with no ceremony and little concern for the bereaved.
Rambert finally has a chance to escape, but decides to stay, saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he left. Towards the end of October, an anti-plague serum is tried for the first time on the local magistrate Othon's son; the serum fails and he suffers intensely as Paneloux, Rieux, and Tarrou tend to him in horror.
Paneloux, who has joined the group of volunteers fighting the plague, gives a second sermon. He addresses the problem of an innocent child's suffering and says it is a test of faith since it requires him either to deny everything or believe everything. He urges the congregation not to give up, but to do everything possible to fight the plague. A few days after the sermon, Paneloux becomes ill; his symptoms do not conform to those of the plague, but the disease still proves fatal.
Tarrou and Rambert visit an isolation camps where they encounter the magistrate Othon. When Othon's quarantine ends, he chooses to stay in the camp as a volunteer to feel less separated from his dead son. Tarrou tells Rieux the story of his life. To take their mind off the epidemic, the two men go swimming in the sea. Grand catches the plague and instructs Rieux to burn all his papers, but makes an unexpected recovery. Deaths from the plague start to decline.
By late January, the plague is in full retreat and the townspeople celebrate. Cottard is distressed by the quarantine ending which has profited him greatly. Two government employees approach him and he flees. Despite the epidemic receding, Tarrou contracts the plague and dies after a heroic struggle. In February, the town gates open and people are reunited with their loved ones. Cottard has a mental breakdown and shoots at people from his home, killing a dog before being arrested. Rieux discloses his identity to the reader as the narrator and states that he tried to present an objective view of the events. He reflects on the epidemic and declares he wrote the chronicle to explain that, even in crisis, people are more good than evil.
Critical analysis
Germaine Brée has characterised the struggle of the characters against the plague as "undramatic and stubborn", and in contrast to the ideology of "glorification of power" in the novels of André Malraux, whereas Camus's characters "are obscurely engaged in saving, not destroying, and this in the name of no ideology".<ref>{{cite journal | jstor2929136 | lastSterling | firstElwyn F | titleAlbert Camus and the Plague | journalYale French Studies | issue 8| pages93–100 | date1951 | doi10.2307/2929136 }}</ref> Lulu Haroutunian has discussed Camus's own medical history, including a bout with tuberculosis, and how it informs the novel.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor3042843 | lastHaroutunian | firstLulu M | titleAlbert Camus and the White Plague | journalMLN | volume79 | issue3 | pages311–315 | dateMay 1964 | doi10.2307/3042843 }}</ref> Marina Warner notes its larger philosophical themes of "engagement", "paltriness and generosity", "small heroism and large cowardice", and "all kinds of profoundly humanist problems, such as love and goodness, happiness and mutual connection".<ref>{{cite news | urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2003/apr/26/classics.albertcamus | titleTo be a man | workThe Guardian | authorMarina Warner | date2003-04-26 | access-date=2016-07-08}}</ref>
Thomas L Hanna and John Loose have separately discussed themes related to Christianity in the novel, with particular respect to Father Paneloux and Dr Rieux.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor1201083 | lastHanna | firstThomas L | titleAlbert Camus and the Christian Faith | journalThe Journal of Religion | volume36 | issue4 | pages224–233 | dateOctober 1956 | doi10.1086/484811 | s2cid170222270 | doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | jstor1201321 | lastLoose | firstJohn | titleThe Christian as Camus's Absurd Man | journalThe Journal of Religion | volume42 | issue3 | pages203–214 | dateJuly 1962 | doi10.1086/485456 | s2cid171082793 }}</ref> Louis R Rossi briefly discusses the role of Tarrou in the novel, and the sense of philosophical guilt behind his character.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor4333870 | lastRossi | firstLouis R | titleAlbert Camus: The Plague of Absurdity | journalThe Kenyon Review | volume20 | issue3 | pages399–422 | dateSummer 1958 }}</ref> Elwyn Sterling has analysed the role of Cottard and his final actions at the end of the novel.<ref>{{cite journal | jstor25111699 | lastSterling | firstElwyn F | titleAlbert Camus' "La Peste": Cottard's Act of Madness | journalCollege Literature | volume13 | issue2 | pages189–209 | dateSpring 1986 }}</ref> Father Paneloux has been subject to several literary analyses in the context of faith faced with great suffering.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastBentley|firstWessel|date2020-10-20|titleReflections on the characters of Dr Rieux and Fr Paneloux in Camus' The Plague in a consideration of human suffering during the COVID-19 pandemic|urlhttps://hts.org.za/index.php/hts/article/view/6087|journalHTS Teologiese Studies / Theological Studies|languageen|volume76|issue4|pages7|doi10.4102/hts.v76i4.6087|s2cid226340393|issn2072-8050|doi-accessfree}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|lastIce|firstTamela|date2006-09-01|titleDoes Paneloux Lose Faith? Rethinking the Relationship Between Belief and Action in Camus' The Plague|urlhttps://journals.ku.edu/auslegung/article/view/13191|journalAuslegung: A Journal of Philosophy|languageen|volume28|issue2|pages1–17|doi10.17161/AJP.1808.9666|issn0733-4311|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Dr Rieux has been described as a classic example of an idealist doctor.<ref>{{Cite book|last1Surawicz|first1Borys|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCUqzDAAAQBAJ&q%22Bernard+Rieux%22&pgPA74|titleDoctors in Fiction: Lessons from Literature|last2Jacobson|first2Beverly|date2016-07-06|publisherCRC Press|isbn978-1-138-03098-5|pages74–80|languageen}}</ref> He has also been an inspiration to the life and career of the French doctor Réjean Thomas, and also to the fictional character of Jeanne Dion, starring in the movie trilogy directed by Bernard Émond (beginning with The Novena).<ref>{{Cite journal|lastBastien|firstSophie|date2015|titleLe docteur Rieux d'Albert Camus: un mentor au Québec, de la réalité à la fiction cinématographique|urlhttps://www.erudit.org/en/journals/globe/2015-v18-n1-globe02707/1037885ar/|journalGlobe: Revue internationale d'études québécoises|languagefr|volume18|issue1|pages211–226|doi10.7202/1037885ar|issn1481-5869}}</ref>
Perri Klass has noted that at the time of the novel, sulfa drugs were available for treatment against plague, and has criticised the novel for this historical-medical omission.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Klass |first1Perri |title"It's Hardly Credible" — Medical Readers and Literary Plague |journalNew England Journal of Medicine |date16 June 2022 |volume386 |issue24 |pages2257–2259 |doi10.1056/NEJMp2119103 |pmid35687048 |access-date21 June 2022 |urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35687048/}}</ref>
In the popular press
The novel has been read as an allegorical treatment of the French resistance to Nazi occupation during World War II.<ref>{{cite news | urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/nov/17/albertcamus | titleA hero for our times | workThe Guardian | authorTony Judt | date2001-11-16 | access-date2016-07-08}}</ref>
The novel became a bestseller during the worldwide COVID-19 pandemic of 2020 to the point that its British publisher Penguin Classics reported struggling to keep up with demand. The prescience of the fictional cordon sanitaire of Oran with real-life COVID-19 lockdowns worldwide brought revived popular attention. Sales in Italy tripled and it became a top-ten bestseller during its nationwide lockdown.<ref>{{Cite web|titleItalie: à l'ère du coronavirus, La peste de Camus devient un best-seller|urlhttps://actualitte.com/article/8811/reseaux-sociaux/italie-a-l-ere-du-coronavirus-la-peste-de-camus-devient-un-best-seller|access-date2021-01-26|websiteActuaLitté.com|languagefr-FR}}</ref> Penguin Classics' editorial director said "it couldn’t be more relevant to the current moment" and Camus's daughter Catherine said that the message of the novel had newfound relevance in that "we are not responsible for coronavirus but we can be responsible in the way we respond to it".<ref>{{Cite news |date2020-03-28|titleAlbert Camus novel The Plague leads surge of pestilence fiction|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/mar/28/albert-camus-novel-the-plague-la-peste-pestilence-fiction-coronavirus-lockdown|access-date2021-01-26|workThe Guardian|authorKim Willsher|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date2020-03-05|titlePublishers report sales boom in novels about fictional epidemics|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/mar/05/publishers-report-sales-boom-in-novels-about-fictional-epidemics-camus-the-plague-dean-koontz|access-date2021-01-26|workThe Guardian|authorAllison Flood|languageen}}</ref>Adaptations
* 1965: La Peste, a cantata composed by Roberto Gerhard
* 1970 Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow, a Hong Kong film directed by Patrick Lung
* 1992: La Peste, a film directed by Luis Puenzo
* 2017: The Plague, a play adapted by Neil Bartlett.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/stage/2017/apr/17/the-plague-review-albert-camus-arcola-london-neil-bartlett|titleThe Plague review – Neil Bartlett's ingenious update of Camus' chilling fable|firstMichael|lastBillington|date17 April 2017|workThe Guardian}}</ref> Bartlett substitutes a black woman for the male doctor, Rieux, and a black man for Tarrou.
* 2020: The Plague, an adaptation for radio of Neil Bartlett's 2017 play. Premiered on 26 July on BBC Radio 4 during the COVID-19 pandemic. The play was recorded at home by actors during the quarantine period. With Sara Powell as Doctor Rieux, Billy Postlethwaite as Raymond Rambert, Joe Alessi as Mr Cottard, Jude Aduwudike as Jean Tarrou and Colin Hurley as Mr Grand.
Publication history
As early as April 1941, Camus had been working on the novel, as evidenced in his diaries in which he wrote down a few ideas on "the redeeming plague".<ref>Camus, Albert, Carnets I, Mai 1935 - février 1942, Paris, Gallimard, 2013, 234 p. ({{ISBN|978-2-07045404-4}}), p.204</ref> On 13 March 1942, he informed André Malraux that he was writing "a novel on the plague", adding "Said like that it might sound strange, […] but this subject seems so natural to me."<ref>Camus, Albert, Malraux, André, Albert Camus, André Malraux, Correspondance 1941–1959, Paris, Gallimard, 2016, 152 p. ({{ISBN|978-2-07-014690-1}}), p.42</ref>
* 1947, La Peste (French), Paris: Gallimard
* 1948, translated by Stuart Gilbert,<ref>{{cite journal | authorCarpenter, Peter | titleStuart Gilbert's The Plague: Paraphrase or Translation? | journalTranslation Review | volume82 | issue1 | pages1–5 |date2011 | doi10.1080/07374836.2011.10555823}}</ref> London: Hamish Hamilton
* 1960, translated by Stuart Gilbert, London: Penguin, {{ISBN|978-0-140-18020-6}}
* 2001, translated by Robin Buss,<ref name="RG-C">Gay-Crosier, Raymond, "Albert Camus's The Plague: Why a Third English Translation?". Delos, 37(1), Spring 2022.</ref> London: Allen Lane, {{ISBN|978-0-713-99597-8}}
* 2021, translated by Laura Marris,<ref>{{cite news | titleDeep Emotion, Plain Speech: Camus's The Plague | urlhttps://www.theparisreview.org/blog/2022/09/28/deep-emotion-plain-speech-camuss-plague/ | workThe Paris Review | authorLaura Marris | date2022-09-28 | access-date2023-12-04}}</ref> New York: Knopf, {{ISBN|978-0-593-31866-9}}<ref name"RG-C"/><ref>{{cite news | titleMore to Admire: On Laura Marris's Translation of Albert Camus's The Plague | urlhttps://lareviewofbooks.org/article/more-to-admire-on-laura-marriss-translation-of-albert-camuss-the-plague/ | workLos Angeles Review of Books | authorRobert Zaretsky | date2021-12-01 | access-date2023-12-04}}</ref>See also
{{portal|Novels}}
* The Decameron
* The Masque of the Red Death
* The Betrothed
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
* {{in lang|fr}} [https://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1522/030174649 La Peste], Les Classiques des sciences sociales; Word, PDF, RTF formats, public domain in Canada
* {{in lang|fr}} [http://www.ebooksgratuits.com/html/camus_la_peste.html La Peste], ebooksgratuits.com; HTML format, public domain in Canada
{{Camus}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Plague, The}}
Category:1947 French novels
Category:Absurdist fiction
Category:Books with atheism-related themes
Category:Éditions Gallimard books
Category:Existentialist novels
Category:French novels adapted into films
Category:Novels by Albert Camus
Category:Novels set in the 1940s
Category:Novels set in Algeria
Category:Plague (disease)
Category:Oran
Category:Health in Algeria
Category:Novels about diseases and disorders
Category:Novels about viral outbreaks
Category:French novels adapted into plays
Category:First-person narrative novels | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Plague_(novel) | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.644015 |
988 | Applied ethics | {{Short description|Practical application of moral considerations}}
{{Redirect|Practical ethics|the book|Practical Ethics{{!}}Practical Ethics}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{more footnotes needed|date=September 2011}}
Applied ethics is the practical aspect of moral considerations. It is ethics with respect to real-world actions and their moral considerations in private and public life, the professions, health, technology, law, and leadership.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0006.xml |titleApplied Ethics |websiteOxford Bibliographies |access-date25 June 2017 |first1Thomas Søbirk |last1Petersen |first2Jesper |last2Ryberg |date2010 |doi10.1093/obo/9780195396577-0006 |isbn978-0-19-539657-7 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170719051943/http://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780195396577/obo-9780195396577-0006.xml |archive-date Jul 19, 2017 }}</ref> For example, bioethics is concerned with identifying the best approach to moral issues in the life sciences, such as euthanasia, the allocation of scarce health resources, or the use of human embryos in research.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/disability-care-rationing/ |titleDisability and Health Care Rationing |websiteStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date25 June 2017 |publisherThe Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy, Stanford University |dateJan 29, 2016 |url-statuslive |archive-url https://archive.today/20240115193840/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/disability-care-rationing/ |archive-date15 Jan 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/euthanasia-voluntary/ |titleVoluntary Euthanasia |websiteStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisherThe Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy, Stanford University |access-date25 June 2017 |orig-dateApr 18, 1996 |dateMay 24, 2022 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130806163130/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/euthanasia-voluntary/ |archive-date6 Aug 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stem-cells/ |titleEthics of Stem Cell Research |websiteStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisherThe Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy, Stanford University |access-date25 June 2017 |orig-dateApr 25, 2008 |dateDec 19, 2018 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130615184259/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/stem-cells/ |archive-date15 Jun 2013 }}</ref> Environmental ethics is concerned with ecological issues such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.iep.utm.edu/envi-eth/ |titleEnvironmental Ethics |websiteInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date25 June 2017 |first1Alasdair |last1Cochrane }}</ref> Business ethics includes the duties of whistleblowers to the public and to their employers.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-business/ |titleBusiness Ethics |websiteStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisherThe Metaphysics Research Lab, Department of Philosophy, Stanford University |access-date25 June 2017 |orig-dateNov 17, 2016 |dateJun 8, 2021 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20121212231107/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-business/ |archive-date12 Dec 2012 }}</ref> History
Applied ethics has expanded the study of ethics beyond the realms of academic philosophical discourse.<ref>Bayertz, K. (2002) Self-enlightenment of Applied Ethics, in: Chadwick, R and Schroeder, D. (eds.) Applied Ethics, Vol1. 36–51, London: Routledge</ref> The field of applied ethics, as it appears today, emerged from debate surrounding rapid medical and technological advances in the early 1970s and is now established as a subdiscipline of moral philosophy. However, applied ethics is, by its very nature, a multi-professional subject because it requires specialist understanding of the potential ethical issues in fields like medicine, business or information technology. Nowadays, ethical codes of conduct exist in almost every profession.<ref>Giorgini, V., Mecca, J. T., Gibson, C., Medeiros, K., Mumford, M. D., Connelly, S., & Devenport, L. D. (2015). Researcher perceptions of ethical guidelines and codes of conduct. Accountability in research, 22(3), 123–138.</ref>
An applied ethics approach to the examination of moral dilemmas can take many different forms but one of the most influential and most widely utilised approaches in bioethics and health care ethics is the four-principle approach developed by Tom Beauchamp and James Childress.<ref>Beauchamp, T. L. and Childress, J. F. (1994) Principles of medical ethics, New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> The four-principle approach, commonly termed principlism, entails consideration and application of four prima facie ethical principles: autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice.
Underpinning theory
Applied ethics is distinguished from normative ethics, which concerns standards for right and wrong behavior, and from meta-ethics, which concerns the nature of ethical properties, statements, attitudes, and judgments.<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/ap-ethic/#H7 "Applied Ethics"] Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 25 June 2017.</ref>
Whilst these three areas of ethics appear to be distinct, they are also interrelated. The use of an applied ethics approach often draws upon these normative ethical theories:
# Consequentialist ethics, which hold that the rightness of acts depends only on their consequences.<ref>{{Citation|lastSinnott-Armstrong|firstWalter|titleConsequentialism|date2019|urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/consequentialism/|encyclopediaThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-lastZalta|editor-firstEdward N.|editionSummer 2019|publisherMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date2021-02-16}}</ref> The paradigmatic consequentialist theory is utilitarianism, which classically holds that whether an act is morally right depends on whether it maximizes net aggregated psychological wellbeing. This theory's main developments came from Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill who distinguished between act and rule utilitarianism. Notable later developments were made by Henry Sidgwick who introduced the significance of motive or intent, and R. M. Hare who introduced<ref>{{Cite book |lastHare |firstRichard Mervyn |titleMoral thinking: its levels, method, and point |date1992 |publisherClarendon Pr |isbn978-0-19-824659-6 |edition7th impr |location=Oxford}}</ref> the significance of preference in utilitarian decision-making. Other forms of consequentialism include prioritarianism.
# Deontological ethics, which hold that acts have an inherent rightness or wrongness regardless of their context or consequences. This approach is epitomized by Immanuel Kant's notion of the categorical imperative, which was the centre of Kant's ethical theory based on duty. Another key deontological theory is natural law, which was heavily developed by Thomas Aquinas and is an important part of the Catholic Church's teaching on morals. Threshold deontology holds that rules ought to govern up to a point despite adverse consequences; but when the consequences become so dire that they cross a stipulated threshold, consequentialism takes over.<ref>{{Citation|last1Alexander|first1Larry|titleDeontological Ethics|date2020|urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2020/entries/ethics-deontological/|encyclopediaThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-lastZalta|editor-firstEdward N.|editionWinter 2020|publisherMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date2021-02-16|last2Moore|first2=Michael}}</ref>
# Virtue ethics, derived from Aristotle's and Confucius' notions, which asserts that the right action will be that chosen by a suitably 'virtuous' agent.
Normative ethical theories can clash when trying to resolve real-world ethical dilemmas. One approach attempting to overcome the divide between consequentialism and deontology is case-based reasoning, also known as casuistry. Casuistry does not begin with theory, rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case. While casuistry makes use of ethical theory, it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning. Casuists, like Albert Jonsen and Stephen Toulmin (The Abuse of Casuistry, 1988), challenge the traditional paradigm of applied ethics. Instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case, casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features (including both theory and practical considerations) ought to be considered for that particular case. In their observations of medical ethics committees, Jonsen and Toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case, rather than on ideology or theory. Thus, a Rabbi, a Catholic priest, and an agnostic might agree that, in this particular case, the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care, while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions. By focusing on cases and not on theory, those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement.
Applied ethics was later distinguished from the nascent applied epistemology, which is also under the umbrella of applied philosophy. While the former was concerned with the practical application of moral considerations, the latter focuses on the application of epistemology in solving practical problems.<ref>Carvallo, M. E. (2012). Nature, Cognition and System I: Current Systems-Scientific Research on Natural and Cognitive Systems. Dordrecht: Springer Science & Business Media. p. 68. <nowiki>ISBN 978-94-010-7844-3</nowiki>.</ref>
See also
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
*{{annotated link|Economic ethics}}
*{{annotated link|Effective altruism}}
*{{annotated link|Macroethics and microethics}}
*{{annotated link|Medical ethics}}
*{{annotated link|Outline of ethics}}
*{{annotated link|Philosophy}}
*{{annotated link|Precautionary principle}}
*{{annotated link|Master of Applied Ethics}}
{{colend}}
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* {{Cite book| firstR.F. | lastChadwick | year1997 | titleEncyclopedia of Applied Ethics | locationLondon | publisherAcademic Press | isbn=0-12-227065-7 }}
* {{Cite book| firstPeter | lastSinger | year1993 | titlePractical Ethics | publisherCambridge University Press| isbn0-521-43971-X }} (monograph)
* {{Cite book| firstAndrew I. | lastCohen | year2005 | titleContemporary Debates in Applied Ethics | publisherWiley-Blackwell | isbn978-1-4051-1548-3 }}
* {{Cite book| firstHugh | lastLaFollette | year2002 | titleEthics in Practice | publisherBlackwell Publishing| isbn0-631-22834-9 | edition=2nd }}
* {{Cite book| firstPeter | lastSinger | year1986 | titleApplied Ethics | publisherOxford University Press| isbn0-19-875067-6 }}
* {{Cite book | firstR.G. | lastFrey | year2004 | titleA Companion to Applied Ethics | publisherBlackwell | isbn1-4051-3345-7 | urlhttps://archive.org/details/companiontoappli0000unse | url-accessregistration }}
External links
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991 | Absolute value | {{Short description|Distance from zero to a number}}
{{about|the absolute value of real and complex numbers|other absolute values in mathematics|Absolute value (algebra)|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
of the absolute value function for real numbers]]
In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus of a real number <math>x</math>, {{nowrap|denoted <math>|x|</math>,}} is the non-negative value {{nowrap|of <math>x</math>}} without regard to its sign. Namely, <math>|x|x</math> if <math>x</math> is a positive number, and <math>|x|-x</math> if <math>x</math> is negative (in which case negating <math>x</math> makes <math>-x</math> positive), and {{nowrap|<math>|0|=0</math>.}} For example, the absolute value of 3 {{nowrap|is 3,}} and the absolute value of −3 is {{nowrap|also 3.}} The absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero.
Generalisations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings. For example, an absolute value is also defined for the complex numbers, the quaternions, ordered rings, fields and vector spaces. The absolute value is closely related to the notions of magnitude, distance, and norm in various mathematical and physical contexts.
Terminology and notation
In 1806, Jean-Robert Argand introduced the term module, meaning unit of measure in French, specifically for the complex absolute value,<ref nameoed>Oxford English Dictionary, Draft Revision, June 2008</ref><ref>Nahin, [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Argand.html O'Connor and Robertson], and [http://functions.wolfram.com/ComplexComponents/Abs/35/ functions.Wolfram.com.]; for the French sense, see Littré, 1877</ref> and it was borrowed into English in 1866 as the Latin equivalent modulus.<ref nameoed /> The term absolute value has been used in this sense from at least 1806 in French<ref>Lazare Nicolas M. Carnot, ''Mémoire sur la relation qui existe entre les distances respectives de cinq point quelconques pris dans l'espace, p.&nbsp;105 [https://books.google.com/books?idYyIOAAAAQAAJ&pgPA105 at Google Books]</ref> and 1857 in English.<ref>James Mill Peirce, A Text-book of Analytic Geometry [https://archive.org/details/atextbookanalyt00peirgoog/page/n60 <!-- pg42 --> at Internet Archive]. The oldest citation in the 2nd edition of the Oxford English Dictionary is from 1907. The term absolute value is also used in contrast to relative value.</ref> The notation {{math|{{abs|{{mvar|x}}}}}}, with a vertical bar on each side, was introduced by Karl Weierstrass in 1841.<ref>Nicholas J. Higham, Handbook of writing for the mathematical sciences, SIAM. {{ISBN|0-89871-420-6}}, p.&nbsp;25</ref> Other names for absolute value include numerical value<ref nameoed /> and magnitude.<ref name=oed /> The absolute value of <math>x</math> has also been denoted <math>\operatorname{abs} x</math> in some mathematical publications,<ref>{{cite journal
| last Siegel | first Carl Ludwig
| doi = 10.2307/1968953
| journal = Annals of Mathematics
| jstor = 1968953
| mr = 8095
| pages = 613–616
| series = Second Series
| title = Note on automorphic functions of several variables
| volume = 43
| year 1942| issue 4
}}</ref> and in spreadsheets, programming languages, and computational software packages, the absolute value of <math display"inline">x</math> is generally represented by <code>abs(x'')</code>, or a similar expression,<ref>{{cite book|titleExcel Formulas and Functions For Dummies|firstKen|lastBluttman|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|year2015|isbn9781119076780|page135|contributionIgnoring signs|contribution-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3pVxBgAAQBAJ&pgPA135}}</ref> as it has been since the earliest days of high-level programming languages.<ref>{{citation
| last Knuth | first D. E. | author-link = Donald Knuth
| contribution = Invited papers: History of writing compilers
| doi = 10.1145/800198.806098
| page = 43, 126
| publisher = ACM Press
| title = Proceedings of the 1962 ACM National Conference
| year = 1962}}</ref>
The vertical bar notation also appears in a number of other mathematical contexts: for example, when applied to a set, it denotes its cardinality; when applied to a matrix, it denotes its determinant.<ref>{{cite report|urlhttps://www.unicode.org/notes/tn28/UTN28-PlainTextMath-v3.3.pdf|typeUnicode report 28|titleA Nearly Plain-Text Encoding of Mathematics|firstMurray III|lastSargent|dateJanuary 22, 2025|access-date2025-02-23}}</ref> Vertical bars denote the absolute value only for algebraic objects for which the notion of an absolute value is defined, notably an element of a normed division algebra, for example a real number, a complex number, or a quaternion. A closely related but distinct notation is the use of vertical bars for either the Euclidean norm<ref>{{Cite book|titleCalculus on Manifolds|lastSpivak|firstMichael|publisherWestview|year1965|isbn0805390219|locationBoulder, CO|pages1}}</ref> or sup norm<ref>{{Cite book|titleAnalysis on Manifolds|lastMunkres|firstJames|publisherWestview|year1991|isbn0201510359|locationBoulder, CO|pages4}}</ref> of a vector {{nowrap|in <math>\R^n</math>,}} although double vertical bars with subscripts {{nowrap|(<math>\|\cdot\|_2</math>}} {{nowrap|and <math>\|\cdot\|_\infty</math>,}} respectively) are a more common and less ambiguous notation.Definition and propertiesReal numbersFor any {{nowrap|real number <math>x</math>,}} the absolute value or modulus {{nowrap|of <math>x</math>}} is denoted {{nowrap|by <math>|x|</math>}}, with a vertical bar on each side of the quantity, and is defined as<ref>Mendelson, [https://books.google.com/books?idA8hAm38zsCMC&pg=PA2 p.&nbsp;2].</ref>
<math displayblock>|x|
\begin{cases}
x, & \text{if } x \geq 0 \\
-x, & \text{if } x < 0.
\end{cases}
</math>
The absolute value {{nowrap|of <math>x</math>}} is thus always either a positive number or zero, but never negative. When <math>x</math> itself is negative {{nowrap|(<math>x < 0</math>),}} then its absolute value is necessarily positive {{nowrap|(<math>|x|=-x>0</math>).}}
From an analytic geometry point of view, the absolute value of a real number is that number's distance from zero along the real number line, and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers (their absolute difference) is the distance between them.<ref>{{cite book|titlePrecalculus: A Functional Approach to Graphing and Problem Solving|firstKarl|lastSmith|publisherJones & Bartlett Publishers|year2013|isbn978-0-7637-5177-7|page8|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZUJbVQN37bIC&pgPA8}}</ref> The notion of an abstract distance function in mathematics can be seen to be a generalisation of the absolute value of the difference (see "Distance" below).
Since the square root symbol represents the unique positive square root, when applied to a positive number, it follows that
<math displayblock qidQ120645811>|x| = \sqrt{x^2}.</math>
This is equivalent to the definition above, and may be used as an alternative definition of the absolute value of real numbers.<ref>{{Cite book| authorStewart, James B. | titleCalculus: concepts and contexts | year2001 | publisherBrooks/Cole | locationAustralia | isbn0-534-37718-1 | page=A5}}</ref>
The absolute value has the following four fundamental properties (<math display"inline">a</math>, <math display"inline">b</math> are real numbers), that are used for generalization of this notion to other domains:
{| style="margin-left:1.6em"
|-
| style"width: 250px" |<math qidQ120645720>|a| \ge 0 </math>
| Non-negativity
|-
|<math>|a| 0 \iff a 0 </math>
|Positive-definiteness
|-
|<math>|ab| = \left|a\right| \left|b\right|</math>
|Multiplicativity
|-
|<math qid=Q120645947>|a+b| \le |a| + |b| </math>
| Subadditivity, specifically the triangle inequality
|}
Non-negativity, positive definiteness, and multiplicativity are readily apparent from the definition. To see that subadditivity holds, first note that <math>|a+b|s(a+b)</math> {{nowrap|where <math>s\pm 1</math>,}} with its sign chosen to make the result positive. Now, since <math>-1 \cdot x \le |x|</math> {{nowrap|and <math>+1 \cdot x \le |x|</math>,}} it follows that, whichever of <math>\pm1</math> is the value {{nowrap|of <math>s</math>,}} one has <math>s \cdot x\leq |x|</math> for all {{nowrap|real <math>x</math>.}} Consequently, <math>|a+b|s \cdot (a+b) s \cdot a + s \cdot b \leq |a| + |b|</math>, as desired.
Some additional useful properties are given below. These are either immediate consequences of the definition or implied by the four fundamental properties above.
{| style="margin-left:1.6em"
|-
| style"width:250px" |<math>\bigl| \left|a\right| \bigr| |a|</math>
|Idempotence (the absolute value of the absolute value is the absolute value)
|-
| style"width:250px" |<math>\left|-a\right| |a|</math>
|Evenness (reflection symmetry of the graph)
|-
|<math>|a - b| 0 \iff a b </math>
|Identity of indiscernibles (equivalent to positive-definiteness)
|-
|<math>|a - b| \le |a - c| + |c - b| </math>
|Triangle inequality (equivalent to subadditivity)
|-
|<math>\left|\frac{a}{b}\right| = \frac{|a|}{|b|}\ </math> (if <math>b \ne 0</math>)
|Preservation of division (equivalent to multiplicativity)
|-
|<math>|a-b| \geq \bigl| \left|a\right| - \left|b\right| \bigr| </math>
|Reverse triangle inequality (equivalent to subadditivity)
|}
Two other useful properties concerning inequalities are:
{| style="margin-left:1.6em"
|-
|<math>|a| \le b \iff -b \le a \le b </math>
|-
|<math>|a| \ge b \iff a \le -b\ </math> or <math>a \ge b </math>
|}
These relations may be used to solve inequalities involving absolute values. For example:
{| style="margin-left:1.6em"
|-
|<math>|x-3| \le 9 </math>
|<math>\iff -9 \le x-3 \le 9 </math>
|-
|
|<math>\iff -6 \le x \le 12 </math>
|}
The absolute value, as "distance from zero", is used to define the absolute difference between arbitrary real numbers, the standard metric on the real numbers.
Complex numbers
{{Anchor|complex modulus}} <math>z</math>}} is the {{nowrap|distance <math>r</math>}} {{nowrap|of <math>z</math>}} from the origin. It is also seen in the picture that <math>z</math> and its {{nowrap|complex conjugate <math>\bar z</math>}} have the same absolute value.]]
Since the complex numbers are not ordered, the definition given at the top for the real absolute value cannot be directly applied to complex numbers. However, the geometric interpretation of the absolute value of a real number as its distance from 0 can be generalised. The absolute value of a complex number is defined by the Euclidean distance of its corresponding point in the complex plane from the origin. This can be computed using the Pythagorean theorem: for any complex number
<math displayblock>z x + iy,</math>
where <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> are real numbers, the absolute value or modulus {{nowrap|of <math>z</math>}} is {{nowrap|denoted <math>|z|</math>}} and is defined by<ref>{{cite book|authorGonzález, Mario O.|titleClassical Complex Analysis|publisherCRC Press|year1992|isbn9780824784157|page19|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idncxL7EFr7GsC&pg=PA19}}</ref>
<math displayblock>|z| \sqrt{\operatorname{Re}(z)^2 + \operatorname{Im}(z)^2}=\sqrt{x^2 + y^2},</math>
the Pythagorean addition of <math>x</math> and <math>y</math>, where <math>\operatorname{Re}(z)x</math> and <math>\operatorname{Im}(z)y</math> denote the real and imaginary parts {{nowrap|of <math>z</math>,}} respectively. When the {{nowrap|imaginary part <math>y</math>}} is zero, this coincides with the definition of the absolute value of the {{nowrap|real number <math>x</math>.}}
When a complex number <math>z</math> is expressed in its polar form {{nowrap|as <math>z r e^{i \theta},</math>}} its absolute value {{nowrap|is <math>|z| r.</math>}}
Since the product of any complex number <math>z</math> and its {{nowrap|complex conjugate <math>\bar z = x - iy</math>,}} with the same absolute value, is always the non-negative real number {{nowrap|<math>\left(x^2 + y^2\right)</math>,}} the absolute value of a complex number <math>z</math> is the square root {{nowrap|of <math>z \cdot \overline{z},</math>}} which is therefore called the absolute square or squared modulus {{nowrap|of <math>z</math>:}}
<math displayblock>|z| \sqrt{z \cdot \overline{z}}.</math>
This generalizes the alternative definition for reals: {{nowrap|<math display"inline">|x| \sqrt{x\cdot x}</math>.}}
The complex absolute value shares the four fundamental properties given above for the real absolute value. The identity <math>|z|^2 |z^2|</math> is a special case of multiplicativity that is often useful by itself.Absolute value function
of the absolute value function for real numbers]]
of absolute value with a cubic function in different orders]]
The real absolute value function is continuous everywhere. It is differentiable everywhere except for {{math|1x 0}}. It is monotonically decreasing on the interval {{open-closed|−∞, 0}} and monotonically increasing on the interval {{closed-open|0, +∞}}. Since a real number and its opposite have the same absolute value, it is an even function, and is hence not invertible. The real absolute value function is a piecewise linear, convex function.
For both real and complex numbers the absolute value function is idempotent (meaning that the absolute value of any absolute value is itself).
Relationship to the sign function
The absolute value function of a real number returns its value irrespective of its sign, whereas the sign (or signum) function returns a number's sign irrespective of its value. The following equations show the relationship between these two functions:
:<math>|x| = x \sgn(x),</math>
or
:<math> |x| \sgn(x) = x,</math>
and for {{math|x ≠ 0}},
:<math>\sgn(x) \frac{|x|}{x} \frac{x}{|x|}.</math>
Relationship to the max and min functions
Let <math>s,t\in\R</math>, then the following relationship to the minimum and maximum functions hold:
:<math>|t-s|= -2 \min(s,t)+s+t</math>
and
:<math>|t-s|=2 \max(s,t)-s-t.</math>
The formulas can be derived by considering each case <math>s>t</math> and <math>t>s</math> separately.
From the last formula one can derive also <math>|t|\max(t,-t)</math>.DerivativeThe real absolute value function has a derivative for every {{math|x ≠ 0}}, but is not differentiable at {{math|1x 0}}. Its derivative for {{math|x ≠ 0}} is given by the step function:<ref name"MathWorld">{{cite web| url http://mathworld.wolfram.com/AbsoluteValue.html| title Weisstein, Eric W. Absolute Value. From MathWorld – A Wolfram Web Resource.}}</ref><ref name="BS163">Bartle and Sherbert, p.&nbsp;163</ref>
:<math>\frac{d\left|x\right|}{dx} \frac{x}{|x|} \begin{cases} -1 & x<0 \\ 1 & x>0. \end{cases}</math>
The real absolute value function is an example of a continuous function that achieves a global minimum where the derivative does not exist.
The subdifferential of&nbsp;{{math|{{abs|{{mvar|x}}}}}} at&nbsp;{{math|1x 0}} is the interval&nbsp;{{closed-closed|−1, 1}}.<ref>Peter Wriggers, Panagiotis Panatiotopoulos, eds., New Developments in Contact Problems, 1999, {{ISBN|3-211-83154-1}}, [https://books.google.com/books?idtiBtC4GmuKcC&pgPA31 p.&nbsp;31–32]</ref>
The complex absolute value function is continuous everywhere but complex differentiable nowhere because it violates the Cauchy–Riemann equations.<ref name="MathWorld"/>
The second derivative of&nbsp;{{math|{{abs|{{mvar|x}}}}}} with respect to&nbsp;{{mvar|x}} is zero everywhere except zero, where it does not exist. As a generalised function, the second derivative may be taken as two times the Dirac delta function.
Antiderivative
The antiderivative (indefinite integral) of the real absolute value function is
:<math>\int \left|x\right| dx = \frac{x\left|x\right|}{2} + C,</math>
where {{mvar|C}} is an arbitrary constant of integration. This is not a complex antiderivative because complex antiderivatives can only exist for complex-differentiable (holomorphic) functions, which the complex absolute value function is not.
Derivatives of compositions
The following two formulae are special cases of the chain rule:
<math>{d \over dx} f(|x|)={x \over |x|} (f'(|x|))</math>
if the absolute value is inside a function, and
<math>{d \over dx} |f(x)|={f(x) \over |f(x)|} f'(x)</math>
if another function is inside the absolute value. In the first case, the derivative is always discontinuous at <math display"inline">x0</math> in the first case and where <math display"inline">f(x)0</math> in the second case.
Distance
{{See also|Metric space}}
The absolute value is closely related to the idea of distance. As noted above, the absolute value of a real or complex number is the distance from that number to the origin, along the real number line, for real numbers, or in the complex plane, for complex numbers, and more generally, the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers is the distance between them.
The standard Euclidean distance between two points
:<math>a = (a_1, a_2, \dots , a_n) </math>
and
:<math>b = (b_1, b_2, \dots , b_n) </math>
in Euclidean {{mvar|n}}-space is defined as:
:<math>\sqrt{\textstyle\sum_{i=1}^n(a_i-b_i)^2}. </math>
This can be seen as a generalisation, since for <math>a_1</math> and <math>b_1</math> real, i.e. in a 1-space, according to the alternative definition of the absolute value,
:<math>|a_1 - b_1| \sqrt{(a_1 - b_1)^2} \sqrt{\textstyle\sum_{i=1}^1(a_i-b_i)^2},</math>
and for <math> a a_1 + i a_2 </math> and <math> b b_1 + i b_2 </math> complex numbers, i.e. in a 2-space,
:{|
|-
|<math>|a - b| </math>
|<math> = |(a_1 + i a_2) - (b_1 + i b_2)|</math>
|-
|
|<math> = |(a_1 - b_1) + i(a_2 - b_2)|</math>
|-
|
|<math> \sqrt{(a_1 - b_1)^2 + (a_2 - b_2)^2} \sqrt{\textstyle\sum_{i=1}^2(a_i-b_i)^2}.</math>
|}
The above shows that the "absolute value"-distance, for real and complex numbers, agrees with the standard Euclidean distance, which they inherit as a result of considering them as one and two-dimensional Euclidean spaces, respectively.
The properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers: non-negativity, identity of indiscernibles, symmetry and the triangle inequality given above, can be seen to motivate the more general notion of a distance function as follows:
A real valued function {{mvar|d}} on a set {{math|X × X}} is called a metric (or a distance function) on&nbsp;{{mvar|X}}, if it satisfies the following four axioms:<ref>These axioms are not minimal; for instance, non-negativity can be derived from the other three: {{math|10 d(a, a) ≤ d(a, b) + d(b, a) = 2d(a, b)}}.</ref>
:{|
|-
|style="width:250px" | <math>d(a, b) \ge 0 </math>
|Non-negativity
|-
|<math>d(a, b) 0 \iff a b </math>
|Identity of indiscernibles
|-
|<math>d(a, b) = d(b, a) </math>
|Symmetry
|-
|<math>d(a, b) \le d(a, c) + d(c, b) </math>
|Triangle inequality
|}
Generalizations
Ordered rings
The definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can be extended to any ordered ring. That is, if&nbsp;{{mvar|a}} is an element of an ordered ring&nbsp;R, then the absolute value of&nbsp;{{mvar|a}}, denoted by {{math|{{abs|a}}}}, is defined to be:<ref>Mac Lane, [https://books.google.com/books?idL6FENd8GHIUC&pgPA264 p.&nbsp;264].</ref>
:<math>|a| = \left\{
\begin{array}{rl}
a, & \text{if } a \geq 0 \\
-a, & \text{if } a < 0.
\end{array}\right.
</math>
where {{math|−a}} is the additive inverse of&nbsp;{{mvar|a}}, 0 is the additive identity, and < and ≥ have the usual meaning with respect to the ordering in the ring.
Fields
{{Main|Absolute value (algebra)}}
The four fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used to generalise the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field, as follows.
A real-valued function&nbsp;{{mvar|v}} on a field&nbsp;{{mvar|F}} is called an absolute value (also a modulus, magnitude, value, or valuation)<ref>Shechter, [https://books.google.com/books?ideqUv3Bcd56EC&pgPA260 p.&nbsp;260]. This meaning of valuation is rare. Usually, a valuation is the logarithm of the inverse of an absolute value</ref> if it satisfies the following four axioms:
:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|<math>v(a) \ge 0 </math>
|Non-negativity
|-
|<math>v(a) 0 \iff a \mathbf{0} </math>
|Positive-definiteness
|-
|<math>v(ab) = v(a) v(b) </math>
|Multiplicativity
|-
|<math>v(a+b) \le v(a) + v(b) </math>
|Subadditivity or the triangle inequality
|}
Where 0 denotes the additive identity of&nbsp;{{mvar|F}}. It follows from positive-definiteness and multiplicativity that {{math|1v(1) 1}}, where 1 denotes the multiplicative identity of&nbsp;{{mvar|F}}. The real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field.
If {{mvar|v}} is an absolute value on&nbsp;{{mvar|F}}, then the function&nbsp;{{mvar|d}} on {{math|F × F}}, defined by {{math|1d(a, b) v(a − b)}}, is a metric and the following are equivalent:
* {{mvar|d}} satisfies the ultrametric inequality <math>d(x, y) \leq \max(d(x,z),d(y,z))</math> for all {{mvar|x}}, {{mvar|y}}, {{mvar|z}} in&nbsp;{{mvar|F}}.
* <math display"inline"> \left\{ v\left( \sum_{k1}^n \mathbf{1}\right) : n \in \N \right\} </math> is bounded in&nbsp;R.
* <math> v\left({\textstyle \sum_{k=1}^n } \mathbf{1}\right) \le 1\ </math> for every <math>n \in \N</math>.
* <math> v(a) \le 1 \Rightarrow v(1+a) \le 1\ </math> for all <math>a \in F</math>.
* <math> v(a + b) \le \max \{v(a), v(b)\}\ </math> for all <math>a, b \in F</math>.
An absolute value which satisfies any (hence all) of the above conditions is said to be non-Archimedean, otherwise it is said to be Archimedean.<ref>Shechter, [https://books.google.com/books?ideqUv3Bcd56EC&pgPA260 pp.&nbsp;260–261].</ref>
Vector spaces
{{Main|Norm (mathematics)}}
Again the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used, with a slight modification, to generalise the notion to an arbitrary vector space.
A real-valued function on a vector space&nbsp;{{mvar|V}} over a field&nbsp;{{mvar|F}}, represented as {{math|{{norm}}}}, is called an absolute value, but more usually a norm, if it satisfies the following axioms:
For all&nbsp;{{mvar|a}} in&nbsp;{{mvar|F}}, and {{math|v}}, {{math|u}} in&nbsp;{{mvar|V}},
:{| cellpadding=10
|-
|<math>\|\mathbf{v}\| \ge 0 </math>
|Non-negativity
|-
|<math>\|\mathbf{v}\| 0 \iff \mathbf{v} 0</math>
|Positive-definiteness
|-
|<math>\|a \mathbf{v}\| = \left|a\right| \left\|\mathbf{v}\right\| </math>
|Absolute homogeneity or positive scalability
|-
|<math>\|\mathbf{v} + \mathbf{u}\| \le \|\mathbf{v}\| + \|\mathbf{u}\| </math>
|Subadditivity or the triangle inequality
|}
The norm of a vector is also called its length or magnitude.
In the case of Euclidean space <math>\mathbb{R}^n</math>, the function defined by
:<math>\|(x_1, x_2, \dots , x_n) \| \sqrt{\textstyle\sum_{i1}^{n} x_i^2}</math>
is a norm called the Euclidean norm. When the real numbers <math>\mathbb{R}</math> are considered as the one-dimensional vector space <math>\mathbb{R}^1</math>, the absolute value is a norm, and is the {{mvar|p}}-norm (see L<sup>p</sup> space) for any&nbsp;{{mvar|p}}. In fact the absolute value is the "only" norm on <math>\mathbb{R}^1</math>, in the sense that, for every norm {{math|{{norm}}}} on <math>\mathbb{R}^1</math>, {{math|1{{norm|x}} {{norm|1}} ⋅ {{abs|x}}}}.
The complex absolute value is a special case of the norm in an inner product space, which is identical to the Euclidean norm when the complex plane is identified as the Euclidean plane&nbsp;<math>\mathbb{R}^2</math>.
Composition algebras
{{Main|Composition algebra}}
Every composition algebra A has an involution x → x* called its conjugation. The product in A of an element x and its conjugate x* is written N(x) = x x* and called the norm of x.
The real numbers <math>\mathbb{R}</math>, complex numbers <math>\mathbb{C}</math>, and quaternions <math>\mathbb{H}</math> are all composition algebras with norms given by definite quadratic forms. The absolute value in these division algebras is given by the square root of the composition algebra norm.
In general the norm of a composition algebra may be a quadratic form that is not definite and has null vectors. However, as in the case of division algebras, when an element x has a non-zero norm, then x has a multiplicative inverse given by x*/N(x).
See also
*Least absolute values
Notes
{{Reflist|30em}}
References
* Bartle; Sherbert; Introduction to real analysis (4th ed.), John Wiley & Sons, 2011 {{ISBN|978-0-471-43331-6}}.
* Nahin, Paul J.; An Imaginary Tale; Princeton University Press; (hardcover, 1998). {{ISBN|0-691-02795-1}}.
* Mac Lane, Saunders, Garrett Birkhoff, Algebra, American Mathematical Soc., 1999. {{ISBN|978-0-8218-1646-2}}.
* Mendelson, Elliott, ''Schaum's Outline of Beginning Calculus'', McGraw-Hill Professional, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-07-148754-2}}.
* O'Connor, J.J. and Robertson, E.F.; [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Argand.html "Jean Robert Argand"].
* Schechter, Eric; Handbook of Analysis and Its Foundations, pp.&nbsp;259–263, [https://books.google.com/books?ideqUv3Bcd56EC&pgPA259 "Absolute Values"], Academic Press (1997) {{ISBN|0-12-622760-8}}.
External links
* {{springer|titleAbsolute value|idp/a010370|mode=cs1}}
* {{PlanetMath | urlnameAbsoluteValue | titleabsolute value | id=448}}
* {{MathWorld | urlnameAbsoluteValue | titleAbsolute Value}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Absolute Value}}
Category:Special functions
Category:Real numbers
Category:Norms (mathematics) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.676404 |
993 | Analog signal | {{Short description|Continuous time-varying signal}}
{{refimprove|date=August 2022}}
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An analog signal (American English) or analogue signal (British and Commonwealth English) is any continuous-time signal representing some other quantity, i.e., analogous to another quantity. For example, in an analog audio signal, the instantaneous signal voltage varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves.<ref>{{cite book |doi10.1016/B978-1-876938-60-4.50013-6 |chapterCommunications and networking |titleComputers for Librarians |date2003 |last1Ferguson |first1Stuart |last2Hebels |first2Rodney |pages197–226 |isbn978-1-876938-60-4 }}</ref>
In contrast, a digital signal represents the original time-varying quantity as a sampled sequence of quantized values. Digital sampling imposes some bandwidth and dynamic range constraints on the representation and adds quantization noise.
The term analog signal usually refers to electrical signals; however, mechanical, pneumatic, hydraulic, and other systems may also convey or be considered analog signals.
Representation
An analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signal's information. For example, an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information. In an electrical signal, the voltage, current, or frequency of the signal may be varied to represent the information.{{fact|date=December 2024}}
Any information may be conveyed by an analog signal; such a signal may be a measured response to changes in a physical variable, such as sound, light, temperature, position, or pressure. The physical variable is converted to an analog signal by a transducer. For example, sound striking the diaphragm of a microphone induces corresponding fluctuations in the current produced by a coil in an electromagnetic microphone or the voltage produced by a condenser microphone. The voltage or the current is said to be an analog of the sound.{{fact|dateDecember 2024}}Noise
{{See also|Comparison of analog and digital recording}}
An analog signal is subject to electronic noise and distortion introduced by communication channels, recording and signal processing operations, which can progressively degrade the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). As the signal is transmitted, copied, or processed, the unavoidable noise introduced in the signal path will accumulate as a generation loss, progressively and irreversibly degrading the SNR, until in extreme cases, the signal can be overwhelmed. Noise can show up as hiss and intermodulation distortion in audio signals, or snow in video signals. Generation loss is irreversible as there is no reliable method to distinguish the noise from the signal.{{fact|date=December 2024}}
Converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a low-level quantization noise into the signal due to finite resolution of digital systems.<ref>{{cite web |titleWhat is quantization error and how does signal to noise relate to this? |urlhttps://www.tek.com/en/support/faqs/what-quantization-error-and-how-does-signal-noise-relate |publisher=Tektronix }}</ref> Once in digital form, the signal can be transmitted, stored, and processed without introducing additional noise or distortion using error detection and correction.
Noise accumulation in analog systems can be minimized by electromagnetic shielding, balanced lines, low-noise amplifiers and high-quality electrical components.{{fact|dateDecember 2024}}See also{{div col|colwidth20em}}
* Amplifier
* Analog computer
* Analog device
* Analog signal processing
* Magnetic tape
* Preamplifier
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References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* {{cite journal |last1Leach |first1W.M. |titleFundamentals of low-noise analog circuit design |journalProceedings of the IEEE |dateOctober 1994 |volume82 |issue10 |pages1515–1538 |doi=10.1109/5.326411 }}
* {{cite journal |last1Pawelczyk |first1M. |titleAnalog Active Control of Acoustic Noise at a Virtual Location |journalIEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology |dateMarch 2009 |volume17 |issue2 |pages465–472 |doi=10.1109/TCST.2008.2000988 }}
* {{cite journal |id{{INIST|3575490}} |last1Muncy |first1Neil |titleNoise susceptibility in analog and digital signal processing systems |journalJournal of the Audio Engineering Society |date1995 |volume43 |issue6 |pages=435–453 }}
{{Telecommunications}}
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Category:Analog circuits
Category:Electronic design
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Category:Video signal | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_signal | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.681515 |
994 | Arecales | {{Short description|Order of flowering plants}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| taxon = Arecales
| image = Beetle palm with nut bunch.jpg
| image_caption = Areca catechu
| fossil_range = {{fossil range|80|0}}Late Cretaceous - Recent
| authority = Bromhead
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision =
*Arecaceae
*Dasypogonaceae
| diversity =
206 genera
}}
Arecales is an order of flowering plants. The order has been widely named as such only for the past few decades; until then, the accepted name for the order including these plants was Principes. The order includes palms and relatives.
Taxonomy
The APG IV system of 2016 places Dasypogonaceae in this order, after studies showing Dasypogonaceae as sister to Arecaceae.<ref name"apgiv">{{Citation |lastAngiosperm Phylogeny Group |year2016 |titleAn update of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants: APG IV | journal Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society |volume 181|pages1–20|doi10.1111/boj.12385|doi-accessfree}}</ref> However, this decision has been called into question.<ref>{{citation |last1Givnish |first1Thomas J. |author-link1Thomas J. Givnish|last2Zuluaga |first2Alejandro |last3Spalink |first3Daniel |last4Soto Gomez |first4Marybel |last5Lam |first5Vivienne K. Y. |last6Saarela |first6Jeffrey M. |last7Sass |first7Chodon |last8Iles |first8William J. D. |last9de Sousa |first9Danilo José Lima |last10Leebens-Mack |first10James |last11Chris Pires |first11J. |last12Zomlefer |first12Wendy B. |last13Gandolfo |first13Maria A. |last14Davis |first14Jerrold I. |last15Stevenson |first15Dennis W. |last16dePamphilis |first16Claude |last17Specht |first17Chelsea D. |last18Graham |first18Sean W. |last19Barrett |first19Craig F. |last20Ané |first20Cécile|author20-linkCécile Ané |titleMonocot plastid phylogenomics, timeline, net rates of species diversification, the power of multi-gene analyses, and a functional model for the origin of monocots |journalAmerican Journal of Botany |dateNovember 2018 |volume105 |issue11 |pages1888–1910 |doi10.1002/ajb2.1178 |pmid30368769|doi-accessfree |urlhttp://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/146610/18/ajb21178-sup-0014-AppendixS14.pdf }}</ref> Historical taxonomical systems The Cronquist system of 1981 assigned the order to the subclass Arecidae in the class Liliopsida ( monocotyledons).
The Thorne system (1992) and the Dahlgren system assigned the order to the superorder Areciflorae, also called Arecanae in the subclass Liliidae (= monocotyledons), with the single family Arecaceae.
The APG II system of 2003 recognised the order and placed it in the clade commelinids in the monocots and uses this circumscription:
* order Arecales
*: family Arecaceae, alternative name Palmae
This was unchanged from the APG system of 1998, although it used the spelling "commelinoids" instead of commelinids.
Principes
In plant taxonomy, Principes is a botanical name, meaning "the first". It was used in the Engler system for an order in the Monocotyledones and later in the Kubitzki system. This order included one family only, the Palmae (alternate name Arecaceae). As the rules for botanical nomenclature provide for the use of such descriptive botanical names above the rank of family it is quite allowed to use this name even today, but in practice most systems prefer the name Arecales.
Following this, Principes became the name of the journal of the International Palm Society, becoming Palms in 1999.
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Commons category|position=left|Arecales}}
*{{Wikispecies-inline}}
* [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?modeTree&id40551&lvl3&linf&keep1&srchmode1&unlock NCBI Taxonomy Browser]
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Category:Angiosperm orders
Category:Late Cretaceous plants
Category:Extant Campanian first appearances | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecales | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.685290 |
1000 | Hercule Poirot | {{short description|Fictional detective created by Agatha Christie}}
{{redirect|Poirot|the television series|Agatha Christie's Poirot{{!}}''Agatha Christie's Poirot|the surname|Poirot (surname)|other uses|Poirot (disambiguation)}}
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{{Infobox character
| name = Hercule Poirot
| image = DavidSuchet - Poirot.png
| caption = David Suchet as Hercule Poirot in Agatha Christie's Poirot
| creator = Agatha Christie
| first_major = The Mysterious Affair at Styles
| first_date = (1920)
| last = Curtain'' (1975, by Agatha Christie)
| portrayer = Charles Laughton<br />Francis L. Sullivan<br />Austin Trevor<br />Orson Welles<br />Harold Huber<br />Richard Williams<br />John Malkovich<br />José Ferrer<br />Martin Gabel<br />Tony Randall<br />Albert Finney<br />Dudley Jones<br />Peter Ustinov<br />Ian Holm<br />David Suchet<br />John Moffatt<br />Maurice Denham<br />Peter Sallis<br />Konstantin Raikin<br />Alfred Molina<br />Robert Powell<br />Jason Durr<br />Kenneth Branagh<br />Anthony O'Donnell<br />Shirō Itō (Takashi Akafuji)<br />Mansai Nomura (Takeru Suguro)<br />Tom Conti<br />Pál Mácsai
| voice = Kōtarō Satomi<br>
| gender = Male
| nationality = Belgian
| occupation = Private investigator<br>Police officer (former occupation)
| family = Jules-Louis Poirot (father)<br>Godelieve Poirot (mother)
| religion = Catholic
}}
Hercule Poirot ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|ɛər|k|juː|l|_|ˈ|p|w|ɑːr|oʊ}}, {{IPAc-en|US|h|ɜːr|ˈ|k|juː|l|_|p|w|ɑː|ˈ|r|oʊ}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/hercule-poirot |titleDefinition |publisherOxfordlearnersdictionaries.com |access-date5 January 2019}}</ref>) is a fictional Belgian detective created by British writer Agatha Christie. Poirot is Christie's most famous and longest-running character, appearing in 33 novels, two plays (Black Coffee and Alibi), and 51 short stories published between 1920 and 1975.
Poirot has been portrayed on radio, in film and on television by various actors, including Austin Trevor, John Moffatt, Albert Finney, Peter Ustinov, Ian Holm, Tony Randall, Alfred Molina, Orson Welles, David Suchet, Kenneth Branagh, and John Malkovich.
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Overview
Influences
Poirot's name was derived from two other fictional detectives of the time: Marie Belloc Lowndes's Hercule Popeau and Frank Howel Evans's Monsieur Poiret, a retired French police officer living in London.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rectrue&UID5054 |titleAgatha Christie (1890–1976) |access-date6 September 2006 |firstChris|lastWillis|locationLondon Metropolitan University}}</ref> Evans's Jules Poiret "was small and rather heavyset, hardly more than five feet, but moved with his head held high. The most remarkable features of his head were the stiff military moustache. His apparel was neat to perfection, a little quaint and frankly dandified." He was accompanied by Captain Harry Haven, who had returned to London from a Colombian business venture ended by a civil war. <ref>{{cite book|authorFrank Howell Evans|titleThe Murder of Lady Malvern}}</ref>
A more obvious influence on the early Poirot stories is that of Arthur Conan Doyle. In An Autobiography, Christie states, "I was still writing in the Sherlock Holmes tradition – eccentric detective, stooge assistant, with a Lestrade-type Scotland Yard detective, Inspector Japp".{{efn|Reproduced as the "Introduction" to 2013 Hercule Poirot: The Complete Short Stories: A Hercule Poirot Collection with Foreword by Charles Todd}} Conan Doyle acknowledged basing his detective stories on the model of Edgar Allan Poe's C. Auguste Dupin and his anonymous narrator, and basing his character Sherlock Holmes on Joseph Bell, who in his use of "ratiocination" prefigured Poirot's reliance on his "little grey cells". Poirot also bears a striking resemblance to A. E. W. Mason's fictional detective Inspector Hanaud of the French Sûreté, who first appeared in the 1910 novel At the Villa Rose and predates the first Poirot novel by 10 years.
Christie's Poirot was clearly the result of her early development of the detective in her first book, written in 1916 and published in 1920. The large number of refugees in the country who had fled the German invasion of Belgium in August to November 1914 served as a plausible explanation of why such a skilled detective would be available to solve mysteries at an English country house.{{sfn|Christie|1939}} At the time of Christie's writing, it was considered patriotic to express sympathy towards the Belgians,<ref>{{cite book|firstHorace Cornelius|last Peterson|titlePropaganda for War. The Campaign Against American Neutrality, 1914–1917|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPkJbnQEACAAJ|year1968|publisherKennikat|isbn9780804603652}}</ref> since the invasion of their country had constituted Britain's casus belli for entering World War I, and British wartime propaganda emphasised the "Rape of Belgium".
Popularity
Poirot first appeared in The Mysterious Affair at Styles, published in 1920, and exited in Curtain, published in 1975. Following the latter, Poirot was the only fictional character to receive an obituary on the front page of The New York Times.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://uk.agathachristie.com/story-explorer/characters/poirot/ |titlePoirot |publisherOfficial Agatha Christie website |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100412131601/http://uk.agathachristie.com/story-explorer/characters/poirot/ |archive-date12 April 2010 |access-date10 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleHercule Poirot is Dead; Famed Belgian Detective; Hercule Poirot, the Detective, Dies |firstThomas |lastLask |date6 August 1975 |page1 |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?resFB0E10F63A5E157493C4A91783D85F418785F9}}</ref>
By 1930, Agatha Christie found Poirot "insufferable"; by 1960, she felt that Poirot was a "detestable, bombastic, tiresome, ego-centric little creep". Despite this, Poirot remained an exceedingly popular character with the general public. Christie later stated that she refused to kill him off, claiming that it was her duty to produce what the public liked.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.litencyc.com/php/speople.php?rectrue&UID5054 |titleAgatha Christie (1890–1976) |date16 July 2001 |access-date10 June 2013 |firstChris |lastWillis |encyclopediaThe Literary Encyclopedia |publisherThe Literary Dictionary Company |issn1747-678X}}</ref> Appearance and proclivities
Captain Arthur Hastings's first description of Poirot:
{{blockquote|He was hardly more than five feet four inches but carried himself with great dignity. His head was exactly the shape of an egg, and he always perched it a little on one side. His moustache was very stiff and military. Even if everything on his face was covered, the tips of moustache and the pink-tipped nose would be visible.
The neatness of his attire was almost incredible; I believe a speck of dust would have caused him more pain than a bullet wound. Yet this quaint dandified little man who, I was sorry to see, now limped badly, had been in his time one of the most celebrated members of the Belgian police.{{sfn|Christie|1939}}}}
Agatha Christie's initial description of Poirot in Murder on the Orient Express:
{{blockquote|By the step leading up into the sleeping-car stood a young French lieutenant, resplendent in uniform, conversing with a small man [Hercule Poirot] muffled up to the ears of whom nothing was visible but a pink-tipped nose and the two points of an upward-curled moustache. {{sfn|Christie|2011}}}}
In the later books, his limp is not mentioned, suggesting it may have been a temporary wartime injury. (In Curtain, Poirot admits he was wounded when he first came to England.) Poirot has green eyes that are repeatedly described as shining "like a cat's" when he is struck by a clever idea,<ref>E.g. "For about ten minutes [Poirot] sat in dead silence... and all the time his eyes grew steadily greener" {{harvnb|Christie|1939|locChapter 5}}</ref> and dark hair, which he dyes later in life. In Curtain, he admits to Hastings that he has taken to wearing a wig and a false moustache.<ref>as Hastings discovers in {{harvnb|Christie|1991|locChapter 1}}</ref> However, in many of his screen incarnations, he is bald or balding.
Frequent mention is made of his patent leather shoes, damage to which is frequently a source of misery for him, but comical for the reader.<ref>E.g. "Hercule Poirot looked down at the tips of his patent-leather shoes and sighed." {{harvnb|Christie|1947a}}</ref> Poirot's appearance, regarded as fastidious during his early career, later falls hopelessly out of fashion.<ref>E.g. "And now here was the man himself. Really a most impossible person – the wrong clothes – button boots! an incredible moustache! Not his – Meredith Blake's kind of fellow at all." {{harvnb|Christie|2011|loc=Chapter 7}}</ref>
Among Poirot's most significant personal attributes is the sensitivity of his stomach:
{{blockquote|The plane dropped slightly. "Mon estomac," thought Hercule Poirot, and closed his eyes determinedly.{{sfn|Christie|2010|loc=Chapter 1}}}}
He suffers from sea sickness,<ref>"My stomach, it is not happy on the sea"{{harvnb|Christie|1980|loc=Chapter 8, iv}}</ref> and, in Death in the Clouds, he states that his air sickness prevents him from being more alert at the time of the murder. Later in his life, we are told:
{{blockquote|Always a man who had taken his stomach seriously, he was reaping his reward in old age. Eating was not only a physical pleasure, it was also an intellectual research.{{sfn|Christie|2010|loc=Chapter 1}}}}
Poirot is extremely punctual and carries a pocket watch almost to the end of his career.<ref>"he walked up the steps to the front door and pressed the bell, glancing as he did so at the neat wrist-watch which had at last replaced an old favourite – the large turnip-faced watch of early days. Yes, it was exactly nine-thirty. As ever, Hercule Poirot was exact to the minute." {{harvnb|Christie|2011b}}</ref> He is also particular about his personal finances, preferring to keep a bank balance of 444 pounds, 4 shillings, and 4 pence.{{sfn|Christie|2013a}} Actor David Suchet, who portrayed Poirot on television, said "there's no question he's obsessive-compulsive".<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/culture/2009/may/19/david-suchet-poirot-agatha-christie|titlePoirot and me |lastBarton|firstLaura |author-linkLaura Barton |date18 May 2009|workThe Guardian |locationLondon |access-date2021-05-06 |languageen-GB |issn0261-3077}}</ref> Film portrayer Kenneth Branagh said that he "enjoyed finding the sort of obsessive-compulsive" in Poirot.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2017/11/10/563378736/kenneth-branagh-on-his-meticulous-master-detective-role-in-murder-on-the-orient-|titleKenneth Branagh on His Meticulous Master Detective Role In 'Murder on the Orient Express'|publisherNPR |access-date26 November 2017|languageen}}</ref>
As mentioned in Curtain and The Clocks, he is fond of classical music, particularly Mozart and Bach.
Methods
In The Mysterious Affair at Styles, Poirot operates as a fairly conventional, clue-based and logical detective; reflected in his vocabulary by two common phrases: his use of "the little grey cells" and "order and method". Hastings is irritated by the fact that Poirot sometimes conceals important details of his plans, as in The Big Four.{{sfn|Christie|2004b}} In this novel, Hastings is kept in the dark throughout the climax. This aspect of Poirot is less evident in the later novels, partly because there is rarely a narrator to mislead.
In Murder on the Links, still largely dependent on clues himself, Poirot mocks a rival "bloodhound" detective who focuses on the traditional trail of clues established in detective fiction (e.g., Sherlock Holmes depending on footprints, fingerprints, and cigar ash). From this point on, Poirot establishes his psychological bona fides. Rather than painstakingly examining crime scenes, he enquires into the nature of the victim or the psychology of the murderer. He predicates his actions in the later novels on his underlying assumption that particular crimes are committed by particular types of people.
Poirot focuses on getting people to talk. In the early novels, he casts himself in the role of "Papa Poirot", a benign confessor, especially to young women. In later works, Christie made a point of having Poirot supply false or misleading information about himself or his background to assist him in obtaining information.<ref>"It has been said of Hercule Poirot by some of his friends and associates, at moments when he has maddened them most, that he prefers lies to truth and will go out of his way to gain his ends by elaborate false statements, rather than trust to the simple truth." {{harvnb|Christie|2011a|loc= Book One, Chapter 9}}</ref> In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Poirot speaks of a non-existent mentally disabled nephew<ref>E.g. "After a careful study of the goods displayed in the window, Poirot entered and represented himself as desirous of purchasing a rucksack for a hypothetical nephew." Hickory Dickory Dock, Chapter 13</ref> to uncover information about homes for the mentally unfit. In Dumb Witness, Poirot invents an elderly invalid mother as a pretence to investigate local nurses. In The Big Four, Poirot pretends to have (and poses as) an identical twin brother named Achille: however, this brother was mentioned again in The Labours of Hercules.{{sfn|Christie|2004b}}
<blockquote>"If I remember rightly – though my memory isn't what it was – you also had a brother called Achille, did you not?" Poirot's mind raced back over the details of Achille Poirot's career. Had all that really happened? "Only for a short space of time," he replied.{{sfn|Christie|1947|p=}}</blockquote>
Poirot is also willing to appear more foreign or vain in an effort to make people underestimate him. He admits as much:
<blockquote>It is true that I can speak the exact, the idiomatic English. But, my friend, to speak the broken English is an enormous asset. It leads people to despise you. They say – a foreigner – he can't even speak English properly. ... Also I boast! An Englishman he says often, "A fellow who thinks as much of himself as that cannot be worth much." ... And so, you see, I put people off their guard.{{sfn|Christie|2006b|loc=final chapter}}</blockquote>
He also has a tendency to refer to himself in the third person.<ref>{{cite web | url https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2011/jul/28/agatha-christie-poirot-box-set | title Your next box set: Agatha Christie's Poirot | work The Guardian | last Saner | first Emine | date2011-07-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/10431162/Poirot-The-Labours-of-Hercules-ITV-review.html | title Poirot: The Labours of Hercules, ITV, review| work The Telegraph | last Pettie | first Andrew | date2013-11-06}}</ref>
In later novels, Christie often uses the word mountebank when characters describe Poirot, showing that he has successfully passed himself off as a charlatan or fraud.
Poirot's investigating techniques assist him solving cases; "For in the long run, either through a lie, or through truth, people were bound to give themselves away..."{{sfn|Christie|2005|locChapter 18}} At the end, Poirot usually reveals his description of the sequence of events and his deductions to a room of suspects, often leading to the culprit's apprehension. Life , Belgium]]OriginsChristie was purposely vague about Poirot's origins, as he is thought to be an elderly man even in the early novels. In An Autobiography, she admitted that she already imagined him to be an old man in 1920. At the time, however, she did not know that she would write works featuring him for decades to come.<ref>{{Cite book |lastChristie |firstAgatha |titleAn Autobiography |date2017-05-04 |publisherHarperCollins |isbn978-0-00-731466-9 |publication-date2017-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastHavlíčková |firstAndrea |date2008-11-10 |titleAgatha Christie and her Great Detective (based on Poirot Investigates and Hercule Poirot's Christmas, reflecting 1920s and 1930s) |urlhttps://is.muni.cz/th/74475/ff_b/?langen;zoomy_is1 |websiteMasaryk University Information System |publication-place=Department of English and American Studies, Faculty of Arts, Masaryk University, Brno}}</ref>
A brief passage in The Big Four provides original information about Poirot's birth or at least childhood in or near the town of Spa, Belgium: "But we did not go into Spa itself. We left the main road and wound into the leafy fastnesses of the hills, till we reached a little hamlet and an isolated white villa high on the hillside."{{sfn|Christie|2004b|locChapter 16}} Christie strongly implies that this "quiet retreat in the Ardennes"{{sfn|Christie|2004b|locChapter 17}} near Spa is the location of the Poirot family home.
An alternative tradition holds that Poirot was born in the village of Ellezelles (province of Hainaut, Belgium).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://magazine.bellesdemeures.com/en/luxury/lifestyle/province-hainaut-village-ellezelles-adopts-detective-hercule-poirot-article-27759.html|titleIn the province of Hainaut, the village of Ellezelles adopts detective Hercule Poirot|websiteBelles Demeures|date10 September 2018 |languageen-gb|access-date17 December 2018}}</ref> A few memorials dedicated to Hercule Poirot can be seen in the centre of this village. There appears to be no reference to this in Christie's writings, but the town of Ellezelles cherishes a copy of Poirot's birth certificate in a local memorial 'attesting' Poirot's birth, naming his father and mother as Jules-Louis Poirot and Godelieve Poirot.
Christie wrote that Poirot is a Catholic by birth,<ref>,!-- "Hercule Poirot was a Catholic by birth."--> {{harvnb|Christie|1947a}}</ref> but not much is described about his later religious convictions, except sporadic references to his "going to church" and occasional invocations of "le bon Dieu".{{efn|In Taken at the Flood, Book II, Chapter 6 Poirot goes into the church to pray and happens across a suspect with whom he briefly discusses ideas of sin and confession.<ref>{{harvnb|Christie|1948}}</ref>}} Christie provides little information regarding Poirot's childhood, only mentioning in Three Act Tragedy that he comes from a large family with little wealth, and has at least one younger sister. Apart from French and English, Poirot is also fluent in German.<ref>{{harvnb|Christie|2011|locChapter 12}}</ref> Policeman
<blockquote>Gustave ... was not a policeman. I have dealt with policemen all my life and I know. He could pass as a detective to an outsider but not to a man who was a policeman himself.
: — Hercule Poirot, "The Erymanthian Boar"<ref> {{harvnb|Christie|1947c}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2024}}</blockquote>
Hercule Poirot was active in the Brussels police force by 1893.{{sfn|Christie|2009b|locChapter 15}} Very little mention is made about this part of his life, but in "The Nemean Lion" (1939) Poirot refers to a Belgian case of his in which "a wealthy soap manufacturer ... poisoned his wife in order to be free to marry his secretary".<ref>{{Citation |titleCollins, William Janson, (born 10 June 1929), Chairman, William Collins Sons & Co. (Holdings) Ltd, 1976–81 |date2007-12-01 |workWho's Who |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.11568 |access-date2024-12-11 |publisherOxford University Press|doi10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.11568 }}</ref> As Poirot was often misleading about his past to gain information, the truthfulness of that statement is unknown; it does, however, scare off a would-be wife-killer.
In the short story "The Chocolate Box" (1923), Poirot reveals to Captain Arthur Hastings an account of what he considers to be his only failure. Poirot admits that he has failed to solve a crime "innumerable" times:
<blockquote>I have been called in too late. Very often another, working towards the same goal, has arrived there first. Twice I have been struck down with illness just as I was on the point of success.<ref>{{Citation |titleCollins, William Janson, (born 10 June 1929), Chairman, William Collins Sons & Co. (Holdings) Ltd, 1976–81 |date2007-12-01 |workWho's Who |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.11568 |access-date2024-12-11 |publisherOxford University Press|doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.11568 }}</ref></blockquote>
Nevertheless, he regards the 1893 case in "The Chocolate Box",{{efn|The date is given in 1932 Peril at End House<ref>{{harvnb|Christie|2009b|loc=Chapter 15}}</ref>}} as his only failure through his fault only.
Again, Poirot is not reliable as a narrator of his personal history and there is no evidence that Christie sketched it out in any depth. During his police career, Poirot shot a man who was firing from a roof into the public below.{{sfn|Christie|1975|locPostscript}} In Lord Edgware Dies, Poirot reveals that he learned to read writing upside down during his police career.{{cn|dateFebruary 2024}} Around that time he met Xavier Bouc, director of the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits.
Inspector Japp offers some insight into Poirot's career with the Belgian police when introducing him to a colleague:
<blockquote>You've heard me speak of Mr Poirot? It was in 1904 he and I worked together – the Abercrombie forgery case – you remember he was run down in Brussels. Ah, those were the days Moosier. Then, do you remember "Baron" Altara? There was a pretty rogue for you! He eluded the clutches of half the police in Europe. But we nailed him in Antwerp – thanks to Mr. Poirot here.{{sfn|Christie|1939|loc=Chapter 7}}</blockquote>
In "The Double Clue", Poirot mentions that he was Chief of Police of Brussels, until "the Great War" (World War I) forced him to leave for England.{{cn|dateFebruary 2024}} Private detective
<blockquote>I had called in at my friend Poirot's rooms to find him sadly overworked. So much had he become the rage that every rich woman who had mislaid a bracelet or lost a pet kitten rushed to secure the services of the great Hercule Poirot. {{sfn|Christie|2013b}}</blockquote>
During World War I, Poirot left Belgium for England as a refugee, although he returned a few times. On 16 July 1916 he again met his lifelong friend, Captain Arthur Hastings, and solved the first of his cases to be published, The Mysterious Affair at Styles. It is clear that Hastings and Poirot are already friends when they meet in Chapter 2 of the novel, as Hastings tells Cynthia that he has not seen him for "some years". ''Agatha Christie's Poirot has Hastings reveal that they met on a shooting case where Hastings was a suspect.{{efn|name="KidnapPM"}}
Particulars such as the date of 1916 for the case and that Hastings had met Poirot in Belgium, are given in Curtain, Chapter 1. After that case, Poirot apparently came to the attention of the British secret service and undertook cases for the British government, including foiling the attempted abduction of the Prime Minister.{{efn|name="KidnapPM" |Recounted in the short story The Kidnapped Prime Minister''<ref>{{harvnb|Christie|2012}}</ref> }} Readers were told that the British authorities had learned of Poirot's keen investigative ability from certain members of Belgium's royal family.
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After the war, Poirot became a private detective and began undertaking civilian cases. He moved into what became both his home and work address, Flat 203 at 56B Whitehaven Mansions. Hastings first visits the flat when he returns to England in June 1935 from Argentina in The A.B.C. Murders, Chapter 1. The ITV series ''Agatha Christie's Poirot uses Florin Court in Charterhouse Square to represent Whitehaven Mansions, even though it is in the wrong part of London and was built in 1936, decades after Poirot fictionally moved in.
According to Hastings, it was chosen by Poirot "entirely on account of its strict geometrical appearance and proportion" and described as the "newest type of service flat". His first case in this period was "The Affair at the Victory Ball", which allowed Poirot to enter high society and begin his career as a private detective.
Between the world wars, Poirot travelled all over Europe and the Middle East investigating crimes and solving murders. Most of his cases occurred during this time, and he was at the height of his powers at this point in his life. In The Murder on the Links, the Belgian pits his grey cells against a French murderer. In the Middle East, he solved the cases Death on the Nile and Murder in Mesopotamia with ease, and even survived An Appointment with Death. As he passed through Eastern Europe on his return trip, he solved The Murder on the Orient Express. He did not travel to Africa or Asia, probably to avoid seasickness.
<blockquote>It is this villainous sea that troubles me! The mal de mer'' – it is horrible suffering!<ref>Poirot, in {{harvnb|Christie|2012}}</ref></blockquote>
It was during this time he met the Countess Vera Rossakoff, a glamorous jewel thief. The history of the countess is, like Poirot's, steeped in mystery. She claims to have been a member of the Russian aristocracy before the Russian Revolution and suffered greatly as a result, but how much of that story is true is an open question. Even Poirot acknowledges that Rossakoff offered wildly varying accounts of her early life. Poirot later became smitten with the woman and allowed her to escape justice.<ref>Cassatis, John (1979). The Diaries of A. Christie. London.</ref>
<blockquote>It is the misfortune of small, precise men always to hanker after large and flamboyant women. Poirot had never been able to rid himself of the fatal fascination that the countess held for him.<ref>"The Capture of Cerebus" (1947). The first sentence quoted is also a close paraphrase of something said to Poirot by Hastings in Chapter 18 of The Big Four{{harvnb|Christie|2004b}}</ref></blockquote>
Although letting the countess escape was morally questionable, it was not uncommon. In The Nemean Lion, Poirot sided with the criminal, Miss Amy Carnaby, allowing her to evade prosecution by blackmailing his client Sir Joseph Hoggins, who, Poirot discovered, had plans to commit murder. Poirot even sent Miss Carnaby two hundred pounds as a final payoff prior to the conclusion of her dog kidnapping campaign. In The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, Poirot allowed the murderer to escape justice through suicide and then withheld the truth to spare the feelings of the murderer's relatives.
In The Augean Stables, he helped the government to cover up vast corruption. In Murder on the Orient Express, Poirot allowed the murderers to go free after discovering that twelve different people participated in the murder, each one stabbing the victim in a darkened carriage, after drugging him into unconsciousness so that there was no way for anyone to definitively determine which of them actually delivered the killing blow. The victim had committed a disgusting crime which led to the deaths of at least five people, and there was no question of his guilt, but he had been acquitted in America in a miscarriage of justice.
Considering it poetic justice that twelve jurors had acquitted him and twelve people had stabbed him, Poirot produced an alternative sequence of events to explain the death involving an unknown additional passenger on the train, with the medical examiner agreeing to doctor his own report to support this theory.
After his cases in the Middle East, Poirot returned to Britain. Apart from some of the so-called Labours of Hercules (see next section) he very rarely went abroad during his later career. He moved into Styles Court towards the end of his life.
While Poirot was usually paid handsomely by clients, he was also known to take on cases that piqued his curiosity, although they did not pay well.
Poirot shows a love of steam trains, which Christie contrasts with Hastings' love of autos: this is shown in The Plymouth Express, The Mystery of the Blue Train, Murder on the Orient Express, and The ABC Murders. In the TV series, steam trains are seen in nearly all of the episodes.
Retirement
<blockquote>That's the way of it. Just a case or two, just one case more – the Prima Donna's farewell performance won't be in it with yours, Poirot.<ref>{{harvnb|Christie|2006a}} Dr. Burton in the Preface</ref></blockquote>
Confusion surrounds Poirot's retirement. Most of the cases covered by Poirot's private detective agency take place before his retirement to attempt to grow larger marrows, at which time he solves The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. It has been said that the twelve cases related in The Labours of Hercules (1947) must refer to a different retirement, but the fact that Poirot specifically says that he intends to grow marrows indicates that these stories also take place before Roger Ackroyd, and presumably Poirot closed his agency once he had completed them.
There is specific mention in "The Capture of Cerberus" of the twenty-year gap between Poirot's previous meeting with Countess Rossakoff and this one. If the Labours precede the events in Roger Ackroyd, then the Ackroyd case must have taken place around twenty years later than it was published, and so must any of the cases that refer to it. One alternative would be that having failed to grow marrows once, Poirot is determined to have another go, but this is specifically denied by Poirot himself.<ref>{{harvnb|Christie|2004a|loc=Chapter 13}} in response to the suggestion that he might take up gardening in his retirement, Poirot answers "Once the vegetable marrows, yes – but never again".</ref>
In "The Erymanthian Boar", a character is said to have been turned out of Austria by the Nazis, implying that the events of The Labours of Hercules took place after 1937. Another alternative would be to suggest that the Preface to the Labours takes place at one date but that the labours are completed over a matter of twenty years. None of the explanations is especially attractive.
In terms of a rudimentary chronology, Poirot speaks of retiring to grow marrows in Chapter 18 of The Big Four{{sfn|Christie|2004b|loc=Chapter 18}} (1927) which places that novel out of published order before Roger Ackroyd. He declines to solve a case for the Home Secretary because he is retired in Chapter One of Peril at End House (1932). He has certainly retired at the time of Three Act Tragedy (1935) but he does not enjoy his retirement and repeatedly takes cases thereafter when his curiosity is engaged.
He continues to employ his secretary, Miss Lemon, at the time of the cases retold in Hickory Dickory Dock and ''Dead Man's Folly'', which take place in the mid-1950s. It is, therefore, better to assume that Christie provided no authoritative chronology for Poirot's retirement but assumed that he could either be an active detective, a consulting detective, or a retired detective as the needs of the immediate case required.
One consistent element about Poirot's retirement is that his fame declines during it, so that in the later novels he is often disappointed when characters, especially younger characters, recognise neither him nor his name:
<blockquote>"I should, perhaps, Madame, tell you a little more about myself. I am Hercule Poirot."<br/>
The revelation left Mrs Summerhayes unmoved.<br/>
"What a lovely name," she said kindly. "Greek, isn't it?"{{sfn|Christie|1952|locChapter 4}}</blockquote> Post–World War II {{Blockquote | He, I knew, was not likely to be far from his headquarters. The time when cases had drawn him from one end of England to the other was past. | Hastings{{Sfn |Christie|2004b|loc Chapter 1}}{{Page needed | date = August 2014}}}}
Poirot is less active during the cases that take place at the end of his career. Beginning with Three Act Tragedy (1934), Christie had perfected during the inter-war years a subgenre of Poirot novel in which the detective himself spent much of the first third of the novel on the periphery of events. In novels such as Taken at the Flood, After the Funeral, and Hickory Dickory Dock, he is even less in evidence, frequently passing the duties of main interviewing detective to a subsidiary character. In Cat Among the Pigeons, Poirot's entrance is so late as to be almost an afterthought. Whether this was a reflection of his age or of Christie's distaste for him, is impossible to assess. Crooked House (1949) and Ordeal by Innocence (1957), which could easily have been Poirot novels, represent a logical endpoint of the general diminution of his presence in such works.
Towards the end of his career, it becomes clear that Poirot's retirement is no longer a convenient fiction. He assumes a genuinely inactive lifestyle during which he concerns himself with studying famous unsolved cases of the past and reading detective novels. He even writes a book about mystery fiction in which he deals sternly with Edgar Allan Poe and Wilkie Collins.{{sfn|Christie | 2011c |loc Chapter 1}}{{Page needed | date August 2014}} In the absence of a more appropriate puzzle, he solves such inconsequential domestic riddles as the presence of three pieces of orange peel in his umbrella stand.{{sfn|Christie | 2006a |locChapter 14}} {{Page needed | date August 2014}}
Poirot (and, it is reasonable to suppose, his creator){{efn | In The Pale Horse, Chapter 1, the novel's narrator, Mark Easterbrook, disapprovingly describes a typical "Chelsea girl"{{Sfn | Christie |1961}}{{Page needed | date August 2014}} in much the same terms that Poirot uses in Chapter 1 of Third Girl, suggesting that the condemnation of fashion is authorial.{{Sfn | Christie | 2011c}}{{Page needed | date August 2014}}}} becomes increasingly bemused by the vulgarism of the up-and-coming generation's young people. In Hickory Dickory Dock, he investigates the strange goings-on in a student hostel, while in Third Girl (1966) he is forced into contact with the smart set of Chelsea youths. In the growing drug and pop culture of the 1960s, he proves himself once again but has become heavily reliant on other investigators, especially the private investigator, Mr. Goby, who provide him with the clues that he can no longer gather for himself.
{{Blockquote | ''You're too old''. Nobody told me you were so old. I really don't want to be rude but – there it is. ''You're too old''. I'm really very sorry. | Norma Restarick to Poirot in Third Girl, Chapter 1{{Sfn |Christie | 2011c|locChapter 1}}{{Page needed | date August 2014}}}}
Notably, during this time his physical characteristics also change dramatically; by the time Arthur Hastings meets Poirot again in Curtain, he looks very different from his previous appearances, having become thin with age and with obviously dyed hair.
Death
On the ITV television series, Poirot died in October 1949{{efn|The extensive letter addressed to Hastings where he explains how he solved the case is dated from October 1949 <ref>"Curtain", 2013</ref>}} from complications of a heart condition at the end of Curtain. This took place at Styles Court, the scene of his first English case in 1916. In Christie's novels, he lived into the early 1970s, perhaps even until 1975 when Curtain was published.
In Curtain, Poirot himself became a murderer, in order to prevent further murders instigated by a man who manipulated others to kill for him, subtly and psychologically manipulating the moments where others desire to commit murder so that they carry out the crime when they might otherwise dismiss their thoughts as nothing more than a momentary passion. Poirot executed the man, as otherwise he would have continued his actions and never been convicted.
Poirot himself died shortly after having committed murder. He had moved his amyl nitrite pills out of his own reach, possibly because of guilt. Poirot himself noted that he wanted to kill his victim shortly before his own death so that he could avoid succumbing to the arrogance of the murderer, concerned that he might come to view himself as entitled to kill those whom he deemed necessary to eliminate.
It is revealed at the end of Curtain that he fakes his need for a wheelchair to fool people into believing that he is suffering from arthritis, to give the impression that he is more infirm than he is. His last recorded words are "Cher ami!", spoken to Hastings as the Captain left his room. The TV adaptation adds that as Poirot is dying alone, he whispers out his final prayer to God in these words: "Forgive me... forgive...". Poirot was buried at Styles, and his funeral was arranged by his best friend Hastings and Hastings' daughter Judith. Hastings reasoned, "Here was the spot where he had lived when he first came to this country. He was to lie here at the last."
Poirot's actual death and funeral occurred in Curtain, years after his retirement from the active investigation, but it was not the first time that Hastings attended the funeral of his best friend. In The Big Four (1927), Poirot feigned his death and subsequent funeral to launch a surprise attack on the Big Four.
Recurring characters
Captain Arthur Hastings
{{Main|Arthur Hastings}}
Hastings, a former British Army officer, meets Poirot during Poirot's years as a police officer in Belgium and almost immediately after they both arrive in England. He becomes Poirot's lifelong friend and appears in many cases. Poirot regards Hastings as a poor private detective, not particularly intelligent, yet helpful in his way of being fooled by the criminal or seeing things the way the average man would see them and for his tendency to unknowingly "stumble" onto the truth.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year2000 |firstBunson |lastMatthew |titleHastings, Captain Arthur, O.B.E. |encyclopediaThe Complete Christie: An Agatha Christie Encyclopedia |publisherPocket Books |location=New York}}</ref> Hastings marries and has four children – two sons and two daughters. As a loyal, albeit somewhat naïve companion, Hastings is to Poirot what Watson is to Sherlock Holmes.
Hastings is capable of great bravery and courage, facing death unflinchingly when confronted by The Big Four and displaying unwavering loyalty towards Poirot. However, when forced to choose between Poirot and his wife in that novel, he initially chooses to betray Poirot to protect his wife. Later, though, he tells Poirot to draw back and escape the trap.
The two are an airtight team until Hastings meets and marries Dulcie Duveen, a beautiful music hall performer half his age, after investigating the Murder on the Links. They later emigrated to Argentina, leaving Poirot behind as a "very unhappy old man". Poirot and Hastings reunite during the novels The Big Four, Peril at End House, The ABC Murders, Lord Edgware Dies, and Dumb Witness, when Hastings arrives in England for business, with Poirot noting in ABC Murders that he enjoys having Hastings over because he feels that he always has his most interesting cases with Hastings.
The two collaborate for the final time in Curtain when the seemingly-crippled Poirot asks Hastings to assist him in his final case. When the killer they are tracking nearly manipulates Hastings into committing murder, Poirot describes this in his final farewell letter to Hastings as the catalyst that prompted him to eliminate the man himself, as Poirot knew that his friend was not a murderer and refused to let a man capable of manipulating Hastings in such a manner go on.
Mrs Ariadne Oliver
{{Main|Ariadne Oliver}}
Detective novelist Ariadne Oliver is Agatha Christie's humorous self-caricature. Like Christie, she is not overly fond of the detective whom she is most famous for creating–in Ariadne's case, Finnish sleuth Sven Hjerson. We never learn anything about her husband, but we do know that she hates alcohol and public appearances and has a great fondness for apples, until she is put off them by the events of ''Hallowe'en Party''. She has a habit of constantly changing her hairstyle. In every appearance by her much is made of her clothes and hats. Her maid Maria prevents the public adoration from becoming too much of a burden on her employer but does nothing to prevent her from becoming too much of a burden on others.
She has authored more than 56 novels and greatly dislikes people modifying her characters. She is the only one in Poirot's universe to have noted that "It's not natural for five or six people to be on the spot when B is murdered and all have a motive for killing B." She first met Poirot in the story Cards on the Table and has bothered him ever since.
Miss Felicity Lemon
Poirot's secretary, Miss Felicity Lemon, has few human weaknesses. The only mistakes she makes within the series are a typing error during the events of Hickory Dickory Dock and the mis-mailing of an electricity bill, although she was worried about strange events surrounding her sister who worked at a student hostel at the time. Poirot described her as being "Unbelievably ugly and incredibly efficient. Anything that she mentioned as worth consideration usually was worth consideration." She is an expert on nearly everything and plans to create the perfect filing system.
In The Agatha Christie Hour, she was portrayed by Angela Easterling, while in ''Agatha Christie's Poirot'' she was portrayed by Pauline Moran (where she was shown to be efficient, prim and modest, but not remotely "unbelievably ugly".) On a number of occasions, she joins Poirot in his inquiries or seeks out answers alone at his request.
Chief Inspector James Harold Japp
{{Main|Inspector Japp}}
Japp is a Scotland Yard Inspector and appears in many of the stories trying to solve cases that Poirot is working on. Japp is outgoing, loud, and sometimes inconsiderate by nature, and his relationship with the refined Belgian is one of the stranger aspects of Poirot's world. He first met Poirot in Belgium in 1904, during the Abercrombie Forgery. Later that year they joined forces again to hunt down a criminal known as Baron Altara. They also meet in England where Poirot often helps Japp and lets him take credit in return for special favours. These favours usually entail Poirot being supplied with other interesting cases.<ref>Captain Arthur Hastings {{harvnb|Christie|2004b|loc=Chapter 9}}</ref>
In ''Agatha Christie's Poirot, Japp was portrayed by Philip Jackson. In the film, Thirteen at Dinner (1985), adapted from Lord Edgware Dies, the role of Japp was taken by the actor David Suchet, who would later star as Poirot in the ITV adaptations.
Major novels
{{Main|Hercule Poirot in literature}}
The Poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in England, from the first book (The Mysterious Affair at Styles), where he is a refugee staying at Styles, to the last Poirot book (Curtain), where he visits Styles before his death. In between, Poirot solves cases outside England as well, including his most famous case, Murder on the Orient Express (1934).
Hercule Poirot became famous in 1926 with the publication of The Murder of Roger Ackroyd, whose surprising solution proved controversial. The novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels: Edmund Wilson alludes to it in the title of his well-known attack on detective fiction, "Who Cares Who Killed Roger Ackroyd?" Other critically acclaimed Poirot novels include Murder on the Orient Express (1934); The ABC Murders (1935); Cards on the Table (1936); and Death on the Nile (1937), a tale of multiple murders upon a Nile steamer. Death on the Nile was judged by the famed detective novelist John Dickson Carr to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4dY0hHqQ4lgC|titleOmnibus IV: The Ancient World|last1Veith|first1Gene Edward|last2Wilson|first2Douglas|last3Fischer|first3G. Tyler|publisherVeritas Press|year2009|isbn9781932168860|pages=460}}</ref> The 1942 novel Five Little Pigs (a.k.a. Murder in Retrospect), in which Poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analysing various accounts of the tragedy, has been called "the best Christie of all"<ref>Barnard (1980), p. 85</ref> by critic and mystery novelist Robert Barnard.
In 2014, the Poirot canon was added to by Sophie Hannah, the first author to be commissioned by the Christie estate to write an original story. The novel was called The Monogram Murders, and was set in the late 1920s, placing it chronologically between The Mystery of the Blue Train and Peril at End House. A second Hannah-penned Poirot came out in 2016, called Closed Casket, and a third, The Mystery of Three Quarters, in 2018.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A461530204/ITOF?umlin_c_worpoly&sidITOF&xid42ac4a2a.|titleHannah, Sophie. Closed Casket: The New Hercule Poirot Mystery|websitelink.galegroup.com|languageen|access-date24 May 2018}}</ref>
Portrayals
Stage
The first actor to portray Poirot was Charles Laughton. He appeared on the West End in 1928 in the play Alibi which had been adapted by Michael Morton from the novel The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. In 1932, the play was performed as The Fatal Alibi on Broadway. Another Poirot play, Black Coffee opened in London at the Embassy Theatre on 8 December 1930 and starred Francis L. Sullivan as Poirot.
Black Coffee'' was revived by The Agatha Christie Theatre Company for an extensive UK tour in 2014. Poirot was initially portrayed by Robert Powell, with Jason Durr later taking over the role partway through the run.<ref>{{cite web|lastBall|firstAnthony|titleRobert Powell to play Hercule Poirot in Black Coffee touring production|urlhttps://www.digitalspy.com/showbiz/a539649/robert-powell-to-play-hercule-poirot-in-black-coffee-touring-production/|websiteDigital Spy|date20 December 2013|access-dateJuly 18, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|lastWomack|firstAlexandra|titleReview: Agatha Christie's Black Coffee with Robert Powell at Theatre Royal Bath|urlhttps://www.gazetteseries.co.uk/leisure/theatre/10969294.review-agatha-christies-black-coffee-with-robert-powell-at-theatre-royal-bath/|websiteGazette Series|dateJanuary 29, 2014|access-dateJuly 18, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|lastPeterson|firstTyler|titleJason Durr to Lead Black Coffee UK Tour|urlhttps://www.broadwayworld.com/uk-regional/article/Jason-Durr-to-Lead-BLACK-COFFEE-UK-Tour-20140523|websitebroadwayworld.com|dateMay 23, 2014|access-dateJuly 18, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleJason Durr takes over from Robert Powell in Black Coffee|urlhttp://agathachristieweb.blogspot.com/2014/06/jason-durr-takes-over-from-robert.html|website Agatha Christie Web|dateJune 3, 2014|access-dateJuly 18, 2024}}</ref>
American playwright Ken Ludwig adapted Murder on the Orient Express into a play, which premiered at the McCarter Theatre in Princeton, New Jersey on 14 March 2017. It starred English actor Allan Corduner in the role of Hercule Poirot. A 2022 UK production starred Henry Goodman. A new touring production will star Michael Maloney as Poirot.<ref>{{cite web|titleMurder on the Orient Express tour unveils initial casting|urlhttps://www.whatsonstage.com/news/murder-on-the-orient-express-tour-unveils-initial-casting_1614724/|websitewhatsonstage.com|dateJuly 16, 2024|access-date=July 18, 2024}}</ref>
Other notable actors who have portrayed Poirot on stage include Ronnie Barker,<ref>{{Cite web|lastAldridge|firstMark|titleFACTS ABOUT HERCULE POIROT|urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/en/characters/hercule-poirot/facts-about-hercule-poirot|websiteagathachristie.com|access-dateJuly 26, 2024}}</ref> Leonard Rossiter,<ref>{{Cite web|titleCareer - Theatre 1956-1959|urlhttp://www.leonardrossiter.com/Theatre56-59.html#Alibi/|websiteleornardrossiter.com|access-dateJuly 26, 2024}}</ref> Ronald Magill,<ref>{{Cite web|titleAlibi|urlhttps://theatricalia.com/play/4jv/alibi/production/16b5|websiteTheatricalia|access-dateJuly 26, 2024}}</ref> Patrick Cargill<ref>{{Cite web|titleBlack Coffee|urlhttps://theatricalia.com/play/4fs/black-coffee/production/15sr|websiteTheatricalia|access-dateJuly 26, 2024}}</ref> and Alfred Marks.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAlfred Marks|urlhttps://theatricalia.com/person/4z2/alfred-marks|websiteTheatricalia|access-dateJuly 26, 2024}}</ref>
Film
Austin Trevor
Austin Trevor debuted the role of Poirot on screen in the 1931 British film Alibi. The film was based on the stage play. Trevor reprised the role of Poirot twice, in Black Coffee and Lord Edgware Dies. Trevor said once that he was probably cast as Poirot simply because he could do a French accent.<ref>[http://www.poirot.us/ptvfilm.html At the Hercule Poirot Central website] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080430024329/http://www.poirot.us/ptvfilm.html |date30 April 2008 }}</ref> Notably, Trevor's Poirot did not have a moustache. Leslie S. Hiscott directed the first two films, and Henry Edwards took over for the third.
Tony Randall
Tony Randall portrayed Poirot in The Alphabet Murders, a 1965 film also known as The ABC Murders. This was more a satire of Poirot than a straightforward adaptation and was greatly changed from the original. Much of the story, set in modern times, was played for comedy, with Poirot investigating the murders while evading the attempts by Hastings (Robert Morley) and the police to get him out of England and back to Belgium.
Albert Finney
as Poirot in the 1974 film Murder on the Orient Express]]
Albert Finney played Poirot in 1974 in the cinematic version of Murder on the Orient Express. Finney is the only actor to receive an Academy Award nomination for playing Poirot, though he did not win.
Peter Ustinov
as Poirot in a 1982 adaptation of the novel Evil Under the Sun|frame]]
Peter Ustinov played Poirot six times, starting with Death on the Nile (1978). He reprised the role in Evil Under the Sun (1982) and Appointment with Death (1988).
Christie's daughter Rosalind Hicks observed Ustinov during a rehearsal and said, "That's not Poirot! He isn't at all like that!" Ustinov overheard and remarked "He is now!"<ref>{{Citation|urlhttp://www.mapdig.com/?titleHercule_Poirot |titleHercule Poirot |publisherMap dig |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140517152810/http://www.mapdig.com/?titleHercule_Poirot |archive-date17 May 2014 }}</ref>
He appeared again as Poirot in three television films: Thirteen at Dinner (1985), ''Dead Man's Folly (1986), and Murder in Three Acts (1986). Earlier adaptations were set during the time in which the novels were written, but these television films were set in the contemporary era. The first of these was based on Lord Edgware Dies and was made by Warner Bros. It also starred Faye Dunaway, with David Suchet as Inspector Japp, just before Suchet began to play Poirot. David Suchet considers his performance as Japp to be "possibly the worst performance of [his] career".<ref>{{Cite magazine | url http://www.strandmag.com/suchet.htm | title Interview | first David | last Suchet | author-link David Suchet | magazine The Strand Magazine | access-date 5 December 2006 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150530010249/http://www.strandmag.com/suchet.htm | archive-date 30 May 2015 | url-status dead }}</ref>
Kenneth Branagh
Kenneth Branagh played Poirot in film adaptations of Murder on the Orient Express in 2017, Death on the Nile in 2022, and A Haunting in Venice, based on the novel Hallowe'en Party, in 2023. Branagh directed all three and co-produced them alongside Ridley Scott. They were all written by Michael Green.
Other
* Anatoly Ravikovich, Zagadka Endkhauza (End House Mystery) (1989; based on "Peril at End House")
* Pál Mácsai, A titokzatos stylesi eset (The Mysterious Affair at Styles) (2023)
Television
David Suchet
David Suchet starred as Poirot in the ITV series ''Agatha Christie's Poirot'' from 1989 until June 2013, when he announced that he was bidding farewell to the role. "No one could've guessed then that the series would span a quarter-century or that the classically trained Suchet would complete the entire catalogue of whodunits featuring the eccentric Belgian investigator, including 33 novels and dozens of short stories."<ref>{{cite news |firstHenry |lastChu |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/entertainment/tv/showtracker/la-et-st-poirot-20130721-story.html |titleDavid Suchet bids farewell to Agatha Christie's Poirot |workLos Angeles Times |date19 July 2013 |access-date=17 November 2013}}</ref> His final appearance in the show was in an adaptation of Curtain, aired on 13 November 2013.
The writers of the "Binge!" article of Entertainment Weekly December 2014/January 2015) picked Suchet as "Best Poirot" in the "Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple" timeline.<ref>{{cite magazine |titleBinge! Agatha Christie: Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple |magazineEntertainment Weekly |issue1343–44 |date26 December 2014|pages=32–33}}</ref>
The episodes were shot in various locations in the UK and abroad (for example "Triangle at Rhodes" and "Problem at Sea"<ref>{{Cite book |lastSuchet |firstDavid |titlePoirot and Me |publisherHeadline |year2013 |isbn9780755364190 |locationLondon |pages62–63}}</ref>), whilst other scenes were shot at Twickenham Studios.<ref name"chimni">{{cite web|titleHomes Used in Poirot Episodes|urlhttp://www.chimni.com/wiki/Homes_Used_In_Poirot_Episodes|websitewww.chimni.com|publisherChimni – the architectural wiki|access-date15 September 2017}}</ref>
Other
* Heini Göbel, (1955; an adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express for the West German television series Die Galerie der großen Detektive)
* José Ferrer, Hercule Poirot (1961; Unaired TV Pilot, MGM; adaptation of "The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim")
* Martin Gabel, General Electric Theater (4/1/1962; adaptation of "The Disappearance of Mr. Davenheim")
* Horst Bollmann, Black Coffee 1973
* Ian Holm, Murder by the Book, 1986
* Arnolds Liniņš, Slepkavība Stailzā (The Mysterious Affair at Styles), 1990
* Hugh Laurie, Spice World, 1997
* Alfred Molina, Murder on the Orient Express, 2001
* Konstantin Raikin, Neudacha Puaro (''Poirot's Failure'') (2002; based on "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd")
* Anthony O'Donnell, Agatha Christie: A Life in Pictures, 2004
* Shirō Itō (Takashi Akafuji), Meitantei Akafuji Takashi (The Detective Takashi Akafuji), 2005
* Mansai Nomura (Takeru Suguro), Orient Kyūkō Satsujin Jiken (Murder on the Orient Express), 2015; Kuroido Goroshi (The Murder of Kuroido), 2018 (based on "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd"); Shi to no Yakusoku, 2021 (based on Appointment with Death)
* John Malkovich was Poirot in the 2018 BBC adaptation of The ABC Murders.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.agathachristie.com/news/2018/all-star-cast-announced-for-the-abc-murders-bbc-adaptation |titleCasting announced for The ABC Murders BBC adaptation |date24 May 2018 |publisherAgatha Christie |access-date5 January 2019}}</ref> Anime In 2004, the Japanese public broadcaster NHK produced a 39-episode anime series titled ''Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, as well as a manga series under the same title released in 2005. The series, adapting several of the best-known Poirot and Marple stories, ran from 4 July 2004 through 15 May 2005, and in repeated reruns on NHK and other networks in Japan. Poirot was voiced by Kōtarō Satomi and Miss Marple was voiced by Kaoru Yachigusa. Audio BBC Radio An adaptation of Murder in the Mews was broadcast on the BBC Light Programme in March 1955 starring Richard Bebb as Poirot; this program was thought lost, but was discovered in the BBC archives in 2015.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06ss65l |titleMurder in the Mews, Poirot – BBC Radio 4 Extra|websiteBBC}}</ref>
From 1985 to 2007, Radio 4 produced a series of twenty-seven adaptations of Poirot novels and short stories, adapted by Michael Bakewell and directed by Enyd Williams.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b03js5pl/episodes/guide|titleBBC Radio 4 Extra – Poirot – Episode guide|workBBC}}</ref> Twenty five starred John Moffatt as Poirot; Maurice Denham and Peter Sallis played Poirot on BBC Radio 4 in the first two adaptations, The Mystery of the Blue Train and Hercule Poirot's Christmas respectively. Audible In 2017, Audible released an original audio adaptation of Murder on the Orient Express'' starring Tom Conti as Poirot.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.agathachristie.com/news/2017/audible-original-dramatisation-of-christies-classic-story |titleAudible Original dramatisation of Christie's classic story |date10 October 2017 |publisherAgatha Christie |access-date5 January 2019}}</ref> The cast included Jane Asher as Mrs. Hubbard, Jay Benedict as Monsieur Bouc, Ruta Gedmintas as Countess Andrenyi, Sophie Okonedo as Mary Debenham, Eddie Marsan as Ratchett, Walles Hamonde as Hector MacQueen, Paterson Joseph as Colonel Arbuthnot, Rula Lenska as Princess Dragimiroff and Art Malik as the Narrator. According to the Publisher's Summary on Audible.com, "sound effects [were] recorded on the Orient Express itself."
Audible is scheduled to release a dramatisation of The Mysterious Affair at Styles in November 2024. The cast includes Peter Dinklage as Poirot.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://variety.com/2024/digital/global/peter-dinklage-jessica-gunning-himesh-patel-audible-agatha-christie-mysterious-affair-at-styles-1236161466/|titlePeter Dinklage, Jessica Gunning, Himesh Patel and More to Star in Audible Adaptation of Agatha Christie's 'The Mysterious Affair at Styles' (EXCLUSIVE)|websiteVariety|firstEllise|lastShafer|dateOctober 2, 2024|access-dateOctober 2, 2024}}</ref> Others In 1939, Orson Welles and the Mercury Players dramatised Roger Ackroyd on CBS's Campbell Playhouse.<ref name"Cox, Jim 2002, p. 18">{{cite book |lastCox |firstJim |titleRadio Crime Fighters |year 2002 |page18 |publisherMcFarland |locationJefferson, North Carolina |isbn978-0-7864-1390-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://orsonwelles.indiana.edu/items/show/2002 |titleThe Murder of Roger Ackroyd |websiteOrson Welles on the Air, 1938–1946 |publisherIndiana University Bloomington |access-date=29 July 2018 }}</ref>
On 6 October 1942, the Mutual radio series Murder Clinic broadcast "The Tragedy at Marsden Manor" starring Maurice Tarplin as Poirot.<ref>{{cite episode |titleTragedy at Marsden Manor |urlhttps://archive.org/details/Murder_Clinic/Murder_Clinic-42-10-06_012_Tragedy_At_Marsden_Manor.mp3 |access-date6 November 2021 |seriesMurder Clinic |last|first |networkMutual Broadcasting System |dateJune 10, 1942 |season1 |number5}}</ref> At least two other Poirot stories were adapted for the series, but it is unknown who voiced him.
A 1945 radio series of at least 13 original half-hour episodes (none of which apparently adapt any Christie stories) transferred Poirot from London to New York and starred character actor Harold Huber,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.otrsite.com/logs/logh1033.htm |titleA list of episodes of the half-hour 1945 radio program |publisherOtrsite.com |access-date27 June 2010}}</ref> perhaps better known for his appearances as a police officer in various Charlie Chan films. On 22 February 1945, "speaking from London, Agatha Christie introduced the initial broadcast of the Poirot series via shortwave".<ref name="Cox, Jim 2002, p. 18"/>
In 2021, L.A. Theatre Works produced an adaptation of The Murder on the Links, dramatised by Kate McAll. Alfred Molina starred as Poirot, with Simon Helberg as Hastings.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://latw.org/title/murder-links |titleThe Murder on the Links |websitelatw.org |access-date31 January 2022}}</ref>
Video games
In the video games Agatha Christie - Hercule Poirot: The First Cases and Agatha Christie - Hercule Poirot: The London Case, Poirot is voiced by Will De Renzy-Martin.{{cn|dateJune 2022}} Parodies and references {{more citations needed|section|dateJanuary 2019}}
(2007)]]
Parodies of Hercule Poirot have appeared in a number of movies, including Revenge of the Pink Panther'', where Poirot makes a cameo appearance in a mental asylum, portrayed by Andrew Sachs and claiming to be "the greatest detective in all of France, the greatest in all the world"; Neil Simon's Murder by Death, where "Milo Perrier" is played by American actor James Coco; the 1977 film The Strange Case of the End of Civilization as We Know It (1977); the film Spice World, where Hugh Laurie plays Poirot; and in Sherlock Holmes: The Awakened, Poirot appears as a young boy on the train transporting Holmes and Watson. Holmes helps the boy in opening a puzzle-box, with Watson giving the boy advice about using his "little grey cells".
In the book series Geronimo Stilton, the character Hercule Poirat is inspired by Hercule Poirot.
The Belgian brewery Brasserie Ellezelloise makes a stout called Hercule with a moustachioed caricature of Hercule Poirot on the label.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.brasserie-ellezelloise.be/bieres-uk.shtml#L%27Hercule |titleThe Brasserie Ellezelloise's Hercule |publisherBrasserie-ellezelloise.be |access-date27 June 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100602134946/http://www.brasserie-ellezelloise.be/bieres-uk.shtml#L%27Hercule |archive-date=2 June 2010 }}</ref>
In season 2, episode 4 of TVFPlay's Indian web series Permanent Roommates, one of the characters refers to Hercule Poirot as her inspiration while she attempts to solve the mystery of the cheating spouse. Throughout the episode, she is mocked as Hercule Poirot and Agatha Christie by the suspects.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://tvfplay.com/episode/1/3/68/783|titleWatch TVF's Permanent Roommates S02E04 – The Dinner on TVF Play|websiteTVFPlay|access-date29 May 2016|archive-date19 October 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171019103352/http://tvfplay.com/episode/1/3/68/783|url-statusdead}}</ref> TVFPlay also telecasted a spoof of Indian TV suspense drama CID as "Qissa Missing Dimaag Ka: C.I.D Qtiyapa". In the first episode, when Ujjwal is shown to browse for the best detectives of the world, David Suchet appears as Poirot in his search.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://tvfplay.com/category/2/series/73|titleQissa Missing Dimaag Ka (Part 1/2)|websiteTVFPlay}}</ref>
See also
{{portal|Novels}}
*List of actors who have played Hercule Poirot
*Poirot Investigates
*Tropes in Agatha Christie's novels
Footnotes
{{Notelist}}
References
{{Page numbers needed|date=February 2024}}
{{Reflist|30em}}
Bibliography
Works
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThe Mysterious Affair at Styles|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGFu5EVQWkHoC|year1939|publisherPenguin|isbn978-1-61298-214-4 |orig-date=1920 }}
* {{cite book |firstAgatha |lastChristie|chapterPrologue |titleThe Labours of Hercules|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0BNTywAACAAJ|year1947|publisherCollins }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|chapterThe Apples of the Hesperides |titleThe Labours of Hercules|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0_fGXwAACAAJ|year1947a|publisherCollins }}
* {{cite book |firstAgatha |lastChristie|chapterThe Stymphalean Birds |titleThe Labours of Hercules|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0BNTywAACAAJ|year1947b|publisherCollins }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|chapterThe Erymanthian Boar |titleThe Labours of Hercules|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idP-0PywAACAAJ|year1947c|publisherCollins |orig-date=February 1940 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie |titleTaken at the Flood|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGrCcOwAACAAJ|year1948 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie |titleMrs. McGinty's Dead|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSkpwPQAACAAJ|year1952 }}
* {{cite book |firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThe Pale Horse|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaTPGOQAACAAJ|year1961|publisher=Collins }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha|lastChristie|titleCurtain: Poirot's Last Case|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddpzN2pDv-N0C|year1975|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-00-712112-0 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleEvil Under the Sun: Death Comes as the End; The Sittaford Mystery|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3ParPQAACAAJ|year1980|publisherLansdowne Press|isbn978-0-7018-1458-8 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThe A.B.C. murders: &#91;a Hercule Poirot mystery&#93;|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2xJhQgAACAAJ|year1991|publisherBerkley Publishing Group|isbn978-0-425-13024-7 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThe Clocks |orig-date1963 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1F4GAl314HQC|date28 September 2004a |publisherHarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-174050-3 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThe Big Four|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMQRAVaVQGYIC|date6 January 2004b |publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-173909-5 }}
* {{cite book |firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleAfter the Funeral: Hercule Poirot Investigates|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6Hw1_-iGGksC|date25 January 2005|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-173991-0 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThe Labours of Hercules: Hercule Poirot Investigates |orig-date1947 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idc3X6K58mm2UC|date3 October 2006a |publisherHarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-174638-3 }}
* {{cite book |firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThree Act Tragedy|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCvsCA2ZNTHEC|date3 October 2006b |publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-175403-6 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThe Murder of Roger Ackroyd |orig-date1926 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjLUPkkcWpjQC|date17 March 2009|publisherHarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-176340-3 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titlePeril at End House |orig-date1932 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOJqxNpp1qB8C|date17 March 2009b|publisherHarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-174927-8 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleDeath in the Clouds|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id50HvHBYcvTEC|date10 February 2010|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-174311-5 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleFive Little Pigs: A Hercule Poirot Mystery|urlhttps://archive.org/details/fivelittlepigs0000chri|url-accessregistration |date1 February 2011a|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-207357-0 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleMurder on the Orient Express: A Hercule Poirot Mystery|urlhttps://archive.org/details/isbn_9780062073501|url-accessregistration |date29 March 2011|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-207350-1 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThe Dream: A Hercule Poirot Short Story|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id37KgywOXgCQC|date1 September 2011b|publisherHarperCollins Publishers|isbn978-0-00-745198-2 }}
* {{cite book |firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThird Girl: A Hercule Poirot Mystery|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXRu3nf6TRWEC|date14 June 2011c|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-207376-1 |orig-date=1966 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha|lastChristie|titleThe Kidnapped Prime Minister: A Hercule Poirot Short Story|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMWMFWy_KrH0C|date12 April 2012|publisherHarperCollins Publishers|isbn978-0-00-748658-8 |edition=ebook}}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleHercule Poirot: The Complete Short Stories: A Hercule Poirot Collection with Foreword by Charles Todd|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNdydxJIUrD4C|year2013|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-225165-7 |orig-date=1999 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha |lastChristie|titleThe Lost Mine: A Hercule Poirot Story|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSelokMldIX0C|date9 July 2013a|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-229818-8 }}
* {{cite book|firstAgatha|lastChristie|titleDouble Sin: A Hercule Poirot Story|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idl6qCPA-gdW0C|date23 July 2013b|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-229845-4 }}
* {{Citation|lastBarnard |first Robert |year1980 |title A Talent to Deceive |publisherFontana/Collins|location London
}}
* Goddard, John (2018), Agatha Christie’s Golden Age: An Analysis of Poirot’s Golden Age Puzzles, Stylish Eye Press, {{ISBN|978-1-999-61200-9}}
* {{Citation|lastHart|first Anne |year2004 |title Agatha Christie's Poirot: The Life and Times of Hercule Poirot
|publisherHarper and Collins|location London }}
*{{Citation|editor1-lastKretzschmar|editor1-firstJudith|editor2-lastStoppe|editor2-firstSebastian|editor3-lastVollberg|editor3-firstSusanne|titleHercule Poirot trifft Miss Marple. Agatha Christie intermedial |trans-title Hercule Poirot meets Miss Marple|locationDarmstadt|publisherBüchner|year2016|isbn 978-3-941310-48-3 |lang=de}}.
* {{Citation|lastOsborne|first Charles |author-linkCharles Osborne (music writer)|year 1982
|titleThe Life and Crimes of Agatha Christie |publisher Collins|location= London }}
*{{cite journal |last1Vermandere |first1Martine |titleCase closed? De speurtocht naar de inspiratie voor Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot |trans-titleCase closed? The search for the inspiration for Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot |langnl|journalBrood & Rozen |date2016 |volume21 |issue1 |doi10.21825/br.v21i1.9945 |urlhttps://openjournals.ugent.be/broodenrozen/article/id/64078/|doi-accessfree |hdl1854/LU-8041744 |hdl-accessfree }}
External links
{{commons category|Hercule Poirot}}
* [https://www.agathachristie.com/characters/hercule-poirot Official Agatha Christie website]
* {{StandardEbooks | Standard Ebooks URLhttps://standardebooks.org/collections/poirot| Display Namepublic domain Poirot works as}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170710163846/http://www.imdb.com/character/ch0013286/ Hercule Poirot] on IMDb
* {{gutenberg|no863|nameThe Mysterious Affair at Styles}}
* [https://archive.org/details/TheMurderOfRogerAckroyd Listen to Orson Welles in "The Murder of Roger Ackroyd"]
* [https://archive.org/details/otr_herculepoirot-us Listen to the 1945 Hercule Poirot radio program]
* Wiktionary definition of Edgar Allan Poe's "ratiocination"
{{Hercule Poirot}}
{{Agatha Christie}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Poirot, Hercule}}
Category:Characters in British novels of the 20th century
Category:Characters of the Golden Age of Detective Fiction
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Category:Fictional Christians
Category:Fictional characters from Wallonia
Category:Fictional contract bridge players
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Hercule Poirot
Hercule Poirot
Hercule Poirot
Hercule Poirot
Hercule Poirot | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercule_Poirot | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.721283 |
1002 | Miss Marple | Miss Jane Marple is a fictional character in Agatha Christie's crime novels and short stories. Miss Marple lives in the village of St Mary Mead and acts as an amateur consulting detective. Often characterised as an elderly spinster, she is one of Christie's best-known characters and has been portrayed numerous times on screen. Her first appearance was in a short story published in The Royal Magazine in December 1927, "The Tuesday Night Club", which later became the first chapter of The Thirteen Problems (1932). Her first appearance in a full-length novel was in The Murder at the Vicarage in 1930, and her last appearance was in Sleeping Murder in 1976.
Origins
The character of Miss Marple is based on friends of Christie's step grandmother, Margaret Miller, née West. Christie attributed the inspiration for the character to multiple sources, stating that Miss Marple was "the sort of old lady who would have been rather like some of my step grandmother's Ealing cronies – old ladies whom I have met in so many villages where I have gone to stay as a girl". Christie also used material from her fictional creation, spinster Caroline Sheppard, who appeared in The Murder of Roger Ackroyd. When Michael Morton adapted the novel for the stage, he replaced the character of Caroline with a young girl. This change saddened Christie and she determined to give old maids a voice; thus, Miss Marple was born.
It is popularly believed that Christie may have taken her iconic character's name from Marple railway station, through which she passed, while a letter – ostensibly from Christie to a fan – appeared to prove that the name was inspired by a visit to a sale at Marple Hall in the same town, near her sister Margaret Watts' home at Abney Hall. The letter has been established as a fake as the auction had been held after the date of publication of the first Miss Marple story.
Character
The character of Jane Marple in the first Miss Marple book, The Murder at the Vicarage, is quite different from how she appears in later books. This early version of Miss Marple is a gleeful gossip and not an especially nice woman. The residents of St. Mary Mead like her but are often tired of her nosy nature and the fact she seems to expect the worst of everyone. In later books, she becomes a kinder person.
Miss Marple solves difficult crimes thanks to her shrewd intelligence, and St. Mary Mead, over her lifetime, has given her seemingly infinite examples of the negative side of human nature. Crimes always remind her of a previous incident, although acquaintances may be bored by analogies that often lead her to a deeper realisation about the true nature of a crime. She also has a remarkable ability to latch onto a casual comment and connect it to the case at hand. In several stories, she is able to rely on her acquaintance with Sir Henry Clithering, a retired commissioner of the Metropolitan Police, for official information when required.
Miss Marple never married and has no close living relatives. Her nephew, the "well-known author" Raymond West, appears in some stories, including The Thirteen Problems, Sleeping Murder, and Ingots of Gold (which also feature his wife, Joyce Lemprière). Raymond overestimates himself and underestimates his aunt's mental acuity. Miss Marple employs young women (including Clara, Emily, Alice, Esther, Gwenda, and Amy) from a nearby orphanage, whom she trains for service as general housemaids after the retirement of her long-time maid-housekeeper, faithful Florence. She was briefly looked after by her irritating companion, Miss Knight. In her later years, companion Cherry Baker, first introduced in The Mirror Crack'd From Side to Side, lives with her.
Miss Marple has never worked for her living and is of independent means, although she benefits in her old age from the financial support of her nephew, Raymond. She is not from the aristocracy or landed gentry, but is quite at home among them; as a gentlewoman, Miss Marple may thus be considered a female version of the gentleman detective, a staple of British detective fiction. She demonstrates a remarkably thorough education, including some art courses that involved the study of human anatomy using human cadavers. In They Do It with Mirrors (1952), it is revealed that Miss Marple grew up in a cathedral close, and that she studied at an Italian finishing school with American sisters Ruth Van Rydock and Caroline "Carrie" Louise Serrocold.
While Miss Marple is described as "an old lady" in many of the stories, her age is rarely mentioned and is not consistently presented. In At Bertram's Hotel, published in 1965, it is said she visited the hotel when she was 14 and almost 60 years have passed since then, implying that she is nearly 75 years old; but in 4:50 from Paddington, published almost a decade earlier in 1957, she says she will be "90 next year."
Excluding Sleeping Murder, 41 years passed between the first and last-written novels, and many characters grow and age. An example would be the Vicar's nephew: in The Murder at the Vicarage, the Reverend Mr Clement's nephew Dennis is a teenager; in The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side, it is mentioned that the nephew is now an adult and has a successful career. The effects of ageing are seen on Miss Marple, such as needing a holiday after illness in A Caribbean Mystery, but she is if anything more agile in Nemesis, set only 16 months later.
Miss Marple's background is described in some detail, albeit in glimpses across the novels and short stories in which she appears. She has a very large family, including a sister, the mother of Raymond, and Mabel Denham, a young woman who was accused of poisoning her husband, Geoffrey (The Thumb Mark of St. Peter).
Bibliography
Agatha Christie wrote 12 novels and 20 short stories featuring Miss Marple.
Miss Marple series
The Murder at the Vicarage (1930, Novel)
The Body in the Library (1942, Novel)
The Moving Finger (1943, Novel)
A Murder Is Announced (1950, Novel)
They Do It with Mirrors (1952, Novel) – also published in the United States as Murder With Mirrors
A Pocket Full of Rye (1953, Novel)
4.50 from Paddington (1957, Novel) – also published in the United States as What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!
The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (1962, Novel)
A Caribbean Mystery (1964, Novel)
At Bertram's Hotel (1965, Novel)
Nemesis (1971, Novel)
Sleeping Murder (1976, Novel)
Miss Marple short story collections
The Thirteen Problems (1932, short story collection featuring Miss Marple, also published as The Tuesday Club Murders)
The Regatta Mystery (1939, Collection)
Three Blind Mice and Other Stories (1950, Collection)
The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding (1960, Collection)
Double Sin and Other Stories (1961, Collection)
Miss Marple's Final Cases and Two Other Stories (short stories collected posthumously, also published as Miss Marple's Final Cases, but only six of the eight stories actually feature Miss Marple) (written between 1939 and 1954, published 1979)
Miss Marple: The Complete Short Stories, published 1985, includes 20 from 4 sets: The Thirteen Problems, The Regatta Mystery, Three Blind Mice and Other Stories, and Double Sin and Other Stories.
Miss Marple also appears in "Greenshaw's Folly", a short story included as part of the Poirot collection The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding (1960). Four stories in the Three Blind Mice collection (1950) feature Miss Marple: "Strange Jest", "Tape-Measure Murder", "The Case of the Caretaker", and "The Case of the Perfect Maid".
The Autograph edition of Miss Marple's Final Cases includes the eight in the original plus "Greenshaw's Folly".
Continuations not by Christie
Marple: Twelve New Stories, collection with stories written by Naomi Alderman, Leigh Bardugo, Alyssa Cole, Lucy Foley, Elly Griffiths, Natalie Haynes, Jean Kwok, Val McDermid, Karen M. McManus, Dreda Say Mitchell, Kate Mosse, and Ruth Ware (published 2022)
Books about Miss Marple
The Life and Times of Miss Jane Marple – a biography by Anne Hart
Agatha Christie's Marple: Expert on Wickedness – by Mark Aldridge
Stage
A stage adaptation of Murder at the Vicarage, by Moie Charles and Barbara Toy, was first seen at Northampton on 17 October 1949; it was directed by Reginald Tate, starred the 35-year-old Barbara Mullen as Miss Marple, and after touring, reached the Playhouse Theatre in London's West End on 14 December. Having run till late March 1950, it then went on tour again.
In July 1974, Mullen (by then 60) returned to the role in another national tour of the same play, culminating 12 months later when the show opened at London's Savoy Theatre on 28 July 1975. At the end of March 1976, the Miss Marple role was taken over by Avril Angers, after which the production transferred to the Fortune Theatre on 5 July. The role then passed to Muriel Pavlow in June 1977 and to Gabrielle Hamilton late the following year; the production finally closed in October 1979.
On 21 September 1977, while Murder at the Vicarage was still running at the Fortune, a stage adaptation by Leslie Darbon of A Murder Is Announced opened at the Vaudeville Theatre, with Dulcie Gray as Miss Marple. The show ran to the end of September 1978 and then toured.
Films
Margaret Rutherford
Margaret Rutherford played Miss Marple in four films directed by George Pollock between 1961 and 1964. These were successful light comedies, but Christie herself was disappointed with them. Nevertheless, Agatha Christie dedicated the novel The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side to Rutherford.
Rutherford presented the character as a bold and eccentric old lady, different from the prim and birdlike character Christie created in her novels. As penned by Christie, Miss Marple has never worked for a living, but the character as portrayed by Margaret Rutherford briefly works undercover as a cook-housekeeper, a stage actress, a sailor, and criminal reformer, and is offered the chance to run a riding establishment-cum-hotel. Her education and genteel background are hinted at when she mentions her awards at marksmanship (and demonstrates her shooting prowess), dancing, fencing, and equestrianism, although these hints are played for comedic value.
Murder, She Said (1961) was the first of the four British MGM productions starring Rutherford. This film was based on the 1957 novel 4:50 from Paddington (U.S. title, What Mrs. McGillicuddy Saw!), and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series. In the film, Mrs. McGillicuddy is cut from the plot. Miss Marple herself sees an apparent murder committed on a train running alongside hers. Actress Joan Hickson, who played Marple in the 1984–1992 television adaptations, has a role as a housekeeper in this movie.
Rutherford, who was 68 years old when the first film was shot in February 1961, insisted that she wear her own clothes during the filming of the movie, as well as having her husband, Stringer Davis, appear alongside her as the character Mr Stringer. The Rutherford films are frequently repeated on television in Germany, and in that country Miss Marple is generally identified with Rutherford's quirky portrayal.
Rutherford also appeared briefly as Miss Marple in the parodic Hercule Poirot adventure The Alphabet Murders (1965).
Angela Lansbury
In 1980, Angela Lansbury played Miss Marple in The Mirror Crack'd (EMI, directed by Guy Hamilton), based on Christie's 1962 novel. The film featured an all-star cast that included Elizabeth Taylor, Rock Hudson, Geraldine Chaplin, Tony Curtis, and Kim Novak. Edward Fox appeared as Inspector Craddock, who did Miss Marple's legwork. Lansbury's Marple was a crisp, intelligent woman who moved stiffly and spoke in clipped tones. Unlike most incarnations of Miss Marple, this one smoked cigarettes. Lansbury was later cast as Jessica Fletcher in Murder, She Wrote, a similar role.
Ita Ever
In 1983, Estonian stage and film actress, Ita Ever, starred in the Russian language Mosfilm adaptation of Agatha Christie's novel, A Pocket Full of Rye (using the Russian edition's translated title, The Secret of the Blackbirds), as the character of Miss Marple. Ever has also portrayed the character of Miss Marple in the Eesti Televisioon (ETV) series Miss Marple Stories in 1990, and onstage at the Tallinn City Theatre in a production of The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side in 2005.
Future works
In October 2024, it was revealed that 20th Century Studios, which has produced the Hercule Poirot films with Kenneth Branagh, plans to adapt more of Christie's work, including unspecified Miss Marple titles.
Television
The first on-screen portrayal of Miss Marple was by British actress and singer Gracie Fields, playing her in a 1956 episode of the American series Goodyear TV Playhouse based on A Murder Is Announced, the 1950 Christie novel.
In 1970, the character of Miss Marple was portrayed by in a West German television adaptation of The Murder at the Vicarage (Mord im Pfarrhaus).
Helen Hayes
American stage and screen actress, Helen Hayes, portrayed Miss Marple in two American television films near the end of her decades-long acting career, both for CBS: A Caribbean Mystery (1983) and Murder with Mirrors (1985). Sue Grafton contributed to the screenplay of the former. Hayes's Marple was benign and chirpy. She had earlier appeared in a television film adaptation of the non-Marple Christie story, Murder Is Easy, playing an elderly lady somewhat similar to Miss Marple.
Joan Hickson
From 1984 to 1992, the BBC adapted all of the original Miss Marple novels as a series titled Miss Marple. Joan Hickson played the lead role. In the 1940s, she had appeared on stage in an Agatha Christie play Appointment with Death, seen by Christie, who wrote in a note to her, "I hope one day you will play my dear Miss Marple". Hickson portrayed a maid in the 1937 film Love from a Stranger, which starred Ann Harding and Basil Rathbone, another Agatha Christie play adaptation. As well as portraying Miss Marple on television, Hickson narrated Miss Marple stories for audio books. In the "Binge!" article of Entertainment Weekly Issue #1343–1344 (26 December 2014 – 3 January 2015), the writers picked Hickson as "Best Marple" in the "Hercule Poirot & Miss Marple" timeline.
Listing of the TV series featuring Joan Hickson:
The Body in the Library (1984)
The Moving Finger (1985)
A Murder Is Announced (1985)
A Pocket Full of Rye (1985)
The Murder at the Vicarage (1986) – BAFTA nomination
Sleeping Murder (1987)
At Bertram's Hotel (1987)
Nemesis (1987) – BAFTA nomination
4.50 from Paddington (1987)
A Caribbean Mystery (1989)
They Do It With Mirrors (1991)
The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (1992)
Geraldine McEwan (2004–2008)/Julia McKenzie (2009–2013)
Beginning in 2004, ITV broadcast a series of adaptations of Agatha Christie's books under the title Agatha Christie's Marple, usually referred to as Marple. Geraldine McEwan starred in the first three series. Julia McKenzie took over the role in the fourth season.
The adaptations change the plots and characters of the original books (e.g. incorporating lesbian affairs, changing the identities of some killers, renaming or removing significant characters, and even using stories from other books in which Miss Marple did not originally feature). In the Geraldine McEwan series, it is revealed that when she was young (portrayed by Julie Cox in a flashback), Miss Marple had an affair with a married soldier, Captain Ainsworth, who was killed in action in World War I, in December 1915. It is also said (in A Murder Is Announced) that she served as an ambulance driver during World War I.
Listing of the TV series featuring Geraldine McEwan and Julia McKenzie:
The Body in the Library (2004)
The Murder at the Vicarage (2004)
4.50 from Paddington (2004)
A Murder Is Announced (2005)
Sleeping Murder (2005)
The Moving Finger (2006)
By the Pricking of My Thumbs (2006)
The Sittaford Mystery (2006)
At Bertram's Hotel (2007)
Ordeal by Innocence (2007)
Towards Zero (2008)
Nemesis (2008)
A Pocket Full of Rye (2009)
Murder Is Easy (2009)
They Do It with Mirrors (2010)
Why Didn't They Ask Evans? (2011)
The Pale Horse (2010)
The Secret of Chimneys (2010)
The Blue Geranium (2010)
The Mirror Crack'd from Side to Side (2011)
A Caribbean Mystery (2013)
Greenshaw's Folly (2013)
Endless Night (2013)
In 2015, CBS planned a "much younger" version of the character, a granddaughter who takes over a California bookstore.
In 2018, Miss Marple was portrayed by Yunjin Kim in the South Korean television series Ms. Ma, Nemesis.
Anime
From 2004 to 2005, Japanese TV network NHK produced a 39 episode anime series titled Agatha Christie's Great Detectives Poirot and Marple, which features both Miss Marple and Hercule Poirot. Miss Marple's voice is provided by Kaoru Yachigusa. Episodes adapted both short stories and novels.
The anime series dramatised the following Miss Marple stories:
"Strange Jest" (EP 3)
"The Case of the Perfect Maid" (EP 4)
"The Tape-Measure Murder" (EP 13)
"Ingots of Gold" (EP 14)
"The Blue Geranium" (EP 15)
4.50 from Paddington (EP 21–24)
"Motive versus Opportunity" (EP 27)
Sleeping Murder (EP 30–33)
Radio
June Whitfield starred as Miss Marple in Michael Bakewell's adaptations of all twelve novels, broadcast on BBC Radio 4 between 1993 and 2001.
Three short stories with Whitfield ("Tape-Measure Murder", "The Case of the Perfect Maid" and "Sanctuary") were later broadcast under the collective title Miss Marple's Final Cases weekly 16 – 30 September 2015.
Other appearances
thumb|Marple, as she appeared in volume 20 of Case Closed
Marple was highlighted in volume 20 of the Case Closed manga's edition of "Gosho Aoyama's Mystery Library", a section of the graphic novels (usually the last page) where the author introduces a different detective (or occasionally, a villain) from mystery literature, television, or other media.
In the 1976 Neil Simon spoof Murder by Death, Miss Marple is parodied as "Miss Marbles" by Elsa Lanchester.
See also
List of female detective characters
References
External links
Miss Marple at the official Agatha Christie website
Miss Marple on IMDb
Category:Miss Marple characters
Category:Book series introduced in 1930
Category:British novels adapted into films
Category:British novels adapted into plays
Category:Characters in British novels of the 20th century
Category:Characters of the Golden Age of Detective Fiction
Category:Detective television series
Category:Agatha Christie characters
Category:Female characters in literature
Category:Fictional amateur detectives
Category:Fictional British detectives
Category:Literary characters introduced in 1927
Category:Fictional English people
Category:Novel series
Category:Novels adapted into radio programs
Category:British novels adapted into television shows
Category:Fictional female amateur detectives | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_Marple | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.780991 |
1004 | April | {{short description|Fourth month in the Julian and Gregorian calendars}}
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{{Calendar}}
April is the fourth month of the year in the Gregorian and Julian calendars. Its length is 30 days.
April is commonly associated with the season of spring in the Northern Hemisphere, and autumn in the Southern Hemisphere, where it is the seasonal equivalent to October in the Northern Hemisphere and vice versa.
History
The Romans gave this month the Latin name Aprilis<ref name=Chambers>"April" in ''Chambers's Encyclopædia. London: George Newnes, 1961, Vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;497.</ref> but the derivation of this name is uncertain. The traditional etymology is from the verb aperire, "to open", in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to "open", which is supported by comparison with the modern Greek use of άνοιξη (ánixi) (opening) for spring. Since some of the Roman months were named in honor of divinities, and as April was sacred to the goddess Venus, her Veneralia being held on the first day, it has been suggested that Aprilis was originally her month Aphrilis, from her equivalent Greek goddess name Aphrodite (Aphros), or the Etruscan name Apru. Jacob Grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero, Aper or Aprus.<ref>Jacob Grimm Geschichte der deutschen Sprache. Cap. "Monate"</ref>
April was the second month of the earliest Roman calendar,<ref name="Chisholm1911"/> before Ianuarius and Februarius were added by King Numa Pompilius about 700&nbsp;BC. It became the fourth month of the calendar year (the year when twelve months are displayed in order) during the time of the decemvirs about 450&nbsp;BC, when it was 29&nbsp;days long. The 30th day was added back during the reform of the calendar undertaken by Julius Caesar in the mid-40s&nbsp;BC, which produced the Julian calendar.
The Anglo-Saxons called April ēastre-monaþ. The Venerable Bede says in The Reckoning of Time that this month ēastre is the root of the word Easter. He further states that the month was named after a goddess Eostre whose feast was in that month. It is also attested by Einhard in his work Vita Karoli Magni''.
St George's day is the twenty-third of the month; and St Mark's Eve, with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church, falls on the twenty-fourth.<ref name"Chisholm1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleApril|volume2|page=230}}</ref>
In China the symbolic ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood took place in their third month, which frequently corresponds to April.<ref name="Chisholm1911"/> In Finnish, April is huhtikuu, meaning slash-and-burn moon, when gymnosperms for beat and burn clearing of farmland were felled.
In Slovene, the most established traditional name is mali traven, the month when plants start growing. It was first written in 1466 in the Škofja Loka manuscript.<ref name"KoledarDPG2007">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dobrova-polhovgradec.si/doc/priponke/koledar%20prir%2007%20zadnji.pdf |titleKoledar prireditev v letu 2007 in druge informacije občine Dobrova–Polhov Gradec |languagesl |trans-titleThe Calendar of Events and Other Information of the Municipality of Dobrova–Polhov Gradec <!-- |issnC505-5857 --> |publisherMunicipality of Dobrova-Polhov Gradec |year2006 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131102060918/http://www.dobrova-polhovgradec.si/doc/priponke/koledar%20prir%2007%20zadnji.pdf |archive-date=November 2, 2013 }}</ref>
The month April originally had 30 days; Numa Pompilius made it 29 days long; finally, Julius Caesar's calendar reform made it 30&nbsp;days long again, which was not changed in the calendar revision of Augustus Caesar in 8&nbsp;BC.
In Ancient Rome, the festival of Cerealia was held for seven days from mid-to-late April, but exact dates are still being determined. Feriae Latinae was also held in April, with the date varying. Other ancient Roman observances include Veneralia (April 1), Megalesia (April 10–16), Fordicidia (April 15), Parilia (April 21), Vinalia Urbana (April 23), Robigalia (April 25), and Serapia (April 25). Floralia was held April 27 during the Republican era, or April 28 on the Julian calendar, and lasted until May 3. However, these dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.
The Lyrids meteor shower appears on April 16 – April 26 each year, with the peak generally occurring on April 22. The Eta Aquariids meteor shower also appears in April. It is visible from April 21 to May 20 each year, with peak activity on or around May 6. The Pi Puppids appear on April 23, but only in years around the parent comet's perihelion date. The Virginids also shower at various dates in April.
The "Days of April" (''journées d'avril) is a name assigned in French history to a series of insurrections at Lyons, Paris and elsewhere, against the government of Louis Philippe in 1834, which led to violent repressive measures, and to a famous trial known as the procès d'avril''.<ref name"Chisholm1911"/> Symbols ]]April's birthstone is the diamond. The birth flower is the common daisy (Bellis perennis) or the sweet pea.<ref>Kipfer, Barbara Ann (1997) The Order of Things. New York: Random House</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120911093344/http://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/|url-statusdead|archive-date2012-09-11|titleU101 College Search}}</ref> The zodiac signs are Aries (until April 19) and Taurus (April 20 onward).<ref>The Earth passed the junction of the signs at 14:45 UT/GMT on April 19, 2020, and will pass it again at 20:33 UT/GMT on April 19, 2021.</ref><ref nameastrology>{{cite web |titleAstrology Calendar |urlhttps://www.yourzodiacsign.com/calendar/ |websiteyourzodiacsign |access-dateMarch 29, 2020 |archive-dateMarch 29, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200329204306/https://www.yourzodiacsign.com/calendar/ |url-statuslive }} Signs in UT/GMT for 1950–2030.</ref>
flower]] ]]
Observances
This list does not necessarily imply official status or general observance.
Month-long
* In Catholic, Protestant and Orthodox tradition, April is the Month of the Resurrection of the Lord. April and March are the months in which the moveable Feast of Easter Sunday is celebrated.
* National Pet Month (UK)
United States
* Arab American Heritage Month
* Autism Awareness Month<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.governor.virginia.gov/newsroom/proclamations/proclamation/autism-awareness-month-and-world-autism-awareness-day.html|titleVirginia Governor - Ralph Northam - Proclamation|last|websitewww.governor.virginia.gov|languageen-US|access-date2019-06-09|archive-dateJune 9, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190609003202/https://www.governor.virginia.gov/newsroom/proclamations/proclamation/autism-awareness-month-and-world-autism-awareness-day.html|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://gov.alaska.gov/newsroom/2019/04/01/autism-awareness-month/|titleAutism Awareness Month – Michael J. Dunleavy|dateApril 1, 2019|websitegov.alaska.gov|access-date2019-06-09|archive-dateJune 9, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190609003211/https://gov.alaska.gov/newsroom/2019/04/01/autism-awareness-month/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.autismspeaks.org/world-autism-month|titleWorld Autism Month|websiteAutism Speaks|languageen|access-date2019-06-09|archive-dateJune 17, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190617195239/https://www.autismspeaks.org/world-autism-month|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Cancer Control Month
* Community College Awareness Month
* Confederate History Month (Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas, Virginia)
* Financial Literacy Month
* Jazz Appreciation Month
* Mathematics and Statistics Awareness Month
* Month of the Military Child<ref>{{cite web|titleThe Month of the Military Child |urlhttps://www.dodea.edu/dodeaCelebrates/Military-Child-Month.cfm |websiteDepartment of Defense Education Activity |publisherDoDEA |access-date5 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleMonth of the Military Child |urlhttps://www.defense.gov/Spotlights/Month-of-the-Military-Child/ |websiteDepartment of Defense |access-date=5 April 2022}}</ref>
* National Poetry Month
* National Poetry Writing Month
* Occupational Therapy Month<ref>{{cite web |titleOccupational Therapy Month |urlhttps://www.aota.org/Conference-Events/OTMonth.aspx |websiteAmerican Occupational Therapy Association |publisherAOTA |access-date=31 March 2020}}</ref>
* National Prevent Child Abuse Month
* National Volunteer Month
* Parkinson's Disease Awareness Month
* Rosacea Awareness Month<ref>{{cite web|titleNational Rosacea Society designates April as "Rosacea Awareness Month" |urlhttps://www.mdedge.com/internalmedicine/article/162349/rosacea/national-rosacea-society-designates-april-rosacea-awareness |date3 April 2018|publisherPractical Dermatology|access-date9 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleRosacea Awareness Month Focuses on Management Options |urlhttps://www.pharmacytimes.com/view/rosacea-awareness-month-focuses-on-management-options |date1 April 2020|publisherPharmacy Times|access-date9 June 2021}}</ref>
* Sexual Assault Awareness Month
United States food months
* Fresh Florida Tomato Month
* National Food Month
* National Grilled Cheese Month
* National Pecan Month
* National Soft Pretzel Month
* National Soyfoods Month
Non-Gregorian
''(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed, and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted.)''
* List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar
* List of observances set by the Chinese calendar
* List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
* List of observances set by the Islamic calendar
* List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar
Movable
Variable; 2021 dates shown
* Youth Homelessness Matters Day
* National Health Day (Kiribati): April 6
* Oral, Head and Neck Cancer Awareness Week (United States): April 13–19<ref>[https://headandneck.org/oral-head-neck-cancer-awareness-week-early-registration-now-open/]{{dead link|date=October 2021}}</ref>
* National Park Week (United States): April 18–26
* Crime Victims' Rights Week (United States): April 19–25<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://ovc.ncjrs.gov/ncvrw/ |titleNational Crime Victims' Rights Week |publisherUnited States Department of Justice Office for Victims of Crime |access-dateNovember 30, 2021 |url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100214014130/http://ovc.ncjrs.gov:80/ncvrw/ |archive-date=February 14, 2010 }}</ref>
* National Volunteer Week: April 19–25
* European Immunization Week: April 20–26
* Day of Silence (United States): April 24
* Pay It Forward Day: April 28 (International observance)
* Denim Day: April 29 (International observance)
* Day of Dialogue (United States)
* Vaccination Week In The Americas
* See: List of movable Western Christian observances
* See: List of movable Eastern Christian observances
First Wednesday
* National Day of Hope (United States)
First Saturday
* Ulcinj Municipality Day (Ulcinj, Montenegro)
First Sunday
* Daylight saving time ends (Australia and New Zealand)
* Geologists Day (former Soviet Union countries)
* Kanamara Matsuri (Kawasaki, Japan)
* Opening Day (United States)
First full week
* National Library Week (United States)
** National Library Workers Day (United States) (Tuesday of National Library week, April 9 in 2024)
** National Bookmobile Day (Wednesday of National Library week, April 10 in 2024)
* National Public Health Week (United States)
* National Public Safety Telecommunicators Week (United States)
Second Wednesday
* International Day of Pink
Second Thursday
* National Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day (United States)
Second Friday
* Fast and Prayer Day (Liberia)
* Air Force Day (Russia)
* Kamakura Matsuri at Tsurugaoka Hachiman (Kamakura, Japan), lasts until third Sunday.
Second Sunday
* Children's Day (Peru)
Week of April 14
* Pan American Week (United States)
Third Wednesday
* Administrative Professionals Day (New Zealand)
Third Thursday
* National High Five Day (United States)
Third Saturday
* Record Store Day (International observance)
Last full week of April
* Administrative Professionals Week (Malaysia, North America)
* World Immunization Week
Week of April 23
* Canada Book Week (Canada)
Week of the new moon
* International Dark Sky Week (United States)
Third Monday
* Patriots' Day (Massachusetts, Maine, United States)
* Queen's Official Birthday (Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha)
* Sechseläuten (Zurich, Switzerland)
Wednesday of last full week of April
* Administrative Professionals Day (Hong Kong, North America)
First Thursday after April 18
* First Day of Summer (Iceland)
Fourth Thursday
* Take Our Daughters and Sons to Work Day (United States)
Last Friday
* Arbor Day (United States)
* Día de la Chupina (Rosario, Argentina)
Last Friday in April to first Sunday in May
* Arbour Week in Ontario
Last Saturday
* Children's Day (Colombia)
* National Rebuilding Day (United States)
* National Sense of Smell Day (United States)
* World Tai Chi and Qigong Day
Last Sunday
* Flag Day (Åland, Finland)
* Turkmen Racing Horse Festival (Turkmenistan)
April 27 (April 26 if April 27 is a Sunday)
* Koningsdag (Netherlands)
Last Monday
* Confederate Memorial Day (Alabama, Georgia (U.S. state), and Mississippi, United States)
Last Wednesday
* International Noise Awareness Day
Fixed
at the Circus Maximus]]
* April 1
** April Fools' Day
** Arbor Day (Tanzania)
** Civil Service Day (Thailand)
** Cyprus National Day (Cyprus)
** Edible Book Day
** Fossil Fools Day
** Kha b-Nisan (Assyrian people)
** National Civil Service Day (Thailand)
** Odisha Day (Odisha, India)
** Start of Testicular Cancer Awareness week (United States), April 1–7
** Season for Nonviolence January 30 – April 4
* April 2
** International Children's Book Day (International observance)
** Malvinas Day (Argentina)
** National Peanut Butter and Jelly Day (United States)
** Thai Heritage Conservation Day (Thailand)
** Unity of Peoples of Russia and Belarus Day (Belarus)
** World Autism Awareness Day (International observance)
* April 3
* April 4
** Children's Day (Hong Kong, Taiwan)
** Independence Day (Senegal)
** International Day for Mine Awareness and Assistance in Mine Action
** Peace Day (Angola)
* April 5
** Children's Day (Palestinian territories)
** National Caramel Day (United States)
** Sikmogil (South Korea)
* April 6
** Chakri Day (Thailand)
** National Beer Day (United Kingdom)
** New Beer's Eve (United States)
** Tartan Day (United States & Canada)
* April 7
** Flag Day (Slovenia)
** Genocide Memorial Day (Rwanda), and its related observance:
*** International Day of Reflection on the 1994 Rwanda Genocide (United Nations)
** Motherhood and Beauty Day (Armenia)
** National Beer Day (United States)
** Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume Day (Tanzania)
** Women's Day (Mozambique)
** World Health Day (International observance)
* April 8
** Buddha's Birthday (Japan only, other countries follow different calendars)
** Feast of the First Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)
** International Romani Day (International observance)
* April 9
** Anniversary of the German Invasion of Denmark (Denmark)
** Baghdad Liberation Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)
** Constitution Day (Kosovo)
** Day of National Unity (Georgia)
** Day of the Finnish Language (Finland)
** Day of Valor or Araw ng Kagitingan (Philippines)
** Feast of the Second Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)
** International Banshtai Tsai Day
** Martyr's Day (Tunisia)
** National Former Prisoner of War Recognition Day (United States)
** Remembrance for Haakon Sigurdsson (The Troth)
** Vimy Ridge Day (Canada)
* April 10
** Day of the Builder (Azerbaijan)
** Feast of the Third Day of the Writing of the Book of the Law (Thelema)
** Siblings Day (International observance)
* April 11
** Juan Santamaría Day, anniversary of his death in the Second Battle of Rivas. (Costa Rica)
** International Louie Louie Day
** National Cheese Fondue Day (United States)
** World Parkinson's Day
* April 12
** Children's Day (Bolivia and Haiti)
** Commemoration of first human in space by Yuri Gagarin:
*** Cosmonautics Day (Russia)
*** International Day of Human Space Flight
*** Yuri's Night (International observance)
** Halifax Day (North Carolina)
** National Grilled Cheese Sandwich Day (United States)
** National Redemption Day (Liberia)
* April 13
** Jefferson's Birthday (United States)
** Katyn Memorial Day (Poland)
** Teachers' Day (Ecuador)
** First day of Thingyan (Myanmar) (April 13–16)
** Unfairly Prosecuted Persons Day (Slovakia)
* April 14
** ʔabusibaree (Okinawa Islands, Japan)
** Ambedkar Jayanti (India)
** Black Day (South Korea)
** Commemoration of Anfal Genocide Against the Kurds (Iraqi Kurdistan)
** Dhivehi Language Day (Maldives)
** Day of Mologa (Yaroslavl Oblast, Russia)
** Day of the Georgian language (Georgia (country))
** Season of Emancipation (April 14 to August 23) (Barbados)
** N'Ko Alphabet Day (Mande speakers)
** Pohela Boishakh (Bangladesh)
** Pana Sankranti (Odisha, India)
** Puthandu (Tamils) (India, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka)
** Second day of Songkran (Thailand)
** Pan American Day (several countries in the Americas)
** The first day of Takayama Spring Festival (Takayama, Gifu, Japan)
** Vaisakh (Punjab), (India and Pakistan)
** Youth Day (Angola)
* April 15
** Day of the Sun (North Korea).<ref name"SeolSongAh2015">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.dailynk.com/english/read.php?cataIdnk01500&num13620|titleKim Jong Un's birthday still not a holiday|authorSeol Song Ah|date7 December 2015|access-date13 January 2017|workDaily NK|archive-dateJanuary 7, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180107010642/http://www.dailynk.com/english/read.php?cataIdnk01500&num13620|url-statuslive}}</ref>
** Hillsborough Disaster Memorial (Liverpool, England)
** Jackie Robinson Day (United States)
** Pohela Boishakh (West Bengal, India) (Note: celebrated on April 14 in Bangladesh)
** Last day of Songkran (Thailand)
** Tax Day, the official deadline for filing an individual tax return (or requesting an extension). (United States, Philippines)
** Universal Day of Culture
** World Art Day
* April 16
** Birthday of José de Diego (Puerto Rico, United States)
** Birthday of Queen Margrethe II (Denmark)
** Emancipation Day (Washington, D.C., United States)
** Foursquare Day (International observance)
** Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust (Hungary)
** National Healthcare Decisions Day (United States)
** Remembrance of Chemical Attack on Balisan and Sheikh Wasan (Iraqi Kurdistan)
** World Voice Day
* April 17
** Evacuation Day (Syria)
** FAO Day (Iraq)
** Flag Day (American Samoa)
** Malbec World Day
** National Cheeseball Day (United States)
** National Espresso Day (Italy)
** Women's Day (Gabon)
** World Hemophilia Day
* April 18
** Anniversary of the Victory over the Teutonic Knights in the Battle of the Ice, 1242 (Russia)
** Army Day (Iran)
** Coma Patients' Day (Poland)
** Friend's Day (Brazil)
** Independence Day (Zimbabwe)
** International Day For Monuments and Sites
** Invention Day (Japan)
* April 19
** Army Day (Brazil)
** Beginning of the Independence Movement (Venezuela)
** Bicycle Day
** Dutch-American Friendship Day (United States)
** Holocaust Remembrance Day (Poland)
** Indigenous Peoples Day (Brazil)
** King Mswati III's birthday (Eswatini)
** Landing of the 33 Patriots Day (Uruguay)
** National Garlic Day (United States)
** National Rice Ball Day (United States)
** Primrose Day (United Kingdom)
* April 20
** 420 (cannabis culture) (International)
** UN Chinese Language Day (United Nations)
* April 21
** Natale di Roma(Italy)
** A&M Day (Texas A&M University)
** Civil Service Day (India)
** Day of Local Self-Government (Russia)
** Grounation Day (Rastafari movement)
** Heroic Defense of Veracruz (Mexico)
** Kang Pan-sok's Birthday (North Korea)
** Kartini Day (Indonesia)
** Local Self Government Day (Russia)
** National Tree Planting Day (Kenya)
** San Jacinto Day (Texas)
** Queen's Official Birthday (Falkland Islands)
** Tiradentes' Day (Brazil)
** Vietnam Book Day (Vietnam)
* April 22
** Discovery Day (Brazil)
** Earth Day (International observance) and its related observance:
*** International Mother Earth Day
** Holocaust Remembrance Day (Serbia)
** National Jelly Bean Day (United States)
* April 23
** Castile and León Day (Castile and León, Spain)
** German Beer Day (Germany)
** Independence Day (Conch Republic, Key West, Florida)
** International Pixel-Stained Technopeasant Day
** Khongjom Day (Manipur, India)
** National Sovereignty and Children's Day (Turkey and Northern Cyprus)
** Navy Day (China)
** St George's Day (England) and its related observances:
*** Canada Book Day (Canada)
*** La Diada de Sant Jordi (Catalonia, Spain)
*** World Book Day
** UN English Language Day (United Nations)
* April 24
** Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day (Armenia)
** Concord Day (Niger)
** Children's Day (Zambia)
** Democracy Day (Nepal)
** Fashion Revolution Day
** Flag Day (Ireland)
** International Sculpture Day
** Kapyong Day (Australia)
** Labour Safety Day (Bangladesh)
** National Panchayati Raj Day (India)
** National Pigs in a Blanket Day (United States)
** Republic Day (The Gambia)
** St Mark's Eve (Western Christianity)
** World Day for Laboratory Animals
* April 25
** Anniversary of the First Cabinet of Kurdish Government (Iraqi Kurdistan)
** Anzac Day (Australia, New Zealand)
** Arbor Day (Germany)
** DNA Day
** Feast of Saint Mark (Western Christianity)
** Flag Day (Faroe Islands)
** Flag Day (Eswatini)
** Freedom Day (Portugal)
** Liberation Day (Italy)
** Major Rogation (Western Christianity)
** Military Foundation Day (North Korea)<ref name="SeolSongAh2015"/>
** National Zucchini Bread Day (United States)
** Parental Alienation Awareness Day
** Red Hat Society Day
** Sinai Liberation Day (Egypt)
** World Malaria Day
* April 26
** Chernobyl disaster related observances:
*** Memorial Day of Radiation Accidents and Catastrophes (Russia)
*** Day of Remembrance of the Chernobyl tragedy (Belarus)
** Confederate Memorial Day (Florida, United States)
** Hug A Friend Day
** Lesbian Visibility Day
** National Pretzel Day (United States)
** Old Permic Alphabet Day
** Union Day (Tanzania)
** World Intellectual Property Day
* April 27
** Day of Russian Parliamentarism (Russia)
** Day of the Uprising Against the Occupying Forces (Slovenia)
** Flag Day (Moldova)
** Freedom Day (South Africa)
*** UnFreedom Day
** Independence Day (Sierra Leone)
** Independence Day (Togo)
** National Day (Mayotte)
** National Day (Sierra Leone)
** National Prime Rib Day (United States)
** National Veterans' Day (Finland)
* April 28
** Lawyers' Day (Orissa, India)
** Mujahideen Victory Day (Afghanistan)
** National Day (Sardinia, Italy)
** National Heroes Day (Barbados)
** Restoration of Sovereignty Day (Japan)
** Workers' Memorial Day and World Day for Safety and Health at Work (international)
*** National Day of Mourning (Canada)
* April 29
** Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare (United Nations)
** International Dance Day (UNESCO)
** Princess Bedike's Birthday (Denmark)
** National Shrimp Scampi Day (United States)
** Shōwa Day, traditionally the start of the Golden Week holiday period, which is April 29 and May 3–5. (Japan)
* April 30
** Armed Forces Day (Georgia (country))
** Birthday of the King (Sweden)
** Camarón Day (French Foreign Legion)
** Children's Day (Mexico)
** Consumer Protection Day (Thailand)
** Honesty Day (United States)
** International Jazz Day (UNESCO)
** Martyrs' Day (Pakistan)
** May Eve, the eve of the first day of summer in the Northern hemisphere (see May 1):
*** Beltane begins at sunset in the Northern hemisphere, Samhain begins at sunset in the Southern hemisphere. (Neo-Druidic Wheel of the Year)
*** Carodejnice (Czech Republic and Slovakia)
*** Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe)
** National Persian Gulf Day (Iran)
** Reunification Day (Vietnam)
** Russian State Fire Service Day (Russia)
** Tax Day (Canada)
** Teachers' Day (Paraguay)
See also
* Germanic calendar
* List of historical anniversaries
* Sinking of the RMS Titanic
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{sisterlinks|dQ118|cCategory:April|nno|bno|vno|voyApril|mno|mwno|sno|wiktApril|species=no}}
* [http://www.arborday.org/ National Arbor Day Foundation]
{{months}}
{{Authority control}}
*04 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.808972 |
1005 | August | {{short description|Eighth month in the Julian and Gregorian calendars}}
{{About|the month|}}
{{Redirect|Aug.|other uses|AUG (disambiguation){{!}}Aug}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{Calendar}}
in the August calendar page of the Queen Mary Psalter (fol. 78v), ca. 1310]]
August is the eighth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAugust {{!}} month {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/August-month |access-date2023-12-16 |websitewww.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
In the Southern Hemisphere, August is the seasonal equivalent of February in the Northern Hemisphere. In the Northern Hemisphere, August falls in summer. In the Southern Hemisphere, the month falls during winter. In many European countries, August is the holiday month for most workers. Numerous religious holidays occurred during August in ancient Rome.<ref>Supplicia canum was held on August 3, Lychnapsia on August 12, Nemoralia was held from August 13–15 (or on the full moon of August), Tiberinalia and Portumnalia on August 17, Consuales Ludi on August 18, Vinalia rustica on August 19, Vulcanalia on August 23, Opiconsivia on August 25, and Volturnalia on August 27. These dates do not correspond to the modern Gregorian calendar.</ref>
Certain meteor showers take place in August. The Kappa Cygnids occur in August, with yearly dates varying. The Alpha Capricornids meteor shower occurs as early as July 10 and ends around August 10. The Southern Delta Aquariids occur from mid-July to mid-August, with the peak usually around July 28–29. The Perseids, a major meteor shower, typically takes place between July 17 and August 24, with the peak days varying yearly. The star cluster of Messier 30 is best observed around August.
Among the aborigines of the Canary Islands, especially among the Guanches of Tenerife, the month of August received the name of Beñesmer or Beñesmen, which was also the harvest festival held that month.<ref>{{cite book |lastAbréu Galindo |firstJuan de |author-linkJuan de Abréu Galindo |titleHistoria de la conquista de las siete islas de Gran Canaria |urlhttp://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/70784 |year1848 |orig-year1632 |publisherImprenta, Litografía y Librería Isleña |locationSanta Cruz de Tenerife |access-dateOctober 5, 2017 |archive-dateDecember 12, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181212135233/https://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/70784 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastTorriani |firstLeonardo |author-linkLeonardo Torriani |titleDescripción e historia del reino de las Islas Canarias: antes Afortunadas, con el parecer de sus fortificaciones |urlhttp://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/44103 |year1959 |orig-year1590 |publisherGoya Ediciones |locationSanta Cruz de Tenerife |access-dateOctober 5, 2017 |archive-dateNovember 23, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181123065752/https://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/44103 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
The month was originally named Sextilis in Latin because it was the 6th month in the original ten-month Roman calendar under Romulus in 753 BC, with March being the first month of the year. About 700&nbsp;BC, it became the eighth month when January and February were added to the year before March by King Numa Pompilius, who also gave it 29 days. Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in {{auc|46|BC|main=greg}}, giving it its modern length of 31 days.
In 8 BC, the month was renamed in honor of Emperor Augustus.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.livescience.com/45650-calendar-history.html| title Keeping Time: Months and the Modern Calendar | website Live Science| date May 16, 2014}}</ref> According to a Senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, he chose this month because it was the time of several of his great triumphs, including the conquest of Egypt.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0063:idcalendarium-cn|titleYear of Julius Caesar, A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities (1890), William Smith, LLD, William Wayte, G. E. Marindin, Ed.}}</ref> Commonly repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Sextilis had 31 days before it was renamed. It was not chosen for its length.<ref>{{cite magazine |firstRoscoe |lastLamont |year1919 |titleThe Roman calendar and its reformation by Julius Caesar |magazinePopular Astronomy |volume27 |pages583–595, esp.&nbsp;585–587 |bibcode1919PA.....27..579P |urlhttp://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu//full/1919PA.....27..579P/0000583.000.html}} Sacrobosco's theory is discussed on pages&nbsp;585–587.</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastNothaft |firstC. Philipp E. |date2018 |titleScandalous Error: Calendar Reform and Calendrical Astronomy in Medieval Europe |publisherOxford University Press |page122 |isbn9780198799559 |doi10.1093/oso/9780198799559.001.0001}}</ref> Symbols
]]
gemstones]] stone]] on calcite]]August's birthstones are the peridot, sardonyx, and spinel.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.americangemsociety.org/en/august-birthstones|titleWhy the American Gem Society|websiteAmerican Gem Society}}</ref> Its birth flower is the gladiolus or poppy, meaning beauty, strength of character, love, marriage and family.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120911093344/http://www.shgresources.com/gems/birthflowers/ Birth months, flowers, and gemstones], shgresources.com</ref> The Western zodiac signs are Leo (until August 22) and Virgo (from August 23 onward).<ref>The Earth passes the junction of the signs at 15:44 UT/GMT August 22, 2020. It will pass again at 21:34 UT/GMT on August 22, 2021.</ref><ref nameastrology>{{cite web |titleAstrology Calendar |urlhttps://www.yourzodiacsign.com/calendar/ |websiteyourzodiacsign}} Signs in UT/GMT for 1950–2030.</ref> Observances This list does not necessarily imply official status or general observance. Non-Gregorian: {{CURRENTYEAR}} dates
(All Baha'i, Islamic, and Jewish observances begin at sundown before the listed date and end at sundown on the date in question unless otherwise noted.)
* List of observances set by the Bahá'í calendar
* List of observances set by the Chinese calendar
* List of observances set by the Hebrew calendar
* List of observances set by the Islamic calendar
* List of observances set by the Solar Hijri calendar
Month-long
* Women's Month (South Africa)
* American Adventures Month (celebrates vacationing in the Americas)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cantonpl.org/blogs/post/american-adventures-month/|titleAmerican Adventures Month|websiteCanton Public Library|dateAugust 2022 }}</ref>
* Children's Eye Health and Safety Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.hap.org/health/topic/eyemonth.php|titleChildren's Eye Health and Safety Month}}</ref>
* Digestive Tract Paralysis (DTP) Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.g-pact.org/gpact-in-action/public-relations/online-events|titleOnline Events}}</ref>
* Get Ready for Kindergarten Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.ced.org/blog/entry/august-is-get-ready-for-kindergarten-month|titleAugust is Get Ready for Kindergarten Month!|website=Committee for Economic Development of The Conference Board}}</ref>
* Happiness Happens Month
* Month of Philippine Languages or Buwan ng Wika (Philippines)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.remithome.com/newsletter-august-2012.html |titleCelebrating Filipino Language and Culture |access-date2015-07-29 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304041137/https://www.remithome.com/newsletter-august-2012.html |archive-dateMarch 4, 2016 |df=mdy }}</ref>
* Neurosurgery Outreach Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aans.org/Patient%20Information/Neurosurgery%20Outreach%20Month.aspx|titleAANS}}</ref>
* Psoriasis Awareness Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.psoriasis.org/wellness|titlePsoriasis Awareness Month – Take Action, One Day at a Time – National Psoriasis Foundation}}</ref>
* Spinal Muscular Atrophy Awareness Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://curesma.org/|titleCure SMA – Home}}</ref>
* What Will Be Your Legacy Month
United States month-long
* National Black Business Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://blackbusinessmonth.com/|title12th annual National Black Business Month|work=National Black Business Month}}</ref>
* National Children's Vision and Learning Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.covd.org/?pageAugust_VL|title=August is Vision & Learning Month – College of Optometrists in Vision Development (COVD)}}</ref>
* National Immunization Awareness Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/events/niam.html|titleNational Immunization Awareness Month – NIAM – CDC}}</ref>
* National Princess Peach Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nintendolife.com/news/2014/08/august_is_officially_princess_peach_month_according_to_nintendo_of_america|titleAugust Is Officially Princess Peach Month, According To Nintendo Of America|date=August 8, 2014 }}</ref>
* National Water Quality Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.goodspeaks.org/event/august-is-national-water-quality-month|titleAugust is National Water Quality Month|work=GoodSpeaks}}</ref>
* National Win with Civility Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mhprofessional.com/?page/mhp/categories/chases/content/special_months.html|titleMHprofessional.com}}</ref> Food months in the United States * National Catfish Month<ref name"unl-aug">{{cite web | url http://food.unl.edu/web/fnh/august| title Food Days, Weeks, Months – August | publisher University of Nebraska–Lincoln | work UNL Food }}</ref>
* National Dippin' Dots Month<ref name="unl-aug"/>
* Family Meals Month<ref name="unl-aug" />
* National Goat Cheese Month.<ref>Bober, Mike. [http://www.dcfoodies.com/2008/08/celebrate-natio.html Celebrate National Goat Cheese Month with Local Favorites], dcfoodies.com</ref>
* National Panini Month<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.foodrepublic.com/2012/08/20/why-is-national-panini-month-in-august/|titleWhy Is National Panini Month In August?|dateAugust 20, 2012|workFood Republic}}</ref>
* Peach Month<ref name="unl-aug" />
* Sandwich Month<ref name"unl-aug" /> Moveable Gregorian * National Science Week<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.scienceweek.net.au/|title=National Science Week 2020}}</ref> (Australia)
* See also Movable Western Christian observances
* See also Movable Eastern Christian observances
Second to last Sunday in July and the following two weeks
* Construction Holiday (Quebec)
1st Saturday
* Food Day (Canada)
* Mead Day (United States)
* National Mustard Day (United States)
1st Sunday
* Air Force Day (Ukraine)
* American Family Day (Arizona, United States)
* Children's Day (Uruguay)
* Friendship Day (United States)
* International Forgiveness Day
* Railway Workers' Day (Russia)
First full week of August
* National Farmer's Market Week (United States)
1st Monday
* August Public Holiday (Ireland)
* Children's Day (Tuvalu)
* Civic Holiday (Canada)
** British Columbia Day (British Columbia, Canada)
** Natal Day (Nova Scotia, Canada)
** New Brunswick Day (New Brunswick, Canada)
** Saskatchewan Day (Saskatchewan, Canada
** Terry Fox Day (Manitoba, Canada)
* Commerce Day (Iceland)
* Emancipation Day (Anguilla, Antigua, The Bahamas, British Virgin Islands, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Kitts and Nevis)
* Farmer's Day (Zambia)
* Kadooment Day (Barbados)
* Labor Day (Samoa)
* National Day (Jamaica)
* Picnic Day (Northern Territory, Australia)
* Somers' Day (Bermuda)
* Youth Day (Kiribati)
1st Tuesday
* National Night Out (United States)
1st Friday
* International Beer Day
2nd Saturday
* Sports Day (Russia)
Sunday on or closest to August 9
* National Peacekeepers' Day (Canada)
2nd Sunday
* Children's Day (Argentina, Chile, Uruguay)
* Father's Day (Brazil, Samoa)
* Melon Day (Turkmenistan)
* Navy Day (Bulgaria)
* National Day (Singapore)
2nd Monday
* Heroes' Day (Zimbabwe)
* Victory Day (Hawaii and Rhode Island, United States)
2nd Tuesday
* Defence Forces Day (Zimbabwe)
3rd Saturday
* National Honey Bee Day (<nowiki>United States</nowiki>)
3rd Sunday
* Children's Day (Argentina, Peru)
* Grandparents Day (Hong Kong)
3rd Monday
* Discovery Day (Yukon, Canada)
* Day of Hearts (Haarlem and Amsterdam, Netherlands)
* National Mourning Day (Bangladesh)
3rd Friday
* Hawaii Admission Day (Hawaii, United States)
Last Thursday
* National Burger Day (United Kingdom)
Last Sunday
* Coal Miner's Day (some former Soviet Union countries)
* National Grandparents Day (Taiwan)
Last Monday
* Father's Day (South Sudan)
* National Heroes' Day (Philippines)
* Liberation Day (Hong Kong)
* Late Summer Bank Holiday (England, Northern Ireland and Wales)
Fixed Gregorian
* Season of Emancipation (Barbados) (April 14 to August 23)
* International Clown Week (August 1–7)
* World Breastfeeding Week (August 1–7)
* August 1
** Armed Forces Day (China)
** Armed Forces Day (Lebanon)
** Azerbaijani Language and Alphabet Day (Azerbaijan)
** Emancipation Day (Barbados, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia, Trinidad and Tobago, Turks and Caicos Islands)
** Imbolc (Neopaganism, Southern Hemisphere only)
** Lammas (England, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only)
** Lughnasadh (Gaels, Ireland, Scotland, Neopaganism, Northern Hemisphere only)
** Minden Day (United Kingdom)
** National Day (Benin)
** National Milkshake Day (United States)
** Official Birthday and Coronation Day of the King of Tonga (Tonga)
** Pachamama Raymi (Quechua people in Ecuador and Peru)
** Parents' Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo)
** Procession of the Cross and the beginning of Dormition Fast (Eastern Orthodoxy)
** Statehood Day (Colorado)
** Swiss National Day (Switzerland)
** Victory Day (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam)
** World Scout Scarf Day
** Yorkshire Day (Yorkshire, England)
* August 2
** Airmobile Forces Day (Ukraine)
** Day of Azerbaijani cinema (Azerbaijan)
** Our Lady of the Angels Day (Costa Rica)
** Paratroopers Day (Russia)
** Republic Day (North Macedonia)
* August 3
** Anniversary of the Killing of Pidjiguiti (Guinea-Bissau)
** Armed Forces Day (Equatorial Guinea)
** Esther Day (United States)
** Flag Day (Venezuela)
** Independence Day (Niger)
*** Arbor Day (Niger)
** National Guard Day (Venezuela)
** National Watermelon Day (United States)
** National White Wine Day (United States)
* August 4
** Coast Guard Day (United States)
** Constitution Day (Cook Islands)
** Matica slovenská Day (Slovakia)
** Revolution Day (Burkina Faso)
* August 5
** Dedication of the Basilica of St Mary Major (Catholic Church)
** Independence Day (Burkina Faso)
** National Underwear Day (United States)
** Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian defenders (Croatia)
* August 6
** Feast of the Transfiguration
** Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan's Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates)
** Hiroshima Peace Memorial Ceremony (Hiroshima, Japan)
** Independence Day (Bolivia)
** Independence Day (Jamaica)
** Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)
* August 7
** Assyrian Martyrs Day (Assyrian community)
** Battle of Boyacá Day (Colombia)
** Emancipation Day (Saint Kitts and Nevis)
** Independence Day (Ivory Coast)
** Republic Day (Ivory Coast)
** Youth Day (Kiribati)
* August 8
** Ceasefire Day (Iraqi Kurdistan)
** Father's Day (Taiwan)
** Happiness Happens Day (International observance)
** International Cat Day
** Namesday of Queen Silvia of Sweden, (Sweden)
** Nane Nane Day (Tanzania)
** Signal Troops Day (Ukraine)
* August 9
** Battle of Gangut Day (Russia)
** International Day of the World's Indigenous People (United Nations)
** National Day (Singapore)
** National Women's Day (South Africa)
** Remembrance for Radbod, King of the Frisians (The Troth)
* August 10
** Argentine Air Force Day (Argentina)
** Constitution Day (Anguilla)
** Declaration of Independence of Quito (Ecuador)
** International Biodiesel Day
** National S'more Day (United States)
* August 11
** Flag Day (Pakistan)
** Independence Day (Chad)
** Mountain Day (Japan)
* August 12
** Glorious Twelfth (United Kingdom)
** HM the Queen's Birthday and National Mother's Day (Thailand)
** International Youth Day (United Nations)
** Russian Railway Troops Day (Russia)
** Sea Org Day (Scientology)
** World Elephant Day
* August 13
** Independence Day (Central African Republic)
** International Lefthanders Day
** National Filet Mignon Day (United States)
** Women's Day (Tunisia)
* August 14
** Anniversary Day (Tristan da Cunha)
** Commemoration of Wadi al-Dahab (Morocco)
** Day of the Defenders of the Fatherland (Abkhazia)
** Engineer's Day (Dominican Republic)
** Falklands Day (Falkland Islands)
** Independence Day (Pakistan)
** National Creamsicle Day (United States)
** National Navajo Code Talkers Day (United States)
** Pramuka Day (Indonesia)
* August 15
** Feast Day of the Assumption of Mary (Catholic holy days of obligation, a public holiday in many countries.)
*** Ferragosto (Italy)
*** Māras (Latvia)
*** Mother's Day (Antwerp and Costa Rica)
*** National Acadian Day (Acadians)
*** Virgin of Candelaria, patron of the Canary Islands. (Tenerife, Spain)
** Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos (Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches)
*** Navy Day (Romania)
** Armed Forces Day (Poland)
** The first day of Flooding of the Nile, or Wafaa El-Nil (Egypt and Coptic Church)
** The main day of Bon Festival (Japan), and its related observances:
*** Awa Dance Festival (Tokushima Prefecture)
** Constitution Day (Equatorial Guinea)
** End-of-war Memorial Day, when the National Memorial Service for War Dead is held. (Japan)
** Founding of Asunción (Paraguay)
** Independence Day (Korea)
*** Gwangbokjeol (South Korea)
*** Jogukhaebangui nal, "Fatherland Liberation Day" (North Korea)
** Independence Day (India)
** Independence Day (Republic of the Congo)
** National Day (Liechtenstein)
** Victory over Japan Day (United Kingdom)
** National Lemon Meringue Pie Day (United States)
* August 16
** Bennington Battle Day (Vermont, United States)
** Children's Day (Paraguay)
** Gozan no Okuribi (Kyoto, Japan)
** The first day of the Independence Days (Gabon)
** National Airborne Day (United States)
** National Rum Day (United States)
** Restoration Day (Dominican Republic)
* August 17
** The Birthday of Marcus Garvey (Rastafari)
** Engineer's Day (Colombia)
** Flag Day (Bolivia)
** Independence Day (Indonesia)
** Independence Days (Gabon)
** National Vanilla Custard Day (United States)
** Prekmurje Union Day (Slovenia)
** San Martin Day (Argentina)
* August 18
** Arbor Day (Pakistan)
** Armed Forces Day (North Macedonia)
** Birthday of Virginia Dare (Roanoke Island)
** Constitution Day (Indonesia)
** Long Tan Day (Australia)
** National Science Day (Thailand)
* August 19
** Feast of the Transfiguration (Julian calendar), and its related observances:
*** Buhe (Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church)
*** Saviour's Transfiguration, popularly known as the "Apples Feast" (Russian Orthodox Church and Georgian Orthodox Church)
** Afghan Independence Day (Afghanistan)
** August Revolution Commemoration Day (Vietnam)
** Birthday of Crown Princess Mette-Marit (Norway)
** Manuel Luis Quezón Day (Quezon City and other places in The Philippines named after Manuel L. Quezon)
** National Aviation Day (United States)
** National Potato Day (United States)
** World Humanitarian Day
* August 20
** Indian Akshay Urja Day (India)
** Restoration of Independence Day (Estonia)
** Revolution of the King and People (Morocco)
** Saint Stephen's Day (Hungary)
** World Mosquito Day
* August 21
** Ninoy Aquino Day (Philippines)
** Youth Day/King Mohammed VI's Birthday (Morocco)
* August 22
** Feast of the Coronation of Mary
** Flag Day (Russia)
** Madras Day (Chennai and Tamil Nadu, India)
** National Eat a Peach Day (United States)
** National Pecan Torte Day (United States)
* August 23
** Battle of Kursk Day (Russia)
** Day of the National Flag (Ukraine)
** European Day of Remembrance for Victims of Stalinism and Nazism or Black Ribbon Day (European Union and other countries), and related observances:
*** Liberation from Fascist Occupation Day (Romania)
** International Day for the Remembrance of the Slave Trade and its Abolition
** Umhlanga Day (Eswatini)
* August 24
** Flag Day (Liberia)
** Independence Day of Ukraine
** International Strange Music Day
** National Waffle Day (United States)
** Nostalgia Night (Uruguay)
** Willka Raymi (Cusco, Peru)
* August 25
** Day of Songun (North Korea)
** Independence Day (Uruguay)
** Liberation Day (France)
** National Banana Split Day (United States)
** National Whiskey Sour Day (United States)
** Soldier's Day (Brazil)
* August 26
** Herero Day (Namibia)
** Heroes' Day (Namibia)
** Repentance Day (Papua New Guinea)
** Women's Equality Day (United States)
* August 27
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1006 | Aaron | {{Short description|Prophet in the Abrahamic faiths}}
{{About|the biblical figure}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}
{{primary sources|findAaron|find2brother of Moses|reasonthis article relies almost exclusively on the bible rather than modern scholarship|dateJune 2021}}
{{Infobox religious biography
| title = Prophet, High Priest
| name = Aaron
| image = El sumo sacerdote Aarón (Museo del Prado) (cropped).jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Portrait painting of Aaron by Joan de Joanes, {{circa|1545|1550}}
| religion | module0 {{infobox saint
|feast_day = Latin Church: July 1<br />The Sunday before Nativity (Sunday of the Holy Fathers of the Old Testament) (Eastern Orthodox Church)<br />Maronite Church: September 4
|venerated_in = Judaism<br />Christianity<br />Islam<br />Samaritanism<br />Baháʼí Faith<br />Mormonism<br />Rastafari}}
| parents = {{Plainlist|
* Amram (father)
* Jochebed (mother)
}}
| relatives = {{Plainlist|
* Levi (great-grandfather)
* Moses (brother)
* Miriam (sister)
* Gershom (nephew)
* Eliezer (nephew)
}}
}}
According to Abrahamic religions, Aaron{{refn|{{langx|he|אַהֲרֹן|ʾAhărōn}};<ref nameOlson/> {{langx|ar|هارون|Hārūn}}; {{langx|grc|labelGreek (Septuagint)|Ἀαρών|Aarṓn}}; often called Aaron the priest ({{langx|he|אַהֲרֹן הַכֹּהֵן|ʾAhărōn ha-kōhēn|labelnone}}).|group"note"}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɛər|ən}} {{respell|AIR|ən}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ær|ən}} {{respell|ARR|ən}})<ref>{{cite book|lastWells|firstJohn C.|year2008|titleLongman Pronunciation Dictionary|edition3rd|publisherLongman|isbn978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref> was a Israelite prophet, a high priest, and the elder brother of Moses.<ref nameIbnHisham>{{harvnb|Ibn Hisham|1967|p604; §897}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Exodus 6:16-20, 7:7|multiyes}}</ref><ref>{{qref|7|103-156|byl}}</ref><ref name"qref|19|41-53|by">{{qref|19|41–53|by}}</ref><ref>{{qref|20|9–98|by}}</ref><ref>{{qref|28|34|by}}</ref> Information about Aaron comes exclusively from religious texts, such as the Hebrew Bible, the New Testament (Luke, Acts, and Hebrews),<ref>({{bibleverse|Luke|1:5}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Acts|7:40}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Hebrews 5:4, 7:11, 9:4|multiyes}})</ref> and the Quran.
The Hebrew Bible relates that, unlike Moses, who grew up in the Egyptian royal court, Aaron and his elder sister Miriam remained with their kinsmen in the northeastern region of the Nile Delta. When Moses first confronted the Egyptian king about the enslavement of the Israelites, Aaron served as his brother's spokesman to the Pharaoh ({{bibleverse|Exodus|7:1|HE}}). Part of the Law given to Moses at Sinai granted Aaron the priesthood for himself and his male descendants, and he became the first High Priest of the Israelites.<ref>{{harvnb|Rockwood|2007|p1}}</ref> Levitical priests or kohanim are traditionally believed and halakhically required to be of direct patrilineal descent from Aaron.<ref nameLeuchter2021>{{cite web|lastMark Leuchter|firstMark Leuchter|titleHow All Kohanim Became Sons of Aaron|workTheTorah.com|year2021|urlhttps://www.thetorah.com/article/how-all-kohanim-became-sons-of-aaron|access-date=June 29, 2021}}</ref>
According to the Book of Numbers, Aaron died at 123 years of age, on Mount Hor, in the fortieth year after the Israelites had come out of the land of Egypt.<ref>{{bibleverse|Numbers 20:22, 33:38|multiyes}}</ref> Deuteronomy, however, places these events at Moseroth.<ref namejd3>{{harvnb|McCurdy|1906|p3}}</ref><ref>{{bibleverse|Deuteronomy|10:6}}</ref>Biblical narrativeAccording to the Book of Exodus, Aaron first functioned as Moses' assistant. Because Moses complained that he could not speak well, God appointed Aaron as Moses' "prophet" (Exodus 4:10–17; 7:1).{{refn|groupnote|He spoke and acted on behalf of Moses with the Egyptian royal court, including performing miraculous "signs" to validate Moses' mission.}} At the command of Moses, he let his rod turn into a snake.<ref>[https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchExodus+7%3A9–7%3A9&versionNRSV Exodus 7:9, New Revised Standard Version]</ref> Then he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues.<ref>Exodus 7:19 {{Bibleverse|Exodus|7:19||HE}}, Exodus 8:1,12.</ref><ref>Exodus 8:1, {{Bibleverse|Exodus|8:1||HE}}</ref><ref>Exodus 8:12{{Bibleverse|Exodus|8:12||HE}}</ref> After that, Moses tended to act and speak for himself.<ref>Exodus 9:23 {{Bibleverse|Exodus|9:23||HE}}</ref><ref>Exodus 10:13 {{Bibleverse|Exodus|10:13||HE}}</ref><ref>Exodus 10:22 {{Bibleverse|Exodus|10:22||HE}}</ref>
During the journey in the wilderness, Aaron was not always prominent or active. At the battle with Amalek, he was chosen with Hur to support the hand of Moses that held the "rod of God".<ref>{{Bibleverse|Exodus|17:9|KJV}}</ref> When the revelation was given to Moses at Mount Sinai, he headed the elders of Israel who accompanied Moses on the way to the summit. While Joshua went with Moses to the top, however, Aaron and Hur remained below to look after the people.<ref>
{{Bibleverse|Exodus|24:9|14|KJV}}</ref> From here on in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers, Joshua appears in the role of Moses' assistant while Aaron functions instead as the first high priest.
High Priest
{{See also|High Priest of Israel|Kohen}}
The books of Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers maintain that Aaron received from God a monopoly over the priesthood for himself and his male descendants.<ref>Exodus 28:1</ref> The family of Aaron had the exclusive right and responsibility to make offerings on the altar to Yahweh. The rest of his tribe, the Levites, were given subordinate responsibilities within the sanctuary.<ref>Numbers 3</ref> Moses anointed and consecrated Aaron and his sons to the priesthood, and arrayed them in the robes of office.<ref>Leviticus 8; cf. Exodus 28–29</ref> He also related to them God's detailed instructions for performing their duties while the rest of the Israelites listened.<ref>Leviticus 1–7, 11–27</ref> Aaron and his successors as high priest were given control over the Urim and Thummim by which the will of God could be determined.<ref>Exodus 28:30</ref><ref nameOlson>{{harvnb|Olson|2000|pp1–2}}</ref> God commissioned the Aaronide priests to distinguish the holy from the common and the clean from the unclean, and to teach the divine laws (the Torah) to the Israelites.<ref>Leviticus 10:10–11</ref> The priests were also commissioned to bless the people.<ref>Numbers 6:22–27</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Mariottini|2006}}</ref><ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|6:22–27|KJV}}</ref> When Aaron completed the altar offerings for the first time and, with Moses, "blessed the people: and the glory of the {{LORD}} appeared unto all the people: And there came a fire out from before the {{LORD}}, and consumed upon the altar the burnt offering and the fat [which] when all the people saw, they shouted, and fell on their faces".<ref>Leviticus 9:23–24</ref><ref>{{Bibleverse|Leviticus|9:23–24|KJV}}</ref> In this way, the institution of the Aaronide priesthood was established.<ref namephod>{{harvnb|Souvay|1913|p7}}</ref>
In later books of the Hebrew Bible, Aaron and his kin are not mentioned very often except in literature dating to the Babylonian captivity and later. The books of Judges, Samuel and Kings mention priests and Levites, but do not mention the Aaronides in particular. The Book of Ezekiel, which devotes much attention to priestly matters, calls the priestly upper class the Zadokites after one of King David's priests.<ref nameOlson/> It does reflect a two-tier priesthood with the Levites in subordinate position. A two-tier hierarchy of Aaronides and Levites appears in Ezra, Nehemiah and Chronicles. As a result, many historians think that Aaronide families did not control the priesthood in pre-exilic Israel. What is clear is that high priests claiming Aaronide descent dominated the Second Temple period.<ref>{{harvnb|VanderKam|2004}}{{page needed|dateSeptember 2014}}</ref> Most scholars think the Torah reached its final form early in this period, which may account for Aaron's prominence in Exodus, Leviticus and Numbers.
Conflicts
Aaron plays a leading role in several stories of conflicts during Israel's wilderness wanderings. During the prolonged absence of Moses on Mount Sinai, the people provoked Aaron to make a golden calf.<ref>Exodus 32:1–6</ref> This incident nearly caused God to destroy the Israelites.<ref>Exodus 32:10</ref> Moses successfully intervened, but then led the loyal Levites in executing many of the culprits; a plague afflicted those who were left.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Exodus|32:35||KJV}}</ref> Aaron, however, escaped punishment for his role in the affair, because of the intercession of Moses according to Deuteronomy 9:20.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Deuteronomy|9:20|| KJV }}</ref> Later retellings of this story almost always excuse Aaron for his role.<ref nameWatts2011>{{harvnb|Watts|2011}}</ref> For example, in rabbinic sources<ref>Talmud Shabbat 99a</ref><ref>Exodus Rabbah 41</ref> and in the Quran, Aaron was not the idol-maker and upon Moses' return begged his pardon because he felt mortally threatened by the Israelites.<ref>{{qref|7|142–152|by}}</ref>
On the day of Aaron's consecration, his oldest sons, Nadab and Abihu, were burned up by divine fire because they offered "strange" incense.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Leviticus|10:1|3||HE}}</ref> Most interpreters think this story reflects a conflict between priestly families some time in Israel's past. Others argue that the story simply shows what can happen if the priests do not follow God's instructions given through Moses.<ref name=Watts2011/>
The Torah generally depicts the siblings, Moses, Aaron, and Miriam, as the leaders of Israel after the Exodus, a view also reflected in the biblical Book of Micah.<ref>{{bibleverse|Micah|6:4|9}}</ref> Numbers 12, however, reports that on one occasion, Aaron and Miriam complained about Moses' exclusive claim to be the {{LORD}}'s prophet.<ref>{{bibleverse|Numbers|12|HE}}</ref> Their presumption was rebuffed by God who affirmed Moses' uniqueness as the one with whom the {{LORD}} spoke face to face. Miriam was punished with a skin disease (tzaraath) that turned her skin white. Aaron pleaded with Moses to intercede for her, and Miriam, after seven days' quarantine, was healed. Aaron once again escaped any retribution.
According to Numbers 16–17, a Levite named Korah led many in challenging Aaron's exclusive claim to the priesthood. When the rebels were punished by being swallowed up by the earth,<ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|196:23|35|KJV}}</ref> Eleazar, the son of Aaron, was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests. And when a plague broke out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels, Aaron, at the command of Moses, took his censer and stood between the living and the dead until the plague abated (Numbers 16:36, 17:1), atoning in the process.<ref name":0">{{Cite book |titleHoly Bible |publisherThomas Nelson |year1984 |editionKing James Red Letter |page736}} Secondary source material written by Thomas Nelson.</ref>{{rs|date=March 2025}}
]]
To emphasize the validity of the Levites' claim to the offerings and tithes of the Israelites, Moses collected a rod from the leaders of each tribe in Israel and laid the twelve rods overnight in the tent of meeting. The next morning, Aaron's rod was found to have budded and blossomed and produced ripe almonds.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|17:8|KJV}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Mays|2000|p177}}</ref> The rod was then placed before the Ark of the Covenant to symbolize Aaron's right to priesthood. The following chapter then details the distinction between Aaron's family and the rest of the Levites: while all the Levites (and only Levites) were devoted to the care of the sanctuary, charge of its interior and the altar was committed to the Aaronites alone.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|18:1|KJV}}</ref>DeathAaron, like Moses, was not permitted to enter Canaan with the Israelites<ref namejd3/> when Moses brought water out of a rock to quench the people's thirst. Although they had been commanded to speak to the rock, Moses struck it with the staff twice, which was construed as displaying a lack of deference to the {{LORD}}.<ref name=jd3/><ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|20:7|KJV}}</ref>
There are two accounts of the death of Aaron in the Torah.<ref namejd3/> Numbers says that soon after the incident at Meribah, Aaron with his son Eleazar and Moses ascended Mount Hor. There Moses stripped Aaron of his priestly garments and transferred them to Eleazar. Aaron died on the summit of the mountain, and the people mourned him for thirty days.<ref>Numbers 20:22–29; compare 33:38–39)</ref><ref namejd3/><ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|20:22|KJV}}</ref><ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|33:38|KJV}}</ref> The other account is found in Deuteronomy 10:6, where Aaron died at Moserah and was buried.<ref namejd3/><ref>{{Bibleverse|Deuteronomy|10:6|KJV}}</ref> There is a significant amount of travel between these two points, as the itinerary in Numbers 33:31–37 records seven stages between Moseroth (Mosera) and Mount Hor.<ref namejd3/><ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|33:31|KJV}}</ref> Aaron died on the 1st of Av and was 123 at the time of his death.<ref nameColliers>{{harvnb|Gutstein|1997|p3}}</ref><ref namesorh>according to Seder Olam Rabbah 9, Rosh Hashana 2, 3a</ref><ref namejd4/>
Descendants
, Meraioth, Amaziah and Ahitub.]]
Aaron married Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab and sister of Nahshon of the tribe of Judah.<ref>Exodus 6:23</ref> The sons of Aaron were Nadab, Abihu, Eleazar and Ithamar;{{refn |group "note" |Now these are the divisions of the sons of Aaron. The sons of Aaron; Nadab, and Abihu, Eleazar, and Ithamar.<ref>{{Bibleverse|1|Chronicles|24:1}}</ref>}} only the latter two had progeny. A descendant of Aaron is an Aaronite, or Kohen, meaning Priest.<ref>{{harvnb|Steinmetz|2005|p95}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Freedman|Beck|Myers|2000|p1}}</ref> Any non-Aaronic Levite—i.e., descended from Levi but not from Aaron<ref>{{harvnb|Harbour|Reed|Tinsley|2005|pp47–48}}</ref>—assisted the Levitical priests of the family of Aaron in the care of the tabernacle; later of the temple.<ref group = "note">According to Samaritan sources, a civil war once broke out between the sons of Itamar Eli (Bible) and the sons of Phineas (son of Eleazar) that resulted in a division of those who followed Eli and those who followed High Priest Uzzi ben Bukki at Mount Gerizim Bethel. (A third group followed neither.) Ironically, and likewise according to Samaritan sources, the high priests' line of the sons of Phineas died out in 1624 CE with the death of the 112th High Priest, Shlomyah ben Pinhas, at which time the priesthood was transferred to the sons of Itamar. See article Samaritan for list of High Priests from 1613 to 2004—the 131st high priest of the Samaritans is Elazar ben Tsedaka ben Yitzhaq. Also see article, Samaritan</ref>
The Gospel of Luke records that both Zechariah and Elizabeth and therefore their son John the Baptist were descendants of Aaron.<ref>{{Bibleverse||Luke|1:5|KJB}}</ref>
Family tree
{{chart/start}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | JAC |y| LEA | | | | | | | | | | | |LEALeah|JACJacob|RAC=Rachel}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | |!| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | LEV | | | | | | | | | | | | | |LEV=Levi}}
{{chart| | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|^|v|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| |}}
{{chart| | | GER | | |!| | | | KOH | | | | | | | | | MER |GERGershon|KOHKehath|MER=Merari}}
{{chart| |,|-|^|-|.| |!| |,|-|v|^|v|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|^|-|.}}
{{chart| LIB | | SHI |!| IZH |!| HEB | | UZI | | MAH | | MUS |LIBLibni|SHIShimei|IZHIzhar|HEBHebron|UZIUzziel|MAHMahli|MUS=Mushi}}
{{chart| | | | | | | |!| | | |!| | | |,|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.}}
{{chart| | | | | | | JOC |y| AMR | | MIS | | ELI | | ZIT |ELIElzaphan|MISMishael|ZITZithri |AMR Amram|JOC=Jochebed}}
{{chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |}}
{{chart| | | | | MIR | | AAR | | MOS |y| ZIP |MIRMiriam|AARAaron|MOSMoses|ZIPZipporah|AMR=Amram}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |,|-|^|-|.| |}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | GER | | ELI |GER Gershom|ELIEliezer}}
{{chart/end}}
Historicity
{{Main|Moses#Historicity|The Exodus#Origins and historicity}}
Thomas Römer argues that external evidence and biblical texts suggest the Pentateuch reflects tensions among three groups: (1) a lay group aligned with Moses, (2) a priestly group linked to Aaron, and (3) the Levites. These tensions, particularly evident during the Persian and early Hellenistic periods, are seen in conflicting narratives about Moses's and Aaron's roles. Compromises are evident in texts like Exodus and Leviticus, where Moses and Aaron work together, though Moses is dominant. Disagreements persisted, with some texts emphasizing Moses's superiority and others elevating Aaron's status. The Pentateuch ultimately preserves these unresolved conflicts while portraying Moses as the unparalleled mediator of the Torah (Deut. 34:10–12).<ref>Römer, Thomas. "The Relationship between Moses and Aaron and the Question of the Composition of the Pentateuch." In Jeon, J. (ed.), The Social Groups behind the Pentateuch, SBLAIL 43, Atlanta, GA: SBL Press, pp. 55–72.</ref>
In religious traditions
Jewish rabbinic literature
The older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth; men without the spirit of God and lacking the willpower requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities.<ref namejd2>{{harvnb|Kohler|1906|p3}}</ref> Thus Aaron, the first priest, ranks below Moses: he is his mouthpiece, and the executor of the will of God revealed through Moses, although it is written fifteen times in the Torah that "the Lord spoke to Moses and Aaron."<ref>Sifra, Wa-yiḳra, 1</ref>
Under the influence of the priesthood that shaped the destinies of the nation under Persian rule, a different ideal of the priest was formed, according to Malachi 2:4–7, and the prevailing tendency was to place Aaron on a footing equal with Moses.<ref namejd2/> "At times Aaron, and at other times Moses, is mentioned first in Scripture—this is to show that they were of equal rank," says the Mekhilta of Rabbi Ishmael, which strongly implies this when introducing in its record of renowned men the glowing description of Aaron's ministration.<ref namejd2/>
In fulfillment of the promise of peaceful life, symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head,<ref>Leviticus Rabbah 10, Midrash Tehillim 133:1</ref> Aaron's death, as described in the aggadah, was of a wonderful tranquility.<ref namejd4>{{harvnb|Kohler|1906|p4}}</ref> Accompanied by Moses, his brother, and by Eleazar, his son, Aaron went to the summit of Mount Hor, where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view. Moses said, "Take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son Eleazar!" said Moses; "and then follow me."<ref namejd4/> Aaron did as commanded; and they entered the cave, where was prepared a bed around which angels stood. "Go lie down upon thy bed, my brother," Moses continued; and Aaron obeyed without a murmur.<ref namejd4/> Then his soul departed as if by a kiss from God. The cave closed behind Moses as he left; and he went down the hill with Eleazar, with garments rent, and crying: "Alas, Aaron, my brother! thou, the pillar of supplication of Israel!"<ref namejd4/> When the Israelites cried in bewilderment, "Where is Aaron?" angels were seen carrying Aaron's bier through the air.<ref namejd4/> A voice was then heard saying: "The law of truth was in his mouth, and iniquity was not found on his lips: he walked with me in righteousness, and brought many back from sin."<ref>Malachi 2:6</ref><ref namejd4/> He died on the first of Av.<ref namesorh/><ref namejd4/> The pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of Israel's camp disappeared at Aaron's death.<ref namesorh/><ref namejd4/> The seeming contradiction between Numbers 20:22 et seq. and Deuteronomy 10:6 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner: Aaron's death on Mount Hor was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of Arad, in consequence of which the Israelites fled, marching seven stations backward to Mosera, where they performed the rites of mourning for Aaron; wherefore it is said: "There [at Mosera] died Aaron."<ref namejd4/><ref group = "note">See Mekhilta, Beshallaḥ, Vayassa, 1; Tanhuma, Hukkat, 18; Yerushalmi Sotah, 1 17c, and Targum Pseudo-Jonathan Numbers and Deuteronomy on the above mentioned passages.</ref>
The rabbis particularly praise the brotherly sentiment between Aaron and Moses. When Moses was appointed ruler and Aaron high priest, neither betrayed any jealousy; instead they rejoiced in each other's greatness. When Moses at first declined to go to Pharaoh, saying: "O my Lord, send, I pray, by the hand of him whom you will send",<ref>Exodus 4:13</ref> he was unwilling to deprive Aaron of the high position the latter had held for so many years; but the Lord reassured him, saying: "Behold, when he sees you, he will be glad in his heart."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Exodus|4:14|JPS}}</ref><ref namejd4/> Indeed, Aaron was to find his reward, says Shimon bar Yochai; for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brother's rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the Urim and Thummim, which were to "be upon Aaron's heart when he goeth in before the Lord".<ref>Canticles Rabbah 1:10</ref><ref namejd4/> Moses and Aaron met in gladness of heart, kissing each other as true brothers,<ref>Exodus 4:27; compare Song of Songs 8:1</ref> and of them it is written: "Behold how good and how pleasant [it is] for brethren to dwell together in unity!"<ref>Psalm 133:1</ref><ref namejd4/> Of them it is said: "Mercy and truth are met together; righteousness and peace have kissed [each other]";<ref>Psalm 85:10</ref> for Moses stood for righteousness<ref>Deuteronomy 33:21</ref> and Aaron for peace.<ref>{{Bibleverse|Malachi|2:6|JPS}}</ref> Again, mercy was personified in Aaron, according to Deuteronomy 33:8, and truth in Moses, according to Numbers 12:7.<ref namejd4/><ref>(Tanhuma, Shemot, ed. Buber, 24–26)</ref>
When Moses poured the oil of anointment upon the head of Aaron, Aaron modestly shrank back and said: "Who knows whether I have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office." Then the Shekhinah spoke the words: "Behold the precious ointment upon the head, that ran down upon the beard of Aaron, that even went down to the skirts of his garment, is as pure as the dew of Hermon."<ref>{{Bibleverse|Psalm|133:2–3}}</ref><ref name=jd4/><ref>Sifra, Shemini, Milluim; Tanhuma, Korah, ed. Buber, 14</ref>
According to Tanhuma,<ref>ed. Buber, 2:12</ref> Aaron's activity as a prophet began earlier than that of Moses.<ref namejd2/> Hillel held Aaron up as an example, saying: "Be of the disciples of Aaron, loving peace and pursuing peace; love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the Law!"<ref>Atlas Tours</ref>{{better source needed|dateDecember 2021}} This is further illustrated by the tradition<ref>Preserved in Avot of Rabbi Natan 12, Sanhedrin 6b, and elsewhere</ref> that Aaron was an ideal priest of the people, far more beloved for his kindly ways than was Moses.<ref namejd3/> While Moses was stern and uncompromising, brooking no wrong, Aaron went about as peacemaker, reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged, or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled, and winning evil-doers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse.<ref>{{harvnb|Kohler|1906|pp3–4}}</ref> As a result, Aaron's death was more intensely mourned than Moses': when Aaron died the whole house of Israel wept, including the women,<ref>Numbers 20:29</ref><ref namejd4/><ref>{{Bibleverse|Numbers|20:29}}</ref> while Moses was bewailed by "the sons of Israel" only.<ref>Deuteronomy 34:8)</ref><ref namejd4/><ref>{{Bibleverse|Deuteronomy|34:8|NASB}}</ref> Even in the making of the golden calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for Aaron.<ref namejd4/><ref>Sanhedrin 7a</ref> His fortitude and silent submission to the will of God on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify God in the midst of great affliction.<ref namejd4/><ref>Zebahim 115b</ref> Especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by God after the princes of the Twelve Tribes had brought their dedication offerings into the newly constructed Tent of Meeting: "Say to thy brother Aaron: Greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift; for thou art called upon to kindle the light, and, while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the Temple lasts, thy light shall last forever."<ref namejd4/><ref>Tanhuma, ed. Buber, Behaalotecha, 6</ref>Christianity
of Aaron (18th century, Iconostasis of Kizhi monastery, Karelia, Russia).]]
In the Eastern Orthodox and Maronite churches, Aaron is venerated as a saint whose feast day is shared with his brother Moses and celebrated on September 4. (Those churches that follow the traditional Julian calendar celebrate this day on September 17 of the modern Gregorian calendar). Aaron is also commemorated with other Old Testament saints on the Sunday of the Holy Fathers, the Sunday before Christmas.
In Eastern Orthodox Church he is commemorated on 20 July, 12 March, Sunday of the Forefathers, Sunday of the Fathers and on April 14 with all saint Sinai monks.<ref>{{Cite web |titleСвятой Ааро́н Первосвященник |urlhttps://azbyka.ru/days/sv-aaron-pervosvjashchennik |access-date2022-06-25 |websiteПравославный Церковный календарь |languageru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleААРОН ПЕРВОСВЯЩЕННИК – Древо |urlhttp://drevo-info.ru/articles/2353.html |access-date2022-06-25 |websitedrevo-info.ru |languageru}}</ref>
Aaron is commemorated as one of the Holy Forefathers in the Calendar of Saints of the Armenian Apostolic Church on July 30. He is commemorated on July 1 in the modern Latin calendar and in the Syriac Calendar.
The Moses and Aaron Church ({{langx|nl|Mozes en Aäronkerk}}), in the Waterlooplein neighborhood of Amsterdam, is one of the most well-known Catholic churches in the city.
One version of the Bible has an encyclopedia that describes Aaron's role in Scripture as the "spokesman for Moses".<ref name":0" />MormonismIn the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, the Aaronic priesthood is the lesser order of priesthood under the higher order of the Melchizedek priesthood. Those ordained to this priesthood have the authority to act in God's name in certain responsibilities in the church such as the administration of the sacrament and baptism.<ref>{{harvnb|Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints|2001|p25}}</ref>
In the Community of Christ, the Aaronic order of priesthood is regarded as an appendage to the Melchisedec order, and consists of the priesthood offices of deacon, teacher, and priest. While differing in responsibilities, these offices, along with those of the Melchisidec order, are regarded as equal before God.
{{anchor|Harun}} Islam
{{See also|Moses in Islam|Aaron in Islam}}
Aaron (Arabic: هارون, Hārūn) is mentioned in the Quran as a prophet of God.<ref>{{qref|19|53|by}}</ref> The Quran praises Aaron repeatedly, calling him a "believing servant"<ref>{{qref|37|122|by}}</ref> as well as one who was "guided"<ref>{{qref|6|84|by}}</ref> and one of the "victors".<ref>{{qref|37|114–122|by}}</ref> The Quran additionally denies the role of Aaron in the creation of the golden calf, attributing the action to Samiri.<ref>{{qref|20|85|by}}</ref> Aaron is important in Islam for his role in the events of the Exodus, in which, according to the Quran and Islamic belief, he preached with his younger brother, Musa (Moses) to the Pharaoh of the Exodus.<ref>{{harvnb|Glasse|1989|pp9–10}}</ref><ref name"qref|19|41-53|by"/>
Aaron's significance in Islam, however, is not limited to his role as the helper of Moses. Islamic tradition also accords Aaron the role of a patriarch, as tradition records that the priestly descent came through Aaron's lineage, which included the entire House of Amran.{{refn |group "note" |All commentators, classical and modern, hold that the Quranic House of Amran refers to Imrān's lineage, through his son Aaron. (cf. Muhammad Asad, Yusuf 'Ali and Ibn Kathir's commentary on Q. 19:28)<ref nameyus>{{harvnb|Ali|1998|p773 §2481}}</ref>}}{{refn |group"note" |"In the second group, we have the great founders of families, apart from Abraham, viz., Noah of the time of the Flood; David and Solomon, the real establishers of the Jewish monarchy; Job, who lived 140 years, saw four generations of descendants, and was blessed at the end of his life with large pastoral wealth (Job 42:16,12); Joseph, who as Minister of State did great things in Egypt and was the progenitor of two Tribes; and Moses and Aaron, the leaders of the Exodus from Egypt. They led active lives and called 'doers of good.'"<ref>{{harvnb|Ali|1998|p312 §904}}</ref>}}Baháʼí FaithIn the Baháʼí Faith, although his father is described as both an apostle and a prophet, Aaron is merely described as a prophet. The Kitáb-i-Íqán describes Imran as his father.<ref>{{harvnb|Bahá'u'lláh|'Abdu'l-Bahá|1976|p270}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Baha'u'llah|2003|p243}}</ref>In art
, as depicted in Sandro Botticelli's Punishment of the Sons of Korah, 15th century]]
Aaron appears paired with Moses frequently in Jewish and Christian art, especially in the illustrations of manuscript and printed Bibles.<ref namewatt3>{{harvnb|Watts|2013}}{{page needed|dateMay 2015}}</ref> He can usually be distinguished by his priestly vestments, especially his turban or miter and jeweled breastplate. He frequently holds a censer or, sometimes, his flowering rod. Aaron also appears in scenes depicting the wilderness Tabernacle and its altar, as already in the third-century frescos in the synagogue at Dura-Europos in Syria. An eleventh-century portable silver altar from Fulda, Germany depicts Aaron with his censor, and is located in the Musée de Cluny in Paris. This is also how he appears in the frontispieces of early printed Passover Haggadot and occasionally in church sculptures. Aaron has rarely been the subject of portraits, such as those by Anton Kern [1710–1747] and by Pier Francesco Mola [{{Circa|1650}}].<ref nameKline>{{harvnb|Kline|2010}}</ref> Christian artists sometimes portray Aaron as a prophet<ref>Exodus 7:1</ref> holding a scroll, as in a twelfth-century sculpture from the Cathedral of Noyon in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York and often in Eastern Orthodox icons. Illustrations of the Golden Calf story usually include him as well – most notably in Nicolas Poussin's The Adoration of the Golden Calf ({{Circa|1633}}–34, National Gallery, London).<ref>{{harvnb|National Gallery|2013}}</ref> Finally, some artists interested in validating later priesthoods have painted the ordination of Aaron and his sons (Leviticus 8). Harry Anderson's realistic portrayal is often reproduced in the literature of the Latter Day Saints.<ref group"note">Harry Anderson's Aaron Is Called to the Ministry is in the Conference Center of the LDS Church in Salt Lake City, Utah.</ref><ref name=watt3/>
Aaron has been depicted in Exodus-related drama, such as The Ten Commandments (1956) and Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014).<ref name"Lyden 2009">{{cite book |last1Lyden |first1John C. |titleThe Routledge Companion to Religion and Film |date7 May 2009 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-135-22066-2 |page390 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id09KLAgAAQBAJ&dq%22The+Ten+Commandments%22+aaron+%22John+Carradine%22&pgPA390 |languageen}}</ref><ref name"ScreenRant 2014">{{cite news |last1Kendrick |first1Ben |title'Exodus: Gods and Kings': Differences Between the Movie & the Bible |urlhttps://screenrant.com/exodus-gods-kings-movie-differences-bible-scripture/ |access-date10 February 2024 |workScreen Rant |date12 December 2014 |languageen}}</ref>
See also
* Harun
* Moses in rabbinic literature
* Y-chromosomal Aaron
Notes
{{reflist|2|group"note"}}Footnotes{{Reflist|20em}}References
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite web |author--- (Atlas Tours) |url http://www.atlastours.net/jordan/aarons_tomb.html| titleAaron's Tomb, Petra |publisher Atlas Travel and Tourist Agency |access-date29 Apr 2014 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20080726195041/http://www.atlastours.net/jordan/aarons_tomb.html| archive-dateJuly 26, 2008| url-status live}}
* {{cite book |lastAli |first Abdullah Yusuf |titleThe Holy Qur'an: Text, Translation and Commentary |publisher Tahrike Tarsile Qur'an |year1998 |language En,Ar |isbn= 978-0-940368-31-6 }}
* {{cite book |authorBaha'u'llah |translatorShoghi Effendi |titleThe Kitab-i-Iqan: The Book of Certitude |year 2003 |orig-date1861 |isbn 978-1-931847-08-7 |publisher= Baha'i Pub. }}
* {{cite book |author1Bahá'u'lláh |author2 'Abdu'l-Bahá |titleSelected Writings of Bahá'u'lláh and 'Abdu'l-Bahá |year 1976 |publisher= US Bahá'í Publishing Trust }}
*{{cite book |authorChurch of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints |url https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/duties-and-blessings-of-the-priesthood-basic-manual-for-priesthood-holders-part-a| titleDuties and Blessings of the Priesthood: Basic Manual for Priesthood Holders, Part A |publisher The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints |year2001 |orig-date 1979 |location= Salt Lake City, UT }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor1-lastFreedman |editor1-first David Noel |editor2-lastBeck |editor2-first Astrid P. |editor3-lastMyers |editor3-first Allen C. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idP9sYIRXZZ2MC&qA+priestly+descendant+of+Aaron+is+an+Aaronite&pgPA1| encyclopediaEerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |publisher William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |year2000 |title Aaron |locationGrand Rapids, MI |pages 1–2 |isbn= 978-0-8028-2400-4 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastGlasse |first Cyril |encyclopediaConcise Encyclopedia of Islam |title Aaron |publisherHarper & Row |year 1989 |isbn= 978-0-06-063123-9 }}
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1Gutstein |first1 Morris A. |editor-lastJohnston |editor-first Bernard |encyclopediaCollier's Encyclopedia |title Aaron |edition1st |year 1997 |publisherP.F. Collier |volume I: A to Ameland |location= New York, NY }}
* {{cite book |last1Harbour |first1 Brian |last2Reed |first2 Wilma |last3Tinsley |first3 William |titleThe Gospel of Luke: Journeying to the Cross (Adult Study Guide) |year 2005 |isbn978-1-931060-69-1 |publisher BaptistWay Press }}
* {{cite book |lastIbn Hisham |first 'Abd al-Malik |titleThe Life of Muhammad: A Translation of Ishaq's Sirat Rasul Allah |others Translated by A. Guillaume |year1967 |orig-date 1955 |publisherPakistan Branch Oxford University Press| location Lahore, Pakistan }}
* {{cite web |lastKline |first Fred R. |urlhttp://www.klinegallery.com/Mola_01.html |title Aaron, Holy to the Lord |year2010 |website Kline Gallery |access-dateJuly 20, 2012 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120907152018/http://www.klinegallery.com/Mola_01.html |archive-date= September 7, 2012 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastKohler |first Kaufmann |editor-lastSinger |editor-first Isidore |urlhttp://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid4&letterA&searchaaron#18| encyclopediaThe Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from Earliest Times: Complete in Twelve Volumes |title Aaron – In Apocryphal and Rabbinical Literature (Moses and Aaron Compared) & (Death of Aaron) |year1906 |asin B000B68W5S |publisher= Ktav Publishing House }}
* {{cite book |lastLings |first Martin |author-linkMartin Lings |title Muhammad: His Life Based on the Earliest Sources |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_VdTAAAAYAAJ&qwonderment+Aaron| year 1983 |publisherHarperCollins Publishers Ltd. |isbn 978-0-04-297050-9 }}
* {{cite web |lastMariottini |first Claude |urlhttp://claudemariottini.com/the-priestly-benediction-numbers-624-26/| title The Priestly Benediction: Numbers 6:24-26 |date17 March 2006 |website Dr. Claude Mariottini – Professor of Old Testament |access-date= 1 May 2014 }}
* {{cite book |editor-lastMays |editor-first James L. |titleThe HarperCollins Bible Commentary |year 2000 |orig-date1988 |publisher HarperSanFrancisco |locationSan Francisco, CA |edition Revised |isbn= 0-06-065548-8 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastMcCurdy |first J. Frederic |editor-lastSinger |editor-first Isidore |urlhttp://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid4&letterA&searchaaron#18| encyclopediaThe Jewish Encyclopedia: A Descriptive Record of the History, Religion, Literature, and Customs of the Jewish People from Earliest Times: Complete in Twelve Volumes |title Aaron – Biblical Data (Death) |year1906 |asin B000B68W5S |publisher= Ktav Publishing House }}
* {{cite web |authorNational Gallery |year 2013 |urlhttp://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/nicolas-poussin-the-adoration-of-the-golden-calf| title The Adoration of the Golden Calf |website= National Gallery }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastOlson |first Dennis T. |editor1-lastFreedman |editor1-first David Noel |editor2-lastMyers |editor2-first Allen C. |editor3-lastBeck |editor3-first Astrid B. |titleAaron |encyclopedia Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible |year2000 |publisher William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |locationGrand Rapids, MI |isbn 978-0-8028-2400-4 |edition1st |url-access registration |url= https://archive.org/details/eerdmansdictiona0000unse }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-lastRockwood |editor-first Camilla |year2007 |edition 8th |isbn978-0550-10200-3 |publisher Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltc. |locationEdinburgh, UK |encyclopedia Chambers Biographical Dictionary |title= Aaron }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastSouvay |first Charles Léon |editor1-lastHerbermann |editor1-first Charles G. |editor2-lastPace |editor2-first Edward A. |editor3-lastFallen |editor3-first Conde B. |editor4-lastShahan |editor4-first Thomas J. |editor5-lastWynne |editor5-first John J. |titleAaron |encyclopedia The Catholic Encyclopedia |volumeI: A — Assize |publisher Robert Appleton Co. |locationNew York, NY |asin B006UETSQM |year1913 |pages 5–7 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastSteinmetz |first Sol |encyclopediaDictionary of Jewish Usage: A Guide to the Use of Jewish Terms |url https://books.google.com/books?idcrESCkypt5MC&qa+priestly+descendant+of+aaron+is+an+aaronite+or+(kohen%7Ccohen)&pgPA95 |publisher Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |locationLanham, MD |year 2005 |titlekohen |pages 95–96 |isbn= 978-0-7425-4387-4 }}
* {{cite book |lastVanderKam |first James C. |titleFrom Joshua to Caiaphas: High Priests after the Exile |year 2004 |publisherAugsburg Fortress Publishers |isbn 0-8006-2617-6 |location= Minneapolis, MN}}
* {{cite journal|lastWatts|firstJames W.|titleIllustrating Leviticus: Art, Ritual, Politics|journalBiblical Reception|date2013|volume2|pages=3–15}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastWells |first John C. |titleAaron |encyclopedia Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |publisherLongman |location Harlow, UK |year1990 |isbn 978-0-582-05383-0 }}
* {{cite web |lastWheeler |first Brannon |urlhttp://www.usna.edu/Users/humss/bwheeler/aaron.html| title Tomb of Aaron |publisherUnited States Naval Academy |access-date 29 Apr 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080624203348/http://www.usna.edu/Users/humss/bwheeler/aaron.html| archive-dateJune 24, 2008| url-statuslive |year 2013 |website= usna.edu }}
{{refend}}
Further reading
* {{cite journal |last1Aberbach |first1 Moses |last2Smolar |first2 Leivy |dateJune 1967 |title Aaron, Jeroboam and the Golden Calves |journalJournal of Biblical Literature |volume 86 |issue2 |pages 129–140 |doi10.2307/3263268| jstor 3263268 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-lastGinzberg |editor-first Louis |titleThe Legends of the Jews (7 vols.)| others Translated by Henrietta Szold & Paul Radin |locationPhiladelphia, PA |publisher Jewish Publication Society of America |year1909–1938 |lccn 0901-4182 }}
* {{cite book |lastKaufmann |first Yehezkel |titleThe Religion of Israel: From its Beginnings to the Babylonian Exile |others Translated and abridged by Moshe Greenberg |locationNew York, NY |publisher Schocken Books |year1960 |lccn 6000-5466 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1Kennet |first1 R. H. |author-link1R. H. Kennett |doi 10.1093/jts/os-VI.22.161 |titleThe Origin of the Aaronite Priesthood |journal The Journal of Theological Studies |issue22 |pages 161–186 |dateJanuary 1905 |url https://zenodo.org/record/2083722 }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1McCurdy |first1 J. Frederic |last2Kohler |first2 Kaufmann |author-linkJ. Frederic McCurdy |url http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid4&letterA&searchAaron |title Aaron |encyclopediaThe Jewish Encyclopedia |publisher Funk and Wagnalls |year= 1901 }} which cites
** Numbers Rabbah 9
** Leviticus Rabbah 10
** Midrash Peṭirat Aharon in Jellinek's Bet ha-Midrash, 1:91–95
** Yalḳuṭ Numbers 764
** {{cite encyclopedia |lastBaring-Gould |first Sabine |author-linkSabine Baring-Gould |title Legends of Old Testament Characters |volumeII: From the Talmud and Other Sources |year 2009 |publisherBiblioBazaar |isbn 978-1-1037-2117-7 |orig-date= 1871 }}
** {{cite book |authorElʻazar ben Asher, ha-Leṿi |translatorM. Gaster |titleThe Chronicles of Jerahmeel |pages [https://archive.org/details/chroniclesofjera00elea/page/130 130–133] |lccn44034408 |year 1899 |publisherThe Royal Asiatic Society |location London |title-link= Chronicles of Jerahmeel }}
** {{cite book |lastHolweck |first Frederick G. |author-linkFrederick George Holweck |title A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints |locationSt. Louis, MO |publisher B. Herder Book Co |year= 1924 }}
* {{cite journal |lastMeek |first Theophile James |titleAaronites and Zadokites |journal The American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures |volume45 |issue 3 |dateApril 1929 |pages 149–166 |publisherThe University of Chicago Press |location Chicago |doi10.1086/370226| s2cid 170552287 }}
* {{cite book |lastMeek |first Theophile James |titleHebrew Origins |edition Revised |locationNew York |publisher Harper & Brothers |year1950 |orig-date 1936 |lccn= 5001-1526 }}
* {{cite journal |lastWatts |first James W. |titleAaron and the Golden Calf in the Rhetoric of the Pentateuch |journal Journal of Biblical Literature |dateFall 2011 |volume 130 |issue3 |pages 417–430 |urlhttp://surface.syr.edu/rel/14/ |publisher Society of Biblical Literature |issn0021-9231 |doi 10.2307/41304211 |jstor41304211 |s2cid 44054114 }}
'''References in the Qur'an'''
* Aaron's prophecy: {{qref|4|163}}, {{qref|6|84}},
* Aaron is made helper of Moses: {{qref|19|53}}, {{qref|25|35}}, {{qref|26|13}}, {{qref|28|34}}, {{qref|28|35}}
* Aaron and Moses sent to Pharaoh: {{qref|23|45}}, {{qref|10|75}}, {{qref|10|87}}, {{qref|21|48}}
* Praise for Aaron: {{qref|37|114}}, {{qref|37|114}}, {{qref|37|118}}, {{qref|37|119}}, {{qref|37|120}}, {{qref|37|122}}
* The Golden Calf: {{qref|7|150}}, {{qref|20|94}}
External links
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* {{Wikisource inline}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitleAaron|volume1|page4|firstStanley Arthur|lastCook|author-linkStanley Arthur Cook|short=y}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090528123921/http://english-ingles.com/etymology-of-aaron/ English-Ingles.com – Etymology of Aaron]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090528123921/http://www.mfnames.com/mnames/a/origin-and-meaning-of-aaron.htm MFnames.com – Origin and Meaning of Aaron]
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/aaron.html "Aaron"] at the [http://www.christianiconography.info Christian Iconography] website
{{s-start}}
{{s-rel|isra}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|titleHigh Priest of Israel|yearsYears unknown}}
{{s-aft|after=Eleazar}}
{{s-end}}
{{High Priests of Judaism}}
{{Prophets of the Tanakh}}
{{Book of Exodus navbox}}
{{Prophets in the Qur'an|no}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aaron}}
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Category:Ancient Egyptian Jews
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Category:15th-century BC people
Category:Family of Aaron and Moses | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.869135 |
1008 | April 6 | {{pp-move-indef}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre–1600
*46 BC &ndash; Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato (Cato the Younger) at the Battle of Thapsus.<ref>{{cite book|authorEvelyn Shirley Shuckburgh|titleA History of Rome to the Battle of Actium|urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofrometob00shucuoft|year1896|publisherMacmillan and Company|page[https://archive.org/details/historyofrometob00shucuoft/page/752 752]}}</ref>
* 402 &ndash; Stilicho defeats the Visigoths under Alaric in the Battle of Pollentia.<ref>{{cite book|authorC. W. Previté Orton|titleThe Shorter Cambridge Medieval History|year1975|urlhttps://archive.org/details/shortercambridge0001prev|url-accessregistration|publisherCUP Archive|pages[https://archive.org/details/shortercambridge0001prev/page/81 81]|isbn9780521209632}}</ref>
*1320 &ndash; The Scots reaffirm their independence by signing the Declaration of Arbroath.<ref>{{cite book|lastCowan|firstEdward J.|titleFor Freedom Alone: The Declaration of Arbroath, 1320|locationEast Linton, East Lothian, Scotland|publisherTuckwell|date2002|isbn9781862321502|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFAM3anarxLwC|pages4, 8}}</ref>
*1453 &ndash; Mehmed II begins his siege of Constantinople. The city falls on May 29 and is renamed Istanbul.<ref>{{cite book|lastTucker|firstSpencer C.|chapterOverview of 1400-1500: Chronology|titleA Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East. Vol.1: ca. 3000 BCE—1499 CE|editor-lastTucker|editor-firstSpencer C.|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABCCLIO|date2010|isbn9781851096671|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh5_tSnygvbIC|pages341–343}}</ref>
*1580 &ndash; One of the largest earthquakes recorded in the history of England, Flanders, or Northern France, takes place.<ref>{{cite news|last1Wood|first1Robin Muir|last2Melville|first2Charles|titleWho Killed the British Earthquake?|workThe New Scientist|dateOctober 20, 1983|page173|accessdateApril 12, 2022|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbIFUtulGdQcC&dqDover%20earthquake%20largest%20even%20%226%20April%22%20%221580%22&pgPA173|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|lastVarley|firstP.M.|chapterSeismic Risk Assessment and Analysis|titleEngineering Geology of the Channel Tunnel|editor-last1Harris|editor-first1Colin S.|editor-last2Hart|editor-first2Malcolm B.|editor-last3Varley|editor-first3P.M.|editor-last4Warren|editor-first4Colin D.|locationLondon|publisherT. Telford|date1996|isbn9780727720450|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUi_qSldWobYC|pages195–197}}</ref>1601–1900
*1652 &ndash; At the Cape of Good Hope, Dutch sailor Jan van Riebeeck establishes a resupply camp that eventually becomes Cape Town.
*1712 &ndash; The New York Slave Revolt of 1712 begins near Broadway.
*1776 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: Ships of the Continental Navy fail in their attempt to capture a Royal Navy dispatch boat.
*1782 &ndash; King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke (Rama I) of Siam (modern day Thailand) establishes the Chakri dynasty.
*1793 &ndash; During the French Revolution, the Committee of Public Safety becomes the executive organ of the republic.
*1800 &ndash; The Treaty of Constantinople establishes the Septinsular Republic, the first autonomous Greek state since the Fall of the Byzantine Empire. (Under the Old Style calendar then still in use in the Ottoman Empire, the treaty was signed on 21 March.)<ref>{{cite book|lastGekas|firstSakis|titleXenocracy: State, Class, and Colonialism in the Ionian Islands, 1815-1864|locationNew York|publisherBerghahn|date2017|isbn9781785332616|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJ2joCwAAQBAJ|pages23–24|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|lastMackridge|firstPeter|chapterIntroduction|titleThe Ionian Islands: Aspects of their History and Culture|editor-last1Hirst|editor-first1Anthony|editor-last2Sammon|editor-first2Patrick|locationNewcastle upon Tyne, UK|publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing|year2014|isbn9781443862783|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCdIxBwAAQBAJ|page5}}</ref>
*1808 &ndash; John Jacob Astor incorporates the American Fur Company, that would eventually make him America's first millionaire.
*1812 &ndash; British forces under the command of the Duke of Wellington assault the fortress of Badajoz. This would be the turning point in the Peninsular War against Napoleon-led France.
*1814 &ndash; Nominal beginning of the Bourbon Restoration; anniversary date that Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to Elba.
*1830 &ndash; Church of Christ, the original church of the Latter Day Saint movement, is organized by Joseph Smith and others at either Fayette or Manchester, New York.
*1841 &ndash; U.S. President John Tyler is sworn in, two days after having become president upon William Henry Harrison's death.
*1860 &ndash; The Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, later renamed Community of Christ, is organized by Joseph Smith III and others at Amboy, Illinois.
*1862 &ndash; American Civil War: The Battle of Shiloh begins: In Tennessee, forces under Union General Ulysses S. Grant meet Confederate troops led by General Albert Sidney Johnston.
*1865 &ndash; American Civil War: The Battle of Sailor's Creek: Confederate General Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia fights and loses its last major battle while in retreat from Richmond, Virginia, during the Appomattox Campaign.
*1866 &ndash; The Grand Army of the Republic, an American patriotic organization composed of Union veterans of the American Civil War, is founded. It lasts until 1956.
*1896 &ndash; In Athens, the opening of the first modern Olympic Games is celebrated, 1,500 years after the original games are banned by Roman emperor Theodosius I.
1901–present
*1909 &ndash; Robert Peary and Matthew Henson become the first people to reach the North Pole; Peary's claim has been disputed because of failings in his navigational ability.<ref>{{cite book|authorDennis Rawlins|titlePeary at the North Pole: Fact Or Fiction?|urlhttps://archive.org/details/pearyatnorthpole00denn|url-accessregistration|year1973|publisherLuce|isbn978-0-88331-042-7|page[https://archive.org/details/pearyatnorthpole00denn/page/180 180]}}</ref>
*1911 &ndash; During the Battle of Deçiq, Dedë Gjon Luli Dedvukaj, leader of the Malësori Albanians, raises the Albanian flag in the town of Tuzi, Montenegro, for the first time after George Kastrioti (Skanderbeg).
*1917 &ndash; World War I: The United States declares war on Germany.
*1918 &ndash; Finnish Civil War: The battle of Tampere ends.<ref>[https://yle.fi/uutiset/osasto/news/100_years_ago_today_reds_take_tampere_finnish_civil_war_begins/10044586 100 years ago today: Reds take Tampere, Finnish Civil War begins] – Yle News, January 27, 2018. Retrieved October 6, 2021.</ref>
*1926 &ndash; Varney Airlines makes its first commercial flight (Varney is the root company of United Airlines).
*1929 &ndash; Huey P. Long, Governor of Louisiana, is impeached by the Louisiana House of Representatives.
*1930 &ndash; At the end of the Salt March, Gandhi raises a lump of mud and salt and declares, "With this, I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire."<ref>{{cite book |lastGandhi |firstMahatma |author2Dalton, Dennis |author-link2Dennis Dalton |titleSelected Political Writings |publisherHackett Publishing Company |year1996 |isbn0-87220-330-1 |page[https://archive.org/details/mahatmagandhisel00maha/page/72 72] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/mahatmagandhisel00maha/page/72}}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; Tupelo–Gainesville tornado outbreak: Another tornado from the same storm system as the Tupelo tornado hits Gainesville, Georgia, killing 203.
*1941 &ndash; World War II: Nazi Germany launches Operation 25 (the invasion of Kingdom of Yugoslavia) and Operation Marita (the invasion of Greece).
*1945 &ndash; World War II: Sarajevo is liberated from German and Croatian forces by the Yugoslav Partisans.
* 1945 &ndash; World War II: The Battle of Slater's Knoll on Bougainville comes to an end.
*1947 &ndash; The first Tony Awards are presented for theatrical achievement.
*1957 &ndash; The flag carrier airline of Greece for decades, Olympic Airways, is founded by Aristotle Onassis following the acquisition of "TAE - Greek National Airlines".<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://oainfo.olympicairlines.com/history_organization_en.htm | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090803120700/http://oainfo.olympicairlines.com/history_organization_en.htm | archive-date2009-08-03 | titleHistory & Organization }}</ref>
*1958 &ndash; Capital Airlines Flight 67 crashes in Tittabawassee Township, Michigan, near Freeland Tri-City Airport, killing 47.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident Vickers 745D Viscount N7437 Freeland-Tri City Airport, MI (MBS) |urlhttps://www.asndata.aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19580406-0 |access-date2022-04-05 |websitewww.asndata.aviation-safety.net |publisherAviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; Launch of Early Bird, the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit.
*1968 &ndash; In the downtown district of Richmond, Indiana, a double explosion kills 41 and injures 150.
* 1968 &ndash; Pierre Elliott Trudeau wins the Liberal Party leadership election, and becomes Prime Minister of Canada soon afterward.
*1970 &ndash; Newhall massacre: Four California Highway Patrol officers are killed in a shootout.
*1972 &ndash; Vietnam War: Easter Offensive: American forces begin sustained air strikes and naval bombardments.
*1973 &ndash; Launch of Pioneer 11 spacecraft.
* 1973 &ndash; The American League of Major League Baseball begins using the designated hitter.
*1974 &ndash; In Brighton, United Kingdom, ABBA wins the 1974 edition of the Eurovision Song Contest with "Waterloo", the first of a joint-record seven Swedish wins.<ref>{{cite news |titleCulture Re-View: A look back at this day in history |urlhttps://www.euronews.com/culture/2023/04/06/culture-re-view-the-day-abba-achieved-eurovision-glory |access-date4 March 2024 |workeuronews |date6 April 2023 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleSinger Loreen makes history as Sweden wins Eurovision for seventh time |urlhttps://www.france24.com/en/europe/20230514-singer-loreen-makes-history-as-sweden-wins-eurovision-song-contest-for-7th-time |access-date4 March 2024 |workFrance 24 |date=14 May 2023}}</ref>
*1984 &ndash; Members of Cameroon's Republican Guard unsuccessfully attempt to overthrow the government headed by Paul Biya.
*1985 &ndash; Sudanese President Gaafar Nimeiry is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Field Marshal Abdel Rahman Swar al-Dahab.<ref>{{cite web | workThe New York Times | titleSudan's President is Ousted in Coup by Military Chief | urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1985/04/07/world/sudan-s-president-is-ousted-in-coup-by-military-chief.html | date7 April 1985 | access-date=23 December 2022}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; The Bosnian War begins.
*1994 &ndash; The Rwandan genocide begins when the aircraft carrying Rwandan president Juvénal Habyarimana and Burundian president Cyprien Ntaryamira is shot down.
*1997 &ndash; In Greene County, Tennessee, the Lillelid murders occur.<ref>{{cite news |last1Lakin |first1Matt |titleLillelid murders still haunt East Tennessee, 20 years later |urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/news/crime/2017/04/02/lillelid-murders-haunt-east-tennessee-20-years-later/99876020/ |access-date17 September 2021 |publisherUSA Today |date=2 April 2017}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Nuclear weapons testing: Pakistan tests medium-range missiles capable of reaching India.
*2004 &ndash; Rolandas Paksas becomes the first president of Lithuania to be peacefully removed from office by impeachment.
*2005 &ndash; Kurdish leader Jalal Talabani becomes Iraqi president; Shiite Arab Ibrahim al-Jaafari is named premier the next day.
*2008 &ndash; The 2008 Egyptian general strike starts led by Egyptian workers later to be adopted by April 6 Youth Movement and Egyptian activists.
*2009 &ndash; A 6.3 magnitude earthquake strikes near L'Aquila, Italy, killing 307.
*2010 &ndash; Maoist rebels kill 76 CRPF officers in Dantewada district, India.
*2011 &ndash; In San Fernando, Tamaulipas, Mexico, over 193 victims of Los Zetas were exhumed from several mass graves.
*2012 &ndash; Azawad declares itself independent from the Republic of Mali.
*2017 &ndash; U.S. military launches 59 Tomahawk cruise missiles at an air base in Syria. Russia describes the strikes as an "aggression", adding they significantly damage US-Russia ties.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-39523654|titleSyria war: US launches missile strikes in response to chemical 'attack'|date7 April 2017|workBBC News|access-date7 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170407013217/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-39523654|archive-date7 April 2017|url-statuslive|df=dmy-all}}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; A bus carrying the Humboldt Broncos junior ice hockey team collides with a semi-truck in Saskatchewan, Canada, killing 16 people and injuring 13 others.<ref>{{Cite web|titleHumboldt Broncos bus crash: 16 people dead in highway tragedy|urlhttps://thestarphoenix.com/news/local-news/humboldt-broncos-bus-involved-in-highway-crash|access-date2021-05-23|websitethestarphoenix|languageen-CA}}</ref>BirthsPre–1600
*1135 &ndash; Maimonides, Jewish philosopher, Torah scholar, physician and astronomer (March 30 also proposed, d. 1204)
*1342 &ndash; Infanta Maria, Marchioness of Tortosa
*1573 &ndash; Margaret of Brunswick-Lüneburg, German noble (d. 1643)
1601–1900
*1632 &ndash; Maria Leopoldine of Austria (d. 1649)
*1651 &ndash; André Dacier, French scholar and academic (d. 1722)
*1660 &ndash; Johann Kuhnau, German organist and composer (d. 1722)
*1664 &ndash; Arvid Horn, Swedish general and politician, Governor of Västerbotten County (d. 1742)
*1671 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, French poet and playwright (d. 1741)
*1672 &ndash; André Cardinal Destouches, French composer (d. 1749)
*1706 &ndash; Louis de Cahusac, French playwright and composer (d. 1759)
*1708 &ndash; Johann Georg Reutter, Austrian organist and composer (d. 1772)
*1725 &ndash; Pasquale Paoli, French soldier and politician (d. 1807)
*1726 &ndash; Gerard Majella, Italian saint (d. 1755)
*1741 &ndash; Nicolas Chamfort, French author and playwright (d. 1794)
*1766 &ndash; Wilhelm von Kobell, German painter and educator (d. 1853)
*1773 &ndash; James Mill, Scottish historian, economist, and philosopher (d. 1836)
*1787 &ndash; Celestina Cordero, Puerto Rican educator (d. 1862)
*1810 &ndash; Philip Henry Gosse, English biologist and academic (d. 1888)
*1812 &ndash; Alexander Herzen, Russian philosopher and author (d. 1870)
*1815 &ndash; Robert Volkmann, German organist, composer, and conductor (d. 1883)
*1818 &ndash; Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, Norwegian journalist and poet (d. 1870)
*1820 &ndash; Nadar, French photographer, journalist, and author (d. 1910)
*1823 &ndash; Joseph Medill, Canadian-American publisher and politician, 26th Mayor of Chicago (d. 1899)
*1824 &ndash; George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (d. 1906)
*1826 &ndash; Gustave Moreau, French painter and academic (d. 1898)
*1844 &ndash; William Lyne, Australian politician, 13th Premier of New South Wales (d. 1913)
*1851 &ndash; Guillaume Bigourdan, French astronomer and academic (d. 1932)
*1852 &ndash; Will Crooks, English trade unionist and politician (d. 1921)
*1855 &ndash; Charles Huot, Canadian painter and illustrator (d. 1930)
*1857 &ndash; Arthur Wesley Dow, American painter and photographer (d. 1922)
*1860 &ndash; René Lalique, French sculptor and jewellery designer (d. 1945)
*1861 &ndash; Stanislas de Guaita, French poet and author (d. 1897)
*1864 &ndash; William Bate Hardy, English biologist and academic (d. 1934)
*1866 &ndash; Felix-Raymond-Marie Rouleau, Canadian cardinal (d. 1931)
*1869 &ndash; Levon Shant, Armenian author, poet, and playwright (d. 1951)
*1878 &ndash; Erich Mühsam, German author, poet, and playwright (d. 1934)
*1881 &ndash; Karl Staaf, Swedish pole vaulter and hammer thrower (d. 1953)
*1884 &ndash; J. G. Parry-Thomas, Welsh race car driver and engineer (d. 1927)
*1886 &ndash; Athenagoras I of Constantinople (d. 1972)
* 1886 &ndash; Walter Dandy, American physician and neurosurgeon (d. 1946)
* 1886 &ndash; Osman Ali Khan, Asaf Jah VII, Indian ruler (d. 1967)
*1888 &ndash; Hans Richter, Swiss painter, illustrator, and director (d. 1976)
* 1888 &ndash; Gerhard Ritter, German historian and academic (d. 1967)
*1890 &ndash; Anthony Fokker, Dutch engineer and businessman, founded Fokker Aircraft Manufacturer (d. 1939)
*1892 &ndash; Donald Wills Douglas, Sr., American businessman, founded the Douglas Aircraft Company (d. 1981)
* 1892 &ndash; Lowell Thomas, American journalist and author (d. 1981)
*1895 &ndash; Dudley Nichols, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1960)
*1898 &ndash; Jeanne Hébuterne, French painter and author (d. 1920)<ref>{{cite book|firstWilliam|lastFifield|titleModigliani|locationNew York|publisherW. Morrow|year1976|page284|isbn978-0-68803-039-1}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Leo Robin, American composer and songwriter (d. 1984)
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Pier Giorgio Frassati, Italian activist (d. 1925)
*1902 &ndash; Julien Torma, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1933)
*1903 &ndash; Mickey Cochrane, American baseball player and manager (d. 1962)
* 1903 &ndash; Harold Eugene Edgerton, American engineer and academic (d. 1990)
*1904 &ndash; Kurt Georg Kiesinger, German lawyer, politician and Chancellor of Germany (d. 1988)<ref>{{cite web |titleKurt Georg Kiesinger {{!}} German statesman |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Kurt-Georg-Kiesinger |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date6 February 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1904 &ndash; Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (d. 1966)
*1906 &ndash; Virginia Hall, American who was a spy in France for the UK and US during WWII (d. 1982)<ref name"Ramul 2021">{{cite web |lastRamul |firstAaja |titleNot Bad for a Girl from Baltimore: the Story of Virginia Hall |websitephotos.state.gov |date2009-02-04 |urlhttps://photos.state.gov/libraries/estonia/99874/History%20stories/Not-Bad-for-a-Girl-from-Baltimore.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210410055806/https://photos.state.gov/libraries/estonia/99874/History%20stories/Not-Bad-for-a-Girl-from-Baltimore.pdf |archive-date2021-04-10 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
*1908 &ndash; Marcel-Marie Desmarais, Canadian preacher, missionary, and author (d. 1994)
* 1908 &ndash; Ernie Lombardi, American baseball player (d. 1977)<ref>{{cite web |titleErnie Lombardi |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/ernie-lombardi-117880 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date23 March 2023}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; William M. Branham, American minister and theologian (d. 1965)
* 1909 &ndash; Hermann Lang, German race car driver (d. 1987)
*1910 &ndash; Barys Kit, Belarusian-American rocket scientist (d. 2018)
*1911 &ndash; Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1979)
*1913 &ndash; Shannon Boyd-Bailey McCune, American geographer and academic (d. 1993)
*1915 &ndash; Tadeusz Kantor, Polish director, painter, and set designer (d. 1990)
*1916 &ndash; Phil Leeds, American actor (d. 1998)
* 1916 &ndash; Vincent Ellis McKelvey, American geologist and author (d. 1987)
*1917 &ndash; Leonora Carrington, English-Mexican painter and author (d. 2011)
*1918 &ndash; Alfredo Ovando Candía, Bolivian general and politician, 56th President of Bolivia (d. 1982)
*1919 &ndash; Georgios Mylonas, Greek politician, 11th Greek Minister of Culture (d. 1998)
*1920 &ndash; Jack Cover, American pilot and physicist, invented the Taser gun (d. 2009)
* 1920 &ndash; Edmond H. Fischer, Swiss-American biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2021)
*1921 &ndash; Wilbur Thompson, American shot putter (d. 2013)
*1922 &ndash; Gordon Chater, English-Australian comedian and actor (d. 1999)
*1923 &ndash; Herb Thomas, American race car driver (d. 2000)
*1926 &ndash; Sergio Franchi, Italian-American singer and actor (d. 1990)
* 1926 &ndash; Gil Kane, Latvian-American author and illustrator (d. 2000)
* 1926 &ndash; Ian Paisley, Northern Irish evangelical minister and politician, 2nd First Minister of Northern Ireland (d. 2014)
* 1926 &ndash; Randy Weston, American jazz pianist and composer (d. 2018)
*1927 &ndash; Gerry Mulligan, American saxophonist, clarinet player, and composer (d. 1996)
* 1928 &ndash; James Watson, American biologist, geneticist, and zoologist, Nobel Prize laureate
*1929 &ndash; Willis Hall, English playwright and author (d. 2005)
* 1929 &ndash; Joi Lansing, American model, actress and nightclub singer (d. 1972)
* 1929 &ndash; André Previn, American pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 2019)
* 1929 &ndash; Christos Sartzetakis, Greek jurist, supreme justice and President of Greece (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.sartzetakis.gr/pdf/cven.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.sartzetakis.gr/pdf/cven.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleChristos Α. Sαrτζετακis's Curriculum Vitae |websitewww.sartzetakis.gr}}</ref>
*1930 &ndash; Qiu Dahong, Chinese coastal and offshore engineer, member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (d. 2025)<ref>{{cite news |languagezh |script-titlezh:讣告 |urlhttps://news.dlut.edu.cn/info/1011/112254.htm |accessdate2025-01-11 |workDalian University of Technology |date2025-01-11}}</ref>
*1931 &ndash; Ram Dass, American author and educator (d. 2019)
* 1931 &ndash; Ivan Dixon, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2008)
*1932 &ndash; Connie Broden, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2013)
* 1932 &ndash; Helmut Griem, German actor and director (d. 2004)
*1933 &ndash; Roy Goode, English lawyer and academic
* 1933 &ndash; Tom C. Korologos, American journalist and diplomat, United States Ambassador to Belgium
* 1933 &ndash; Eduardo Malapit, American lawyer and politician, Mayor of Kauai (d. 2007)
*1934 &ndash; Enrique Álvarez Félix, Mexican actor (d. 1996)
* 1934 &ndash; Anton Geesink, Dutch martial artist and wrestler (d. 2010)
* 1934 &ndash; Guy Peellaert, Belgian painter, illustrator, and photographer (d. 2008)
*1935 &ndash; Douglas Hill, Canadian author and critic (d. 2007)
*1936 &ndash; Helen Berman, Dutch-Israeli painter and illustrator
* 1936 &ndash; Jean-Pierre Changeux, French neuroscientist, biologist, and academic
*1937 &ndash; Merle Haggard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2016)<ref name":0">{{Cite web|lastGoronja|firstAriel|date2020-04-14|titleMerle Haggard's Death: 5 Fast Facts You Need to Know|urlhttps://heavy.com/entertainment/2020/04/merle-haggard-death-cause-date/|access-date2021-05-13|websiteHeavy.com|language=en-US}}</ref>
* 1937 &ndash; Tom Veivers, Australian cricketer and politician
* 1937 &ndash; Billy Dee Williams, American actor, singer, and writer
*1938 &ndash; Paul Daniels, English magician and television host (d. 2016)
*1938 &ndash; Roy Thinnes, American television and film actor
*1939 &ndash; André Ouellet, Canadian lawyer and politician, 1st Canadian Minister of Foreign Affairs
* 1939 &ndash; John Sculley, American businessman, co-founded Zeta Interactive
*1940 &ndash; Homero Aridjis, Mexican journalist, author, and poet
* 1940 &ndash; Pedro Armendáriz, Jr., Mexican-American actor and producer (d. 2011)
*1941 &ndash; Christopher Allsopp, English economist and academic
* 1941 &ndash; Phil Austin, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (d. 2015)
* 1941 &ndash; Hans W. Geißendörfer, German director and producer
* 1941 &ndash; Angeliki Laiou, Greek-American Byzantinist and politician (d. 2008)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.academia.edu/3066579 | titleMemorial Celebration for Angelikí Laiou, Dumbarton Oaks Director 1989-1998 | last1Ziolkowski | first1Jan }}</ref>
* 1941 &ndash; Don Prudhomme, American race car driver and manager
* 1941 &ndash; Gheorghe Zamfir, Romanian flute player and composer
*1942 &ndash; Barry Levinson, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1942 &ndash; Anita Pallenberg, Italian-English model, actress, and fashion designer (d. 2017)
*1943 &ndash; Max Clifford, English journalist and publicist (d. 2017)
* 1943 &ndash; Roger Cook, New Zealand-English journalist and academic
* 1943 &ndash; Ian MacRae, New Zealand rugby player
* 1943 &ndash; Mitchell Melton, American lawyer and politician (d. 2013)
*1944 &ndash; Felicity Palmer, English operatic soprano
*1945 &ndash; Rodney Bickerstaffe, English trade union leader (d. 2017)
* 1945 &ndash; Peter Hill, English journalist
*1946 &ndash; Paul Beresford, New Zealand-English dentist and politician
*1947 &ndash; John Ratzenberger, American actor and director
* 1947 &ndash; André Weinfeld, French-American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1947 &ndash; Mike Worboys, English mathematician and computer scientist
*1949 &ndash; Alyson Bailes, English academic and diplomat (d. 2016)
* 1949 &ndash; Patrick Hernandez, French singer-songwriter
* 1949 &ndash; Ng Ser Miang, Singaporean athlete, entrepreneur and diplomat
* 1949 &ndash; Horst Ludwig Störmer, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
*1950 &ndash; Claire Morissette, Canadian cycling activist (d. 2007)
* 1950 &ndash; Cleo Odzer, American anthropologist and author (d. 2001)
*1951 &ndash; Bert Blyleven, Dutch-American baseball player and sportscaster
* 1951 &ndash; Jean-Marc Boivin, French skier, mountaineer, and pilot (d. 1990)
* 1951 &ndash; Pascal Rogé, French pianist
*1952 &ndash; Udo Dirkschneider, German singer-songwriter
* 1952 &ndash; Marilu Henner, Greek-Polish American actress and author
* 1952 &ndash; Michel Larocque, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (d. 1992)
*1953 &ndash; Patrick Doyle, Scottish actor and composer
* 1953 &ndash; Christopher Franke, German-American drummer and songwriter
*1955 &ndash; Rob Epstein, American director and producer
* 1955 &ndash; Michael Rooker, American actor, director, and producer
* 1955 &ndash; Cathy Jones, Canadian actress, comedian, and writer<ref>{{Cite web |titleCathy Jones |urlhttps://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/cathy-jones |access-date2024-12-12 |websitewww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |language=en}}</ref>
*1956 &ndash; Michele Bachmann, American lawyer and politician
* 1956 &ndash; Normand Corbeil, Canadian composer (d. 2013)
* 1956 &ndash; Mudassar Nazar, Pakistani cricketer
* 1956 &ndash; Lee Scott, English politician
* 1956 &ndash; Sebastian Spreng, Argentinian-American painter and journalist
* 1956 &ndash; Dilip Vengsarkar, Indian cricketer and coach
*1957 &ndash; Giorgio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach
* 1957 &ndash; Maurizio Damilano, Italian race walker and coach
* 1957 &ndash; Jaroslava Maxová, Czech soprano and educator
* 1957 &ndash; Paolo Nespoli, Italian soldier, engineer, and astronaut
*1958 &ndash; Graeme Base, Australian author and illustrator
*1959 &ndash; Gail Shea, Canadian politician
*1960 &ndash; Warren Haynes, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1960 &ndash; Richard Loe, New Zealand rugby player
* 1960 &ndash; John Pizzarelli, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1961 &ndash; Rory Bremner, Scottish impressionist and comedian
* 1961 &ndash; Peter Jackson, English footballer and manager
*1962 &ndash; Iris Häussler, German sculptor and academic
* 1962 &ndash; Marco Schällibaum, Swiss footballer, coach, and manager
*1963 &ndash; Rafael Correa, Ecuadorian economist and politician, 54th President of Ecuador
*1964 &ndash; David Woodard, American conductor and writer<ref>Staff, [https://geboren.am/6-april-1964 6. April 1964], geboren.am.</ref>
* 1964 &ndash; Tim Walz, American politician, Governor of Minnesota & vice presidential candidate<ref>{{cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW4Som-OxRt4C&dqtim+walz+april+6&pgPA143 | titleOfficial Congressional Directory 114th Congress, 2015-2016, Convened January 2015 | date30 March 2016 | publisherGovernment Printing Office | isbn978-0-16-092997-7 }}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; Black Francis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1965 &ndash; Sterling Sharpe, American football player and sportscaster
*1966 &ndash; Vince Flynn, American author (d. 2013)
* 1966 &ndash; Young Man Kang, South Korean-American director and producer
*1967 &ndash; Julian Anderson, English composer and educator
* 1967 &ndash; Kathleen Barr, Canadian voice actress and singer
* 1967 &ndash; Tanya Byron, English psychologist and academic
* 1967 &ndash; Jonathan Firth, English actor
*1968 &ndash; Archon Fung, American political scientist, author, and academic
* 1968 &ndash; Affonso Giaffone, Brazilian race car driver
*1969 &ndash; Bret Boone, American baseball player and manager
* 1969 &ndash; Bison Dele, American basketball player (d. 2002)
* 1969 &ndash; Philipp Peter, Austrian race car driver
* 1969 &ndash; Paul Rudd, American actor
* 1969 &ndash; Spencer Wells, American geneticist and anthropologist
*1970 &ndash; Olaf Kölzig, South African-German ice hockey player and coach
* 1970 &ndash; Roy Mayorga, American drummer, songwriter, and producer
* 1970 &ndash; Huang Xiaomin, Chinese swimmer
*1972 &ndash; Anders Thomas Jensen, Danish director and screenwriter
* 1972 &ndash; Dickey Simpkins, American basketball player and sportscaster
*1973 &ndash; Donnie Edwards, American football player
* 1973 &ndash; Randall Godfrey, American football player
* 1973 &ndash; Rie Miyazawa, Japanese model and actress
* 1973 &ndash; Sun Wen, Chinese footballer
*1975 &ndash; Zach Braff, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1975 &ndash; Hal Gill, American ice hockey player
*1976 &ndash; Candace Cameron Bure, American actress and talk show panelist<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/27531%7C0/Candace-Cameron-Bure |titleCandace Cameron Bure - Turner Classic Movies |publisherTCM.com |access-date January 10, 2022 |archive-dateDecember 2, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201202190658/https://www.tcm.com/tcmdb/person/27531%7C0/Candace-Cameron-Bure |url-status=live}}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; James Fox, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor
* 1976 &ndash; Chris Hoke, American football player
* 1976 &ndash; Georg Hólm, Icelandic bass player
* 1976 &ndash; Hirotada Ototake, Japanese author and educator
*1977 &ndash; Ville Nieminen, Finnish ice hockey player
* 1977 &ndash; Andy Phillips, American baseball player and coach
*1978 &ndash; Imani Coppola, American singer-songwriter and violinist
* 1978 &ndash; Robert Glasper, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer
* 1978 &ndash; Tim Hasselbeck, American football player and sportscaster
* 1978 &ndash; Myleene Klass, Austrian/Filipino-English singer, pianist, and model
* 1978 &ndash; Martín Méndez, Uruguayan bass player and songwriter
* 1978 &ndash; Blaine Neal, American baseball player
* 1978 &ndash; Igor Semshov, Russian footballer
*1979 &ndash; Lord Frederick Windsor, English journalist and financier
* 1979 &ndash; Clay Travis, American sports journalist, blogger, and broadcaster
*1980 &ndash; Tommi Evilä, Finnish long jumper
* 1980 &ndash; Tanja Poutiainen, Finnish skier
*1981 &ndash; Robert Earnshaw, Welsh footballer
* 1981 &ndash; Jeff Faine, American football player
* 1981 &ndash; Lucas Licht, Argentine footballer<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://ca.sports.yahoo.com/soccer/players/lucas-licht-380491/|titleLucas Licht &#124; Gimnasia La Plata &#124; Stats &#124; News &#124; Profile|website=Yahoo Canada Sports}}</ref>
* 1981 &ndash; Alex Suarez, American bass player
*1982 &ndash; Travis Moen, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1982 &ndash; Miguel Ángel Silvestre, Spanish actor
*1983 &ndash; Mehdi Ballouchy, Moroccan footballer
* 1983 &ndash; Jerome Kaino, New Zealand rugby player
* 1983 &ndash; Mitsuru Nagata, Japanese footballer
* 1983 &ndash; Remi Nicole, English singer-songwriter and actress
* 1983 &ndash; James Wade, English darts player
* 1983 &ndash; Katie Weatherston, Canadian ice hockey player
*1984 &ndash; Max Bemis, American singer-songwriter
* 1984 &ndash; Michaël Ciani, French footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Siboniso Gaxa, South African footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Diana Matheson, Canadian soccer player
*1985 &ndash; Clarke MacArthur, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1985 &ndash; Frank Ongfiang, Cameroonian footballer
* 1985 &ndash; Sinqua Walls, American basketball player and actor
*1986 &ndash; Nikolas Asprogenis, Cypriot footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Aaron Curry, American football player
* 1986 &ndash; Goeido Gotaro, Japanese sumo wrestler
* 1986 &ndash; Ryota Moriwaki, Japanese footballer
*1987 &ndash; Benjamin Corgnet, French footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Heidi Mount, American model
* 1987 &ndash; Juan Adriel Ochoa, Mexican footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Levi Porter, English footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Hilary Rhoda, American model
*1988 &ndash; Jucilei, Brazilian footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Leigh Adams, Australian footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Daniele Gasparetto, Italian footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Carlton Mitchell, American football player
* 1988 &ndash; Fabrice Muamba, Congolese-English footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Ivonne Orsini, Puerto Rican model and television host, Miss World Puerto Rico 2008
*1990 &ndash; Lachlan Coote, Australian rugby league player
* 1990 &ndash; Charlie McDermott, American actor
* 1990 &ndash; Andrei Veis, Estonian footballer
*1992 &ndash; Ken, South Korean singer
* 1992 &ndash; Julie Ertz, American soccer player
* 1992 &ndash; Huh Chan-mi, South Korean singer<ref>{{cite web|title허찬미, 실시간 검색어 오르며 화제…최근 근황은?|urlhttps://www.topstarnews.net/news/articleView.html?idxno424355|work톱스타뉴스|date6 June 2018|access-date16 March 2025|language=ko}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Adrián Alonso, Mexican actor
*1995 &ndash; Darya Lebesheva, Belarusian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleBillie Jean King Cup - Players: Darya Lebesheva |urlhttps://www.billiejeankingcup.com/en/players/player.aspx?id800314207 |access-date2022-10-20 |websitewww.billiejeankingcup.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleDarya Lebesheva {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/317925/name |access-date2022-10-20 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |languageen}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Mingyu, South Korean singer and rapper<ref>{{cite web |title초콜릿보다 달콤한 세븐틴 민규, 스니커즈 앰버서더 되다 |urlhttps://www.marieclairekorea.com/tag/%EB%AF%BC%EA%B7%9C/ |websiteMarie Claire Korea |access-date13 March 2025 |languageko-KR |trans-titleSeventeen's Mingyu, Sweeter Than Chocolate}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Peyton List, American actress and model<ref>{{cite web |titlePeyton List Biography- Disney Channel |urlhttp://www.disneychannelmedianet.com/web/showpage/showpage.aspx?program_id900077&typelist |access-dateMay 9, 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120616173906/http://www.disneychannelmedianet.com/web/showpage/showpage.aspx?program_id900077&typelist |archive-date=June 16, 2012}}</ref>
* 1998 &ndash; Spencer List, American actor<ref>{{Cite web|titleBest 13 Photos Of Peyton List With Her Brothers & Parents – Law Of The Fist|urlhttps://lawofthefist.com/best-13-photos-of-peyton-list-with-her-brothers-parents/|url-statususurped|access-date2021-05-13|websiteLaw of the Fist|date21 September 2020 |languageen-US|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210513170744/https://lawofthefist.com/best-13-photos-of-peyton-list-with-her-brothers-parents/ |archive-date=2021-05-13 }}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Shaheen Afridi, Pakistani cricketer<ref>http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/player/1072470.html Cricinfo</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Oscar Piastri, Australian racing driver<ref>{{Cite web |titleAbout {{!}} Oscar Piastri |urlhttps://oscarpiastri.com/about? |access-date2024-01-14 |websiteoscarpiastri.com}}</ref>
* 2001 &ndash; Moritz Seider, German ice hockey player<ref>{{Cite web |titleMoritz Seider |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/redwings/player/moritz-seider-8481542 |access-date11 April 2024 |publisherNational Hockey League}}</ref>
*2002 &ndash; Andrea Botez, Canadian-American chess player, commentator, Twitch streamer and YouTuber<ref>{{Cite web |lastGolub |firstKate |date2022-08-09 |titleAndrea Botez's biography: age, height, birthday, sister, chess |urlhttps://www.legit.ng/1425797-andrea-botezs-biography-age-height-birthday-sister-chess.html |access-date2023-04-07 |websiteLegit.ng - Nigeria news. |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet|number1644040963193708544|useritsandreabotez|title21 today! All I want for my birthday is that KO on April 15th|authorAndrea Botez|access-date=12 July 2023}}</ref>
* 2002 &ndash; Leyre Romero Gormaz, Spanish tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleLeyre Romero Gormaz {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/326891/leyre-romero-gormaz |access-date2022-10-20 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleLeyre Romero Gormaz |urlhttp://www.espn.com/tennis/player/_/id/7846/leyre-romero-gormaz |access-date2022-10-20 |website=ESPN.com}}</ref>
*2009 &ndash; Shaylee Mansfield, deaf American actress and YouTuber<ref>{{cite Instagram|postidCNUzFlSDiaA|firstShaylee|lastMansfield|dateApril 6, 2021|usershayleemansfield|titleHappy 12th birthday to me! I'm lucky to be here today, to be me, and to wish for many more birthdays to come. And happiest birthday to all of my Aries. #birthdayvibes #tweengirls #signlanguage #aries♈ #atlantastreetart|access-date=November 22, 2021}}</ref>
* 2009 &ndash; Valentina Tronel, French child singer
<!--Please do not add non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre–1600
* 861 &ndash; Prudentius, bishop of Troyes
* 885 &ndash; Saint Methodius, Byzantine missionary and saint (b. 815)
* 887 &ndash; Pei Che, chancellor of the Tang Dynasty
* 943 &ndash; Liu Churang, Chinese general and chief of staff (b. 881)
* 943 &ndash; Nasr II, ruler (amir) of the Samanid Empire (b. 906)
*1147 &ndash; Frederick II, duke of Swabia (b. 1090)
*1174 &ndash; Umara al-Yamani, Yemeni poet and historian (b. 1121)<ref>{{Cite book |lastFulton |firstMichael S. |year2022 |titleContest for Egypt: The Collapse of the Fatimid Caliphate, the Ebb of Crusader Influence, and the Rise of Saladin |locationLeiden and Boston |publisherBrill |isbn978-90-04-51227-6 | page 150}}</ref>
*1199 &ndash; Richard I, king of England (b. 1157)<ref>{{cite web |titleRichard I |urlhttps://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/royals/richard-i |websiteWestminster Abbey |access-date5 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*1231 &ndash; William Marshal, 2nd Earl of Pembroke
*1250 &ndash; Guillaume de Sonnac, Grand Master of the Knights Templar
*1252 &ndash; Peter of Verona, Italian priest and saint (b. 1206)
*1340 &ndash; Basil, emperor of Trebizond (Turkey)
*1362 &ndash; James I, count of La Marche (b. 1319)
*1376 &ndash; Preczlaw of Pogarell, Cardinal and Bishop of Wrocław (b. 1310)
*1490 &ndash; Matthias Corvinus, King of Hungary and Croatia from 1458 to 1490 (b. 1443)
*1520 &ndash; Raphael, Italian painter and architect (b. 1483)
*1523 &ndash; Henry Stafford, 1st Earl of Wiltshire, English nobleman (b. 1479)
*1528 &ndash; Albrecht Dürer, German painter, engraver, and mathematician (b. 1471)
*1551 &ndash; Joachim Vadian, Swiss scholar and politician (b. 1484)
*1571 &ndash; John Hamilton, Scottish archbishop and academic (b. 1512)
*1590 &ndash; Francis Walsingham, English politician and diplomat, Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (b. 1532)
*1593 &ndash; Henry Barrowe, English Puritan and separatist (b. 1550)<ref>{{cite EB1911 | wstitleBarrowe, Henry |volume3 |page442}}</ref>1601–1900
*1605 &ndash; John Stow, English historian and author (b. 1525)
*1621 &ndash; Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford (b. 1539)
*1641 &ndash; Domenico Zampieri (Domenichino), Italian painter (b. 1581)
*1655 &ndash; David Blondel, French minister, historian, and scholar (b. 1591)
*1670 &ndash; Leonora Baroni, Italian composer (b. 1611)<ref>{{cite book|first1Julie Anne|last1Sadie|first2Rhian|last2Samuel|titleThe New Grove Dictionary of Women Composers|locationLondon|publisherMacmillan|year1996|page37|isbn978-0-33351-598-3}}</ref>
*1676 &ndash; John Winthrop the Younger, English politician, 1st Governor of Connecticut (b. 1606)
*1686 &ndash; Arthur Annesley, 1st Earl of Anglesey, Irish-English politician (b. 1614)
*1707 &ndash; Willem van de Velde the Younger, Dutch-English painter (b. 1633)
*1755 &ndash; Richard Rawlinson, English minister and historian (b. 1690)
*1790 &ndash; Louis IX, Landgrave of Hesse-Darmstadt (b. 1719)
*1825 &ndash; Vladimir Borovikovsky, Ukrainian-Russian painter and educator (b. 1757)
*1827 &ndash; Nikolis Apostolis, Greek naval commander during the Greek War of Independence (b. 1770)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://photodentro.edu.gr/cultural/r/8526/5849 | titlePhotodentro-Cultural: Αποστόλης Νικολής | date=28 September 2015 }}</ref>
*1829 &ndash; Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician and theorist (b. 1802)
*1833 &ndash; Adamantios Korais, Greek philosopher and scholar (b. 1748)
*1838 &ndash; José Bonifácio de Andrada, Brazilian poet, academic, and politician (b. 1763)
*1860 &ndash; James Kirke Paulding, American author and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Navy (b. 1778)
*1862 &ndash; Albert Sidney Johnston, American general (b. 1803)
*1883 &ndash; Benjamin Wright Raymond, American merchant and politician, 3rd Mayor of Chicago (b. 1801)
*1886 &ndash; William Edward Forster, English businessman, philanthropist, and politician, Chief Secretary for Ireland (b. 1818)
*1899 &ndash; Alvan Wentworth Chapman, American physician and botanist (b. 1809)
1901–present
*1906 &ndash; Alexander Kielland, Norwegian author, playwright, and politician, 6th County Governor of Møre og Romsdal (b. 1849)
*1913 &ndash; Somerset Lowry-Corry, 4th Earl Belmore (b. 1835)
*1927 &ndash; Florence Earle Coates, American poet (b. 1850)
*1935 &ndash; Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet and playwright (b. 1869)
*1944 &ndash; Rose O'Neill, American cartoonist, illustrator, artist, and writer (b. 1874)
*1947 &ndash; Herbert Backe, German agronomist and politician (b. 1896)
*1950 &ndash; Louis Wilkins, American pole vaulter (b. 1882)
*1953 &ndash; Idris Davies, Welsh poet and author (b. 1905)
*1959 &ndash; Leo Aryeh Mayer, Polish-Israeli scholar and academic (b. 1895)
*1961 &ndash; Jules Bordet, Belgian microbiologist and immunologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870)
*1963 &ndash; Otto Struve, Ukrainian-American astronomer and academic (b. 1897)
*1970 &ndash; Maurice Stokes, American basketball player (b. 1933)
*1971 &ndash; Igor Stravinsky, Russian-American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1882)
*1974 &ndash; Willem Marinus Dudok, Dutch architect (b. 1884)
* 1974 &ndash; Hudson Fysh, Australian pilot and businessman, co-founded Qantas Airways Limited (b. 1895)
*1977 &ndash; Kōichi Kido, Japanese politician, 13th Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan (b. 1889)
*1979 &ndash; Ivan Vasilyov, Bulgarian architect, designed the SS. Cyril and Methodius National Library (b. 1893)
*1983 &ndash; Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, Indian General who served as the Chief of Army Staff of the Indian Army from 1962 to 1966 and the Military Governor of Hyderabad State from 1948 to 1949. (b. 1908)
*1992 &ndash; Isaac Asimov, American science fiction writer (b. 1920)<ref>{{cite web |titleIsaac Asimov obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/1992/apr/07/sciencefictionfantasyandhorror.isaacasimov |websitethe Guardian |access-date10 March 2022 |languageen |date7 April 1992}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Juvénal Habyarimana, Rwandan banker and politician, 3rd President of Rwanda (b. 1937)
* 1994 &ndash; Cyprien Ntaryamira, Burundian politician, 5th President of Burundi (b. 1955)
*1995 &ndash; Ioannis Alevras, Greek banker and politician, President of Greece (b. 1912)
*1996 &ndash; Greer Garson, English-American actress (b. 1904)
*1998 &ndash; Norbert Schmitz, German footballer (b. 1958)
* 1998 &ndash; Tammy Wynette, American singer-songwriter (b. 1942)
*1999 &ndash; Red Norvo, American vibraphone player and composer (b. 1908)
*2000 &ndash; Habib Bourguiba, Tunisian politician, 1st President of Tunisia (b. 1903)
*2001 &ndash; Charles Pettigrew, American singer-songwriter (b. 1963)
*2003 &ndash; David Bloom, American journalist (b. 1963)
* 2003 &ndash; Anita Borg, American computer scientist and educator; founded Anita Borg Institute for Women and Technology (b. 1949)
* 2003 &ndash; Gerald Emmett Carter, Canadian cardinal (b. 1912)
* 2003 &ndash; Babatunde Olatunji, Nigerian drummer, educator, and activist (b. 1927)
* 2003 &ndash; Dino Yannopoulos, Greek stage director of the Metropolitan Opera (b. 1919)<ref>{{cite news | urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2003/04/14/arts/dino-yannopoulos-83-director-with-long-tenure-at-the-met.html | titleDino Yannopoulos, 83, Director with Long Tenure at the Met | newspaperThe New York Times | date14 April 2003 | last1Honan | first1William H. }}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Lou Berberet, American baseball player (b. 1929)
* 2004 &ndash; Larisa Bogoraz, Russian linguist and activist (b. 1929)
*2005 &ndash; Rainier III, Prince of Monaco (b. 1923)
* 2005 &ndash; Anthony F. DePalma, American orthopedic surgeon and professor (b. 1904)<ref>{{Cite news |dateApril 8, 2005 |titleAnthony DePalma Obituary |workSun-Sentinel |urlhttps://www.legacy.com/us/obituaries/sunsentinel/name/anthony-depalma-obituary?id26797930 |access-dateApril 7, 2023}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; Maggie Dixon, American basketball player and coach (b. 1977)
* 2006 &ndash; Francis L. Kellogg, American soldier and diplomat (b. 1917)
* 2006 &ndash; Stefanos Stratigos, Greek actor and director (b. 1926)
*2007 &ndash; Luigi Comencini, Italian director and producer (b. 1916)
*2009 &ndash; J. M. S. Careless, Canadian historian and academic (b. 1919)
* 2009 &ndash; Shawn Mackay, Australian rugby player and coach (b. 1982)
*2010 &ndash; Wilma Mankiller, American tribal leader (b. 1945)
* 2010 &ndash; Corin Redgrave, English actor (b. 1939)
*2011 &ndash; Gerald Finnerman, American director and cinematographer (b. 1931)
*2012 &ndash; Roland Guilbault, American admiral (b. 1934)
* 2012 &ndash; Thomas Kinkade, American painter and illustrator (b. 1958)
* 2012 &ndash; Fang Lizhi, Chinese astrophysicist and academic (b. 1936)
* 2012 &ndash; Sheila Scotter, Australian fashion designer and journalist (b. 1920)
* 2012 &ndash; Reed Whittemore, American poet and critic (b. 1919)
*2013 &ndash; Hilda Bynoe, Grenadian physician and politician, 2nd Governor of Grenada (b. 1921)
* 2013 &ndash; Bill Guttridge, English footballer and manager (b. 1931)
* 2013 &ndash; Bigas Luna, Spanish director and screenwriter (b. 1946)
* 2013 &ndash; Ottmar Schreiner, German lawyer and politician (b. 1946)
*2014 &ndash; Mary Anderson, American actress (b. 1918)
* 2014 &ndash; Jacques Castérède, French pianist and composer (b. 1926)
* 2014 &ndash; Liv Dommersnes, Norwegian actress (b. 1922)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleLiv Dommersnes |firstLillian |lastBikset |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date22 August 2023 |editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Liv_Dommersnes |languageno|access-date16 March 2024}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Mickey Rooney, American soldier, actor, and dancer (b. 1920)
* 2014 &ndash; Chuck Stone, American soldier, journalist, and academic (b. 1924)
* 2014 &ndash; Massimo Tamburini, Italian motorcycle designer, co-founded Bimota (b. 1943)
*2015 &ndash; Giovanni Berlinguer, Italian lawyer and politician (b. 1924)
* 2015 &ndash; James Best, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1926)
* 2015 &ndash; Ray Charles, American singer-songwriter and conductor (b. 1918)
* 2015 &ndash; Dollard St. Laurent, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1929)
*2016 &ndash; Merle Haggard, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1937)<ref name=":0" />
*2017 &ndash; Don Rickles, American actor and comedian (b. 1926)
*2019 &ndash; Michael O'Donnell, British physician, journalist, author and broadcaster (b. 1928)<ref>{{cite news|authorKarl Sabbagh|url https://www.theguardian.com/tone/obituaries|titleMichael O'Donnell Obituary|websiteThe Guardian|date2019-04-26|access-date2019-04-27}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; Al Kaline, American baseball player, broadcaster and executive (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/news/al-kaline-dies-at-85 |titleHOFer Kaline, beloved 'Mr. Tiger,' dies at 85 |firstJason |lastBeck |websiteMLB.com |dateApril 6, 2020 |access-date=April 6, 2020}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Hans Küng, Swiss Catholic priest, theologian, and author (b. 1928)<ref>{{Cite web|date2021-04-08|titleHans Küng obituary|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/08/hans-kung-obituary|access-date2021-04-13|websitethe Guardian|languageen}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; Alcee Hastings, American politician (b. 1936)<ref>{{cite news|url https://www.sun-sentinel.com/news/politics/fl-ne-alcee-hastings-civil-right-impeached-judge-congress-obituary-20210406-lnjgt4hokrh3zdzacufao4erqm-story.html|title Congressman Alcee Hastings, after career of triumph, calamity and comeback, dies at 84|work Sun-Sentinel|date April 6, 2021|accessdate April 6, 2021|last Man|first = Anthony}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Vladimir Zhirinovsky, Russian and Soviet politician (b. 1946)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.1tv.ru/news/2022-04-06/425801-ushel_iz_zhizni_politik_sozdatel_i_bessmennyy_lider_ldpr_vladimir_zhirinovskiy|titleVladimir Zhirinovsky died|access-date2022-04-06|languageru|website=1tv}}</ref>
* 2022 &ndash; Jill Knight, British politician (b. 1923)<ref>{{Cite web |lastJobling |firstRay |date2022-06-08 |titleLetter: Lady Knight of Collingtree obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/society/2022/jun/08/letter-lady-knight-of-collingtree-obituary |access-date2022-06-16 |websitethe Guardian |languageen}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Joseph E. Brennan, American politician, 70th Governor of Maine (b. 1934)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.foxbangor.com/news/local/former-maine-governor-joseph-brennan-dies-at-89/article_917254a6-f444-11ee-b5cd-bf02c99e95b1.html|titleFormer Maine governor Joseph Brennan dies at 89|firstDavid|lastLedford|dateApril 6, 2024|websiteFOX 22/ABC 7}}</ref>
<!--Please do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Holidays and observances
*Chakri Day, commemorating the establishment of the Chakri dynasty. (Thailand)
*Christian feast day:
**Albrecht Dürer and Lucas Cranach (Lutheran Church).
**Brychan
**Eutychius of Constantinople (Eastern Orthodox Church)
**Marcellinus of Carthage
**Pope Sixtus I
**April 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*International Day of Sport for Development and Peace<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Days |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/ |websitewww.un.org |access-date2 January 2021 |languageen |date6 January 2015}}</ref>
*National Fisherman Day (Indonesia)
*New Beer's Eve (United States)
*Tartan Day (United States & Canada)
*Waltzing Matilda Day (Australia)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/local/stories/2011/11/03/3355227.htm|title Celebrating 'Waltzing Matilda' with a special day - ABC (None) - Australian Broadcasting Corporation|website Australian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://waltzingmatildaday.info/ |titleArchived copy |websitewaltzingmatildaday.info |access-date19 April 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210417105857/http://waltzingmatildaday.info/ |archive-date17 April 2021 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
*International Asexuality Day<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Asexuality Day (IAD) |urlhttps://internationalasexualityday.org/en/}}</ref>
Other
* April 6 Youth Movement
* {{slink|Fiscal year#United Kingdom}} (starts 6{{nbsp}}April)
References
<references/>
External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/6 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day6}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/6 Historical Events on April 6]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_6 | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.931615 |
1009 | April 12 | {{pp-move}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 240 &ndash; Shapur I becomes co-emperor of the Sasanian Empire with his father Ardashir I.<ref>{{cite book|firstChristopher|lastBuck|titleParadise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baha'i Faith|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTFNWbqJXQsEC&pgPA54|date13 May 1999|publisherSUNY Press|isbn978-0-7914-4062-9|pages54–}}</ref>
* 467 &ndash; Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.<ref>{{cite book|first1Lesley|last1Adkins|author-link1Roy and Lesley Adkins|first2Roy A.|last2Adkins|author-link2Roy and Lesley Adkins|titleHandbook to Life in Ancient Rome|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9JJdqJ8YGH8C&pgPA36|year1998|publisherOUP USA|isbn978-0-19-512332-6|pages36}}</ref>
* 627 &ndash; King Edwin of Northumbria is converted to Christianity by Paulinus, bishop of York.<ref>{{cite book|firstDavid|lastRollason|author-linkDavid Rollason|titleNorthumbria, 500-1100: Creation and Destruction of a Kingdom|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4mSogG6ZqN4C&pgPA77|date25 September 2003|publisherCambridge University Press|isbn978-0-521-81335-8|pages=77}}</ref>
*1012 &ndash; Duke Oldřich of Bohemia deposes and blinds his brother Jaromír, who flees to Poland.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}
*1204 &ndash; The Crusaders of the Fourth Crusade breach the walls of Constantinople and enter the city, which they completely occupy the following day.<ref>{{cite book|lastClaster|firstJill N.|titleSacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 1095-1396|locationToronto|publisherUniversity of Toronto Press|date2009|isbn9781442600584|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJP6OzSDQJlwC|page214}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1606 &ndash; The Union Flag is adopted as the flag of English and Scottish ships.<ref>{{cite book|lastShapiro|firstJames S.|titleThe Year of Lear: Shakespeare in 1606|locationNew York|publisherSimon & Schuster|date2016|isbn9781416541653|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSLA9DQAAQBAJ|page345}}</ref>
*1776 &ndash; American Revolution: With the Halifax Resolves, the North Carolina Provincial Congress authorizes its Congressional delegation to vote for independence from Britain.<ref>{{cite book|lastKennedy|firstFrances H.|titleThe American Revolution: A Historical Guidebook|locationNew York|publisherOxford University Press|date2014|isbn9780199324224|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwC6TAwAAQBAJ|page86}}</ref>
*1782 &ndash; American Revolution: A Royal Navy fleet led by Admiral George Rodney defeats a French fleet led by the Comte de Grasse at the Battle of the Saintes off Dominica in the Caribbean Sea.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-lastAllison |editor1-firstDavid K |editor2-lastFerreiro |editor2-firstLarrie D |titleThe American Revolution: A World War |page220|date2018 |publisherSmithsonian Institution |isbn9781588346599 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIlpnDwAAQBAJ&qshelburne}}</ref>
*1796 &ndash; War of the First Coalition: Napoleon Bonaparte wins his first victory as an army commander at the Battle of Montenotte, splitting the Austrian and Piedmontese armies away from each other, and marking the beginning of the Piedmontese surrender in the war.<ref>https://www.napoleon-empire.net/en/battles/montenotte.php</ref>
*1807 &ndash; The Froberg mutiny on Malta ends when the remaining mutineers blow up the magazine of Fort Ricasoli.<ref>{{cite journal|lastDempsey|firstGuy C.|titleMutiny at Malta: The Revolt of Froberg's Regiment April 1807|journalJournal of the Society for Army Historical Research|dateSpring 1989|page24}}</ref>
*1820 &ndash; Alexander Ypsilantis is declared leader of Filiki Eteria, a secret organization to overthrow Ottoman rule over Greece.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}
*1831 &ndash; Soldiers marching on the Broughton Suspension Bridge in Manchester, England, cause it to collapse.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSuspension Bridge, Broughton - Building {{!}} Architects of Greater Manchester |urlhttps://manchestervictorianarchitects.org.uk/buildings/suspension-bridge-broughton#:~:textThe%20Broughton%20Bridge%20was%20broken%20down%20on%20the%2012th%20April,%201831 |access-date2025-01-08 |website=manchestervictorianarchitects.org.uk}}</ref>
*1861 &ndash; American Civil War: Battle of Fort Sumter. The war begins with Confederate forces firing on Fort Sumter, in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina.<ref>{{cite book|lastEicher|firstDavid J.|titleThe Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War|locationLondon|publisherPimlico|date2002|isbn9780712668545|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1p94XzYASDAC|pages37–38}}</ref>
*1862 &ndash; American Civil War: The Andrews Raid (the Great Locomotive Chase) occurs, starting from Big Shanty, Georgia (now Kennesaw).<ref>{{Cite web |titleAndrews' Raid |urlhttps://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/andrews-raid |access-date2024-11-03 |websiteAmerican Battlefield Trust |languageen |archive-date2024-09-16 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240916040949/https://www.battlefields.org/learn/articles/andrews-raid |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1864 &ndash; American Civil War: The Battle of Fort Pillow: Confederate forces kill most of the African American soldiers that surrendered at Fort Pillow, Tennessee.<ref>{{cite book|lastEicher|firstDavid J.|titleThe Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War|locationLondon|publisherPimlico|date2002|isbn9780712668545|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1p94XzYASDAC|page657}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; American Civil War: Mobile, Alabama, falls to the Union Army.<ref>{{cite book|lastEicher|firstDavid J.|titleThe Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War|locationLondon|publisherPimlico|date2002|isbn9780712668545|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1p94XzYASDAC|page840}}</ref>
*1877 &ndash; The United Kingdom annexes the Transvaal.<ref>{{cite book|last1Laband|first1John|author-link1John Laband|titleThe Transvaal Rebellion: The First Boer War, 1880-1881|date10 July 2014|publisherRoutledge|isbn978-1-317-86846-0|page19|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvnEABAAAQBAJ&pgPA19|languageen}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; One day after its enactment by the Congress, President William McKinley signs the Foraker Act into law, giving Puerto Rico limited self-rule.<ref>{{cite news|titlePassed by 8 Votes|workThe Evening Star|dateApril 12, 1900|page14|postscriptnone}}; {{cite news|titleAllen Is Civil Governor|workChicago Tribune|dateApril 13, 1900|page5|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|lastCaban|firstPedro A.|titleConstructing a Colonial People: Puerto Rico and the United States, 1898-1932|locationNew York|publisherRoutledge|date2019|isbn9780367315153|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTQHFDwAAQBAJ|page101}}</ref>
1901–present
*1910 &ndash; {{SMS|Zrínyi}}, one of the last pre-dreadnought battleships built by the Austro-Hungarian Navy, is launched.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}
*1917 &ndash; World War I: Canadian forces successfully complete the taking of Vimy Ridge from the Germans.<ref>{{Cite web |lastCanada |firstVeterans Affairs |date2022-07-12 |titleThe Battle of Vimy Ridge - Veterans Affairs Canada |urlhttps://www.veterans.gc.ca/en/remembrance/wars-and-conflicts/first-world-war/battle-of-vimy-ridge#:~:textApril%209%20%E2%80%93-,12%20April%201917,-First%20World%20War |access-date2025-01-08 |websitewww.veterans.gc.ca}}</ref>
*1927 &ndash; Shanghai massacre of 1927: Chiang Kai-shek orders the Chinese Communist Party members executed in Shanghai, ending the First United Front.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}
* 1927 &ndash; Rocksprings, Texas is hit by an F5 tornado that destroys 235 of the 247 buildings in the town, kills 72 townspeople, and injures 205; third deadliest tornado in Texas history.<ref>{{cite web |titleA list of the top 10 worst tornadoes in Texas history |urlhttps://www.weather.gov/ama/top10_tornadoes |websiteNational Weather Service |access-date25 November 2024 |archive-date2 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230502052348/https://www.weather.gov/ama/top10_tornadoes |url-status=live }}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; The Bremen, a German Junkers W 33 type aircraft, takes off for the first successful transatlantic aeroplane flight from east to west.<ref>{{Cite web |lastMagazine |firstSmithsonian |last2Gottlieb |first2Janet Graham |titleThe Long, Strange Saga of the Bremen |urlhttps://www.smithsonianmag.com/air-space-magazine/return-bremen-180977300/#:~:texta.m.%20on-,April%2012,-,%20barely%20clearing%20wandering |access-date2025-01-08 |websiteSmithsonian Magazine |languageen}}</ref>
*1934 &ndash; The strongest surface wind gust in the world at the time of 231&nbsp;mph, is measured on the summit of Mount Washington, New Hampshire. It has since been surpassed.<ref>{{cite news |titleThis Day In History: Mount Washington's 231-Mph Wind Gust Sets World Record |urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/boston/news/mount-washington-big-wind-day-record-observatory-gust/ |access-date25 November 2024 |workCBS News |date=12 April 2016}}</ref>
* 1934 &ndash; The U.S. Auto-Lite strike begins, culminating in a five-day melee between Ohio National Guard troops and 6,000 strikers and picketers.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}
*1937 &ndash; Sir Frank Whittle ground-tests the first jet engine designed to power an aircraft, at Rugby, England.<ref>{{Cite web |titleWhittle W.1X Engine {{!}} National Air and Space Museum |urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/whittle-w1x-turbojet-engine/nasm_A19500082000#:~:textThe%20Whittle%20Unit%20bench%20test%20engine%20first%20ran%20on%20April%2012,%201937 |access-date2025-01-08 |websiteairandspace.si.edu |languageen}}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt dies in office; Vice President Harry S. Truman becomes President upon Roosevelt's death.<ref>{{Cite web |titleBiographical Sketch: Harry S. Truman, 33rd President of the United States {{!}} Harry S. Truman |urlhttps://www.trumanlibrary.gov/education/trivia/biographical-sketch-harry-truman#:~:textdays%20later%20on-,April%2012,%201945,-,%20he%20was%20sworn |access-date2025-01-08 |website=www.trumanlibrary.gov}}</ref>
* 1945 &ndash; World War II: The U.S. Ninth Army under General William H. Simpson crosses the Elbe River astride Magdeburg, and reaches Tangermünde—only 50 miles from Berlin.<ref>{{Cite web |titleHalt at the Elbe |urlhttps://www.history.army.mil/books/70-7_22.htm |access-date2025-01-08 |websitewww.history.army.mil}}</ref>
*1955 &ndash; The polio vaccine, developed by Dr. Jonas Salk, is declared safe and effective.<ref>{{Cite web |titleHistory of polio vaccination |urlhttps://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/history-of-vaccination/history-of-polio-vaccination |access-date2024-11-27 |websitewww.who.int |languageen |archive-date2023-04-04 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230404120854/https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/history-of-vaccination/history-of-polio-vaccination |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1961 &ndash; Space Race: The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human to travel into outer space and perform the first crewed orbital flight, Vostok 1.<ref>{{Cite web |titleYuri Gagarin and Vostok 1, the First Human Spaceflight |urlhttps://www.planetary.org/space-missions/vostok-1 |access-date2024-11-27 |websiteThe Planetary Society |languageen |archive-date2022-07-10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220710014858/https://www.planetary.org/space-missions/vostok-1 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1963 &ndash; The Soviet nuclear-powered submarine K-33 collides with the Finnish merchant vessel M/S Finnclipper in the Danish straits.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}
*1970 &ndash; Soviet submarine K-8, carrying four nuclear torpedoes, sinks in the Bay of Biscay four days after a fire on board.<ref>{{Cite web |lastTimes |firstThe Moscow |date2019-07-03 |titleThe 5 Deadliest Submarine Accidents in Soviet and Russian History |urlhttps://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/07/03/the-deadliest-submarine-accidents-in-soviet-and-russian-history-a66263 |access-date2024-11-30 |websiteThe Moscow Times |languageen |archive-date2024-10-05 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005112429/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/07/03/the-deadliest-submarine-accidents-in-soviet-and-russian-history-a66263 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; The Americo-Liberian government of Liberia is violently deposed.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLiberia (01/10) |urlhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/outofdate/bgn/liberia/137301.htm#:~:textin%201847%20until-,April%2012,%201980,-,%20when%20indigenous%20Liberian |access-date2025-01-08 |website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref>
* 1980 &ndash; Transbrasil Flight 303, a Boeing 727, crashes on approach to Hercílio Luz International Airport in Florianópolis, Brazil. Fifty-five out of the 58 people on board are killed.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19800412-0|titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing 727-27C PT-TYS Florianópolis-Hercilio Luz International Airport, SC (FLN)|lastRanter|firstHarro|websiteaviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-03-22}}</ref>
* 1980 &ndash; Canadian runner and athlete, Terry Fox begins his Marathon of Hope Run in St. John's, NF<ref>{{Cite web|titleTerry Fox started his Marathon of Hope 41 years ago|urlhttps://torontosun.com/news/national/braun-terry-fox-started-his-marathon-of-hope-41-years-ago|access-date2021-04-13|websitetorontosun|languageen-CA|archive-date2021-04-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210412104431/https://torontosun.com/news/national/braun-terry-fox-started-his-marathon-of-hope-41-years-ago|url-statuslive}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; The first launch of a Space Shuttle (Columbia) takes place: The STS-1 mission.<ref>{{cite web |titleSTS-1 |urlhttps://www.nasa.gov/mission/sts-1/ |publisherNASA |access-date30 December 2024}}</ref>
*1983 &ndash; Harold Washington is elected as the first black mayor of Chicago.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/nation-world/chi-chicagodays-haroldwashington-story-story.html|titleThe election of Harold Washington the first black mayor of Chicago|firstRobert|lastDavis|websitechicagotribune.com|access-date2020-10-31|archive-date2020-11-20|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201120024757/https://www.chicagotribune.com/nation-world/chi-chicagodays-haroldwashington-story-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Space Shuttle Discovery launches on STS-51D to deploy two communications satellites.<ref>{{cite web |titleSTS-51D |urlhttp://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51d.htm |access-dateFebruary 26, 2014 |websiteSpacefacts |archive-dateDecember 24, 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131224101623/http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51d.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Jim Gary's "Twentieth Century Dinosaurs" exhibition opens at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. He is the only sculptor ever invited to present a solo exhibition there.<ref>{{cite web |title20th-century Dinosaurs |urlhttps://www.si.edu/es/exhibitions/20th-century-dinosaurs:event-exhib-2265 |websiteSmithsonian |access-date12 January 2025}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Widerøe Flight 839 crashes after takeoff from Værøy Airport in Norway, killing five people.<ref>{{cite web |author|date25 February 1991 |titleRapport of luftfartsulykke ved Værøy lufthavn den 12. april 1990 med Twin Otter LN-BNS |trans-titleReport of aviation accident at Værøy Airport on 12 April 1990 with Twin Otter LN-BNS |urlhttp://www.aibn.no/rapport-01-1991-pdf1?pidNative-ContentFile-File&attach1 |url-statusbot: unknown |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180510115330/https://www.aibn.no/rapport-01-1991-pdf1?pidNative-ContentFile-File&attach1 |archive-date10 May 2018 |access-date12 August 2013 |publisherAccident Investigation Board Norway, Norwegian Safety Investigation Authority |language=Norwegian}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; The Euro Disney Resort officially opens with its theme park Euro Disneyland; the resort and its park's name are subsequently changed to Disneyland Resort Paris.<ref>{{Cite web |titleHistory of Euro Disney |urlhttps://www.disneyholidays.co.uk/disneyland-paris/planning-holiday/history-euro-disney/#:~:textDisneyland%C2%AE%20Resort%20Paris |access-date2025-01-08 |websiteDisney Holidays |languageen}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; United States President Bill Clinton is cited for contempt of court for giving "intentionally false statements" in a civil lawsuit; he is later fined and disbarred.<ref>{{Cite news |lastLewis |firstJohn M. Broder With Neil A. |date1999-04-13 |titleCLINTON IS FOUND TO BE IN CONTEMPT ON JONES LAWSUIT |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/13/us/clinton-is-found-to-be-in-contempt-on-jones-lawsuit.html |access-date2025-01-08 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; During the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, an American McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle shoots a passenger train, killing between 20 and 60 people.<ref name"HRWref">{{cite web |dateFebruary 1, 2000 |titleHuman Rights Watch: Kosovo: Civilian Deaths in the NATO Air Campaign |urlhttp://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a86b0.html#P760_175406 |access-dateJuly 17, 2017 |archive-dateApril 2, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190402222949/https://www.refworld.org/docid/3ae6a86b0.html#P760_175406 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*2002 &ndash; A suicide bomber blows herself up at the entrance to Jerusalem's Mahane Yehuda Market, killing seven people and wounding 104.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/apr/12/israel4|titleJerusalem suicide bomber kills at least six|workThe Guardian|date12 April 2002}}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; A suicide bomber penetrates the Green Zone and detonates in a cafeteria within a parliament building, killing Iraqi MP Mohammed Awad and wounding more than twenty other people.<ref name"Telegraph">{{Cite web |titleSuicide bomber kills Iraqi MPs |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1548514/Suicide-bomber-kills-Iraqi-MPs.html |access-date2023-05-09 |websitewww.telegraph.co.uk |archive-date18 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190418131005/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1548514/Suicide-bomber-kills-Iraqi-MPs.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*2009 &ndash; Zimbabwe officially abandons the Zimbabwean dollar as its official currency.<ref name"suspend">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.voanews.com/english/2009-04-12-voa9.cfm |titleZimbabwe Suspends Use of Own Currency |websiteVoice of America |date12 April 2009 |access-date7 January 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090507091459/http://www.voanews.com/english/2009-04-12-voa9.cfm |archive-date7 May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://newzimbabwe.com/pages/banks86.19673.html |titleZimbabwe dollar shelved 'for at least a year' |firstCris |lastChinaka |websiteNew Zimbabwe |access-date7 January 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090607001712/http://newzimbabwe.com/pages/banks86.19673.html |archive-date7 June 2009}}</ref>
*2010 &ndash; Merano derailment: A rail accident in South Tyrol kills nine people and injures a further 28.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8615002.stm|titleLandslide derails train in Italy leaving nine dead|date12 April 2010|websiteBBC News|access-date13 April 2020|archive-date17 February 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200217144255/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/8615002.stm|url-statuslive}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Two suicide bombers kill three Chadian soldiers and injure dozens of civilians at a market in Kidal, Mali.<ref>{{Cite news |date12 April 2013 |titleMali conflict: Chadians killed in Kidal suicide attack |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-22128844 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221025213608/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-22128844 |archive-date25 October 2022 |access-date3 October 2024 |workBBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>
*2014 &ndash; The Great Fire of Valparaíso ravages the Chilean city of Valparaíso, killing 16 people, displacing nearly 10,000, and destroying over 2,000 homes.<ref name"gran2">{{cite news|titleComienzan velorios de víctimas del gran incendio de Valparaíso|urlhttp://www.publimetro.cl/nota/cronica/fotos-comienzan-velorios-de-victimas-del-gran-incendio-de-valparaiso/xIQndn!3yu5LkJAvQVTg/|date14 April 2014|workPublimetro Chile|publisherMetro International|locationSantiago, Chile|languagees|access-date15 April 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140415124328/http://www.publimetro.cl/nota/cronica/fotos-comienzan-velorios-de-victimas-del-gran-incendio-de-valparaiso/xIQndn!3yu5LkJAvQVTg/|archive-date15 April 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Births
Pre-1600
* 811 &ndash; Muhammad al-Jawad, the ninth Imam of Shia Islam (d. 835)<ref>{{cite book |lastShabbar |firstS.M.R. |date1997 |titleStory of the Holy Ka'aba |urlhttp://www.al-islam.org/story-of-the-holy-kaaba-and-its-people-shabbar/ninth-imam-muhammad-ibn-%E2%80%98ali-al-taqi-al-jawad |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022080310/http://www.al-islam.org/story-of-the-holy-kaaba-and-its-people-shabbar/ninth-imam-muhammad-ibn-%E2%80%98ali-al-taqi-al-jawad |url-statusdead |archive-date2013-10-22 |publisherMuhammadi Trust of Great Britain |access-date28 October 2013 }}</ref>
* 959 &ndash; En'yū, emperor of Japan (d. 991)
*1116 &ndash; Richeza of Poland, queen of Sweden and Grand Princess of Minsk (d. 1156)
*1432 &ndash; Anne of Austria, Landgravine of Thuringia (d. 1462)
*1484 &ndash; Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Italian architect, designed the Apostolic Palace and St. Peter's Basilica (d. 1546)
* 1484 &ndash; Maharana Sangram Singh, Rana of Mewar (d. 1527)
*1500 &ndash; Joachim Camerarius, German scholar and translator (d. 1574)
*1526 &ndash; Muretus, French philosopher and author (d. 1585)
*1550 &ndash; Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxford, English courtier and politician, Lord Great Chamberlain (d. 1604)
*1577 &ndash; Christian IV of Denmark (d. 1648)<ref>{{cite book|titleGlobe Encyclopaedia of Universal Information|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrPFTAAAAYAAJ&pgPA140|year1878|pages140}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1612 &ndash; Simone Cantarini, Italian painter and engraver (d. 1648)
*1639 &ndash; Martin Lister, English naturalist and physician (d. 1712)
*1656 &ndash; Benoît de Maillet, French diplomat and natural historian (d. 1738)
*1705 &ndash; William Cookworthy, English minister and pharmacist (d. 1780)<ref>{{cite book|author1G. H.|author2William COOKWORTHY|author3George HARRISON (of Lancashire.)|titleMemoir of William Cookworth, formerly of Plymouth, Devonshire|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwKdcAAAAcAAJ&pgPA1|year1854|publisherWilliam & Frederick G. Cash|pages1}}</ref>
*1710 &ndash; Caffarelli, Italian actor and singer (d. 1783)<ref>{{cite book|author1Philip H. Highfill|author2Kalman A. Burnim|author3Edward A. Langhans|titleA Biographical Dictionary of Actors, Actresses, Musicians, Dancers, Managers and Other Stage Personnel in London, 1660-1800: Cabanel to Cory|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOhhz-ZXjfd4C&pgPA8|year1975|publisherSIU Press|isbn978-0-8093-0692-3|pages=8}}</ref>
*1713 &ndash; Guillaume Thomas François Raynal, French historian and author (d. 1796)
*1716 &ndash; Felice Giardini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1796)
*1722 &ndash; Pietro Nardini, Italian violinist and composer (d. 1793)<ref>{{cite book|authorHerta Singer|titleHaydn Jahrbuch|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5JsHAQAAMAAJ|year1969|publisherT. Presser Company|page=125}}</ref>
*1724 &ndash; Lyman Hall, American physician, clergyman, and politician, 16th Governor of Georgia (d. 1790)
*1748 &ndash; Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, French botanist and author (d. 1836)
*1777 &ndash; Henry Clay, American lawyer and politician, 9th United States Secretary of State (d. 1852)
*1792 &ndash; John Lambton, 1st Earl of Durham, English soldier and politician, Lord Privy Seal (d. 1840)
*1794 &ndash; Germinal Pierre Dandelin, Belgian mathematician and engineer (d. 1847)<ref>{{cite book|authorJules Victor DELECOURT|author-linkJules Delecourt|titleEssai d'un dictionnaire des ouvrages anonymes & pseudonymes publiés en Belgique au XIXe siècle, et principalement depuis 1830. Par un Membre de la Société des Bibliophiles belges (Jules Delecourt).|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ido4laAAAAcAAJ&pgPA156|year1863|pages156}}</ref>
*1796 &ndash; George N. Briggs, American lawyer and politician, 19th Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1861)
*1799 &ndash; Henri Druey, Swiss lawyer and politician, 2nd President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1855)
*1801 &ndash; Joseph Lanner, Austrian composer and conductor (d. 1843)
*1816 &ndash; Charles Gavan Duffy, Irish-Australian politician, 8th Premier of Victoria (d. 1903)
*1823 &ndash; Alexander Ostrovsky, Russian playwright and translator (d. 1886)<ref>{{cite book|authorFrank Northen Magill|titleCritical Survey of Drama: Authors|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwFENAQAAMAAJ|year1986|publisherSalem Press|isbn978-0-89356-386-8|page1443}}</ref>
*1839 &ndash; Nikolay Przhevalsky, Russian geographer and explorer (d. 1888)
*1845 &ndash; Gustaf Cederström, Swedish painter (d. 1933)
*1851 &ndash; José Gautier Benítez, Puerto Rican soldier and poet (d. 1880)
* 1851 &ndash; Edward Walter Maunder, English astronomer and author (d. 1928)
*1852 &ndash; Ferdinand von Lindemann, German mathematician and academic (d. 1939)
*1856 &ndash; Martin Conway, 1st Baron Conway of Allington, English mountaineer, cartographer, and politician (d. 1937)
*1863 &ndash; Raul Pompeia, Brazilian writer (d. 1895)
*1868 &ndash; Akiyama Saneyuki, Japanese admiral (d. 1918)<ref>{{cite web |titleAKIYAMA Saneyuki |urlhttps://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/e/datas/222/ |websitePortraits of Modern Japanese Historical Figures |publisherNational Diet Library, Japan |access-date25 February 2022 |archive-date26 February 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220226023428/https://www.ndl.go.jp/portrait/e/datas/222/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1869 &ndash; Henri Désiré Landru, French serial killer (d. 1922)
*1871 &ndash; Ioannis Metaxas, Greek general and politician, 130th Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1941)<ref>{{cite book|author1Spencer Tucker|author2Priscilla Mary Roberts|titleWorld War I: Encyclopedia|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2YqjfHLyyj8C&pgPA784|year2005|publisherABC-CLIO|isbn978-1-85109-420-2|pages784}}</ref>
*1874 &ndash; William B. Bankhead, American lawyer and politician, 47th Speaker of the United States House of Representatives (d. 1940)
*1880 &ndash; Addie Joss, American baseball player and journalist (d. 1911)
*1883 &ndash; Imogen Cunningham, American photographer and educator (d. 1976)
* 1883 &ndash; Dally Messenger, Australian rugby player, cricketer, and sailor (d. 1959)
*1884 &ndash; Tenby Davies, Welsh runner (d. 1932)
* 1884 &ndash; Otto Meyerhof, German physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951)
*1885 &ndash; Robert Delaunay, French painter (d. 1941)
*1887 &ndash; Harold Lockwood, American actor and director (d. 1918)
*1888 &ndash; Dan Ahearn, Irish-American long jumper and police officer (d. 1942)
* 1888 &ndash; Cecil Kimber, English automobile engineer (d. 1945)
*1892 &ndash; Henry Darger, American writer and artist (d. 1973)
*1894 &ndash; Dorothy Cumming, Australian-American actress (d. 1983)
<!--L for "Lopes" -- last name; Portuguese has different styling than Spanish -->
* 1894 &ndash; Francisco Craveiro Lopes, Portuguese field marshal and politician, 13th President of Portugal (d. 1964)
*1898 &ndash; Lily Pons, French-American soprano and actress (d. 1976)
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Lowell Stockman, American farmer and politician (d. 1962)
*1902 &ndash; Louis Beel, Dutch academic and politician, 36th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1977)
*1903 &ndash; Jan Tinbergen, Dutch economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1994)
*1907 &ndash; Felix de Weldon, Austrian-American sculptor, designed the Marine Corps War Memorial (d. 2003)
* 1907 &ndash; Zawgyi, Burmese poet, author, literary historian, critic, scholar and academic (d. 1990)
*1908 &ndash; Ida Pollock, English author and painter (d. 2013)
* 1908 &ndash; Robert Lee Scott, Jr., American pilot and general (d. 2006)
*1910 &ndash; Gillo Dorfles, Italian art critic, painter and philosopher (d. 2018)
* 1910 &ndash; Irma Rapuzzi, French politician (d. 2018)
*1911 &ndash; Mahmoud Younis, Egyptian engineer (d. 1976)
*1912 &ndash; Frank Dilio, Canadian businessman (d. 1997)
* 1912 &ndash; Hamengkubuwono IX, Indonesian politician, 2nd Vice President of Indonesia (d. 1988)
* 1912 &ndash; Hound Dog Taylor, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1975)
*1913 &ndash; Keiko Fukuda, Japanese-American martial artist (d. 2013)
*1914 &ndash; Armen Alchian, American economist and academic (d. 2013)
*1916 &ndash; Beverly Cleary, American author (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/26/books/beverly-cleary-dead.html|titleBeverly Cleary, Beloved Children's Book Author, Dies at 104|date2021-03-26|websiteThe New York Times|access-date2021-03-26|archive-date2021-03-26|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210326214214/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/26/books/beverly-cleary-dead.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* 1916 &ndash; Russell Garcia, American-New Zealand composer and conductor (d. 2011)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/russ-garcia-musician-who-worked-with-welles-and-armstrong-6269180.html |titleRuss Garcia: Musician who worked with Welles and Armstro |publisherindependent.co.uk |date29 November 2011 |access-date18 December 2011 |locationLondon |firstSteve |lastVoce |archive-date5 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305013134/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/russ-garcia-musician-who-worked-with-welles-and-armstrong-6269180.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1916 &ndash; Benjamin Libet, American neuropsychologist and academic (d. 2007)
*1917 &ndash; Helen Forrest, American singer and actress (d. 1999)
* 1917 &ndash; Vinoo Mankad, Indian cricketer (d. 1978)
* 1917 &ndash; Robert Manzon, French racing driver (d. 2015)
*1919 &ndash; István Anhalt, Hungarian-Canadian composer and educator (d. 2012)
* 1919 &ndash; Billy Vaughn, American musician and bandleader (d. 1991)
*1921 &ndash; Robert Cliche, Canadian lawyer, judge, and politician (d. 1978)
*1922 &ndash; Simon Kapwepwe, Zambian politician, 2nd Vice President of Zambia (d. 1980)
*1923 &ndash; Ann Miller, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2004)
*1924 &ndash; Raymond Barre, French economist and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 2007)
* 1924 &ndash; Peter Safar, Austrian physician and academic (d. 2003)
* 1924 &ndash; Curtis Turner, American race car driver (d. 1970)
*1925 &ndash; Evelyn Berezin, American computer scientist and engineer (d. 2018)
* 1925 &ndash; Ned Miller, American country music singer and songwriter (d. 2016)
* 1925 &ndash; Oliver Postgate, English animator, puppeteer, and screenwriter (d. 2008)
*1926 &ndash; Jane Withers, American actress (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/08/obituaries/jane-withers-dead.html|titleJane Withers, Child Star Who Later Won Fame in Commercials, Dies at 95|dateAugust 8, 2021|websiteNew York Times|authorAljean Harmetz|access-dateAugust 8, 2021|archive-dateAugust 8, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210808224927/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/08/obituaries/jane-withers-dead.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*1927 &ndash; Thomas Hemsley, English baritone (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite news | urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2013/apr/15/thomas-hemsley | titleThomas Hemsley obituary | workThe Guardian | authorAlan Blyth | dateApril 15, 2013 | accessdateJanuary 17, 2017}}</ref>
* 1927 &ndash; Alvin Sargent, American screenwriter (d. 2019)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.heraldscotland.com/opinion/17643574.obituary-alvin-sargent-noted-hollywood-screenwriter-who-won-two-oscars/|title Obituary: Alvin Sargent, noted Hollywood screenwriter who won two Oscars|websiteHerald Scotland| date16 May 2019 |access-date=January 21, 2022}}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; Hardy Krüger, German actor (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite web | lastBergan | firstRonald | titleHardy Krüger obituary | websiteThe Guardian | date20 January 2022 | urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2022/jan/20/hardy-kruger-obituary | access-date=21 January 2022}}</ref>
* 1928 &ndash; Jean-François Paillard, French conductor (d. 2013)
*1929 &ndash; Elspet Gray, Scottish actress (d. 2013)
* 1929 &ndash; Mukhran Machavariani, Georgian poet and educator (d. 2010)
*1930 &ndash; John Landy, Australian runner and politician, 26th Governor of Victoria (d. 2022)<ref>{{Cite web|lastHedge|firstMike|date2022-02-25|titleAthletics great John Landy dies, aged 91|urlhttps://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7636300/athletics-great-john-landy-dies-aged-91/|access-date2022-02-25|websiteThe Canberra Times|languageen-AU|archive-date2022-02-25|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220225235826/https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/7636300/athletics-great-john-landy-dies-aged-91/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 1930 &ndash; Bryan Magee, English philosopher and politician (d. 2019)
* 1930 &ndash; Manuel Neri, American sculptor and painter (d. 2021)<ref>{{Cite news |lastWilliams |firstAnnabelle |date2021-11-02 |titleManuel Neri, Figurative Sculptor With a Modern Twist, Dies at 91 |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/02/arts/manuel-neri-dead.html |access-date2023-04-12 |issn0362-4331 |archive-date2023-01-02 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230102105904/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/02/arts/manuel-neri-dead.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* 1930 &ndash; Pythagoras Papastamatiou, Greek lyricist and playwright (d. 1979)<ref>{{cite web |last1Μπαλαχούτης |first1Κώστας |titleΟ σπουδαίος στιχουργός Πυθαγόρας |urlhttps://www.ogdoo.gr/prosopa/afieromata/o-spoudaios-stixourgos-pythagoras |websiteogdoo |access-date2022-06-27 |archive-date2022-11-25 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221125214418/https://www.ogdoo.gr/prosopa/afieromata/o-spoudaios-stixourgos-pythagoras |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1930 &ndash; Michał Życzkowski, Polish technician and educator (d. 2006)
*1931 &ndash; Leonid Derbenyov, Russian poet and songwriter (d. 1995)
*1932 &ndash; Lakshman Kadirgamar, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician, 5th Sri Lankan Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 2005)
* 1932 &ndash; Herbert Butros Khaury, American singer and ukulele player (d. 1996)
* 1932 &ndash; Jean-Pierre Marielle, French actor (d. 2019)
*1933 &ndash; Montserrat Caballé, Spanish soprano and actress (d. 2018)
*1934 &ndash; Heinz Schneiter, Swiss footballer and manager (d. 2017)
*1935 &ndash; Jimmy Makulis, Greek singer (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite web |last1Κεφαλληνού |first1Ελένη |titleΒιογραφία {{!}} Τζίμης Μακούλης |urlhttps://www.tralala.gr/viografia-tzimis-makoulis/ |websitetralala |date12 April 2018 |access-date27 June 2022 |archive-date11 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220811015417/https://www.tralala.gr/viografia-tzimis-makoulis/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; Tony Earl, American politician, 40th Governor of Wisconsin (d. 2023)<ref name Schmidt>{{cite news|url https://madison.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/former-gov-tony-earl-a-champion-for-equality-and-conservation-dies-at-86/article_3d553784-72b8-5366-89c9-f539f2c04238.html|title Former Gov. Tony Earl, a champion for equality and conservation, dies at 86|newspaper Wisconsin State Journal|date February 23, 2023|accessdate February 23, 2023|last Schmidt|first Mitchell|archive-date February 23, 2023|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20230223172847/https://madison.com/news/local/govt-and-politics/former-gov-tony-earl-a-champion-for-equality-and-conservation-dies-at-86/article_3d553784-72b8-5366-89c9-f539f2c04238.html|url-status = live}}</ref>
* 1936 &ndash; Charles Napier, American actor (d. 2011)
* 1936 &ndash; Kennedy Simmonds, Kittitian politician, 4th Prime Minister of Saint Kitts and Nevis
*1937 &ndash; Dennis Banks, American author and activist (d. 2017)
* 1937 &ndash; Igor Volk, Ukrainian-Russian colonel, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2017)
*1939 &ndash; Alan Ayckbourn, English director and playwright
* 1939 &ndash; Johnny Raper, Australian rugby league player and coach (d. 2022)
*1940 &ndash; Woodie Fryman, American baseball player (d. 2011)
* 1940 &ndash; Herbie Hancock, American pianist, composer, and bandleader
*1941 &ndash; Bobby Moore, English footballer and manager (d. 1993)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sporting-heroes.net/football/england/bobby-moore-5272/biography-of-england-career-and-appearances_a11960/|titleBobby Moore|websitesporting-heroes.net|access-date1 April 2020|archive-date26 July 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726074700/http://www.sporting-heroes.net/football/england/bobby-moore-5272/biography-of-england-career-and-appearances_a11960/|url-status=live}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Bill Bryden, Scottish actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2022)
* 1942 &ndash; Carlos Reutemann, Argentinian race car driver and politician (d. 2021)
* 1942 &ndash; Jacob Zuma, South African politician, 4th President of South Africa
*1943 &ndash; Sumitra Mahajan, Indian politician, 16th Speaker of the Lok Sabha
*1944 &ndash; Lisa Jardine, English historian, author, and academic (d. 2015)
* 1944 &ndash; John Kay, German-Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
*1945 &ndash; Lee Jong-wook, South Korean physician and diplomat (d. 2006)
*1946 &ndash; John Dunsworth, Canadian actor and comedian (d. 2017)<ref>{{Cite web|lastQuon|firstAlexander|date2017-10-16|titleJohn Dunsworth dead: Mr. Lahey of 'Trailer Park Boys' dies at 71|urlhttps://globalnews.ca/news/3806747/actor-john-dunsworth-has-died-at-the-age-of-71/|access-date2021-10-17|websiteGlobal News|archive-date2017-10-18|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171018052119/https://globalnews.ca/news/3806747/actor-john-dunsworth-has-died-at-the-age-of-71/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; Ed O'Neill, American actor and comedian
* 1946 &ndash; George Robertson, Baron Robertson of Port Ellen, Scottish politician and diplomat, 10th Secretary General of NATO
*1947 &ndash; Roy M. Anderson, English epidemiologist, zoologist, and academic
* 1947 &ndash; Martin Brasier, English palaeontologist, biologist, and academic (d. 2014)
* 1947 &ndash; Tom Clancy, American historian and author (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/books/tom-clancy-best-selling-novelist-of-military-thrillers-dies-at-66.html?_r0 |titleTom Clancy, Best-Selling Novelist of Military Thrillers, Died at 66 |firstJulie |lastBosman |dateOctober 2, 2013 |access-dateOctober 2, 2013 |workNew York Times |archive-dateApril 20, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200420011047/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/03/books/tom-clancy-best-selling-novelist-of-military-thrillers-dies-at-66.html?_r0 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* 1947 &ndash; David Letterman, American comedian and talk show host
* 1947 &ndash; Wayne Northrop, American actor (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news |lastDiaz |firstJohnny |last2Petri |first2Alexandra E. |dateDecember 1, 2024 |titleWayne Northrop, ‘Days of Our Lives’ Actor, Dies at 77 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/01/arts/television/wayne-northrop-dead.html |access-dateDecember 3, 2024 |work=The New York Times}}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; Jeremy Beadle, English television host and producer (d. 2008)
* 1948 &ndash; Joschka Fischer, German academic and politician
* 1948 &ndash; Christos Iakovou, Greek weightlifter<ref>{{cite web |titleKhristos Iakovou Biographical information |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/55884 |websiteolympedia |access-date27 June 2022 |archive-date5 May 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220505113734/https://www.olympedia.org/athletes/55884 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1948 &ndash; Marcello Lippi, Italian footballer, manager, and coach
*1949 &ndash; Scott Turow, American lawyer and author<ref>{{cite book|authorDave Mote|titleContemporary Popular Writers|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2MkUAQAAIAAJ|year1997|publisherSt. James Press|isbn978-1-55862-216-6|page399}}</ref>
* 1949 &ndash; Pravin Gordhan, South African politician (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |lastDu Toit |firstPieter |titlePravin Gordhan, who fought state capture and twice served as finance minister, dies at 75 |urlhttps://www.news24.com/news24/investigations/pravin-gordhan-who-fought-state-capture-and-twice-served-as-finance-minister-dies-at-75-20240913-2 |access-date2024-09-13 |websiteNews24 |languageen-US |archive-date2024-09-13 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240913041844/https://www.news24.com/news24/investigations/pravin-gordhan-who-fought-state-capture-and-twice-served-as-finance-minister-dies-at-75-20240913-2 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1950 &ndash; Joyce Banda, Malawian politician, 4th president of Malawi<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Joyce-Hilda-Banda|titleJoyce Hilda Banda {{!}} president of Malawi|workEncyclopedia Britannica|access-date2018-02-19|languageen|archive-date2017-08-10|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170810135809/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Joyce-Hilda-Banda|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* 1950 &ndash; Flavio Briatore, Italian businessman<ref>{{cite book|titleWho's who in Italy|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddIcOAQAAMAAJ|year1994|publisherWho's Who in Italy|isbn978-88-85246-67-6|page=285}}</ref>
* 1950 &ndash; David Cassidy, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017)
* 1950 &ndash; Nicholas Sackman, English composer and educator
*1951 &ndash; Tom Noonan, American actor
*1952 &ndash; Reuben Gant, American football player
* 1952 &ndash; Leicester Rutledge, New Zealand rugby player
* 1952 &ndash; Gary Soto, American poet, novelist, and memoirist
* 1952 &ndash; Ralph Wiley, American journalist (d. 2004)
*1953 &ndash; Tanino Liberatore, Italian author and illustrator
*1954 &ndash; John Faulkner, Australian educator and politician, 52nd Australian Minister for Defence
* 1954 &ndash; Steve Stevaert, Belgian businessman and politician (d. 2015)
* 1954 &ndash; Pat Travers, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1955 &ndash; Fabian Hamilton, English graphic designer, engineer, and politician
*1956 &ndash; Andy Garcia, Cuban-American actor, director, and producer
* 1956 &ndash; Herbert Grönemeyer, German singer-songwriter and actor
*1957 &ndash; Greg Child, Australian mountaineer and author
* 1957 &ndash; Vince Gill, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1957 &ndash; Tama Janowitz, American novelist and short story writer
*1958 &ndash; Will Sergeant, English guitarist
* 1958 &ndash; Klaus Tafelmeier, German javelin thrower
* 1958 &ndash; Ginka Zagorcheva, Bulgarian hurdler
*1960 &ndash; David Thirdkill, American basketball player<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.basketball-reference.com/players/t/thirdda01.html|titleDavid Thirdkill Stats|websiteBasketball-Reference.com|access-date2020-10-31|archive-date2011-08-10|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110810194523/http://www.basketball-reference.com/players/t/thirdda01.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*1961 &ndash; Corrado Fabi, Italian racing driver
* 1961 &ndash; Charles Mann, American football player and sportscaster
* 1961 &ndash; Magda Szubanski, English-Australian actress, comedian and writer
*1962 &ndash; Art Alexakis, American singer-songwriter and musician
* 1962 &ndash; Carlos Sainz, Spanish racing driver
* 1962 &ndash; Nobuhiko Takada, Japanese mixed martial artist and wrestler, founded Hustle
*1963 &ndash; Lydia Cacho, Mexican journalist and author
*1964 &ndash; Chris Fairclough, English footballer and coach<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id2403|titleChris Fairclough|websitesoccerbase.com|access-date1 April 2020|archive-date26 July 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726073702/https://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id2403|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 1964 &ndash; Amy Ray, American folk-rock singer-songwriter, musician, and music producer
*1965 &ndash; Kim Bodnia, Danish actor and director
* 1965 &ndash; Chi Onwurah, English politician
* 1965 &ndash; Gervais Rufyikiri, Burundian politician
* 1965 &ndash; Mihai Stoica, Romanian footballer and manager
*1966 &ndash; Nils-Olav Johansen, Norwegian guitarist and singer
* 1966 &ndash; Lorenzo White, American football player
*1967 &ndash; Sarah Cracknell, English singer-songwriter
*1968 &ndash; Alicia Coppola, American actress
* 1968 &ndash; Toby Gad, German songwriter and producer
* 1968 &ndash; Adam Graves, Canadian ice hockey player
*1969 &ndash; Michael Jackson, American football player and politician (d. 2017)
* 1969 &ndash; Jörn Lenz, German footballer and manager
* 1969 &ndash; Lucas Radebe, South African footballer and sportscaster
*1970 &ndash; Sylvain Bouchard, Canadian speed skater
*1971 &ndash; Nicholas Brendon, American actor
* 1971 &ndash; Shannen Doherty, American actress, director, and producer (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |titleShannen Doherty, known for Charmed, 90210 roles, dead at 53 |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cxx2rj467npo |access-date2024-07-14 |websitewww.bbc.com |languageen-GB |archive-date2024-07-14 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240714140604/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cxx2rj467npo |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1972 &ndash; Paul Lo Duca, American baseball player and sportscaster
*1973 &ndash; J. Scott Campbell, American author and illustrator
* 1973 &ndash; Ryan Kisor, American trumpet player and composer
* 1973 &ndash; Antonio Osuna, Mexican-American baseball player
* 1973 &ndash; Christian Panucci, Italian footballer and manager
*1974 &ndash; Belinda Emmett, Australian actress (d. 2006)
* 1974 &ndash; Bryan Fletcher, Australian rugby league player and sportscaster
* 1974 &ndash; Roman Hamrlík, Czech ice hockey player
* 1974 &ndash; Marley Shelton, American actress
* 1974 &ndash; Sylvinho, Brazilian footballer and manager
*1976 &ndash; Olga Kotlyarova, Russian runner
* 1976 &ndash; Brad Miller, American basketball player
*1977 &ndash; Giovanny Espinoza, Ecuadorian footballer
* 1977 &ndash; Sarah Monahan, Australian actress
* 1977 &ndash; Jason Price, Welsh footballer
* 1977 &ndash; Glenn Rogers, Australian-Scottish cricketer
*1978 &ndash; Guy Berryman, Scottish bassist (Coldplay)<ref>{{Cite web |date2023 |titleLatest Coldplay News |urlhttps://www.capitalfm.com/artists/coldplay/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230227022423/https://www.capitalfm.com/artists/coldplay/ |archive-date27 February 2023 |access-date27 February 2023 |websiteCapital FM |type=Press the "View More" button on the "Facts" column}}</ref>
* 1978 &ndash; Scott Crary, American director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1978 &ndash; Svetlana Lapina, Russian high jumper
* 1978 &ndash; Robin Walker, English businessman and politician
*1979 &ndash; Claire Danes, American actress
* 1979 &ndash; Elena Grosheva, Russian gymnast
* 1979 &ndash; Mateja Kežman, Serbian footballer
* 1979 &ndash; Jennifer Morrison, American actress
* 1979 &ndash; Cristian Ranalli, Italian footballer
* 1979 &ndash; Lee Soo-young, South Korean singer
*1980 &ndash; Sara Head, Welsh Paralympic table tennis champion
* 1980 &ndash; Brian McFadden, Irish singer-songwriter
*1981 &ndash; Yuriy Borzakovskiy, Russian runner
* 1981 &ndash; Nicolás Burdisso, Argentinian footballer
* 1981 &ndash; Tulsi Gabbard, American politician
* 1981 &ndash; Grant Holt, English footballer and professional wrestler
* 1981 &ndash; Hisashi Iwakuma, Japanese baseball pitcher
*1983 &ndash; Jelena Dokic, Serbian-Australian tennis player
* 1983 &ndash; Luke Kibet, Kenyan runner
*1984 &ndash; Aleksey Dmitrik, Russian high jumper
*1985 &ndash; Brennan Boesch, American baseball player
* 1985 &ndash; Hitomi Yoshizawa, Japanese singer
*1986 &ndash; Brad Brach, American baseball pitcher
* 1986 &ndash; Blerim Džemaili, Swiss footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Marcel Granollers, Spanish tennis player
* 1986 &ndash; Jonathan Pitroipa, Burkinabé footballer
*1987 &ndash; Luiz Adriano, Brazilian professional footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Brooklyn Decker, American model and actress
* 1987 &ndash; Shawn Gore, Canadian football player
* 1987 &ndash; Josh McCrone, Australian rugby league player
* 1987 &ndash; Brendon Urie, American singer, songwriter, musician and multi-instrumentalist
*1988 &ndash; Ricky Álvarez, Argentinian footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Stephen Brogan, English footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Amedeo Calliari, Italian footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Jessie James Decker, American singer-songwriter
* 1988 &ndash; Moamen Zakaria, Egyptian footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleMoamen Zakaria - Player Profile - Football |urlhttps://www.eurosport.com/football/moamen-zakaria_prs266382/person.shtml |websiteEurosport |access-date28 October 2023}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Bethan Dainton, Welsh rugby union player
* 1989 &ndash; Ádám Hanga, Hungarian basketball player
* 1989 &ndash; Miguel Ángel Ponce, American-Mexican footballer
* 1989 &ndash; Valentin Stocker, Swiss footballer
* 1989 &ndash; Kaitlyn Weaver, Canadian-American ice dancer
*1990 &ndash; Francesca Halsall, English swimmer
* 1990 &ndash; Hiroki Sakai, Japanese footballer
*1991 &ndash; Lionel Carole, French professional footballer
* 1991 &ndash; Torey Krug, American ice hockey player
* 1991 &ndash; Oliver Norwood, English born Northern Irish international footballer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id56994|titleOliver Norwood|websitesoccerbase.com|access-date1 April 2020|archive-date26 July 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726073947/https://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id56994|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; Magnus Pääjärvi, Swedish ice hockey player
* 1991 &ndash; Jazz Richards, Welsh international footballer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id51700|titleJazz Richards|websitesoccerbase.com|access-date1 April 2020|archive-date15 July 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200715141013/https://www.soccerbase.com/players/player.sd?player_id51700|url-status=live}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Chad le Clos, South African swimmer
*1993 &ndash; Robin Anderson, American tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleRobin Anderson {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/317175/robin-anderson |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |languageen |archive-date2022-10-17 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221017200730/https://www.wtatennis.com/players/317175/robin-anderson |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* 1993 &ndash; Jordan Archer, English-Scottish footballer
* 1993 &ndash; Ryan Nugent-Hopkins, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://whl.ca/players/25367|titleRyan Nugent-Hopkins|websiteWestern Hockey League|access-date27 February 2019|archive-date27 February 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190227183459/http://whl.ca/players/25367|url-status=live}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Eric Bailly, Ivorian professional footballer
* 1994 &ndash; Isabelle Drummond, Brazilian actress and singer
* 1994 &ndash; Guido Rodríguez, Argentine footballer
* 1994 &ndash; Saoirse Ronan, American-born Irish actress
* 1994 &ndash; Oh Sehun, South Korean musician
*1995 &ndash; Pedro Cachin, Argentine tennis player
*1996 &ndash; Matteo Berrettini, Italian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleMatteo Berrettini {{!}} Overview {{!}} ATP Tour {{!}} Tennis |urlhttps://www.atptour.com/en/players/matteo-berrettini/bk40/overview |access-date2022-10-23 |websiteATP Tour |archive-date2022-10-22 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221022195116/https://www.atptour.com/en/players/matteo-berrettini/bk40/overview |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 1996 &ndash; Elizaveta Kulichkova, Russian tennis player
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Deaths
Pre-1600
*45 BC &ndash; Gnaeus Pompeius, Roman general and politician (b. 75 BC)
* 352 &ndash; Julius I, pope of the Catholic Church<ref>{{cite book|authorKarl Joseph von Hefele|titleA History of the Councils of the Church: A.D. 326 to A.D. 429|urlhttps://archive.org/details/ahistorycouncil00oxengoog|year1876|publisherT. & T. Clark|pages[https://archive.org/details/ahistorycouncil00oxengoog/page/n218 200]}}</ref>
* 434 &ndash; Maximianus, archbishop of Constantinople
* 901 &ndash; Eudokia Baïana, Byzantine empress and wife of Leo VI
*1125 &ndash; Vladislaus I, Duke of Bohemia (b. 1065)
*1167 &ndash; Charles VII, king of Sweden (b. c. 1130)
*1256 &ndash; Margaret of Bourbon, Queen of Navarre, regent of Navarre (b. c. 1217)
*1443 &ndash; Henry Chichele, English archbishop (b. 1364)
*1500 &ndash; Leonhard of Gorizia, Count of Gorz (b. 1440)
*1530 &ndash; Joanna La Beltraneja, Princess of Castile (b. 1462)
*1550 &ndash; Claude, Duke of Guise (b. 1496)
*1555 &ndash; Joanna, Queen of Castile and Aragon (b. 1479)
1601–1900
*1675 &ndash; Richard Bennett, English politician, colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1609)
*1684 &ndash; Nicola Amati, Italian instrument maker (b. 1596)
*1687 &ndash; Ambrose Dixon, English-American soldier (b. 1619)
*1704 &ndash; Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, French bishop and theologian (b. 1627)
*1748 &ndash; William Kent, English architect, designed Holkham Hall and Chiswick House (b. 1685)
*1782 &ndash; Metastasio, Italian-Austrian poet and composer (b. 1698)
*1788 &ndash; Carlo Antonio Campioni, French-Italian composer (b. 1719)
*1795 &ndash; Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (b. 1710)
*1814 &ndash; Charles Burney, English composer and historian (b. 1726)
*1817 &ndash; Charles Messier, French astronomer and academic (b. 1730)
*1850 &ndash; Adoniram Judson, American lexicographer and missionary (b. 1788)
*1866 &ndash; Peter Hesketh-Fleetwood, English politician, founded Fleetwood (b. 1801)
*1872 &ndash; Nikolaos Mantzaros, Greek composer and theorist (b. 1795)
*1878 &ndash; William M. Tweed, American lawyer and politician (b. 1823)
*1879 &ndash; Richard Taylor, Confederate general (b. 1826)
*1885 &ndash; William Crowther, Dutch-Australian politician, 14th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1817)<ref>{{cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |last1Crowther |first1W. E. L. H. |titleCrowther, William Lodewyk (1817–1885) |id2crowther-william-lodewyk-3297 |access-date=18 August 2019}}</ref>
*1898 &ndash; Elzéar-Alexandre Taschereau, Canadian cardinal (b. 1820)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Marie Alfred Cornu, French physicist and academic (b. 1842)
*1906 &ndash; Mahesh Chandra Nyayratna Bhattacharyya, Indian scholar, academic, and philanthropist (b. 1836)
*1912 &ndash; Clara Barton, American nurse and humanitarian, founded the American Red Cross (b. 1821)
*1933 &ndash; Adelbert Ames, American general and politician, 30th Governor of Mississippi (b. 1835)
*1937 &ndash; Abdülhak Hâmid Tarhan, Turkish playwright and poet (b. 1852)
*1938 &ndash; Feodor Chaliapin, Russian opera singer (b. 1873)
*1943 &ndash; Viktor Puskar, Estonian colonel (b. 1889)
*1945 &ndash; Franklin D. Roosevelt, American lawyer and politician, 32nd President of the United States (b. 1882)
*1953 &ndash; Lionel Logue, Australian actor and therapist (b. 1880)
*1962 &ndash; Ron Flockhart, Scottish racing driver (b. 1923)
*1966 &ndash; Sydney Allard, English racing driver and founder of the Allard car company (b. 1910)
*1968 &ndash; Heinrich Nordhoff, German engineer (b. 1899)
*1971 &ndash; Ed Lafitte, American baseball player and dentist (b. 1886)
*1973 &ndash; Arthur Freed, American songwriter and producer (b. 1894)
*1975 &ndash; Josephine Baker, French actress, activist, and humanitarian (b. 1906)
*1976 &ndash; Christos Kakkalos, Greek mountain guide (b. 1882)<ref>{{cite news |titleΧρήστος Κάκαλος: Πέθανε σαν σήμερα ο πρώτος αλπινιστής που πάτησε στην κορυφή του Ολύμπου |urlhttps://www.tanea.gr/2022/04/12/people/xristos-kakalos-pethane-san-simera-o-protos-alpinistis-pou-patise-stin-koryfi-tou-olympou/ |access-date27 June 2022 |publisherΤα Νέα |date12 April 2022 |archive-date27 June 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220627173036/https://www.tanea.gr/2022/04/12/people/xristos-kakalos-pethane-san-simera-o-protos-alpinistis-pou-patise-stin-koryfi-tou-olympou/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; Philip K. Wrigley, American businessman, co-founded Lincoln Park Gun Club (b. 1894)
*1980 &ndash; William R. Tolbert, Jr., Liberian politician, 20th President of Liberia (b. 1913)
*1981 &ndash; Prince Yasuhiko Asaka of Japan (b. 1887)
* 1981 &ndash; Joe Louis, American boxer and wrestler (b. 1914)
*1983 &ndash; Jørgen Juve, Norwegian football player and journalist (b. 1906)
* 1983 &ndash; Carl Morton, American baseball player (b. 1944)
*1984 &ndash; Edwin T. Layton, American admiral and cryptanalyst (b. 1903)
*1986 &ndash; Valentin Kataev, Russian author and playwright (b. 1897)
*1988 &ndash; Colette Deréal, French singer and actress (b. 1927)
* 1988 &ndash; Alan Paton, South African historian and author (b. 1903)
*1989 &ndash; Abbie Hoffman, American activist, co-founded Youth International Party (b. 1936)
* 1989 &ndash; Sugar Ray Robinson, American boxer (b. 1921)
*1992 &ndash; Ilario Bandini, Italian racing driver and businessman (b. 1911)
*1997 &ndash; George Wald, American neurologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1906)
*1998 &ndash; Robert Ford, Canadian poet and diplomat (b. 1915)
*1999 &ndash; Boxcar Willie, American singer-songwriter (b. 1931)
*2001 &ndash; Harvey Ball, American illustrator, created the smiley (b. 1921)
*2002 &ndash; George Shevelov, Ukrainian-American linguist and philologist (b. 1908)
*2004 &ndash; Moran Campbell, Canadian physician and academic, invented the venturi mask (b. 1925)
*2006 &ndash; William Sloane Coffin, American minister and activist (b. 1924)
*2007 &ndash; Kevin Crease, Australian journalist (b. 1936)
*2008 &ndash; Cecilia Colledge, English-American figure skater and coach (b. 1920)
* 2008 &ndash; Patrick Hillery, Irish physician and politician, 6th President of Ireland (b. 1923)
* 2008 &ndash; Jerry Zucker, Israeli-American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1949)
*2010 &ndash; Michel Chartrand, Canadian trade union leader (b. 1916)
* 2010 &ndash; Werner Schroeter, German director and screenwriter (b. 1945)
*2011 &ndash; Karim Fakhrawi, Bahraini journalist, co-founded Al-Wasat (b. 1962)
*2012 &ndash; Mohit Chattopadhyay, Indian poet and playwright (b. 1934)
* 2012 &ndash; Rodgers Grant, American pianist and composer (b. 1935)
*2013 &ndash; Robert Byrne, American chess player and author (b. 1928)
* 2013 &ndash; Johnny du Plooy, South African boxer (b. 1964)
* 2013 &ndash; Michael France, American screenwriter (b. 1962)
* 2013 &ndash; Brennan Manning, American priest and author (b. 1934)
* 2013 &ndash; Annamária Szalai, Hungarian journalist and politician (b. 1961)
* 2013 &ndash; Ya'akov Yosef, Israeli rabbi and politician (b. 1946)
*2014 &ndash; Pierre Autin-Grenier, French author and poet (b. 1947)
* 2014 &ndash; Pierre-Henri Menthéour, French cyclist (b. 1960)
* 2014 &ndash; Maurício Alves Peruchi, Brazilian footballer (b. 1990)
* 2014 &ndash; Hal Smith, American baseball player and coach (b. 1931)
* 2014 &ndash; Billy Standridge, American race car driver (b. 1953)
*2015 &ndash; Paulo Brossard, Brazilian jurist and politician (b. 1924)
* 2015 &ndash; Patrice Dominguez, Algerian-French tennis player and trainer (b. 1950)
* 2015 &ndash; Alfred Eick, German commander (b. 1916)
* 2015 &ndash; André Mba Obame, Gabonese politician (b. 1957)
*2016 &ndash; Mohammad Al Gaz, Emirati politician & diplomat (b. 1930)
* 2016 &ndash; Anne Jackson, American actress (b. 1925)
*2017 &ndash; Charlie Murphy, American actor and comedian (b. 1959)
*2020 &ndash; Tarvaris Jackson, American football player (b. 1983)<ref>{{cite web |last1Pattra |first1Kevin |titleFormer NFL QB Tarvaris Jackson dies in car crash |urlhttps://www.nfl.com/news/former-nfl-qb-tarvaris-jackson-dies-in-car-crash-0ap3000001109122 |websiteNFL |access-date13 April 2020 |archive-date16 May 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200516115026/https://www.nfl.com/news/former-nfl-qb-tarvaris-jackson-dies-in-car-crash-0ap3000001109122 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Joseph Siravo, American actor and producer (b. 1955)<ref>{{Cite news|date2021-04-12|titleJoseph Siravo: The Sopranos and Jersey Boys star dies aged 64|languageen-GB|workBBC News|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-56716261|access-date2021-04-12|archive-date2021-04-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210412094749/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-56716261|url-status=live}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Gilbert Gottfried, American comedian, actor, and singer (b. 1955)<ref>{{Cite web |lastHamedy |firstSaba |titleGilbert Gottfried, iconic comedian, dies at 67 after long illness |websiteNBC News |date23 May 2022 |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/pop-culture/celebrity/gilbert-gottfried-iconic-comedian-dies-67-long-illness-rcna24111 |access-date12 April 2022 |archive-date12 April 2022 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20220412210429/https://www.nbcnews.com/pop-culture/celebrity/gilbert-gottfried-iconic-comedian-dies-67-long-illness-rcna24111 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Roberto Cavalli, Italian fashion designer and inventor (b. 1940)<ref>{{Cite web |titleRoberto Cavalli, Italian Fashion Designer, Dead at 83: 'A Life Lived with Love' |urlhttps://people.com/fashion-designer-roberto-cavalli-dead-at-83-8630881 |access-date2024-04-12 |websitePeoplemag |languageen |archive-date2024-04-13 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240413052546/https://people.com/fashion-designer-roberto-cavalli-dead-at-83-8630881 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* 2024 &ndash; Eleanor Coppola, American filmmaker (b. 1936)<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-04-12 |titleEleanor Coppola, matriarch of a filmmaking family, dies at 87 |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/eleanor-coppola-dead-d1174964d8fef8a1b63ced6a9387f62b |access-date2024-04-13 |websiteAP News |languageen |archive-date2024-04-13 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240413003101/https://apnews.com/article/eleanor-coppola-dead-d1174964d8fef8a1b63ced6a9387f62b |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 2024 &ndash; Robert MacNeil, Canadian-American journalist and author (b. 1931)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/12/business/media/robert-macneil-dead.html|titleRobert MacNeil, Earnest News Anchor for PBS, Dies at 93|lastJensen|firstElizabeth|newspaperThe New York Times|dateApril 12, 2024|access-dateApril 13, 2024|archive-dateApril 13, 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240413015741/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/12/business/media/robert-macneil-dead.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Children's Day (Bolivia)
* Christian feast day:
** Adoniram Judson (Episcopal Church)
** Alferius
** Blessed Angelo Carletti di Chivasso
** Erkembode
** Pope Julius I<ref>{{cite web |titleSaint Julius I {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Julius-I |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date11 April 2021 |languageen |archive-date11 April 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210411233847/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Julius-I |url-statuslive }}</ref>
** Teresa of the Andes
** Zeno of Verona
** April 12 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* Commemoration of first human in space by Yuri Gagarin:
** Cosmonautics Day (Russia)
** International Day of Human Space Flight<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Days |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/ |websitewww.un.org |access-date2 January 2021 |languageen |date6 January 2015 |archive-date28 March 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150328001659/https://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
** Yuri's Night (International observance)
* Halifax Day (North Carolina)
* National Redemption Day (Liberia)
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/12 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day12}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/12 Historical Events on April 12]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_12 | 2025-04-05T18:25:27.977586 |
1010 | April 15 | {{pp-move}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 769 &ndash; The Lateran Council ends by condemning the Council of Hieria and anathematizing its iconoclastic rulings.<ref>{{cite book|lastvon Hefele|firstKarl Joseph|titleA History of the Councils of the Church: From the Original Documents. Volume 5: A.D. 626 to close of Second Council of Nicea, 797|locationEdinburgh|publisherT. & T. Clark|date1896|oclc10158388|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsn_SNC11TTQC|page338|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|lastNoble|firstThomas F.X.|titleImages, Iconoclasm, and the Carolingians|locationPhiladelphia, Pa.|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press|date2013|isbn9780812222562|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ido_IADUZ-4yQC|page=146}}</ref>
*1071 &ndash; Bari, the last Byzantine possession in southern Italy, is surrendered to Robert Guiscard.<ref>{{cite book|lastVryonis| firstSpyros P. Jr. |chapterByzantine Society and Civilization|titleThe Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843–1261|editor-last1Evans|editor-first1Helen C.|editor-last2Wixom|editor-first2William D.|locationNew York|publisherMetropolitan Museum of Art|date1997|isbn9780870997778|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCaqa12aj55wC|page=15}}</ref>
*1450 &ndash; Battle of Formigny: Toward the end of the Hundred Years' War, the French attack and nearly annihilate English forces, ending English domination in Northern France.<ref>{{cite book|lastBurne|firstAlfred Higgins|titleThe Agincourt War: A Military History of the Latter Part of the Hundred Years' War From 1369 to 1453|locationLondon|publisherFrontLine Books|date2014|isbn9781848327658|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2nOpBQAAQBAJ|pages315, 322}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1632 &ndash; Battle of Rain: Swedes under Gustavus Adolphus defeat the Holy Roman Empire during the Thirty Years' War.<ref>{{cite book|lastWatts|firstTim J.|chapterLech River, Battle of (April 15, 1632)|titleGermany at War: 400 years of Military History|editor-lastZabecki|editor-firstDavid T.|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABC-CLIO|date2014|isbn9781598849806|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrCWMBQAAQBAJ|page=745}}</ref>
*1642 &ndash; Irish Confederate Wars: A Confederate Irish militia is routed in the Battle of Kilrush when it attempts to halt the progress of a Royalist Army.<ref>{{cite book|lastBagwell|firstRichard|titleIreland Under the Stuarts. Volume 2|locationLondon|publisherLongmans, Green and Co.|date1909|isbn9783752350623|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXJzyDwAAQBAJ|pages16–17}}</ref>
*1715 &ndash; The Pocotaligo Massacre triggers the start of the Yamasee War in colonial South Carolina.<ref>{{cite book|titleHistory of South Carolina. Volume 1: Proprietary Administration (1670–1719)|editor-last1Snowden|editor-first1Yates|editor-last2Cutler|editor-first2H.G.|locationChicago|publisherLewis Publishing Co.|date1920|oclc2395214|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ide9rdhTozA2YC|page166}}</ref>
*1736 &ndash; Foundation of the short-lived Kingdom of Corsica.
*1738 &ndash; Serse, an Italian opera by George Frideric Handel, receives its premiere performance in London, England.<ref>{{cite book|lastLang|firstPaul Henry|titleGeorge Frideric Handel|locationNew York|publisherDover Publications|date1996|isbn9780486292274|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9aK8AQAAQBAJ|page299}}</ref>
*1755 &ndash; Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language is published in London.<ref>{{cite book|lastVizetelly|firstFrank H.|titleThe Development of the Dictionary of the English Language, With Special Reference to the Funk & Wagnalls New Standard Dictionary|locationNew York|publisherFunk & Wagnalls Company|date1915|oclc4428183|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1dJWAAAAMAAJ|page11}}</ref>
*1817 &ndash; Thomas Hopkins Gallaudet and Laurent Clerc found the American School for the Deaf (then called the Connecticut Asylum for the Education and Instruction of Deaf and Dumb Persons), the first American school for deaf students, in Hartford, Connecticut.<ref>{{cite book|lastCrouch|firstBarry A.|chapterLessons From the Connecticut Asylum|titleThe Deaf Way: Perspectives From the International Conference on Deaf Culture|editor-last1Erting|editor-first1Carol J.|editor-last2Johnson|editor-first2Robert C.|editor-last3Smith|editor-first3Dorothy L.|editor-last4Snider|editor-first4Bruce D.|locationWashington, D.C.|publisherGallaudet University Press|date1994|isbn9781563680267|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbqJxAcmA9yEC|page=226}}</ref>
*1861 &ndash; President Abraham Lincoln calls for 75,000 volunteers to quell the insurrection that soon became the American Civil War.<ref>{{cite book|lastEicher|firstDavid J.|titleThe Longest Night: A Military History of the Civil War|locationLondon|publisherPimlico|date2002|isbn9780712668545|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1p94XzYASDAC|page58}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; President Abraham Lincoln dies after being shot the previous evening by actor John Wilkes Booth.<ref>{{cite book|lastSteers| firstEdward J. Jr. |titleLincoln's Assassination|locationCarbondale, Ill.|publisherSouthern Illinois University Press|date2014|isbn9780809333493|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2Sl9BAAAQBAJ|pages72–74}}</ref> Three hours later, Vice President Andrew Johnson is sworn in as president.<ref>{{cite book|lastDonhardt|firstGary L.|titleIn the Shadow of the Great Rebellion: The Life of Andrew Johnson, Seventeenth President of the United States (1808–1875)|locationNew York|publisherNova Science|date2006|isbn9781600210860|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUW32n2HWwRIC|page63}}</ref>
*1892 &ndash; The General Electric Company is formed.<ref>{{cite book|lastDavtyan|firstLusine|chapterGeneral Electric|titleTechnical Innovation in American History: An Encyclopedia of Science and Technology. Volume 2: Reconstruction Through World War II|editor-last1Welch|editor-first1Rosanne|editor-last2Lamphier|editor-first2Peg A.|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABC-CLIO|date2019|isbn9781610690935|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaWGHDwAAQBAJ|page=74}}</ref>
*1896 &ndash; Closing ceremony of the Games of the I Olympiad in Athens, Greece.<ref>{{cite book|lastHanold|firstMaylon|titleWorld Sports: A Reference Handbook|locationSanta Barbara, Calif.|publisherABC-CLIO|date2012|isbn9781598847789|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLTsDeI_ZbncC|page149}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Philippine–American War: Filipino guerrillas launch a surprise attack on U.S. infantry and begin a four-day siege of Catubig, Philippines.<ref>{{cite book|lastAlegre|firstJoycie Y. Dorado|titleAbaknon of Samar. Katutubo: Profiles of Philippine Cultural Communities|locationManila|publisherNational Commission on Culture and the Arts|date2009|isbn9789718141618|page12}}</ref>
1901–present
*1912 &ndash; The British passenger liner {{RMS|Titanic}} sinks in the North Atlantic at 2:20&nbsp;a.m., two hours and forty minutes after hitting an iceberg. Only 710 of 2,224 passengers and crew on board survive.
*1920 &ndash; Two security guards are murdered during a robbery in South Braintree, Massachusetts. Anarchists Sacco and Vanzetti would be convicted of and executed for the crime, amid much controversy.
*1922 &ndash; U.S. Senator John B. Kendrick of Wyoming introduces a resolution calling for an investigation of a secret land deal, which leads to the discovery of the Teapot Dome scandal.
*1923 &ndash; Insulin becomes generally available for use by people with diabetes.
* 1923 &ndash; Racially motivated Nihon Shōgakkō fire lit by a serial arsonist kills 10 children in Sacramento, California.<ref name"latimes">{{cite news |id{{ProQuest|161579022}} |titleFIRE FIEND UNMASKED: Lives and Homes Sacrificed; Confession Uncovers Arson Mystery Reaching From Seattle to Mexico; Hatred of Japanese Incites Army Deserter to Burn Church Mission FIRE MURDERS ARE ADMITTED |newspaperLos Angeles Times |date17 August 1923 |pageI1 }}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; First day of the Arab revolt in Mandatory Palestine.
*1941 &ndash; In the Belfast Blitz, two hundred bombers of the German Luftwaffe attack Belfast, killing around one thousand people.
*1942 &ndash; The George Cross is awarded "to the island fortress of Malta" by King George VI.
*1945 &ndash; Bergen-Belsen concentration camp is liberated.
*1947 &ndash; Jackie Robinson debuts for the Brooklyn Dodgers, breaking baseball's color line.
*1952 &ndash; First flight of the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress.
*1955 &ndash; McDonald's restaurant dates its founding to the opening of a franchised restaurant by Ray Kroc, in Des Plaines, Illinois.
*1960 &ndash; At Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina, Ella Baker leads a conference that results in the creation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, one of the principal organizations of the civil rights movement in the 1960s.
*1969 &ndash; The EC-121 shootdown incident: North Korea shoots down a United States Navy aircraft over the Sea of Japan, killing all 31 on board.
*1970 &ndash; During the Cambodian Civil War, massacre of the Vietnamese minority results in 800 bodies flowing down the Mekong river into South Vietnam.
*1986 &ndash; The United States launches Operation El Dorado Canyon, its bombing raids against Libyan targets in response to a discotheque bombing in West Germany that killed two U.S. servicemen.
*1989 &ndash; Hillsborough disaster: A human crush occurs at Hillsborough Stadium, home of Sheffield Wednesday, in the FA Cup Semi-final, resulting in the deaths of 97 Liverpool fans.
* 1989 &ndash; Upon Hu Yaobang's death, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 begin in China.
*1994 &ndash; Marrakesh Agreement relating to foundation of World Trade Organization is adopted.
*2002 &ndash; Air China Flight 129 crashes on approach to Gimhae International Airport in Busan, South Korea, killing 129 people.<ref>{{Cite web|lastRanter|firstHarro|titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing 767-2J6ER B-2552 Pusan-Kimhae Airport (PUS)|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20020415-0|url-statuslive|access-date2021-03-14|websiteaviation-safety.net|publisherAviation safety Network|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051110094142/http://aviation-safety.net:80/database/record.php?id20020415-0 |archive-date2005-11-10 }}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Two bombs explode near the finish line at the Boston Marathon in Boston, Massachusetts, killing three people and injuring 281 others.
* 2013 &ndash; A wave of bombings across Iraq kills at least 75 people.
*2014 &ndash; In the worst massacre of the South Sudanese Civil War, at least 200 civilians are gunned down after seeking refuge in houses of worship as well as hospitals.
*2019 &ndash; The cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris in France is seriously damaged by a large fire.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-47941794|titleNotre-Dame: Massive fire ravages Paris cathedral|publisherBBC News|date16 April 2019|access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; A mass shooting occurred at a Fedex Ground facility in Indianapolis, Indiana, killing nine and injuring seven.<ref>{{Cite web |last1Neuman |first1Scott |last2Jones |first2Dustin |dateApril 16, 2021<!-- 3:22am Eastern Time--> |titlePolice ID Suspect And Victims In Shooting Deaths At FedEx Facility In Indianapolis |urlhttps://www.npr.org/2021/04/16/987929888/ |access-dateFebruary 21, 2023 |websiteNPR}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600
*68 BC &ndash; Gaius Maecenas, Roman politician (d. 8 BC)
*1282 &ndash; Frederick IV, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1329)
*1442 &ndash; John Paston, English noble (d. 1479)
*1452 &ndash; Leonardo da Vinci, Italian painter, sculptor, and architect (d. 1519)
*1469 &ndash; Guru Nanak, the first Sikh guru (d. 1539)
*1552 &ndash; Pietro Cataldi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1626)
*1563 &ndash; Guru Arjan Dev, fifth Sikh leader (d. 1606)
*1588 &ndash; Claudius Salmasius, French author and scholar (d. 1653)
*1592 &ndash; Francesco Maria Brancaccio, Catholic cardinal (d. 1675)
1601–1900
*1641 &ndash; Robert Sibbald, Scottish physician and geographer (d. 1722)
*1642 &ndash; Suleiman II, Ottoman sultan (d. 1691)
*1646 &ndash; Christian V of Denmark (d. 1699)
*1684 &ndash; Catherine I of Russia (d. 1727)
*1688 &ndash; Johann Friedrich Fasch, German violinist and composer (d. 1758)
*1707 &ndash; Leonhard Euler, Swiss mathematician and physicist (d. 1783)
*1710 &ndash; William Cullen, Scottish physician and chemist (d. 1790)<ref>{{cite web |titleWilliam Cullen {{!}} Royal College of Physicians of Edinburgh |urlhttps://www.rcpe.ac.uk/heritage/college-history/william-cullen |websitercpe.ac.uk |date8 February 2017 |access-date=3 December 2020}}</ref>
*1741 &ndash; Charles Willson Peale, American painter and soldier (d. 1827)
*1771 &ndash; Nicolas Chopin, French-Polish educator (d. 1844)
*1772 &ndash; Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, French biologist and zoologist (d. 1844)
*1793 &ndash; Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve, German astronomer and academic (d. 1864)
*1795 &ndash; Maria Schicklgruber, mother of Alois Hitler and the paternal grandmother of Adolf Hitler (d. 1847)
*1800 &ndash; James Clark Ross, English captain and explorer (d. 1862)
*1808 &ndash; William Champ, English-Australian politician, 1st Premier of Tasmania (d. 1892)
*1809 &ndash; Hermann Grassmann, German linguist and mathematician (d. 1877)
*1817 &ndash; William Crowther, Dutch-Australian politician, 14th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1885)
*1828 &ndash; Jean Danjou, French captain (d. 1863)<ref>{{cite book |last1Lepage |first1Jean-Denis G. G. |titleThe French Foreign Legion: An Illustrated History |date18 April 2016 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-0-7864-6253-7 |pages47 and 49 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqqeOMjr9kqYC&pgPA47}}</ref>
*1832 &ndash; Wilhelm Busch, German poet, painter, and illustrator (d. 1908)
*1841 &ndash; Mary Grant Roberts, Australian zoo owner (d. 1921)<ref>{{cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |last1Guiler |first1Eric |titleRoberts, Mary Grant (1841–1921) |id2roberts-mary-grant-8228 |access-date=9 January 2020}}</ref>
* 1841 &ndash; Joseph E. Seagram, Canadian businessman and politician, founded the Seagram Company Ltd (d. 1919)
*1843 &ndash; Henry James, American novelist, short story writer, and critic (d. 1916)
*1856 &ndash; Jean Moréas, Greek poet and critic (d. 1910)
*1858 &ndash; Émile Durkheim, French sociologist, psychologist, and philosopher (d. 1917)
*1861 &ndash; Bliss Carman, Canadian-British poet and playwright (d. 1929)
*1863 &ndash; Ida Freund, Austrian-born chemist and educator (d. 1914)<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhJc8afOZV0QC&qIda+Freund+15+April+1863&pgPA301|titleThe Palgrave Dictionary of Anglo-Jewish History|last1Rubinstein|first1William D.|last2Jolles|first2Michael|last3Rubinstein|first3Hilary L.|author-link1William Rubinstein|author-link3Hilary L. Rubinstein|date2011|publisherPalgrave Macmillan|isbn9781403939104|pages=301}}</ref>
*1874 &ndash; George Harrison Shull, American botanist and geneticist (d. 1954)
* 1874 &ndash; Johannes Stark, German physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1957)
*1875 &ndash; James J. Jeffries, American boxer and promoter (d. 1953)
*1877 &ndash; Georg Kolbe, German sculptor (d. 1947)
*1877 &ndash; William David Ross, Scottish philosopher (d. 1971)<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/william-david-ross/|titleWilliam David Ross – Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|chapterWilliam David Ross|year2022|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}</ref>
*1878 &ndash; Robert Walser, Swiss author and playwright (d. 1956)
*1879 &ndash; Melville Henry Cane, American lawyer and poet (d. 1980)
*1883 &ndash; Stanley Bruce, Australian captain and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967)
*1885 &ndash; Tadeusz Kutrzeba, Polish general (d. 1947)
*1886 &ndash; Nikolay Gumilyov, Russian poet and critic (d. 1921)
*1887 &ndash; Felix Pipes, Austrian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/fritz-felix-pipes|titleFritz Felix PIPES – Olympic Tennis &#124; Austria|dateJune 14, 2016|websiteInternational Olympic Committee}}</ref> (d. 1983)
* 1887 &ndash; William Forgan Smith, Scottish-Australian politician, 24th Premier of Queensland (d. 1953)
*1888 &ndash; Maximilian Kronberger, German poet and author (d. 1904)
*1889 &ndash; Thomas Hart Benton, American painter and educator (d. 1975)
* 1889 &ndash; A. Philip Randolph, American activist (d. 1979)
*1890 &ndash; Percy Shaw, English businessman, invented the cat's eye (d. 1976)
*1892 &ndash; Theo Osterkamp, German general and pilot (d. 1975)
* 1892 &ndash; Corrie ten Boom, Dutch-American clocksmith, Nazi resister, and author (d. 1983)
*1894 &ndash; Nikita Khrushchev, Russian general and politician, 7th Premier of the Soviet Union (d. 1971)
* 1894 &ndash; Bessie Smith, African-American singer and actress (d. 1937)
*1895 &ndash; Clark McConachy, New Zealand snooker player (d. 1980)
* 1895 &ndash; Abigail Mejia, Dominican feminist activist, nationalist, literary critic and educator (d. 1941)<ref>{{cite book|firstNéstor|lastContín Aybar|titleHistoria de la Literatura Dominicana Volume 4|locationSan Pedro de Macorís|publisherUniv. Central del Este|year1986|oclc630212151|languagees|page=94}}</ref>
*1896 &ndash; Nikolay Semyonov, Russian physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1986)
*1898 &ndash; Harry Edward, Guyanese-English sprinter (d. 1973)
*1900 &ndash; Ramón Iribarren, Spanish civil engineer (d. 1967)<ref>{{cite journal |dateOctober 2003 |titleRelación de académicos desde el año 1847 hasta el 2003. |trans-titleList of academics from 1847 until 2003. |urlhttps://rac.es/ficheros/doc/00186.pdf |languagees |journalReal Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Físicas y Naturales |access-date15 April 2023}}</ref>1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Joe Davis, English snooker player (d. 1978)
* 1901 &ndash; Ajoy Mukherjee, Indian politician, Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1986)
* 1901 &ndash; René Pleven, French businessman and politician, Prime Minister of France (d. 1993)
*1902 &ndash; Fernando Pessa, Portuguese journalist (d. 2002)
*1903 &ndash; John Williams, English-American actor (d. 1983)
*1904 &ndash; Arshile Gorky, Armenian-American painter and illustrator (d. 1948)
*1907 &ndash; Nikolaas Tinbergen, Dutch-English ethologist and ornithologist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1988)
*1908 &ndash; eden ahbez, American songwriter and recording artist (d. 1995)
* 1908 &ndash; Lita Grey, American actress (d. 1995)
*1909 &ndash; Robert Edison Fulton Jr., American inventor and adventurer (d. 2004)<ref>Fulton, R. E. Jr., (1983) – The One Man Caravan of Robert E. Fulton Jr. An Autofilmography – Newtown, Connecticut: Flying Ridge</ref>
*1910 &ndash; Sulo Bärlund, Finnish shot putter (d. 1986)
* 1910 &ndash; Miguel Najdorf, Polish-Argentinian chess player and theoretician (d. 1997)
*1912 &ndash; William Congdon, American-Italian painter and sculptor (d. 1998)
* 1912 &ndash; Kim Il Sung, North Korean general and politician, 1st Supreme Leader of North Korea (d. 1994)
*1915 &ndash; Elizabeth Catlett, African-American sculptor and illustrator (d. 2012)
*1916 &ndash; Alfred S. Bloomingdale, American businessman (d. 1982)
* 1916 &ndash; Helene Hanff, American author and screenwriter (d. 1997)
*1917 &ndash; Hans Conried, American actor (d. 1982)
* 1917 &ndash; Elmer Gedeon, American baseball player and bomber pilot (d. 1944)<ref>{{Cite book|lastBedingfield|firstGary|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1ilzBgAAQBAJ&pgPA137|titleBaseball's Dead of World War II: A Roster of Professional Players Who Died in Service|date2009|publisherMcFarland|isbn978-0-7864-4454-0|pages137}}</ref>
* 1917 &ndash; James Kee, American lawyer and politician (d. 1989)
*1918 &ndash; Hans Billian, German film director, screenwriter, and actor (d. 2007)
*1919 &ndash; Alberto Breccia, Uruguayan-Argentinian author and illustrator (d. 1993)
*1920 &ndash; Godfrey Stafford, English-South African physicist and academic (d. 2013)
* 1920 &ndash; Thomas Szasz, Hungarian-American psychiatrist and academic (d. 2012)
* 1920 &ndash; Richard von Weizsäcker, German soldier and politician, 6th President of Germany (d. 2015)
*1921 &ndash; Georgy Beregovoy, Ukrainian-Russian general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 1995)
* 1921 &ndash; Angelo DiGeorge, American physician and endocrinologist (d. 2009)
*1922 &ndash; Michael Ansara, Syrian-American actor (d. 2013)
* 1922 &ndash; Hasrat Jaipuri, Indian poet and songwriter (d. 1999)
* 1922 &ndash; Harold Washington, American lawyer and politician, 51st Mayor of Chicago (d. 1987)
* 1922 &ndash; Graham Whitehead, English racing driver (d. 1981)
*1923 &ndash; Artur Alliksaar, Estonian poet and author (d. 1966)
* 1923 &ndash; Robert DePugh, American activist, founded the Minutemen (an anti-Communist organization) (d. 2009)
*1924 &ndash; M. Canagaratnam, Sri Lankan politician (d. 1980)
* 1924 &ndash; Rikki Fulton, Scottish comedian (d. 2004)
* 1924 &ndash; Neville Marriner, English violinist and conductor (d. 2016)
*1926 &ndash; Jurriaan Schrofer, Dutch sculptor, designer, and educator (d. 1990)<ref>"[https://rkd.nl/nl/explore/artists/Schrofer%2C%20Jurriaan Jurriaan Schrofer]" (in Dutch), Netherlands Institute for Art History. Retrieved 3 April 2022.</ref>
*1927 &ndash; Robert Mills, American physicist and academic (d. 1999)
*1929 &ndash; Gérald Beaudoin, Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2008)
* 1929 &ndash; Adrian Cadbury, English rower and businessman (d. 2015)
*1930 &ndash; Georges Descrières, French actor (d. 2013)
* 1930 &ndash; Vigdís Finnbogadóttir, Icelandic educator and politician, 4th President of Iceland
*1931 &ndash; Kenneth Bloomfield, Northern Irish civil servant
* 1931 &ndash; Tomas Tranströmer, Swedish poet, translator, and psychologist Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2015)
*1933 &ndash; Roy Clark, American musician and television personality (d. 2018)
* 1933 &ndash; David Hamilton, English-French photographer and director (d. 2016)
* 1933 &ndash; Elizabeth Montgomery, American actress and producer (d. 1995)
*1935 &ndash; Stavros Paravas, Greek actor and producer (d. 2008)
*1936 &ndash; Raymond Poulidor, French cyclist (d. 2019)
*1937 &ndash; Bob Luman, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1978)
* 1937 &ndash; Robert W. Gore, American engineer and businessman, co-inventor of Gore-Tex (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite web |titleRobert W. Gore, Chairman Emeritus of W. L. Gore & Associates, and Inventor of GORE-TEX® Technology Dies at 83 |urlhttps://www.gore.com/news-events/press-release/robert-gore-passing |websitegore.com |publisherW. L. Gore and Associates |access-date22 September 2020|date18 September 2020 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|lastSchudel|firstMatt|dateSeptember 19, 2020|titleRobert W. Gore, company president and inventor of Gore-Tex, dies at 83|newspaperWashington Post|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/local/obituaries/robert-w-gore-company-president-and-inventor-of-gore-tex-dies-at-83/2020/09/19/c6da5244-faa9-11ea-89e3-4b9efa36dc64_story.html|access-dateSeptember 21, 2020|issn0190-8286}}</ref>
*1938 &ndash; Claudia Cardinale, Italian actress
* 1938 &ndash; Hso Khan Pha, Burmese-Canadian geologist and politician (d. 2016)
*1939 &ndash; Marty Wilde, English singer-songwriter and actor
* 1939 &ndash; Desiré Ecaré, Ivorian filmmaker (d. 2009)
*1940 &ndash; Jeffrey Archer, English author, playwright, and politician
* 1940 &ndash; Penelope Coelen, South African actress, model, beauty queen and 1958 Miss World
* 1940 &ndash; Willie Davis, American baseball player and actor (d. 2010)
* 1940 &ndash; Robert Lacroix, Canadian economist and academic
* 1940 &ndash; Robert Walker, American actor (d. 2019)<ref>{{Cite magazine|lastHuff|firstLauren|date2019-12-06|title'Star Trek' actor Robert Walker Jr. dies at 79|urlhttps://ew.com/tv/2019/12/06/robert-walker-jr-star-trek-actor-dead-79/|url-statuslive|access-date2021-08-11|magazineEntertainment Weekly|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191207073152/https://ew.com/tv/2019/12/06/robert-walker-jr-star-trek-actor-dead-79/ |archive-date2019-12-07 }}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; Howard Berman, American lawyer and politician
*1942 &ndash; Francis X. DiLorenzo, American bishop (d. 2017)
* 1942 &ndash; Walt Hazzard, American basketball player and coach (d. 2011)
* 1942 &ndash; Kenneth Lay, American businessman and criminal(d. 2006)
* 1942 &ndash; Tim Lankester, English economist and academic
*1943 &ndash; Pınar Kür, Turkish author, playwright, and academic
* 1943 &ndash; Robert Lefkowitz, American physician and biochemist, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1943 &ndash; Veronica Linklater, Baroness Linklater, English politician (d. 2022)
* 1943 &ndash; Hugh Thompson, Jr., American soldier and pilot (d. 2006)
*1944 &ndash; Dave Edmunds, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
*1946 &ndash; John Lloyd, Scottish journalist and author
* 1946 &ndash; Pete Rouse, American politician, White House Chief of Staff
*1947 &ndash; Linda Bloodworth-Thomason, American screenwriter and producer
* 1947 &ndash; Martin Broughton, English businessman
* 1947 &ndash; Lois Chiles, American model and actress
* 1947 &ndash; David Omand, English civil servant and academic
* 1947 &ndash; Cristina Husmark Pehrsson, Swedish nurse and politician, Swedish Minister for Social Security
*1948 &ndash; Christopher Brown, English historian, curator, and academic
* 1948 &ndash; Michael Kamen, American composer and conductor (d. 2003)
* 1948 &ndash; Phil Mogg, English singer-songwriter and musician
*1949 &ndash; Alla Pugacheva, Russian singer-songwriter and actress
* 1949 &ndash; Craig Zadan, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2018)
*1950 &ndash; Josiane Balasko, French actress, director, and screenwriter
* 1950 &ndash; Amy Wright, American actress
* 1950 &ndash; Karel Kroupa, Czech football player
*1951 &ndash; Heloise, American journalist and author
* 1951 &ndash; John L. Phillips, American captain and astronaut
* 1951 &ndash; Stuart Prebble, English journalist and producer
* 1951 &ndash; Marsha Ivins, American engineer and astronaut
*1952 &ndash; Kym Gyngell, Australian actor, comedian, and screenwriter
* 1952 &ndash; Brian Muir, English sculptor and set designer
* 1952 &ndash; Avital Ronell, Czech-American philosopher and academic
* 1952 &ndash; Glenn Shadix, American actor, (d. 2010)<ref>{{Cite web |date2010-09-09 |titlePASSINGS: Glenn Shadix, Lucius Walker, LeRoy A. Beavers Jr., Mike Edwards, Larry Ashmead, Corneille |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/local/obituaries/la-me-passings-20100909-story.html |access-date2023-03-08 |website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref>
*1955 &ndash; Dodi Fayed, Egyptian film producer (d. 1997)
* 1955 &ndash; Joice Mujuru, Zimbabwean politician<ref>"Presentism, Contested Narratives and Dissonances in Zimbabwe’s Liberation War Heritage: The Case of." Colonial Heritage, Memory and Sustainability in Africa: Challenges, Opportunities and Prospects (2015): p 11.</ref>
*1956 &ndash; Michael Cooper, American basketball player and coach
*1957 &ndash; Evelyn Ashford, American runner and coach
*1958 &ndash; Keith Acton, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1958 &ndash; John Bracewell, New Zealand cricketer
* 1958 &ndash; Memos Ioannou, Greek basketball player and coach
* 1958 &ndash; Benjamin Zephaniah, English actor, author, poet, and playwright (d. 2023)
*1959 &ndash; Fruit Chan, Chinese director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1959 &ndash; Kevin Lowe, Canadian ice hockey player, coach, and manager
* 1959 &ndash; Emma Thompson, English actress, comedian, author, activist and screenwriter
*1960 &ndash; Pierre Aubry, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1960 &ndash; Susanne Bier, Danish director and screenwriter
* 1960 &ndash; Pedro Delgado, Spanish cyclist and sportscaster
* 1960 &ndash; Tony Jones, English snooker player
*1961 &ndash; Neil Carmichael, English academic and politician
* 1961 &ndash; Carol W. Greider, American molecular biologist
* 1961 &ndash; Dawn Wright, American geographer and oceanographer
*1962 &ndash; Nawal El Moutawakel, Moroccan athlete and politician
* 1962 &ndash; Tom Kane, American voice actor
*1963 &ndash; Alex Crawford, Nigerian-South African journalist
* 1963 &ndash; Manzoor Elahi, Pakistani cricketer
* 1963 &ndash; Manoj Prabhakar, Indian cricketer and sportscaster
*1964 &ndash; Andre Joubert, South African rugby player
* 1964 &ndash; Lee Kernaghan, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1965 &ndash; Soichi Noguchi, Japanese engineer and astronaut<ref>{{cite book |last1O'Sullivan |first1John |titleJapanese Missions to the International Space Station: Hope from the East |date2019 |publisherSpringer Praxis Books |locationCham, Switzerland |isbn9783030045340 |page42}}</ref>
* 1965 &ndash; Linda Perry, American singer-songwriter, musician and record producer<ref nameallmusic>{{cite web | url http://www.allmusic.com/artist/linda-perry-mn0000285294/biography | titleArtist Biography [Linda Perry] | firstJason | lastAnderson | publisher AllMusic.com | access-date= 2014-03-31}}</ref>
* 1965 &ndash; Kevin Stevens, American ice hockey player
*1966 &ndash; Samantha Fox, English singer-songwriter and actress
* 1966 &ndash; Mott Green, American businessman (d. 2013)
*1967 &ndash; Frankie Poullain, Scottish bass player and songwriter
* 1967 &ndash; Dara Torres, American swimmer and journalist
*1968 &ndash; Ben Clarke, English rugby player and coach
* 1968 &ndash; Brahim Lahlafi, Moroccan-French runner
* 1968 &ndash; Ed O'Brien, English guitarist
*1969 &ndash; Jeromy Burnitz, American baseball player
* 1969 &ndash; Kaisa Roose, Estonian pianist and conductor
* 1969 &ndash; Jimmy Waite, Canadian-German ice hockey player and coach
*1970 &ndash; Chris Huffins, American decathlete and coach
*1971 &ndash; Philippe Carbonneau, French rugby player
* 1971 &ndash; Finidi George, Nigerian footballer
* 1971 &ndash; Jason Sehorn, American football player
* 1971 &ndash; Josia Thugwane, South African runner
* 1971 &ndash; Karl Turner, English lawyer and politician
*1972 &ndash; Arturo Gatti, Italian-Canadian boxer (d. 2009)
* 1972 &ndash; Lou Romano, American animator and voice actor
*1974 &ndash; Kim Min-kyo, South Korean actor and director
* 1974 &ndash; Danny Pino, American actor and screenwriter
* 1974 &ndash; Mike Quinn, American football player
* 1974 &ndash; Douglas Spain, American actor, director, and producer
* 1974 &ndash; Tim Thomas, American ice hockey player
*1975 &ndash; Sarah Teichmann, German-American biophysicist and immunologist
*1976 &ndash; Jason Bonsignore, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1976 &ndash; Darius Regelskis, Lithuanian footballer
* 1976 &ndash; Kęstutis Šeštokas, Lithuanian basketball player
* 1976 &ndash; Steve Williams, English rower
*1977 &ndash; Sudarsan Pattnaik, Indian sculptor
* 1977 &ndash; Brian Pothier, American ice hockey player
*1978 &ndash; Milton Bradley, American baseball player
* 1978 &ndash; Tim Corcoran, American baseball player
* 1978 &ndash; Luis Fonsi, Puerto Rican-American singer-songwriter and dancer
* 1978 &ndash; Chris Stapleton, American country singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1979 &ndash; Luke Evans, Welsh actor and singer<ref>{{cite web |last1Fearon |first1Faye |titleLuke Evans is winning the menswear game right now |urlhttps://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/fashion/article/luke-evans-style |publisherGQ |access-date4 April 2023 |date=15 April 2020}}</ref>
*1980 &ndash; Patrick Carney, American drummer, musician, and producer
* 1980 &ndash; James Foster, English cricketer
* 1980 &ndash; Raül López, Spanish basketball player
* 1980 &ndash; Willie Mason, New Zealand-Australian rugby league player
* 1980 &ndash; Aida Mollenkamp, American chef and author
* 1980 &ndash; Billy Yates, American football player
*1981 &ndash; Andrés D'Alessandro, Argentinian footballer
*1982 &ndash; Michael Aubrey, American baseball player
* 1982 &ndash; Anthony Green, American singer-songwriter
* 1982 &ndash; Seth Rogen, Canadian-American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1983 &ndash; Alice Braga, Brazilian actress
* 1983 &ndash; Matt Cardle, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1983 &ndash; Dudu Cearense, Brazilian footballer
* 1983 &ndash; Andreas Fransson, Swedish skier (d. 2014)
* 1983 &ndash; Ilya Kovalchuk, Russian ice hockey player
* 1983 &ndash; Martin Pedersen, Danish cyclist
*1984 &ndash; Antonio Cromartie, American football player
* 1984 &ndash; Cam Janssen, American ice hockey player
* 1984 &ndash; Daniel Paille, Canadian ice hockey player
*1985 &ndash; Ryan Hamilton, Canadian ice hockey player
*1986 &ndash; Tom Heaton, English footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Sylvain Marveaux, French footballer
*1988 &ndash; Blake Ayshford, Australian rugby league player
* 1988 &ndash; Steven Defour, Belgian footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Chris Tillman, American baseball pitcher
*1989 &ndash; Darren Nicholls, Australian rugby league player
*1990 &ndash; Emma Watson, English actress<ref>{{cite web |titleEmma Watson {{!}} Biography, Movie, Harry Potter, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Emma-Watson |websitebritannica.com |access-date9 January 2022}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Daiki Arioka, Japanese idol, singer, and actor
* 1991 &ndash; Javier Fernández López, Spanish figure skater
*1992 &ndash; Jeremy McGovern, Australian rules football player
*1994 &ndash; Brodie Grundy, Australian rules football player
* 1994 &ndash; Shaunae Miller-Uibo, Bahamian sprinter<ref>{{cite web|titleShaunae Miller|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/shaunae-miller|publisherInternational Olympic Committee|access-date10 May 2020}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Leander Dendoncker, Belgian footballer
*1997 &ndash; Ashleigh Gardner, Australian cricketer<ref>{{Cite web|titleAshleigh Gardner profile and biography, stats, records, averages, photos and videos|urlhttps://www.espncricinfo.com/player/ashleigh-gardner-858809|access-date2021-04-15|websiteESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
* 1997 &ndash; Maisie Williams, English actress<ref>{{cite web |last1Kazi |first1Safeeyah |titleMaisie Williams marks 22nd birthday with funny childhood throwback snaps |urlhttps://www.standard.co.uk/showbiz/celebrity-news/maisie-williams-marks-22nd-birthday-with-funny-childhood-throwback-snaps-a4118976.html |publisherEvening Standard |access-date4 April 2023 |date=16 April 2019}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Sexyy Red, American rapper<ref>{{Cite tweet|number1643372196440555520|userSexyyRed314_|title=My birthday day April 15th}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Denis Shapovalov, Canadian tennis player
*2001 &ndash; Shanti Dope, Filipino rapper<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.wave891.fm/hotspot/?article423|titleArtist of the Month: 10 Things to Know About Shanti Dope|workWave 89.1|access-date6 December 2019|archive-date30 March 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200330015748/http://www.wave891.fm/hotspot/?article423|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<!--Please do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 628 &ndash; Suiko, emperor of Japan (b. 554)
* 943 &ndash; Liu Bin, emperor of Southern Han (b. 920)
* 956 &ndash; Lin Yanyu, Chinese court official and eunuch
*1053 &ndash; Godwin, Earl of Wessex (b. 1001)
*1136 &ndash; Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare (b. 1094)
*1220 &ndash; Adolf of Altena, German archbishop (b. 1157)
*1237 &ndash; Richard Poore, English ecclesiastic
*1415 &ndash; Manuel Chrysoloras, Greek philosopher and translator (b. 1355)
*1446 &ndash; Filippo Brunelleschi, Italian sculptor and architect (b. 1377)
*1502 &ndash; John IV of Chalon-Arlay, Prince of Orange (b. 1443)
*1558 &ndash; Roxelana, wife of Suleiman the Magnificent (b. c. 1500)
*1578 &ndash; Wolrad II, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, German nobleman (b. 1509)<ref>{{cite book |lastHaarmann |firstTorsten |titleDas Haus Waldeck und Pyrmont. Mehr als 900&nbsp;Jahre Gesamtgeschichte mit Stammfolge |languagede |locationWerl |publisherBörde-Verlag |date2014 |seriesDeutsche Fürstenhäuser |volumeHeft&nbsp;35 |pages48 |isbn978-3-981-4458-2-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastHoffmeister |firstJacob Christoph Carl |titleHistorisch-genealogisches Handbuch über alle Grafen und Fürsten von Waldeck und Pyrmont seit 1228 |languagede |locationCassel |publisherVerlag Gustav Klaunig |date1883 |pages46 |urlhttps://digital.ub.uni-duesseldorf.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:1-474762 }}</ref>
1601–1900
*1610 &ndash; Robert Persons, English Jesuit priest, insurrectionist, and author (b. 1546)
*1632 &ndash; George Calvert, 1st Baron Baltimore, English politician, English Secretary of State (b. 1580)
*1652 &ndash; Patriarch Joseph of Moscow, Russian patriarch
*1659 &ndash; Simon Dach, German poet and hymnwriter (b. 1605)
*1719 &ndash; Françoise d'Aubigné, Marquise de Maintenon, French wife of Louis XIV of France (b. 1635)
*1754 &ndash; Jacopo Riccati, Italian mathematician and academic (b. 1676)
*1757 &ndash; Rosalba Carriera, Italian painter (b. 1673)<ref>{{cite book|firstUrsula|lastMehler|titleRosalba Carriera, 1673–1757: die Bildnismalerin des 18. Jahrhunderts|trans-titleRosalba Carriera, 1673–1757: Portrait Painter of the 18th Century|locationKönigstein im Taunus|publisherOrtensia Koenigstein|year2006|page31|languagede|isbn978-3-00016-194-0}}</ref>
*1761 &ndash; Archibald Campbell, 3rd Duke of Argyll, Scottish lawyer and politician, Lord President of the Court of Session (b. 1682)
* 1761 &ndash; William Oldys, English historian and author (b. 1696)
*1764 &ndash; Peder Horrebow, Danish astronomer and mathematician (b. 1679)
* 1764 &ndash; Madame de Pompadour, mistress of King Louis XV (b. 1721)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Gordon |first1Alden R. |titleSearching for the Elusive Madame de Pompadour |journalEighteenth-Century Studies |date2003 |volume37 |issue1 |pages95 |doi10.1353/ecs.2003.0062 |jstor25098031 |s2cid144477737 |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/25098031 |issn=0013-2586}}</ref>
*1765 &ndash; Mikhail Lomonosov, Russian chemist and physicist (b. 1711)
*1788 &ndash; Giuseppe Bonno, Austrian composer (b. 1711)
*1793 &ndash; Ignacije Szentmartony, Croatian priest, mathematician, and astronomer (b. 1718)
*1854 &ndash; Arthur Aikin, English chemist and mineralogist (b. 1773)
*1861 &ndash; Sylvester Jordan, Austrian-German lawyer and politician (b. 1792)
*1865 &ndash; Abraham Lincoln, 16th President of the United States (b. 1809)
*1888 &ndash; Matthew Arnold, English poet and critic (b. 1822)
*1889 &ndash; Father Damien, Belgian priest and saint (b. 1840)
*1898 &ndash; Te Keepa Te Rangihiwinui, New Zealand commander and politician
1901–present
*1912 &ndash; Victims of the Titanic disaster:
** Thomas Andrews, Irish shipbuilder (b. 1873)<ref>{{cite web |titleThomas Andrews {{!}} Irish ship designer {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Thomas-Andrews-Irish-ship-designer |websitebritannica.com |access-date15 April 2022}}</ref>
** John Jacob Astor IV, American colonel, businessman, and author (b. 1864)
** Archibald Butt, American general and journalist (b. 1865)
** Jacques Futrelle, American journalist and author (b. 1875)
** Benjamin Guggenheim, American businessman (b. 1865)
** Henry B. Harris, American producer and manager (b. 1866)
** Wallace Hartley, English violinist and bandleader (b. 1878)
** Charles Melville Hays, American businessman (b. 1856)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleWidow and Daughters of Hays Speed Home|urlhttp://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/widow-and-daughters-of-hays-speed-home.html|encyclopediaencyclopedia-titanica.org|dateAugust 9, 2011 |publisherChicago Examiner (as re-printed on Encyclopedia Titanica)|access-dateMarch 20, 2012}}</ref>
** James Paul Moody, English Sixth Officer (b. 1887)
** William McMaster Murdoch, Scottish First Officer (b. 1873)
** Jack Phillips, English telegraphist (b. 1887)
** Edward Smith, English Captain (b. 1850)
** William Thomas Stead, English journalist (b. 1849)
** Ida Straus, German-American businesswoman (b. 1849)
** Isidor Straus, German-American businessman and politician (b. 1845)
** John B. Thayer, American business and sportsman (b. 1862)
** Henry Tingle Wilde, English chief officer (b. 1872)
*1917 &ndash; János Murkovics, Slovene author, poet, and educator (b. 1839)
*1927 &ndash; Gaston Leroux, French journalist and author (b. 1868)
*1938 &ndash; César Vallejo, Peruvian journalist, poet, and playwright (b. 1892)
*1942 &ndash; Robert Musil, Austrian-Swiss author and playwright (b. 1880)
*1943 &ndash; Aristarkh Lentulov, Russian painter and set designer (b. 1882)
*1944 &ndash; Nikolai Fyodorovich Vatutin, Russian general (b. 1901)
*1945 &ndash; Hermann Florstedt, German SS officer (b. 1895)
*1948 &ndash; Radola Gajda, Montenegrin-Czech general and politician (b. 1892)
*1949 &ndash; Wallace Beery, American actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1885)
*1962 &ndash; Clara Blandick, American actress (b. 1880)
* 1962 &ndash; Arsenio Lacson, Filipino journalist and politician, Mayor of Manila (b. 1912)
*1963 &ndash; Edward Greeves, Jr., Australian footballer (b. 1903)
*1966 &ndash; Habibullah Bahar Chowdhury, Bengali politician, writer, journalist, first health minister of East Pakistan (b. 1906)
*1967 &ndash; Totò, Italian comedian (b. 1898)
*1971 &ndash; Gurgen Boryan, Armenian poet and playwright (b. 1915)
* 1971 &ndash; Friedebert Tuglas, Estonian author and critic (b. 1886)
*1979 &ndash; David Brand, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Western Australia (b. 1912)
*1980 &ndash; Raymond Bailey, American actor and soldier (b. 1904)
* 1980 &ndash; Jean-Paul Sartre, French philosopher and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905)
*1982 &ndash; Arthur Lowe, English actor (b. 1915)
*1984 &ndash; Tommy Cooper, Welsh comedian and magician (b. 1921)
*1986 &ndash; Jean Genet, French novelist, poet, and playwright (b. 1910)
*1988 &ndash; Kenneth Williams, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)
*1989 &ndash; Hu Yaobang, Chinese soldier and politician, former General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (b. 1915)
*1990 &ndash; Greta Garbo, Swedish-American actress (b. 1905)
*1993 &ndash; Leslie Charteris, English author and screenwriter (b. 1907)
* 1993 &ndash; John Tuzo Wilson, Canadian geophysicist and geologist (b. 1908)
*1998 &ndash; William Congdon, American-Italian painter and sculptor (b. 1912)
* 1998 &ndash; Pol Pot, Cambodian general and politician, 29th Prime Minister of Cambodia (b. 1925)
*1999 &ndash; Harvey Postlethwaite, English engineer (b. 1944)
*2000 &ndash; Edward Gorey, American poet and illustrator (b. 1925)
*2001 &ndash; Joey Ramone, American singer-songwriter (b. 1951)
*2002 &ndash; Damon Knight, American author and critic (b. 1922)
* 2002 &ndash; Byron White, American football player, lawyer, and jurist, 4th United States Deputy Attorney General (b. 1917)
*2004 &ndash; Mitsuteru Yokoyama, Japanese illustrator (b. 1934)
*2007 &ndash; Brant Parker, American illustrator (b. 1920)
*2008 &ndash; Krister Stendahl, Swedish bishop, theologian, and scholar (b. 1921)
*2009 &ndash; Clement Freud, German-English journalist, academic, and politician (b. 1924)
* 2009 &ndash; László Tisza, Hungarian-American physicist and academic (b. 1907)
* 2009 &ndash; Salih Neftçi, Turkish economist and author (b. 1947)
*2010 &ndash; Jack Herer, American author and activist (b. 1939)
* 2010 &ndash; Michael Pataki, American actor and director (b. 1938)
*2011 &ndash; Vittorio Arrigoni, Italian journalist, author, and activist (b. 1975)
*2012 &ndash; Paul Bogart, American director and producer (b. 1919)
* 2012 &ndash; Dwayne Schintzius, American basketball player (b. 1968)
*2013 &ndash; Benjamin Fain, Ukrainian-Israeli physicist and academic (b. 1930)
* 2013 &ndash; Richard LeParmentier, American-English actor and screenwriter (b. 1946)
* 2013 &ndash; Jean-François Paillard, French conductor (b. 1928)
*2014 &ndash; John Houbolt, American engineer and academic (b. 1919)
* 2014 &ndash; Eliseo Verón, Argentinian sociologist and academic (b. 1935)
*2015 &ndash; Jonathan Crombie, Canadian-American actor and screenwriter (b. 1966)
* 2015 &ndash; Surya Bahadur Thapa, Nepalese politician, 24th Prime Minister of Nepal (b. 1928)
*2017 &ndash; Clifton James, American actor (b. 1920)
* 2017 &ndash; Emma Morano, Italian supercentenarian, last person verified born in the 1800s (b. 1899)
*2018 &ndash; R. Lee Ermey, American actor (b. 1944)
* 2018 &ndash; Vittorio Taviani, Italian film director and screenwriter (b. 1929)
*2022 &ndash; Bilquis Edhi, Pakistani philanthropist and wife of Abdul Sattar Edhi (b. 1947)<ref>{{cite news |titleBilquis Edhi passes away at 74 in Karachi |urlhttps://tribune.com.pk/story/2352734/bilquis-edhi-passes-away-at-74-in-karachi |access-date17 April 2022 |workThe Express Tribune |date=15 April 2022}}</ref>
* 2022 &ndash; Henry Plumb, British politician and farmer (b. 1925)<ref>{{Cite web |lastHarley |firstDavid |date2022-04-26 |titleLord Plumb obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/26/lord-plumb-obituary |access-date2022-05-01 |website=The Guardian}}</ref>
* 2022 &ndash; Liz Sheridan, American actress (b. 1929)<ref>{{cite web |titleJerry Seinfeld pays tribute to 'TV mom' Liz Sheridan following her death aged 93 |urlhttps://www.itv.com/news/2022-04-15/jerry-seinfeld-pays-tribute-to-tv-mom-liz-sheridan-following-her-death-aged-93 |websiteITV News |access-date15 April 2022|date=15 April 2022}}</ref>
* 2024 &ndash; Whitey Herzog, American professional baseball outfielder and manager (b. 1931)<ref>{{Cite web |lastreport |firstPost-Dispatch staff |date2024-04-16 |titleWhitey Herzog, Cardinals champion manager and creator of 'Whiteyball,' dies at 92 |urlhttps://www.stltoday.com/sports/professional/mlb/cardinals/whitey-herzog-cardinals-champion-manager-and-creator-of-whiteyball-dies-at-92/article_d58ec338-e9f8-11ed-bc34-67a54ce626f6.html |access-date2024-04-17 |website=STLtoday.com}}</ref>
* 2024 &ndash; Josip Manolić, Croatian politician, prime minister, and speaker of the Chamber of Counties (b. 1920)<ref>{{Cite web |titlePotvrdila njegova kći: Preminuo Josip Manolić |urlhttps://www.vecernji.hr/vijesti/preminuo-josip-manolic-1534499 |access-date2024-04-15 |websitevecernji.hr |language=hr}}</ref>
<!--Please do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Abbo II of Metz
**Father Damien (The Episcopal Church)
**Hunna
**Paternus of Avranches
**April 15 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Day of the Sun (North Korea)
*Father Damien Day (Hawaii)
*Hillsborough Disaster Memorial (Liverpool, England)
*Jackie Robinson Day (United States)
*National American Sign Language Day (United States)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.newsweek.com/asl-day-2019-american-sign-language-1394695|titleToday is #ASLDay, but how is it used In today's society?|authorSophia Waterfield|dateApril 15, 2019|website=Newsweek}}</ref>
*Pohela Boishakh (Bengali New Year; India)<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-04-14 |titlePoila Boishakh 1429: Why Bangladesh & West Bengal Celebrate Bengali New Year On Different Days |urlhttps://news.abplive.com/lifestyle/poila-boishakh-1429-history-of-bengali-calendar-and-why-bangladesh-and-bengal-celebrate-bengali-new-year-on-different-days-1525756 |access-date19 September 2022 |website=news.abplive.com}}</ref>
*Tax Day, the official deadline for filing an individual tax return (or requesting an extension). (United States,<ref>{{cite magazine |first1Jonathan |last1Blitzer |magazineThe New Yorker|titleWhat Kevin McCarthy Will Do to Gain Power |urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/12/26/what-kevin-mccarthy-will-do-to-gain-power |date19 December 2022|access-date19 December 2022 |page37 |issn0028-792X |volume98 |issue=43}}</ref> Philippines)
*Universal Day of Culture
*World Art Day
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/15 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day15}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/15 Historical Events on April 15]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_15 | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.033897 |
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*311 &ndash; The Diocletianic Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire ends.<ref>Stevenson, J. A New Eusebius SPCK 1965, p. 296</ref>
*1315 &ndash; Enguerrand de Marigny is hanged at the instigation of Charles, Count of Valois.
*1492 &ndash; Spain gives Christopher Columbus his commission of exploration. He is named admiral of the ocean sea, viceroy and governor of any territory he discovers.<ref>{{cite book|firstClifton|lastDaniel|titleChronicle of America|publisherChronicle publication|year1989|page16|isbn=0-13-133745-9}}</ref>
*1513 &ndash; Edmund de la Pole, Yorkist pretender to the English throne, is executed on the orders of Henry VIII.
*1598 &ndash; Juan de Oñate begins the conquest of Santa Fe de Nuevo México.
* 1598 &ndash; Henry IV of France issues the Edict of Nantes, allowing freedom of religion to the Huguenots.
1601–1900
*1636 &ndash; Eighty Years' War: Dutch Republic forces recapture a strategically important fort from Spain after a nine-month siege.
*1789 &ndash; On the balcony of Federal Hall on Wall Street in New York City, George Washington takes the oath of office to become the first President of the United States.
*1803 &ndash; Louisiana Purchase: The United States purchases the Louisiana Territory from France for $15&nbsp;million, more than doubling the size of the young nation.
*1812 &ndash; The Territory of Orleans becomes the 18th U.S. state under the name Louisiana.
*1838 &ndash; Nicaragua declares independence from the Central American Federation.
*1863 &ndash; A 65-man French Foreign Legion infantry patrol fights a force of nearly 2,000 Mexican soldiers to nearly the last man in Hacienda Camarón, Mexico.
*1871 &ndash; The Camp Grant massacre takes place in Arizona Territory.
*1885 &ndash; Governor of New York David B. Hill signs legislation creating the Niagara Reservation, New York's first state park, ensuring that Niagara Falls will not be devoted solely to industrial and commercial use.
*1897 &ndash; J. J. Thomson of the Cavendish Laboratory announces his discovery of the electron as a subatomic particle, over 1,800 times smaller than a proton (in the atomic nucleus), at a lecture at the Royal Institution in London.<ref>{{Cite journal|titleNinety years around the atom|firstChristine|lastSutton|journalNew Scientist|date8 January 1997|page49}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Hawaii becomes a territory of the United States, with Sanford B. Dole as governor.
1901–present
*1905 &ndash; Albert Einstein completes his doctoral thesis at the University of Zurich.
*1925 &ndash; Automaker Dodge Brothers, Inc is sold to Dillon, Read & Co. for US$146&nbsp;million plus $50&nbsp;million for charity.
*1927 &ndash; The Federal Industrial Institute for Women opens in Alderson, West Virginia, as the first women's federal prison in the United States.
*1937 &ndash; The Commonwealth of the Philippines holds a plebiscite for Filipino women on whether they should be extended the right to suffrage; over 90% would vote in the affirmative.
*1939 &ndash; The 1939–40 New York World's Fair opens.
* 1939 &ndash; NBC inaugurates its regularly scheduled television service in New York City, broadcasting President Franklin D. Roosevelt's N.Y. World's Fair opening day ceremonial address.
*1943 &ndash; World War II: The British submarine {{HMS|Seraph|P219|6}} surfaces near Huelva to cast adrift a dead man dressed as a courier and carrying false invasion plans.
*1945 &ndash; World War II: Führerbunker: Adolf Hitler and Eva Braun commit suicide after being married for less than 40 hours. Soviet soldiers raise the Victory Banner over the Reichstag building.
* 1945 &ndash; World War II: Stalag Luft I prisoner-of-war camp near Barth, Germany is liberated by Soviet soldiers, freeing nearly 9,000 American and British airmen.
*1947 &ndash; In Nevada, Boulder Dam is renamed Hoover Dam.
*1948 &ndash; In Bogotá, Colombia, the Organization of American States is established.
*1956 &ndash; Former Vice President and Democratic Senator Alben Barkley dies during a speech in Virginia.
*1957 &ndash; Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery entered into force.
*1961 &ndash; K-19, the first Soviet nuclear submarine equipped with nuclear missiles, is commissioned.
*1963 &ndash; The Bristol Bus Boycott is held in Bristol to protest the Bristol Omnibus Company's refusal to employ Black or Asian bus crews, drawing national attention to racial discrimination in the United Kingdom.
*1973 &ndash; Watergate scandal: U.S. President Richard Nixon fires White House Counsel John Dean; other top aides, most notably H. R. Haldeman and John Ehrlichman, resign.
*1975 &ndash; Fall of Saigon: Communist forces gain control of Saigon. The Vietnam War formally ends with the unconditional surrender of South Vietnamese president Dương Văn Minh.
*1979 &ndash; Eruption of Mount Marapi: Mount Marapi, a complex volcano on the Indonesian island of Sumatra, erupted.<ref>{{Citation | author1Pusat Meteorologi dan Geofisika | titleLaporan bencana alam Gunung Marapi, Sumatera Barat, tanggal 30 April 1979 | publication-date1979 | publisher[s.n.] | urlhttps://trove.nla.gov.au/work/10060521 | access-date4 December 2023 | languageid |locationJakarta}}</ref> 80<ref namehvv>{{Cite news |url https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urnddd:010960140:mpeg21:a0163 |title Vulkaan barst uit: tientallen doden op Sumatra |workHet Vrije Volk|date1 May 1979 |viaDelpher|languagenl}}</ref><ref nameAD>{{Cite news |url https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urnKBPERS01:002957002:mpeg21:a00141 |title Merapi eist 80 levens bij uitbarsting |workAlgemeen Dagblad|date2 May 1979 |viaDelpher|languagenl}}</ref> up to 100<ref nameDT>{{Cite news |url https://resolver.kb.nl/resolve?urnddd:011200408:mpeg21:a0858 |titlePre-historische Toba-ramp maakte verrukkelijk meer |workDe Telegraaf|date5 May 1979 |viaDelpher|languagenl}}</ref> people were killed.
*1980 &ndash; Beatrix is inaugurated as Queen of the Netherlands following the abdication of Juliana.
* 1980 &ndash; The Iranian Embassy siege begins in London.
*1982 &ndash; The Bijon Setu massacre occurs in Calcutta, India.
*1989 &ndash; The Monkseaton shootings occur in Tyne and Wear, England. One killed, 16 injured.<ref>{{Cite web |lastDoughty |firstSophie |date2019-04-30 |title'It still doesn't seem real' - 30 years on from Robert Sartin's shooting spree |urlhttps://www.chroniclelive.co.uk/news/north-east-news/it-still-doesnt-seem-real-16193099 |access-date2024-12-02 |websiteChronicle Live |languageen}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; CERN announces World Wide Web protocols will be free.
*1994 &ndash; Formula One racing driver Roland Ratzenberger is killed in a crash during the qualifying session of the San Marino Grand Prix run at Autodromo Enzo e Dino Ferrari outside Imola, Italy.
*1999 &ndash; Neo-Nazi David Copeland carries out the last of his three nail bombings in London at the Admiral Duncan gay pub, killing three people and injuring 79 others.<ref>{{cite news|titleNail bomb explosion at London pub kills two|workThe Guardian|date30 April 1999|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/apr/30/2?INTCMPSRCH|accessdate30 April 2021|postscriptnone}}; {{cite news|last1Honigsbaum|first1Mark|last2Campbell|first2Denis|last3Thompson|first3Tony|last4Ryle|first4Sarah|last5Veash|first5Nicole|last6Wazir|first6Burhan|titleBomb factory man seized as death toll rises|workThe Guardian|date2 May 1999|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/may/02/race.world?INTCMPSRCH|accessdate30 April 2021|postscriptnone}}; {{cite news|titleGay community hit by nail bomb|workThe Guardian|date5 May 1999|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/theguardian/1999/may/05/guardianweekly.guardianweekly1?INTCMPSRCH|accessdate30 April 2021|postscriptnone}}; {{cite news|lastVasagar|firstJeevan|titleCelebration that ended in deaths of three friends|workThe Guardian|date1 July 2000|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/uk_news/story/0,,338527,00.html|accessdate30 April 2021}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Canonization of Faustina Kowalska in the presence of 200,000 people and the first Divine Mercy Sunday celebrated worldwide.
*2004 &ndash; U.S. media release graphic photos of American soldiers committing war crimes against Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison.
*2008 &ndash; Two skeletal remains found near Yekaterinburg are confirmed by Russian scientists to be the remains of Alexei and Anastasia, two of the children of the last Tsar of Russia, whose entire family was executed at Yekaterinburg by the Bolsheviks.
*2009 &ndash; Chrysler files for Chapter 11 bankruptcy.<ref>{{Cite news |lastClark |firstAndrew |date2009-04-30 |titleChrysler declares itself bankrupt |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/business/2009/apr/30/chrysler-verge-bankruptcy-talks-collapse |access-date2024-04-30 |workThe Guardian |languageen-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
* 2009 &ndash; Seven civilians and the perpetrator are killed and another ten injured at a Queen's Day parade in Apeldoorn, Netherlands in an attempted assassination on Queen Beatrix.<ref>{{Cite web |date2009-05-15 |titlenrc.nl - International - Queen's Day attack death toll rises to eight |urlhttp://www.nrc.nl/international/article2238048.ece/Queens_Day_attack_death_toll_rises_to_eight |access-date2024-04-30 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090515132704/http://www.nrc.nl/international/article2238048.ece/Queens_Day_attack_death_toll_rises_to_eight |archive-date2009-05-15 }}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; An overloaded ferry capsizes on the Brahmaputra River in India killing at least 108 people. At least 150 more are missing and presumed dead.<ref>{{Cite news |date2012-05-02 |titleRahul Gandhi visits survivors after India ferry sinking |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-17930963 |access-date2024-04-30 |workBBC News |languageen-GB}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Willem-Alexander is inaugurated as King of the Netherlands following the abdication of Beatrix.<ref>{{Cite news |date2013-01-28 |titleQueen Beatrix of the Netherlands to abdicate for son |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-21237254 |access-date2024-04-30 |workBBC News |languageen-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date2013-04-30 |titleDutch Queen Beatrix abdicates in favour of son |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-22348160 |access-date2024-04-30 |workBBC News |languageen-GB}}</ref>
*2014 &ndash; A bomb blast in Ürümqi, China kills three people and injures 79 others.<ref>{{Cite news |date2014-04-30 |titleDeadly China blast at Xinjiang railway station |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-27225308 |access-date2024-04-30 |workBBC News |languageen-GB}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Forty-five men and boys are killed in the Meron stampede in Israel.<ref>{{cite news |last|first |date30 April 2021 |title45 dead, 150 injured as disaster strikes Lag B'Omer festival at Mt. Meron |urlhttps://www.israelhayom.com/2021/04/30/at-least-44-dead-dozens-injured-as-tragedy-strikes-lag-bomer-event-at-mt-meron/ |workIsrael Hayom |access-date1 May 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date2021-05-03|titleIsrael crush: State watchdog to investigate disaster on Mount Meron|languageen-GB|workBBC News|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-56970209|access-date2021-05-16}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600
*1310 &ndash; King Casimir III of Poland (d. 1368)
*1331 &ndash; Gaston III, Count of Foix (d. 1391)
*1383 &ndash; Anne of Gloucester, English countess, granddaughter of King Edward III of England (d. 1438)<ref>The Complete Peerage, sourced from Camden, 3rd series, Vol.57, pp.&nbsp;258–260 (1937)</ref>
*1425 &ndash; William III, Landgrave of Thuringia (d. 1482)
*1504 &ndash; Francesco Primaticcio, Italian painter (d. 1570)
*1553 &ndash; Louise of Lorraine (d. 1601)
1601–1900
*1623 &ndash; François de Laval, French-Canadian bishop and saint (d. 1708)
*1651 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste de La Salle, French priest and saint (d. 1719)
*1662 &ndash; Mary II of England (d. 1694)<ref>{{cite web |titleMary II {{!}} Biography & Accomplishments |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Mary-II |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date13 January 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1664 &ndash; François Louis, Prince of Conti (d. 1709)
*1710 &ndash; Johann Kaspar Basselet von La Rosée, Bavarian general (d. 1795)
*1723 &ndash; Mathurin Jacques Brisson, French zoologist and philosopher (d. 1806)
*1758 &ndash; Emmanuel Vitale, Maltese commander and politician (d. 1802)
*1770 &ndash; David Thompson, English-Canadian cartographer and explorer (d. 1857)
*1777 &ndash; Carl Friedrich Gauss, German mathematician and physicist (d. 1855)
*1799 &ndash; Joseph Dart, American businessman and entrepreneur (d. 1879)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/82718698/|titleObituary - Joseph Dart |newspaperThe Buffalo Commercial|locationBuffalo, New York |page3 |dateSeptember 29, 1879 |viaNewspapers.com|access-date August 3, 2021}}</ref>
*1803 &ndash; Albrecht von Roon, Prussian soldier and politician, 10th Minister President of Prussia (d. 1879)
*1829 &ndash; Ferdinand von Hochstetter, Austrian geologist and academic (d. 1884)
*1848 &ndash; Eugène Simon, French naturalist (d. 1924)<ref>{{citation |languagefr |titleSimon, Eugène Louis (1848-1924)}} {{BNF|10513356d}}</ref>
*1857 &ndash; Eugen Bleuler, Swiss psychiatrist and eugenicist (d. 1940)
* 1857 &ndash; Walter Simon, German banker and philanthropist (d. 1920)
*1865 &ndash; Max Nettlau, German historian and academic (d. 1944)
*1866 &ndash; Mary Haviland Stilwell Kuesel, American pioneer dentist (d. 1936)
*1869 &ndash; Hans Poelzig, German architect, designed the IG Farben Building and Großes Schauspielhaus (d. 1936)
*1870 &ndash; Franz Lehár, Hungarian composer (d. 1948)
* 1870 &ndash; Dadasaheb Phalke, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1944)
*1874 &ndash; Cyriel Verschaeve, Flemish priest and author (d. 1949)
*1876 &ndash; Orso Mario Corbino, Italian physicist and politician (d. 1937)
*1877 &ndash; Léon Flameng, French cyclist (d. 1917)
* 1877 &ndash; Alice B. Toklas, American memoirist (d. 1967)
*1878 &ndash; Władysław Witwicki, Polish psychologist, philosopher, translator, historian (of philosophy and art) and artist (d. 1948)<ref>{{cite book |lastNowicki |firstAndrzej |author-linkAndrzej Nowicki (philosopher) |titleWitwicki | publisherWiedza Powszechna |locationWarszawa |year1982 |languagepl |page117 |isbn83-214-0301-8}}</ref>
*1879 &ndash; Richárd Weisz, Hungarian Olympic champion wrestler (d. 1945)<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ido_j1DwAAQBAJ&q%22Rich%C3%A1rd+Weisz%22+jewish&pgPA270|titleJewish Sports Legends: The International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame|firstJoseph|lastSiegman|date 2020|publisherU of Nebraska Press|isbn9781496222121}}</ref>
*1880 &ndash; Charles Exeter Devereux Crombie, Scottish cartoonist (d. 1967)
*1883 &ndash; Jaroslav Hašek, Czech soldier and author (d. 1923)
* 1883 &ndash; Luigi Russolo, Italian painter and composer (d. 1947)
*1884 &ndash; Olof Sandborg, Swedish actor (d. 1965)
*1888 &ndash; John Crowe Ransom, American poet, critic, and academic (d. 1974)
*1893 &ndash; Harold Breen, Australian public servant (d. 1966)
* 1893 &ndash; Joachim von Ribbentrop, German soldier and politician, 14th German Reich Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 1946)
*1895 &ndash; Philippe Panneton, Canadian physician, academic, and diplomat (d. 1960)
*1896 &ndash; Reverend Gary Davis, American singer and guitarist (d. 1972)
* 1896 &ndash; Hans List, Austrian scientist and businessman, founded the AVL Engineering Company (d. 1996)
*1897 &ndash; Humberto Mauro, Brazilian director and screenwriter (d. 1983)
*1900 &ndash; Erni Krusten, Estonian author and poet (d. 1984)
1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Simon Kuznets, Belarusian-American economist, statistician, and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1985)
*1902 &ndash; Theodore Schultz, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1998)
*1905 &ndash; Sergey Nikolsky, Russian mathematician and academic (d. 2012)
*1908 &ndash; Eve Arden, American actress (d. 1990)
* 1908 &ndash; Bjarni Benediktsson, Icelandic professor of law and politician, 13th Prime Minister of Iceland (d. 1970)
* 1908 &ndash; Frank Robert Miller, Canadian air marshal and politician (d. 1997)
*1909 &ndash; F. E. McWilliam, Irish sculptor and educator (d. 1992)
* 1909 &ndash; Juliana of the Netherlands (d. 2004)
*1910 &ndash; Levi Celerio, Filipino pianist, violinist, and composer (d. 2002)
*1914 &ndash; Charles Beetham, American middle-distance runner (d. 1997)
* 1914 &ndash; Dorival Caymmi, Brazilian singer-songwriter, actor, and painter (d. 2008)
*1916 &ndash; Paul Kuusberg, Estonian journalist and author (d. 2003)
* 1916 &ndash; Claude Shannon, American mathematician and engineer (d. 2001)
* 1916 &ndash; Robert Shaw, American conductor (d. 1999)
*1917 &ndash; Bea Wain, American singer (d. 2017)
*1920 &ndash; Duncan Hamilton, Irish-English race car driver and pilot (d. 1994)
* 1920 &ndash; Gerda Lerner, Austrian-American historian and woman's history author (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite web |titleGerda Lerner |urlhttps://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/lerner-gerda |websiteJewish Women's Archive |access-date31 March 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1920 &ndash; Tom Moore, British army officer and fundraiser (d. 2021)<ref>{{cite web |titleCaptain Sir Tom Moore obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/feb/02/capt-sir-tom-moore-obituary |websiteThe Guardian |access-date2 February 2021 |languageen |date2 February 2021}}</ref>
*1921 &ndash; Roger L. Easton, American scientist, co-invented the GPS (d. 2014)
*1922 &ndash; Anton Murray, South African cricketer (d. 1995)
*1923 &ndash; Percy Heath, American bassist (d. 2005)
* 1923 &ndash; Kagamisato Kiyoji, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 42nd Yokozuna (d. 2004)
*1924 &ndash; Sheldon Harnick, American lyricist (d. 2023)<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/23/theater/sheldon-harnick-dead.html|titleSheldon Harnick, 'Fiddler on the Roof' Lyricist, Dies at 99|lastBerkvist|firstRobert|newspaperThe New York Times|dateJune 23, 2023}}</ref>
* 1924 &ndash; Uno Laht, Estonian KGB officer and author (d. 2008)
*1925 &ndash; Corinne Calvet, French actress (d. 2001)
* 1925 &ndash; Johnny Horton, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1960)
*1926 &ndash; Shrinivas Khale, Indian composer (d. 2011)
* 1926 &ndash; Cloris Leachman, American actress and comedian (d. 2021)<ref>{{Cite web|titleCloris Leachman, Emmy and Oscar Winner, Dies at 94|urlhttps://variety.com/2021/tv/news/cloris-leachman-dead-1234893925/|access-date2021-01-27|websiteVariety|date=27 January 2021}}</ref>
*1928 &ndash; Hugh Hood, Canadian author and academic (d. 2000)
* 1928 &ndash; Orlando Sirola, Italian tennis player (d. 1995)
*1930 &ndash; Félix Guattari, French psychotherapist and philosopher (d. 1992)
*1933 &ndash; Charles Sanderson, Baron Sanderson of Bowden, English politician
*1934 &ndash; Jerry Lordan, English singer-songwriter (d. 1995)
* 1934 &ndash; Don McKenney, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2022)
*1937 &ndash; Tony Harrison, English poet and playwright
*1938 &ndash; Gary Collins, American actor and talk show host (d. 2012)
* 1938 &ndash; Juraj Jakubisko, Slovak director and screenwriter (d. 2023)
* 1938 &ndash; Larry Niven, American author and screenwriter
*1940 &ndash; Jeroen Brouwers, Dutch journalist and writer (d. 2022)
* 1940 &ndash; Michael Cleary, Australian rugby player and politician
* 1940 &ndash; Ülo Õun, Estonian sculptor (d. 1988)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://digikogu.ekm.ee/authors/author_id-480|titleÜlo Õun|date2020|publisherKumu kunstimuuseum digitaalkogu|access-date16 September 2020|languageet}}</ref>
* 1940 &ndash; Burt Young, American actor and painter (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/10/18/movies/burt-young-dead.html|titleBurt Young, 'Rocky' Actor Who Played Complex Tough Guys, Dies at 83|lastWilliams|firstAlex|newspaperThe New York Times|dateOctober 18, 2023|access-date=October 20, 2023}}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; Stavros Dimas, Greek lawyer and politician, Greek Minister of Foreign Affairs
* 1941 &ndash; Max Merritt, New Zealand-Australian singer-songwriter (d. 2020)
*1942 &ndash; Sallehuddin of Kedah, Sultan of Kedah
*1943 &ndash; Frederick Chiluba, Zambian politician, 2nd President of Zambia (d. 2011)
* 1943 &ndash; Bobby Vee, American pop singer-songwriter (d. 2016)
*1944 &ndash; Jon Bing, Norwegian author, scholar, and academic (d. 2014)
* 1944 &ndash; Jill Clayburgh, American actress (d. 2010)
*1945 &ndash; J. Michael Brady, British radiologist
* 1945 &ndash; Annie Dillard, American novelist, essayist, and poet
* 1945 &ndash; Mimi Fariña, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and activist (d. 2001)
* 1945 &ndash; Michael J. Smith, American pilot, and astronaut (d. 1986)<ref>{{cite web |titleSpace Shuttle Challenger Fast Facts |urlhttps://edition.cnn.com/2013/09/15/us/space-shuttle-challenger-fast-facts/index.html |websiteCNN |date16 September 2013 |access-date=4 December 2021}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; King Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden<ref>{{cite book |last1Paxton |first1J. |titleThe Statesman's Year-Book 1987-88 |date16 December 2016 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-0-230-27116-6 |page1138 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-Li8DQAAQBAJ&pgPA1138 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; Bill Plympton, American animator, producer, and screenwriter
* 1946 &ndash; Don Schollander, American swimmer
*1947 &ndash; Paul Fiddes, English theologian and academic
* 1947 &ndash; Finn Kalvik, Norwegian singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1947 &ndash; Tom Køhlert, Danish footballer and manager
* 1947 &ndash; Mats Odell, Swedish economist and politician, Swedish Minister for Financial Markets
*1948 &ndash; Wayne Kramer, American guitarist and singer-songwriter (d. 2024)
* 1948 &ndash; Pierre Pagé, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1948 &ndash; Margit Papp, Hungarian athlete
*1949 &ndash; Phil Garner, American baseball player and manager
* 1949 &ndash; António Guterres, Portuguese academic and politician, 114th Prime Minister of Portugal and 9th Secretary-General of the United Nations
* 1949 &ndash; Karl Meiler, German tennis player (d. 2014)
*1952 &ndash; Jacques Audiard, French director and screenwriter
* 1952 &ndash; Jack Middelburg, Dutch motorcycle racer (d. 1984)
*1953 &ndash; Merrill Osmond, American singer and bass player
*1954 &ndash; Jane Campion, New Zealand director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1954 &ndash; Kim Darroch, English diplomat, UK Permanent Representative to the European Union
* 1954 &ndash; Frank-Michael Marczewski, German footballer
*1955 &ndash; Nicolas Hulot, French journalist and environmentalist
* 1955 &ndash; David Kitchin, English lawyer and judge
* 1955 &ndash; Pradeep Sarkar, Indian director and screenwriter (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Sharma |first1Devesh |titleFarewell, Pradeep Sarkar |magazineFilmfare |dateApril 2023 |page112 |volume72 |issn0971-7277}}</ref>
* 1955 &ndash; Zlatko Topčić, Bosnian writer and screenwriter
*1956 &ndash; Lars von Trier, Danish director and screenwriter
*1957 &ndash; Wonder Mike, American rapper and songwriter
*1958 &ndash; Charles Berling, French actor, director, and screenwriter
*1959 &ndash; Stephen Harper, Canadian economist and politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Canada
*1960 &ndash; Geoffrey Cox, English lawyer and politician
* 1960 &ndash; Kerry Healey, American academic and politician, 70th Lieutenant Governor of Massachusetts
*1961 &ndash; Arnór Guðjohnsen, Icelandic footballer
* 1961 &ndash; Isiah Thomas, American basketball player, coach, and sportscaster
*1963 &ndash; Andrew Carwood, English tenor and conductor
* 1963 &ndash; Michael Waltrip, American race car driver and sportscaster
*1964 &ndash; Tony Fernandes, Malaysian-Indian businessman, co-founded Tune Group
* 1964 &ndash; Ian Healy, Australian cricketer, coach, and sportscaster
* 1964 &ndash; Lorenzo Staelens, Belgian footballer and manager
* 1964 &ndash; Abhishek Chatterjee, Indian actor (d. 2022)
*1965 &ndash; Daniela Costian, Romanian-Australian discus thrower
* 1965 &ndash; Adrian Pasdar, American actor
*1966 &ndash; Jeff Brown, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1966 &ndash; Dave Meggett, American football player and coach
*1967 &ndash; Phil Chang, Taiwanese singer-songwriter and actor<ref>{{cite web |title张宇宣布无限期停工 |urlhttps://www.zaobao.com.sg/zentertainment/celebs/story20180630-871439 |website早报 |access-date29 April 2019 |date=30 June 2018}}</ref>
* 1967 &ndash; Philipp Kirkorov, Bulgarian-born Russian singer, composer and actor<ref name=Vanguardia2/>
* 1967 &ndash; Turbo B, American rapper<ref>{{cite web |url{{AllMusic|classartist|idp193522|pure_urlyes}} |titleTurbo B |publisher AllMusic |accessdate=June 30, 2010}}</ref>
*1969 &ndash; Warren Defever, American bass player and producer
* 1969 &ndash; Justine Greening, English accountant and politician, Secretary of State for International Development
* 1969 &ndash; Paulo Jr., Brazilian bass player
*1972 &ndash; Takako Tokiwa, Japanese actress<ref>{{cite web |titletakako tokiwa official web site |urlhttp://official.stardust.co.jp/tokiwa/profile/profile_en.html |websiteofficial.stardust.co.jp |access-date29 April 2019 |language=ja}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Leigh Francis, English comedian and actor
*1974 &ndash; Christian Tamminga, Dutch athlete
*1975 &ndash; Johnny Galecki, American actor
*1976 &ndash; Davian Clarke, Jamaican sprinter
* 1976 &ndash; Amanda Palmer, American singer-songwriter and pianist
* 1976 &ndash; Daniel Wagon, Australian rugby league player
* 1976 &ndash; Victor J. Glover, American astronaut
*1977 &ndash; Jeannie Haddaway-Riccio, American politician
* 1977 &ndash; Meredith L. Patterson, American technologist, journalist, and author
*1978 &ndash; Liljay, Taiwanese singer<ref>{{cite web|websiteNOWnews|urlhttp://www.nownews.com/2009/07/14/340-2478071.htm|title范瑋琪不捨揮別棒棒堂 二度潰堤攝影棚|access-date29 April 2019|archive-date25 February 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120225164044/http://www.nownews.com/2009/07/14/340-2478071.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Gerardo Torrado, Mexican footballer
*1980 &ndash; Luis Scola, Argentinian basketball player
* 1980 &ndash; Jeroen Verhoeven, Dutch footballer
*1981 &ndash; Nicole Kaczmarski, American basketball player
* 1981 &ndash; John O'Shea, Irish footballer
* 1981 &ndash; Kunal Nayyar, British-Indian actor
* 1981 &ndash; Justin Vernon, American singer-songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, and producer
*1982 &ndash; Kirsten Dunst, American actress
* 1982 &ndash; Drew Seeley, Canadian-American singer-songwriter, dancer, and actor
*1983 &ndash; Chris Carr, American football player
* 1983 &ndash; Tatjana Hüfner, German luger
* 1983 &ndash; Marina Tomić, Slovenian hurdler
* 1983 &ndash; Troy Williamson, American football player
*1984 &ndash; Seimone Augustus, American basketball player<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.basketball-reference.com/wnba/players/a/augusse01w.html|titleSeimone Augustus WNBA Stats |websiteBasketball-Reference.com|languageen|access-date=2018-06-06}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Shawn Daivari, American wrestler and manager
* 1984 &ndash; Risto Mätas, Estonian javelin thrower
* 1984 &ndash; Lee Roache, English footballer
*1985 &ndash; Brandon Bass, American basketball player
* 1985 &ndash; Gal Gadot, Israeli actress and model
* 1985 &ndash; Ashley Alexandra Dupré, American journalist, singer, and prostitute
*1986 &ndash; Dianna Agron, American actress and singer
* 1986 &ndash; Martten Kaldvee, Estonian biathlete
*1987 &ndash; Alipate Carlile, Australian footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Chris Morris, South African cricketer
* 1987 &ndash; Rohit Sharma, Indian cricketer
*1988 &ndash; Andy Allen, Australian chef
* 1988 &ndash; Sander Baart, Dutch field hockey player
* 1988 &ndash; Ana de Armas, Cuban actress<ref nameVanguardiaActorBirthdays>{{cite web|titleCumpleaños de Actores, Actrices y directores de películas y series|urlhttps://www.lavanguardia.com/peliculas-series/cumpleanos/4-30|access-date2022-06-07|websiteLa Vanguardia|languagees}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Liu Xijun, Chinese singer<ref>{{cite web |title专访丨刘惜君：人美歌甜？我不是，我没有，一般般啦_歌手 |urlhttp://www.sohu.com/a/257026939_597316 |websitewww.sohu.com |access-date29 April 2019}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Oh Hye-ri, South Korean taekwondo athlete
*1989 &ndash; Jang Wooyoung, South Korean singer and actor<ref>{{cite web|date9 April 2022|title2PM 준케이 우영 팬콘 포스터 추가 공개, 세련미에 시크함 더한 조합|urlhttps://m.newsen.com/news_view.php?uid202204091404466310|work뉴스엔|access-date23 February 2025|language=ko}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Jonny Brownlee, English triathlete
* 1990 &ndash; Mac DeMarco, Canadian singer-songwriter
* 1990 &ndash; Kaarel Kiidron, Estonian footballer
* 1990 &ndash; Paula Ribó, Spanish singer-songwriter and actress<ref>{{cite web|date2022-01-28|titleQuién es Rigoberta Bandini, el fenómeno musical de 2021 que ahora aspira a Eurovisión|urlhttps://www.cope.es/actualidad/television/eurovision/noticias/quien-rigoberta-bandini-fenomeno-musical-2021-que-ahora-aspira-eurovision-20220128_1755206|access-date2022-06-07|websiteCOPE|languagees}}</ref><ref nameVanguardia2>{{cite web|titleCumpleaños de Actores, Actrices y directores de películas y series|urlhttps://www.lavanguardia.com/peliculas-series/cumpleanos/4-30/page-3|access-date2022-06-07|websiteLa Vanguardia|languagees}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Chris Kreider, American ice hockey player
*1991 &ndash; Travis Scott, American rapper and producer
*1992 &ndash; Marcel Bauer, German politician<ref>{{cite web |titleAbgeordnete - Marcel Bauer |urlhttps://www.bundestag.de/abgeordnete/biografien/B/bauer_marcel-1043562 |publisherBundestag |access-date2 March 2025 |archive-url|archive-date |locationBerlin, Germany |languagede}}</ref>
* 1992 &ndash; Marc-André ter Stegen, German footballer
*1993 &ndash; Dion Dreesens, Dutch swimmer
* 1993 &ndash; Martin Fuksa, Czech canoeist<ref>{{cite web|titleMartin Fuksa|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/martin-fuksa|publisherInternational Olympic Committee|access-date22 April 2020}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Chae Seo-jin, South Korean actress<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://osen.mt.co.kr/article/G1110916245|title[공식입장] 용준형X김민영X채서진, '커피야 부탁해' 캐스팅..촬영시작|access-date29 April 2019|websiteOsen|dateJune 2018|languageko}}</ref>
* 1994 &ndash; Wang Yafan, Chinese tennis player
*1996 &ndash; Luke Friend, English singer
*1997 &ndash; Adam Ryczkowski, Polish footballer
*1998 &ndash; Georgina Amorós, Spanish actress<ref name=VanguardiaActorBirthdays/>
*1999 &ndash; Jorden van Foreest, Dutch chess grandmaster
* 1999 &ndash; Krit Amnuaydechkorn, Thai actor and singer<ref>{{cite web|title30 เมษายน 2542 – วันเกิด พีพี กฤษฏ์|urlhttps://thestandard.co/pop-onthisday30042542/|websiteThe Standard|date30 April 2021|languageth|access-date30 April 2021}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Yui Hiwatashi, Japanese singer
*2002 &ndash; Anna Cramling, Spanish-Swedish chess player<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.chess.com/players/anna-cramling-bellon|titleAnna Cramling|websiteChess.com|access-date9 January 2023}}</ref>
* 2002 &ndash; Teden Mengi, English footballer<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.manutd.com/en/players-and-staff/detail/teden-mengi|titleTeden Mengi|websiteManchester United|access-date10 December 2020}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Emily Carey, British actress<ref name=VanguardiaActorBirthdays/>
* 2003 &ndash; Jung Yun-seok, South Korean actor<ref>{{cite web|last1Wee|first1Geun-woo|title방준서, 정윤석|urlhttp://tenasia.hankyung.com/archives/1147|websiteTenAsia|date5 May 2009|languageko|access-date29 April 2019|archive-date6 June 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190606052759/http://tenasia.hankyung.com/archives/1147|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<!--Do not add non-notable people or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*AD 65 &ndash; Lucan, Roman poet (b. 39)
*125 &ndash; An, Chinese emperor (b. 94)
* 535 &ndash; Amalasuntha, Ostrogothic queen and regent
* 783 &ndash; Hildegard of the Vinzgau, Frankish queen
*1002 &ndash; Eckard I, German nobleman
*1030 &ndash; Mahmud of Ghazni, Ghaznavid emir (b. 971)
*1063 &ndash; Ren Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 1010)
*1131 &ndash; Adjutor, French knight and saint
*1305 &ndash; Roger de Flor, Italian military adventurer (b. 1267)
*1341 &ndash; John III, duke of Brittany (b. 1286)
*1439 &ndash; Richard de Beauchamp, 13th Earl of Warwick, English commander (b. 1382)
*1524 &ndash; Pierre Terrail, seigneur de Bayard, French soldier (b. 1473)
*1544 &ndash; Thomas Audley, 1st Baron Audley of Walden, English lawyer and judge, Lord Chancellor of England (b. 1488)
*1550 &ndash; Tabinshwehti, Burmese king (b. 1516)
1601–1900
*1632 &ndash; Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, Bavarian general (b. 1559)
* 1632 &ndash; Sigismund III Vasa, Swedish-Polish son of John III of Sweden (b. 1566)
*1637 &ndash; Niwa Nagashige, Japanese daimyō (b. 1571)
*1655 &ndash; Eustache Le Sueur, French painter (b. 1617)
*1660 &ndash; Petrus Scriverius, Dutch historian and scholar (b. 1576)
*1672 &ndash; Marie of the Incarnation, French-Canadian nun and saint, founded the Ursulines of Quebec (b. 1599)
*1696 &ndash; Robert Plot, English chemist and academic (b. 1640)
*1712 &ndash; Philipp van Limborch, Dutch theologian and author (b. 1633)
*1733 &ndash; Rodrigo Anes de Sá Almeida e Meneses, 1st Marquis of Abrantes, Portuguese diplomat (b. 1676)<ref name"Sousa1755">{{Cite book |titleMemórias Históricas e Genealógicas dos Grandes de Portugal |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idh2aHDJ7h-r4C |lastSousa |firstAntónio Caetano de |publisherRegia Officina Sylviana, e da Academia Real |year1755 |locationLisbon |pages47–58}}</ref>
*1736 &ndash; Johann Albert Fabricius, German scholar and author (b. 1668)
*1758 &ndash; François d'Agincourt, French organist and composer (b. 1684)
*1792 &ndash; John Montagu, 4th Earl of Sandwich, English politician, Secretary of State for the Northern Department (b. 1718)
*1795 &ndash; Jean-Jacques Barthélemy, French archaeologist and author (b. 1716)
*1806 &ndash; Onogawa Kisaburō, Japanese sumo wrestler, the 5th Yokozuna (b. 1758)
*1841 &ndash; Peter Andreas Heiberg, Danish philologist and author (b. 1758)
*1847 &ndash; Charles, Austrian commander and duke of Teschen (b. 1771)
*1863 &ndash; Jean Danjou, French captain (b. 1828)<ref>{{cite book |last1Lepage |first1Jean-Denis G. G. |titleThe French Foreign Legion: An Illustrated History |date18 April 2016 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-0-7864-6253-7 |pages47 and 49 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqqeOMjr9kqYC&pgPA47 |language=en}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; Robert FitzRoy, English admiral, meteorologist, and politician, 2nd Governor of New Zealand (b. 1805)
*1870 &ndash; Thomas Cooke, Canadian bishop and missionary (b. 1792)
*1875 &ndash; Jean-Frédéric Waldeck, French explorer, lithographer, and cartographer (b. 1766)
*1879 &ndash; Emma Smith, American religious leader (b. 1804)
*1883 &ndash; Édouard Manet, French painter (b. 1832)
*1891 &ndash; Joseph Leidy, American paleontologist and author (b. 1823)
*1900 &ndash; Casey Jones, American railroad engineer (b. 1864)
1901–present
*1903 &ndash; Emily Stowe, Canadian physician and activist (b. 1831)<ref>{{cite book|firstJuanne Nancarrow|lastClarke|titleHealth, Illness, and Medicine in Canada|locationToronto|publisherMcClelland & Stewart|year1992|page234|isbn978-0-77102-146-6}}</ref>
*1910 &ndash; Jean Moréas, Greek poet and critic (b. 1856)
*1926 &ndash; Bessie Coleman, American pilot (b. 1892)<ref>{{cite book|firstLinda|lastBarr|titleBessie Coleman: Pioneer Pilot|locationColumbus, Ohio|publisherZaner-Bloser|year2004|page21|isbn978-0-73672-039-7}}</ref>
*1936 &ndash; A. E. Housman, English poet and scholar (b. 1859)
*1939 &ndash; Frank Haller, American boxer (b. 1883)
*1943 &ndash; Eddy Hamel, American footballer (b. 1902)<ref>Simon Kuper (2012). [https://books.google.com/books?idVC1aclsVRDgC&pgPA54 ''Ajax, the Dutch, the War; The Strange Tale of Soccer During Europe's Darkest Hour'']</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Otto Jespersen, Danish linguist and academic (b. 1860)
* 1943 &ndash; Beatrice Webb, English sociologist and economist (b. 1858)<ref>{{cite book|firstRoland|lastTurner|titleThinkers of the Twentieth Century|locationLondon|publisherSt. James Press|year1987|page817|isbn978-0-33333-634-2}}</ref>
<!--1945 Not necessary to include Hitler/Braun deaths -- included above in notable events (1945) << Maybe not necessary, but quite HELPFUL, so that readers are not forced to hunt around on a page to find the info they are looking for.
And for anyone who feels insistent that this info appear only on one place on this page, a strong argument is to be made that the most logical place is here under 'Deaths', not among 'Events'. Info presented in that Event is their suicide, coming soon after their marriage, followed by the raising of a Soviet victory flag. And it is quite clear that among these three events, the most noteworthy by far is regarding the deaths. ~Tdadamemd -->
*1945 &ndash; Eva Braun, German photographer and office and lab assistant, wife of Adolf Hitler (b. 1912)<ref nameKershaw2001>{{cite book | last Kershaw | first Ian | author-link Ian Kershaw | year 2001 | orig-year 2000 | title Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis | publisher Penguin | location London | isbn 978-0-14-027239-0 | language en | pages199, 200}}</ref>
* 1945 &ndash; Adolf Hitler, Austrian-German politician and author, dictator of Nazi Germany (b. 1889)<ref name=Kershaw2001 />
*1953 &ndash; Jacob Linzbach, Estonian linguist and author (b. 1874)
*1956 &ndash; Alben W. Barkley, American lawyer and politician, 35th Vice President of the United States (b. 1877)
*1970 &ndash; Jacques Presser, Dutch historian, writer and poet (b. 1899)
* 1970 &ndash; Inger Stevens, Swedish-American actress (b. 1934)
*1972 &ndash; Gia Scala, English-American model and actress (b. 1934)
*1973 &ndash; Václav Renč, Czech poet and playwright (b. 1911)
*1974 &ndash; Agnes Moorehead, American actress (b. 1900)
*1980 &ndash; Luis Muñoz Marín, Puerto Rican journalist and politician, 1st Governor of Puerto Rico (b. 1898)
*1982 &ndash; Lester Bangs, American journalist and author (b. 1949)
*1983 &ndash; George Balanchine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1904)
* 1983 &ndash; Muddy Waters, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and bandleader (b. 1913)
* 1983 &ndash; Edouard Wyss-Dunant, Swiss physician and mountaineer (b. 1897)
*1986 &ndash; Robert Stevenson, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1905)
*1989 &ndash; Sergio Leone, Italian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1929)
*1993 &ndash; Tommy Caton, English footballer (b. 1962)
*1994 &ndash; Roland Ratzenberger, Austrian race car driver (b. 1960)
* 1994 &ndash; Richard Scarry, American author and illustrator (b. 1919)
*1995 &ndash; Maung Maung Kha, Burmese colonel and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Burma (b. 1920)
*1998 &ndash; Nizar Qabbani, Syrian-English poet, publisher, and diplomat (b. 1926)
*2000 &ndash; Poul Hartling, Danish politician, 36th Prime Minister of Denmark (b. 1914)
*2002 &ndash; Charlotte von Mahlsdorf, German philanthropist, founded the Gründerzeit Museum (b. 1928)
*2003 &ndash; Mark Berger, American economist and academic (b. 1955)
* 2003 &ndash; Possum Bourne, New Zealand race car driver (b. 1956)
*2005 &ndash; Phil Rasmussen, American lieutenant and pilot (b. 1918)
*2006 &ndash; Jean-François Revel, French philosopher (b. 1924)
* 2006 &ndash; Pramoedya Ananta Toer, Indonesian author and academic (b. 1925)
*2007 &ndash; Kevin Mitchell, American football player (b. 1971)
* 2007 &ndash; Tom Poston, American actor, comedian, and game show panelist (b. 1921)
* 2007 &ndash; Gordon Scott, American film and television actor (b. 1926)
*2008 &ndash; Juancho Evertsz, Dutch Antillean politician (b. 1923)
*2009 &ndash; Henk Nijdam, Dutch cyclist (b. 1935)
*2011 &ndash; Dorjee Khandu, Indian politician, 6th Chief Minister of Arunachal Pradesh (b. 1955)
* 2011 &ndash; Evald Okas, Estonian painter (b. 1915)
* 2011 &ndash; Ernesto Sabato, Argentinian physicist, author, and painter (b. 1911)
*2012 &ndash; Tomás Borge, Nicaraguan poet and politician, co-founded the Sandinista National Liberation Front (b. 1930)
* 2012 &ndash; Alexander Dale Oen, Norwegian swimmer (b. 1985)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://sport.aftenbladet.no/sport/svomming/article234619.ece|titleSvømmeren Alexander Dale Oen er død|workAftenbladet|date21 May 1985|access-date2 May 2012|archive-date6 September 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120906001643/http://sport.aftenbladet.no/sport/svomming/article234619.ece|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Giannis Gravanis, Greek footballer (b. 1958)
* 2012 &ndash; Benzion Netanyahu, Russian-Israeli historian and academic (b. 1910)
*2013 &ndash; Roberto Chabet, Filipino painter and sculptor (b. 1937)
* 2013 &ndash; Shirley Firth, Canadian skier (b. 1953)<ref>{{cite web |titleShirley and Sharon Firth {{!}} The Canadian Encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/shirley-and-sharon-firth |websitewww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca |access-date9 January 2023}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Viviane Forrester, French author and critic (b. 1925)
*2014 &ndash; Khaled Choudhury, Indian painter and set designer (b. 1919)
* 2014 &ndash; Julian Lewis, English biologist and academic (b. 1946)
* 2014 &ndash; Carl E. Moses, American businessman and politician (b. 1929)<ref>{{cite web|titleCarl Moses, Longtime State Representative, Dies in Sand Point |urlhttp://www.ktuu.com/news/news/carl-moses-longtime-state-representative-dies-in-sand-point/25743086 |publisherKTUU |access-dateMay 1, 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140502182411/http://www.ktuu.com/news/news/carl-moses-longtime-state-representative-dies-in-sand-point/25743086 |archive-date=May 2, 2014 }}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Ian Ross, Australian journalist (b. 1940)
*2015 &ndash; Ben E. King, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1938)<ref>{{cite web|titleR&B legend Ben E King dies at 76|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-32547474|publisherBBC|dateMay 1, 2015|access-date=May 1, 2015}}</ref>
*2016 &ndash; Daniel Berrigan, American priest and activist (b. 1921)<ref>{{cite web|last1Lewis|first1Daniel|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/01/nyregion/daniel-j-berrigan-defiant-priest-who-preached-pacifism-dies-at-94.html|titleDaniel J. Berrigan, Defiant Priest Who Preached Pacifism, Dies at 94|dateApril 30, 2016|workThe New York Times|access-date=April 30, 2016}}</ref>
* 2016 &ndash; Harry Kroto, English chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1939)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/05/science/harold-kroto-nobel-prize-winning-chemist-is-dead-at-76.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/05/science/harold-kroto-nobel-prize-winning-chemist-is-dead-at-76.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited|titleHarold Kroto, Nobel Prize Winning Chemist, Is Dead at 76|newspaperThe New York Times|access-date7 May 2016|date4 May 2016|author=Nicholas St. Fluer}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*2017 &ndash; Belchior, Brazilian singer and composer (b. 1946)<ref>{{Cite web |date2017-04-30 |titleCantor Belchior morre aos 70 anos no Rio Grande do Sul |urlhttps://g1.globo.com/ceara/noticia/cantor-cearense-belchior-morre-aos-70-anos-no-rio-grande-do-sul.ghtml |access-date2023-06-13 |websiteG1 |languagept-br}}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; Peter Mayhew, English-American actor (b. 1944)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Culture/star-wars-actor-peter-mayhew-passes-age-74/story?id62791980|title'Star Wars' actor Peter Mayhew dies at the age of 74, family says|last1Zarrell|first1Matt|last2 Rothman|first2 Michael|date2 May 2019|websiteABC News|languageen|access-date=2 May 2019}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; Tony Allen, Nigerian drummer and composer (b. 1940)<ref>{{cite magazine |author1Daniel Kreps |author2Elias Leight |titleTony Allen, Pioneering Afrobeat Drummer, Dead at 79 |urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/tony-allen-afrobeat-drummer-fela-kuti-dead-992588/ |magazineRolling Stone |access-date1 May 2020 |date=April 30, 2020}}</ref>
* 2020 &ndash; Rishi Kapoor, Indian actor, film director and producer (b. 1952)<ref>{{cite magazine |titleNewsmakers 2022 |volume72 |magazineFilmfare |dateJanuary 2023 |issn0971-7277 |page116 |first1Tanisha |last1Bhattacharya |via=Magzter}}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Anthony Payne, English composer (b. 1936)<ref>{{Cite web|date2021-05-04|titleAnthony Payne obituary|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/may/04/anthony-payne-obituary|access-date2021-05-08|websiteThe Guardian|languageen}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Naomi Judd, American singer-songwriter and actress (b. 1946)<ref>{{Cite web | urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/naomi-judd-dead | titleNaomi Judd, Grammy-winning artist, dead at 76 | websiteFox News | date30 April 2022 }}</ref>
* 2022 &ndash; Mino Raiola, Italian football agent (b. 1967)<ref>{{cite news |titleMino Raiola, one of football's most powerful agents, dies aged 54 |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/football/2022/apr/30/mino-raiola-one-of-footballs-most-powerful-agents-dies-aged-54 |access-date30 April 2022 |workThe Guardian |publisherThe Observer |date30 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Jock Zonfrillo, Scottish television presenter and chef (b. 1976)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2023-05-01/jock-zonfrillo-judge-on-masterchef-australia-dies-aged-46/102288032 |titleJock Zonfrillo, celebrated chef and judge on MasterChef Australia, dies aged 46 |lastThorpe |firstAndrew |websiteABC News |date2023-05-01 |access-date=2023-05-01}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Paul Auster, American writer and film director (b. 1947)<ref>{{cite news |last1Williams |first1Alex |titlePaul Auster, Prolific Author and Brooklyn Literary Star, Dies at 77 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/04/30/books/paul-auster-dead.html |access-date1 May 2024 |workThe New York Times |date=30 April 2024}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Armed Forces Day (Georgia)
*Camarón Day (French Foreign Legion)
*Children's Day (Mexico)
*Christian feast day:
**Adjutor
**Aimo
**Amator, Peter and Louis
**Donatus of Evorea
**Eutropius of Saintes
**Marie Guyart (Anglican Church of Canada)
**Marie of the Incarnation (Ursuline)
**Maximus of Rome
**Blessed Miles Gerard
**Pomponius of Naples
**Pope Pius V<ref>{{cite web |titleSaint Pius V {{!}} pope {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Pius-V |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date23 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
**Quirinus of Neuss
**Sarah Josepha Hale (Episcopal Church)
**Suitbert the Younger
**April 30 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Consumer Protection Day (Thailand)
*Honesty Day (United States)
*International Jazz Day (UNESCO)<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Days |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/ |websitewww.un.org |access-date2 January 2021 |languageen |date6 January 2015}}</ref>
*Martyrs' Day (Pakistan)
*May Eve, the eve of the first day of summer in the Northern hemisphere (see May 1):
**Beltane begins at sunset in the Northern hemisphere, Samhain begins at sunset in the Southern hemisphere. (Neo-Druidic Wheel of the Year)
**Walpurgis Night (Central and Northern Europe)
*National Persian Gulf Day (Iran)
*Reunification Day (Vietnam)
*Rincon Day (Bonaire)<ref>{{cite web|titleVakantierooster|urlhttp://www.bonairegov.nl/nl/onderwijs/primair/vakantierooster|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180126125813/http://www.bonairegov.nl/nl/onderwijs/primair/vakantierooster|archive-date26 January 2018|access-date13 January 2022|websiteOpenbaar Lichaam Bonaire|languagenl}}</ref>
*Russian State Fire Service Day (Russia)
*Teachers' Day (Paraguay)
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/30 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day30}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/30 Historical Events on April 30]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_30 | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.077826 |
1012 | August 22 | {{pp-pc1}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 392 &ndash; Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor.
* 851 &ndash; Battle of Jengland: Erispoe defeats Charles the Bald near the Breton town of Jengland.
* 1138 &ndash; Battle of the Standard between Scotland and England.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Battle of the Standard (The Battle of Northallerton) |urlhttps://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryMagazine/DestinationsUK/The-Battle-of-the-Standard/ |websiteHistoric UK |access-date22 August 2020}}</ref>
* 1153 &ndash; Crusader–Fatimid wars: The fortress of Ascalon was surrendered by Fatimid Egypt to an army of crusaders, Templars, and Hospitallers led by King Baldwin III of Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite book | lastLev | firstYaacov | titleState and Society in Fatimid Egypt | year1991 | locationLeiden | publisherBrill | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idI2LwgIL_bpEC | isbn978-9004093447 |page104 }}</ref>
*1485 &ndash; The Battle of Bosworth Field occurs; King Richard III of England's death in battle marks the end of the reigning Plantagenet dynasty and the beginning of the Tudors under Henry VII.<ref>{{Cite book |lastWeir |firstAlison |titleBritain's Royal Families |date2008 |publisherVintage |isbn978-0-09-953973-5 |author-linkAlison Weir|page145}}</ref>
*1559 &ndash; Spanish archbishop Bartolomé Carranza is arrested for heresy.
1601–1900
*1614 &ndash; Fettmilch Uprising: Jews are expelled from Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire, following the plundering of the Judengasse.
*1639 &ndash; Madras (now Chennai), India, is founded by the British East India Company on a sliver of land bought from local Nayak rulers.
*1642 &ndash; Charles I raises his standard in Nottingham, which marks the beginning of the English Civil War.
*1654 &ndash; Jacob Barsimson arrives in New Amsterdam. He is the first known Jewish immigrant to America.
*1711 &ndash; Britain's Quebec Expedition loses eight ships and almost nine hundred soldiers, sailors and women to rocks at Pointe-aux-Anglais.
*1717 &ndash; Spanish troops land on Sardinia.
*1770 &ndash; James Cook names and lands on Possession Island, and claims the east coast of Australia for Britain as New South Wales.
*1777 &ndash; British forces abandon the Siege of Fort Stanwix after hearing rumors of Continental Army reinforcements.
*1780 &ndash; James Cook's ship {{HMS|Resolution|1771|6}} returns to England (Cook having been killed on Hawaii during the voyage).
*1791 &ndash; The Haitian slave revolution begins in Saint-Domingue, Haiti.
*1798 &ndash; French troops land at Kilcummin, County Mayo, Ireland to aid the rebellion.
*1827 &ndash; José de La Mar becomes President of Peru.
*1846 &ndash; The Second Federal Republic of Mexico is established.
*1849 &ndash; Passaleão incident: João Maria Ferreira do Amaral, the governor of Portuguese Macau, is assassinated by a group of Chinese locals, triggering a military confrontation between China and Portugal at the Battle of Passaleão three days after.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Ride |first1Lindsay Tasman |titleThe Voices of Macao Stones |last2Ride |first2Violet May |publisherHong Kong University Press |year1999 |isbn9789622094871 |editionAbridged |locationHong Kong |page45 |languageen |author-link=Lindsay Tasman Ride}}</ref>
*1851 &ndash; The first America's Cup is won by the yacht America.
*1864 &ndash; Twelve nations sign the First Geneva Convention, establishing the rules of protection of the victims of armed conflicts.<ref>{{Citation | last Pictet | first Jean S. | title The New Geneva Conventions for the Protection of War Victims | journal The American Journal of International Law | year 1951 | volume 45 | issue 3 | pages 462–475 | doi10.2307/2194544| jstor 2194544 }}</ref>
*1875 &ndash; The Treaty of Saint Petersburg between Japan and Russia is ratified, providing for the exchange of Sakhalin for the Kuril Islands.
*1894 &ndash; Mahatma Gandhi forms the Natal Indian Congress (NIC) in order to fight discrimination against Indian traders in Natal.
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; The Cadillac Motor Company is founded.
* 1902 &ndash; Theodore Roosevelt becomes the first President of the United States to make a public appearance in an automobile.
* 1902 &ndash; At least 6,000 people are killed by the magnitude 7.7 Kashgar earthquake in the Tien Shan mountains.<ref name"Chen22">{{cite journal |last1Chen |first1Qingyu |last2Fu |first2Bihong |last3Shi |first3Pilong |last4Li |first4Zhao |editor1-lastLivio |editor1-firstFranz |editor2-lastFerrario |editor2-firstMaria Francesca |titleSurface Deformation Associated with the 22 August 1902 Mw 7.7 Atushi Earthquake in the Southwestern Tian Shan, Revealed from Multiple Remote Sensing Data |journalRemote Sensing |date2022 |volume14 |issue7 |page1663 |doi10.3390/rs14071663 |publisherMDPI|bibcode2022RemS...14.1663C |doi-access=free }}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; Michael Collins, Commander-in-chief of the Irish Free State Army, is shot dead in an ambush during the Irish Civil War.
*1934 &ndash; Bill Woodfull of Australia becomes the only test cricket captain to twice regain The Ashes.
*1941 &ndash; World War II: German troops begin the Siege of Leningrad.
*1942 &ndash; Brazil declares war on Germany, Japan and Italy.
*1944 &ndash; World War II: Holocaust of Kedros in Crete by German forces.
*1949 &ndash; The Queen Charlotte earthquake is Canada's strongest since the 1700 Cascadia earthquake.
*1953 &ndash; The penal colony on Devil's Island is permanently closed.
*1962 &ndash; The OAS attempts to assassinate French president Charles de Gaulle.
*1963 &ndash; X-15 Flight 91 reaches the highest altitude of the X-15 program ({{convert|107.96|km|mi|abbr=on}} (354,200 feet)).
*1965 &ndash; Juan Marichal, pitcher for the San Francisco Giants, strikes John Roseboro, catcher for the Los Angeles Dodgers, on the head with a bat, sparking a 14-minute brawl, one of the most violent on-field incidents in sports history.<ref>{{cite magazine |lastMann |firstJack |urlhttps://www.si.com/vault/1965/08/30/605969/the-battle-of-san-francisco |titleThe Battle Of San Francisco |magazineSports Illustrated |dateAugust 30, 1965}}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Labor movements NFWA and AWOC merge to become the United Farm Workers Organizing Committee (UFWOC), the predecessor of the United Farm Workers.
*1968 &ndash; Pope Paul VI arrives in Bogotá, Colombia. It is the first visit of a pope to Latin America.
*1971 &ndash; J. Edgar Hoover and John Mitchell announce the arrest of 20 of the Camden 28.
*1972 &ndash; Rhodesia is expelled by the IOC for its racist policies.
*1973 &ndash; The Congress of Chile votes in favour of a resolution condemning President Salvador Allende's government and demands that he resign or else be unseated through force and new elections.
*1978 &ndash; Nicaraguan Revolution: The FSLN seizes the National Congress of Nicaragua, along with over a thousand hostages.
* 1978 &ndash; The District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment is passed by the U.S. Congress, although it is never ratified by a sufficient number of states.
*1981 &ndash; Far Eastern Air Transport Flight 103 disintegrates in mid-air and crashes in Sanyi Township, Miaoli County, Taiwan. All 110 people on board are killed.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19810822-0|titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-222 B-2603 Miao-Li|lastRanter|firstHarro|websiteaviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-08-16}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; British Airtours Flight 28M suffers an engine fire during takeoff at Manchester Airport. The pilots abort but due to inefficient evacuation procedures 55 people are killed, mostly from smoke inhalation.
*1989 &ndash; Nolan Ryan strikes out Rickey Henderson to become the first Major League Baseball pitcher to record 5,000 strikeouts.
*1991 &ndash; Iceland is the first nation in the world to recognize the independence of the Baltic states.
*1992 &ndash; FBI sniper Lon Horiuchi shoots and kills Vicki Weaver during an 11-day siege at her home at Ruby Ridge, Idaho.
*1999 &ndash; China Airlines Flight 642 crashes at Hong Kong International Airport, killing three people and injuring 208 more.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident McDonnell Douglas MD-11 B-150 Hong Kong-Chek Lap Kok International Airport (HKG) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19990822-0 |access-date2022-07-20 |websiteaviation-safety.net |publisherAviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Alabama Chief Justice Roy Moore is suspended after refusing to comply with a federal court order to remove a rock inscribed with the Ten Commandments from the lobby of the Alabama Supreme Court building.
*2004 &ndash; Versions of The Scream and Madonna, two paintings by Edvard Munch, are stolen at gunpoint from a museum in Oslo, Norway.
*2006 &ndash; Pulkovo Aviation Enterprise Flight 612 crashes near the Russian border over eastern Ukraine, killing all 170 people on board.
* 2006 &ndash; Grigori Perelman is awarded the Fields Medal for his proof of the Poincaré conjecture in mathematics but refuses to accept the medal.
*2007 &ndash; The Texas Rangers defeat the Baltimore Orioles 30–3, the most runs scored by a team in modern Major League Baseball history.
*2012 &ndash; Ethnic clashes over grazing rights for cattle in Kenya's Tana River District result in more than 52 deaths.
Births
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list; do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information; do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Pre-1600
*1412 &ndash; Frederick II, Elector of Saxony (d. 1464)<ref>{{cite book|urlhttp://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/0001/bsb00016321/images/index.html?seite584|titleNeue Deutsche Biographie|authorGottfried Opitz|languagede|page568}}</ref>
*1570 &ndash; Franz von Dietrichstein, Roman Catholic archbishop and cardinal (d. 1636)<ref>{{cite book|authorJohn McClintock|titleCyclopedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idAUIBTARClpgC|year1981|publisherBaker Book House|isbn=978-0-8010-6123-3}}</ref>
*1599 &ndash; Agatha Marie of Hanau, German noblewoman (d. 1636)
1601–1900
*1601 &ndash; Georges de Scudéry, French author, poet, and playwright (d. 1667)
*1624 &ndash; Jean Regnault de Segrais, French author and poet (d. 1701)
*1647 &ndash; Denis Papin, French physicist and mathematician, developed pressure cooking (d. 1712)
*1679 &ndash; Pierre Guérin de Tencin, French cardinal (d. 1758)
*1760 &ndash; Pope Leo XII (d. 1829)
*1764 &ndash; Charles Percier, French architect and interior designer (d. 1838)
*1771 &ndash; Henry Maudslay, English engineer (d. 1831)
*1773 &ndash; Aimé Bonpland, French botanist and explorer (d. 1858)
*1778 &ndash; James Kirke Paulding, American poet, playwright, and politician, 11th United States Secretary of the Navy (d. 1860)
*1800 &ndash; Samuel David Luzzatto, Italian poet and scholar (d. 1865)
*1818 &ndash; Rudolf von Jhering, German jurist (d. 1892)<ref>{{Cite journal |lastSeagle |firstWilliam |date1945 |titleRudolf von Jhering: Or Law as a Means to an End |urlhttps://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclrev/vol13/iss1/4 |journalUniversity of Chicago Law Review |volume13 |issue1 |pages71–89 [76] |doi10.2307/1597562 |issn0041-9494 |jstor1597562}}</ref>
*1827 &ndash; Ezra Butler Eddy, Canadian businessman and politician (d. 1906)
*1834 &ndash; Samuel Pierpont Langley, American physicist and astronomer (d. 1906)
*1836 &ndash; Archibald Willard, American soldier and painter (d. 1918)
*1844 &ndash; George W. De Long, American Naval officer and explorer (d. 1881)
*1845 &ndash; William Lewis Douglas, American businessman and politician, 42nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1924)
*1847 &ndash; John Forrest, Australian politician, 1st Premier of Western Australia (d. 1918)
*1848 &ndash; Melville Elijah Stone, American publisher, founded the Chicago Daily News (d. 1929)
*1854 &ndash; Milan I of Serbia (d. 1901)
*1857 &ndash; Ned Hanlon, American baseball player and manager (d. 1937)
*1860 &ndash; Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, Polish-German technician and inventor, created the Nipkow disk (d. 1940)
* 1860 &ndash; Alfred Ploetz, German physician, biologist, and eugenicist (d. 1940)
*1862 &ndash; Claude Debussy, French pianist and composer (d. 1918)
*1867 &ndash; Maximilian Bircher-Benner, Swiss physician and nutritionist (d. 1939)
* 1867 &ndash; Charles Francis Jenkins, American inventor (d. 1934)
*1868 &ndash; Willis R. Whitney, American chemist (d. 1958)
*1873 &ndash; Alexander Bogdanov, Russian physician and philosopher (d. 1928)
*1874 &ndash; Max Scheler, German philosopher and author (d. 1928)
*1880 &ndash; Gorch Fock, German author and poet (d. 1916)
* 1880 &ndash; George Herriman, American cartoonist (d. 1944)
*1881 &ndash; Bede Jarrett, English Dominican priest (d. 1934)<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/cu31924063262053/page/n132/mode/1up |titleThe Catholic Encyclopedia and its Makers |publisherThe Encyclopedia Press |page85 |year1917 |access-date2021-06-14 |via=archive.org}}</ref>
* 1881 &ndash; James Newland, Australian soldier and policeman (d. 1949)<ref>{{Australian Dictionary of Biography|lastStaunton|firstAnthony|year1988|idA110011b|titleNewland, James Ernest (1881–1949)|access-date14 December 2008}}</ref>
*1882 &ndash; Raymonde de Laroche, French pilot (d. 1919)
*1887 &ndash; Lutz Graf Schwerin von Krosigk, German jurist and politician, German Minister of Foreign Affairs (d. 1977)
*1890 &ndash; Cecil Kellaway, South African actor (d. 1973)
*1891 &ndash; Henry Bachtold, Australian soldier and railway engineer (d. 1983)
* 1891 &ndash; Jacques Lipchitz, Lithuanian-Italian sculptor (d. 1973)
*1893 &ndash; Wilfred Kitching, English 7th General of The Salvation Army (d. 1977)
* 1893 &ndash; Dorothy Parker, American poet, short story writer, critic, and satirist (d. 1967)
* 1893 &ndash; Ernest H. Volwiler, American chemist (d. 1992)
*1895 &ndash; László Almásy, Hungarian captain, pilot, and explorer (d. 1951)
* 1895 &ndash; Paul Comtois, Canadian lawyer and politician, 21st Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1966)
*1896 &ndash; Laurence McKinley Gould, American geologist, educator, and polar explorer (d. 1995)
*1897 &ndash; Bill Woodfull, Australian cricketer and educator (d. 1965)
*1900 &ndash; Lisy Fischer, Swiss-born pianist and child prodigy (d. 1999)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Thomas Pelly, American lawyer and politician (d. 1973)
* 1902 &ndash; Leni Riefenstahl, German actress, film director and propagandist (d. 2003)
* 1902 &ndash; Edward Rowe Snow, American historian and author (d. 1982)
*1903 &ndash; Jerry Iger, American cartoonist, co-founded Eisner & Iger (d. 1990)
*1904 &ndash; Deng Xiaoping, Chinese soldier and politician, 1st Vice Premier of the People's Republic of China (d. 1997)
*1908 &ndash; Henri Cartier-Bresson, French photographer and painter (d. 2004)
* 1908 &ndash; Erwin Thiesies, German rugby player and coach (d. 1993)
*1909 &ndash; Julius J. Epstein, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2000)
* 1909 &ndash; Mel Hein, American football player and coach (d. 1992)
*1913 &ndash; Leonard Pagliero, English businessman and pilot (d. 2008)
* 1913 &ndash; Bruno Pontecorvo, Italian physicist and academic (d. 1993)
*1914 &ndash; Jack Dunphy, American author and playwright (d. 1992)
* 1914 &ndash; Connie B. Gay, American businessman, co-founded the Country Music Hall of Fame and Museum (d. 1989)
*1915 &ndash; David Dellinger, American activist (d. 2004)
* 1915 &ndash; James Hillier, Canadian-American scientist, co-designed the electron microscope (d. 2007)
* 1915 &ndash; Edward Szczepanik, Polish economist and politician, 15th Prime Minister of the Polish Republic in Exile (d. 2005)
*1917 &ndash; John Lee Hooker, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2001)
*1918 &ndash; Mary McGrory, American journalist and author (d. 2004)
*1920 &ndash; Ray Bradbury, American science fiction writer and screenwriter (d. 2012)<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-culture/ray-bradburys-fahrenheit-451-censorship-9530771/|titleRemembering Ray Bradbury's Fahrenheit 451: why his pioneering critique of censorship remains relevant today|date25 August 2024|access-date30 August 2024|work=The Indian Express}}</ref>
* 1920 &ndash; Denton Cooley, American surgeon and scientist (d. 2016)<ref name"PMID28057783">{{cite journal |last1Willerson |first1JT |titleDenton Arthur Cooley, MD. |journalCirculation Research |date6 January 2017 |volume120 |issue1 |pages17–19 |doi10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.116.310451 |pmid28057783 |doi-accessfree }}</ref>
*1921 &ndash; Dinos Dimopoulos, Greek director and screenwriter (d. 2003)
* 1921 &ndash; Tony Pawson, English cricketer, footballer, and journalist (d. 2012)
*1922 &ndash; Roberto Aizenberg, Argentine painter and sculptor (d. 1996)
* 1922 &ndash; Theoni V. Aldredge, Greek-American costume designer (d. 2011)
* 1922 &ndash; Frank Kelly Freas, American science fiction and fantasy artist (d. 2005)<ref>{{cite news|lastMartin|firstDouglas|titleF. K. Freas, Who Drew the Devilish Face of Mad Magazine, Dies at 82|newspaperThe New York Times|dateJanuary 5, 2005|accessdateJune 14, 2017|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/05/arts/design/f-k-freas-who-drew-the-devilish-face-of-mad-magazine-dies-at-82.html}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; James Kirkwood, Jr., American playwright and author (d. 1989)
* 1924 &ndash; Harishankar Parsai, Indian writer, satirist and humorist (d. 1995)
*1925 &ndash; Honor Blackman, English actress and republican (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite web |last1Whitmore |first1Greg |titleHonor Blackman – a life in pictures |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/gallery/2020/apr/06/honor-blackman-a-life-in-pictures |websiteThe Guardian |access-date6 April 2020 |date=6 April 2020}}</ref>
*1926 &ndash; Marc Bohan, French fashion designer (d. 2023)<ref name"UPI">{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for Aug. 22: Kristen Wiig, Dua Lipa |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2022/08/22/Famous-birthdays-for-Aug-22-Kristen-Wiig-Dua-Lipa/6741661100985/#:~:textFamous%20birthdays%20for%20Aug.,%2C%20Dua%20Lipa%20%2D%20UPI.com |publisherUPI |access-date21 August 2023 |date=22 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1926 &ndash; Bob Flanigan, American pop singer (d. 2011)
*1928 &ndash; Tinga Seisay, Sierra Leonean academic and diplomat (d. 2015)
* 1928 &ndash; Karlheinz Stockhausen, German composer and academic (d. 2007)<ref>{{cite book|authorKarl Heinrich Wörner|titleStockhausen|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduUazwZH_zMwC&pgPA251|date 1977|publisherUniversity of California Press|isbn978-0-520-03272-9|pages=251}}</ref>
*1929 &ndash; Valery Alekseyev, Russian anthropologist and author (d. 1991)
*1929 &ndash; Roy Clay, American computer scientist (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite web |lastGuynn |firstJessica |titleRoy Clay Sr., a Silicon Valley pioneer who knocked down racial barriers, dies at 95 |urlhttps://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2024/09/25/roy-clay-sr-dies/75366211007/ |access-date2024-09-30 |websiteUSA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref>
* 1929 &ndash; Ulrich Wegener, German police officer and general (d. 2017)
*1930 &ndash; Gylmar dos Santos Neves, Brazilian footballer (d. 2013)
*1932 &ndash; Gerald P. Carr, American engineer, colonel, and astronaut (d. 2020)
*1933 &ndash; Sylva Koscina, Italian actress (d. 1994)
*1934 &ndash; Norman Schwarzkopf, Jr., American general and engineer (d. 2012)<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1935 &ndash; Annie Proulx, American novelist, short story writer, and journalist<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1936 &ndash; Chuck Brown, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2012)
* 1936 &ndash; John Callaway, American journalist and producer (d. 2009)
* 1936 &ndash; Dale Hawkins, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)
* 1936 &ndash; Werner Stengel, German roller coaster designer and engineer, designed the Maverick roller coaster
*1938 &ndash; Jean Berkey, American businesswoman and politician (d. 2013)
*1939 &ndash; Valerie Harper, American actress (d. 2019)<ref>{{cite web| urlhttp://www.biography.com/people/valerie-harper-22232#awesm~oBCDa5LXmLFa34| titleValerie Harper Biography| publisherThe Biography Channel (A&E Networks)| access-date=April 16, 2014}}</ref>
* 1939 &ndash; Carl Yastrzemski, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleCarl Yastrzemski |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/carl-yastrzemski-124650 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date21 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1940 – Bill McCartney, American football player and coach (d. 2025)<ref>{{Cite news |lastTraub |firstAlex |dateJanuary 15, 2025 |titleBill McCartney, Coach Who Led a Movement for ‘Godly’ Men, Dies at 84 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/15/sports/ncaafootball/bill-mccartney-dead.html |access-dateJanuary 17, 2025 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; Bill Parcells, American football player and coach<ref>{{cite book|authorGutman, Bill|year2000|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/books/first/g/gutman-parcells.html|titleParcells: A Biography|publisherCarroll & Graf Publishers, Inc|access-dateMarch 8, 2008}}</ref>
*1943 &ndash; Alun Michael, Welsh police commissioner and politician, inaugural First Minister of Wales
* 1943 &ndash; Masatoshi Shima, Japanese computer scientist and engineer, co-designed the Intel 4004
*1944 &ndash; Roger Cashmore, English physicist and academic
*1945 &ndash; David Chase, American screenwriter and producer<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1945 &ndash; Ron Dante, American singer-songwriter and producer<ref>{{cite book|titleThe Guinness Encyclopedia of Popular Music|editorColin Larkin|publisherGuinness Publishing|date1992|editionFirst|isbn0-85112-939-0|page=626}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; Cindy Williams, American actress and producer<ref>{{cite book |last1Lukanic |first1Steven A |titleFilm Actors Guide |date1991 |page421 |publisherLone Eagle |isbn9780943728384 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=fHhZAAAAMAAJ}}</ref> (d. 2023)
*1948 &ndash; David Marks, American singer-songwriter and guitarist<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1949 &ndash; Diana Nyad, American swimmer and author<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1949 &ndash; Joop Donkervoort, Dutch businessman<ref>{{cite web |titleDonkervoort D8 GTO-JD70 – Donkervoort celebrates its founder's birthday with a high-powered gift of its own – Donkervoort, No Compromise |urlhttps://www.donkervoort.com/en/donkervoort-d8-gto-jd70-donkervoort-celebrates-its-founders-birthday-with-a-high-powered-gift-of-its-own/ |publisherDonkervoort |access-date22 August 2023}}</ref>
*1950 &ndash; Ray Burris, American baseball player and coach
* 1950 &ndash; Scooter Libby, American lawyer and politician, Chief of Staff to the Vice President of the United States
*1952 &ndash; Peter Laughner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1977)
*1953 &ndash; Paul Ellering, American weightlifter, wrestler, and manager
*1955 &ndash; Chiranjeevi, Indian film actor, producer and politician
*1956 &ndash; Paul Molitor, American baseball player and coach<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1956 &ndash; Peter Taylor, Australian cricketer
*1957 &ndash; Steve Davis, English snooker player, sportscaster, and author
* 1957 &ndash; Holly Dunn, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2016)
*1958 &ndash; Colm Feore, American-Canadian actor
* 1958 &ndash; Stevie Ray, American wrestler
* 1958 &ndash; Vernon Reid, English-born American guitarist and songwriter<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1959 &ndash; Juan Croucier, Cuban-American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer
* 1959 &ndash; Pia Gjellerup, Danish lawyer and politician, Danish Minister of Finance
* 1959 &ndash; Mark Williams, English actor
*1960 &ndash; Holger Gehrke, German footballer and manager
* 1960 &ndash; Collin Raye, American country music singer<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1960 &ndash; Regina Taylor, American actress and playwright<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1961 &ndash; Andrés Calamaro, Argentine singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1961 &ndash; Roland Orzabal, English singer and musician<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1961 &ndash; Debbi Peterson, American singer-songwriter and drummer<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1962 &ndash; Stefano Tilli, Italian sprinter
*1963 &ndash; Tori Amos, American singer-songwriter, pianist, and producer<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 22, 2022 includes celebrities Tori Amos, Kristen Wiig |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-22-2022-includes-celebrities-tori-amos-kristen-wiig.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date21 August 2023 |date=22 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1963 &ndash; James DeBarge, American R&B/soul singer<ref name="AP"/>
*1964 &ndash; Mats Wilander, Swedish-American tennis player and coach<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1965 &ndash; Wendy Botha, South African-Australian surfer
* 1965 &ndash; David Reimer, Canadian man, born male but reassigned female and raised as a girl after a botched circumcision (d. 2004)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://embryo.asu.edu/pages/david-reimer-and-john-money-gender-reassignment-controversy-johnjoan-case|titleDavid Reimer and John Money Gender Reassignment Controversy: The John/Joan Case – The Embryo Project Encyclopedia|website=embryo.asu.edu}}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; GZA, American rapper and producer<ref name="AP"/>
* 1966 &ndash; Rob Witschge, Dutch footballer and manager
*1967 &ndash; Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje, English actor<ref name="AP"/>
* 1967 &ndash; Ty Burrell, American actor and comedian<ref name="AP"/>
* 1967 &ndash; Paul Colman, Australian singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1967 &ndash; Layne Staley, American singer-songwriter (d. 2002)
*1968 &ndash; Casper Christensen, Danish comedian, actor, and screenwriter
* 1968 &ndash; Aleksandr Mostovoi, Russian footballer
* 1968 &ndash; Elisabeth Murdoch, Australian businesswoman
* 1968 &ndash; Horst Skoff, Austrian tennis player (d. 2008)
*1970 &ndash; Charlie Connelly, English author and broadcaster
* 1970 &ndash; Giada De Laurentiis, Italian-American chef and author<ref name="AP"/>
* 1970 &ndash; Tímea Nagy, Hungarian fencer<ref>{{cite web|titleTímea Nagy|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/timea-nagy-1|publisherInternational Olympic Committee|access-date19 April 2020}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Richard Armitage, English actor<ref name="UPI"/>
* 1971 &ndash; Craig Finn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1971 &ndash; Rick Yune, American actor<ref name="AP"/>
*1972 &ndash; Okkert Brits, South African pole vaulter
* 1972 &ndash; Paul Doucette, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and drummer<ref name="AP"/>
* 1972 &ndash; Max Wilson, German-Brazilian race car driver
*1973 &ndash; Roslina Bakar, Malaysian sport shooter<ref>{{cite web |titleResults |urlhttp://m2002.thecgf.com/results/default.asp?ath4126 |website2002.thecgf.com |access-date=30 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1973 &ndash; Howie Dorough, American singer-songwriter and dancer<ref name="AP"/>
* 1973 &ndash; Kristen Wiig, American actress, comedian, and screenwriter<ref name="AP"/>
* 1973 &ndash; Eurelijus Žukauskas, Lithuanian basketball player
*1974 &ndash; Cory Gardner, American politician
* 1974 &ndash; Jenna Leigh Green, American actress and singer<ref name="AP"/>
* 1974 &ndash; Agustín Pichot, Argentinian rugby player
*1975 &ndash; Clint Bolton, Australian footballer
* 1975 &ndash; Rodrigo Santoro, Brazilian actor
*1976 &ndash; Marius Bezykornovas, Lithuanian footballer
* 1976 &ndash; Bryn Davies, American bassist, cellist, and pianist
* 1976 &ndash; Laurent Hernu, French decathlete
* 1976 &ndash; Jeff Weaver, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleJeff Weaver |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/jeff-weaver-213711 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date21 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; Randy Wolf, American baseball player
*1977 &ndash; Heiðar Helguson, Icelandic footballer
* 1977 &ndash; Keren Cytter, Israeli visual artist and writer
*1978 &ndash; James Corden, English actor, comedian, writer, and television presenter<ref name="AP"/>
* 1978 &ndash; Ioannis Gagaloudis, Greek basketball player
*1979 &ndash; Brandon Adams, American actor<ref name="AP"/>
* 1979 &ndash; Matt Walters, American football player
*1980 &ndash; Roland Benschneider, German footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Nicolas Macrozonaris, Canadian sprinter
* 1980 &ndash; Seiko Yamamoto, Japanese wrestler
*1981 &ndash; Alex Holmes, American football player
* 1981 &ndash; Jang Hyun-kyu, South Korean footballer (d. 2012)
* 1981 &ndash; Christina Obergföll, German athlete
*1983 &ndash; Theo Bos, Dutch cyclist
* 1983 &ndash; Jahri Evans, American football player
*1984 &ndash; Lee Camp, English footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Lawrence Quaye, Ghanaian-Qatari footballer
*1985 &ndash; Luke Russert, American journalist
* 1985 &ndash; Jey Uso, Samoan-American wrestler
* 1985 &ndash; Jimmy Uso, Samoan-American wrestler
* 1985 &ndash; Salih Yoluç, Turkish race car drivr<ref>[https://www.driverdb.com/drivers/salih-yoluc/ Salih Yoluc career profile], Driver Database</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Stephen Ireland, Irish footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Tokushōryū Makoto, Japanese sumo wrestler
*1987 &ndash; Leonardo Moracci, Italian footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Apollo Crews, American wrestler
*1989 &ndash; Giacomo Bonaventura, Italian footballer
*1990 &ndash; Randall Cobb, American football player
* 1990 &ndash; Drew Hutchison, American baseball player
* 1990 &ndash; Robbie Rochow, Australian rugby league player
* 1990 &ndash; Adam Thielen, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleAdam Thielen |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/16460/adam-thielen |publisherESPN |access-date21 August 2023}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Federico Macheda, Italian footballer
* 1991 &ndash; Brayden Schenn, Canadian ice hockey player
*1992 &ndash; Ema Burgić Bucko, Bosnian tennis player
*1993 &ndash; Dillon Danis, American mixed martial artist<ref>{{Cite web |titleDillon Danis {{!}} BJJ Heroes |urlhttps://www.bjjheroes.com/bjj-fighters/dillon-danis |access-date=2022-12-01}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Israel Broussard, American actor<ref name="UPI"/>
* 1994 &ndash; Olli Määttä, Finnish ice hockey player
*1995 &ndash; Dua Lipa, English singer-songwriter<ref>{{Cite web|titlePregnant Gigi Hadid Wishes 'Sister' Dua Lipa a Happy 25th Birthday: 'You're a Special One'|urlhttps://people.com/music/gigi-hadid-wishes-dua-lipa-happy-birthday/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200822235125/https://people.com/music/gigi-hadid-wishes-dua-lipa-happy-birthday/|archive-date2020-08-22|access-date2021-06-14|websitePeople|languageen}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Jessica-Jane Applegate, British Paralympic swimmer<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.paralympic.org/static/info/montreal/ENG/ZB/ZBB101A_MO2013SW@@@@@@@ENG_number14832.htm|titleApplegate Jessica-Jane|websiteParalympic.org}}</ref>
* 1996 &ndash; Jeon So-min, South Korean singer-songwriter<ref>{{Cite web|last|first|date|titleKard|urlhttp://yscleantec.webmaker21.kr/|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190330101728/http://yscleantec.webmaker21.kr/|archive-date30 March 2019|access-date|websiteDSPmedia}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Maxx Crosby, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleMaxx Crosby |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/3916655/maxx-crosby |publisherESPN |access-date21 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1997 &ndash; Fanum, American streamer<ref>{{Cite tweet |number1561767433559744512 |userFanumTV |titlehappy birthday 2 me |dateAugust 22, 2022 |access-date=August 20, 2024}}</ref>
* 1997 &ndash; Lautaro Martínez, Argentine footballer<ref>{{Cite web |titleLautaro Martínez Stats, News, Bio |urlhttps://www.espn.co.uk/football/player/_/id/219713/lautaro-martinez |access-date2022-10-23 |websiteESPN |language=en}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; LaMelo Ball, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleLaMelo Ball |urlhttps://www.nba.com/player/1630163/lamelo-ball |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date21 August 2023}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Cooper Connolly, Australian cricketer<ref>{{Cite web |titleProfile:Cooper Connolly |urlhttps://www.espncricinfo.com/player/cooper-connolly-1210488 |access-date2023-01-07 |publisherESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; Stiliana Nikolova, Bulgarian rhythmic gymnast<ref>{{Cite web|titleStiliana Nikolova|urlhttps://www.eurosport.com/olympics/athletes/profile/nikolova-stiliana-1548933/|access-date22 August 2024|publisherEurosport}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list; do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information; do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list; do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information; do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Pre-1600
* 408 &ndash; Stilicho, Roman general (b. 359)
*1155 &ndash; Emperor Konoe of Japan (b. 1139)
*1241 &ndash; Pope Gregory IX, (b. 1143)
*1280 &ndash; Pope Nicholas III (b. 1225)<ref>{{cite web |titleNicholas III {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Nicholas-III-pope |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date22 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1304 &ndash; John II, Count of Holland (b. 1247)
*1338 &ndash; William II, Duke of Athens (b. 1312)
*1350 &ndash; Philip VI of France (b. 1293)<ref>{{cite web |titlePhilip VI {{!}} king of France |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Philip-VI |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 October 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1358 &ndash; Isabella of France (b. 1295)
*1425 &ndash; Eleanor, Princess of Asturias (b. 1423)
*1456 &ndash; Vladislav II of Wallachia
*1485 &ndash; Richard III of England (b. 1452)<ref>{{cite web |titleRichard III {{!}} Biography & Facts |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Richard-III-king-of-England |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date26 June 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1485 &ndash; James Harrington, Yorkist knight
* 1485 &ndash; John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk (b. 1430)
* 1485 &ndash; Richard Ratcliffe, supporter of Richard III
* 1485 &ndash; William Brandon, supporter of Henry VII (b. 1426)
*1532 &ndash; William Warham, Archbishop of Canterbury (b. 1450)
*1545 &ndash; Charles Brandon, 1st Duke of Suffolk, English politician and husband of Mary Tudor (b. c. 1484)
*1553 &ndash; John Dudley, 1st Duke of Northumberland, English admiral and politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1504)
*1572 &ndash; Thomas Percy, 7th Earl of Northumberland, English leader of the Rising of the North (b. 1528)
*1584 &ndash; Jan Kochanowski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1530)
*1599 &ndash; Luca Marenzio, Italian singer-songwriter (b. 1553)
1601–1900
*1607 &ndash; Bartholomew Gosnold, English lawyer and explorer, founded the London Company (b. 1572)
*1652 &ndash; Jacob De la Gardie, Estonian-Swedish soldier and politician, Lord High Constable of Sweden (b. 1583)
*1664 &ndash; Maria Cunitz, Polish astronomer and author (b. 1610)
*1680 &ndash; John George II, Elector of Saxony (b. 1613)
*1681 &ndash; Philippe Delano, Dutch Plymouth Colony settler (b. 1602)
*1701 &ndash; John Granville, 1st Earl of Bath, English soldier and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1628)
*1711 &ndash; Louis François, duc de Boufflers, French general (b. 1644)
*1752 &ndash; William Whiston, English mathematician, historian, and theologian (b. 1667)
*1773 &ndash; George Lyttelton, 1st Baron Lyttelton, English poet and politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (b. 1709)<ref>{{cite DNB |wstitleLyttelton, George (1709-1773) |firstGeorge Fisher Russell |lastBarker |volume34}}</ref>
*1793 &ndash; Louis de Noailles, French general (b. 1713)
*1797 &ndash; Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser, French-Austrian field marshal (b. 1724)
*1806 &ndash; Jean-Honoré Fragonard, French painter and illustrator (b. 1732)
*1818 &ndash; Warren Hastings, English lawyer and politician, 1st Governor-General of Bengal (b. 1732)
*1828 &ndash; Franz Joseph Gall, Austrian neuroanatomist and physiologist (b. 1758)<ref>{{cite web |titleFranz Joseph Gall {{!}} German anatomist and physiologist |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Franz-Joseph-Gall |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date24 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1850 &ndash; Nikolaus Lenau, Romanian-Austrian poet and author (b. 1802)
*1861 &ndash; Xianfeng, Emperor of China (b. 1831)
*1888 &ndash; Ágoston Trefort, Hungarian jurist and politician, Hungarian Minister of Education (b. 1817)
*1891 &ndash; Jan Neruda, Czech journalist, author, and poet (b. 1834)
1901–present
*1903 &ndash; Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, English academic and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1830)
*1904 &ndash; Kate Chopin, American novelist and poet (b. 1850)
*1909 &ndash; Henry Radcliffe Crocker, English dermatologist and author (b. 1846)
*1914 &ndash; Giacomo Radini-Tedeschi, Italian bishop and academic (b. 1859)
*1918 &ndash; Korbinian Brodmann, German neurologist and academic (b. 1868)
*1920 &ndash; Anders Zorn, Swedish artist (b. 1860)
*1922 &ndash; Michael Collins, Irish rebel, counter-intelligence and military tactician, and politician; 2nd Irish Minister of Finance (b. 1890)
*1926 &ndash; Charles William Eliot, American academic (b. 1834)
*1933 &ndash; Alexandros Kontoulis, Greek general and diplomat (b. 1858)
*1940 &ndash; Oliver Lodge, English physicist and academic (b. 1851)
* 1940 &ndash; Gerald Strickland, 1st Baron Strickland, Maltese lawyer and politician, 4th Prime Minister of Malta (b. 1861)
*1942 &ndash; Michel Fokine, Russian dancer and choreographer (b. 1880)
*1946 &ndash; Döme Sztójay, Hungarian general and politician, 35th Prime Minister of Hungary (b. 1883)
*1950 &ndash; Kirk Bryan, American geologist and academic (b. 1888)
*1951 &ndash; Jack Bickell, Canadian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1884)
*1953 &ndash; Jim Tabor, American baseball player (b. 1916)
*1958 &ndash; Roger Martin du Gard, French novelist and paleographer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1881)
*1960 &ndash; Johannes Sikkar, Estonian soldier and politician, Prime Minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1897)
*1963 &ndash; William Morris, 1st Viscount Nuffield, English businessman and philanthropist, founded Morris Motors (b. 1877)
*1967 &ndash; Gregory Goodwin Pincus, American biologist and academic, co-created the birth-control pill (b. 1903)
*1970 &ndash; Vladimir Propp, Russian philologist and scholar (b. 1895)
*1971 &ndash; Birger Nerman, Swedish archaeologist (b. 1888)<ref>{{cite book |last1Stjernquist |first1Berta |author-link1:sv:Berta Stjernquist |year1987 |chapterBirger Nerman |chapter-urlhttps://sok.riksarkivet.se/Sbl/Presentation.aspx?id8838 |titleSvenskt biografiskt lexikon |languagesv |volume26 |page=528 }}</ref>
*1974 &ndash; Jacob Bronowski, Polish-English mathematician, biologist, and author (b. 1908)
*1976 &ndash; Gina Bachauer, Greek pianist and composer (b. 1913)
* 1976 &ndash; Juscelino Kubitschek, Brazilian physician and politician, 21st President of Brazil (b. 1902)
*1977 &ndash; Sebastian Cabot, English actor (b. 1918)
* 1977 &ndash; Chunseong, Korean monk, philosopher and writer (b. 1891)
* 1977 &ndash; Rex Connor, Australian politician (b. 1907)<ref nameadb>{{Australian Dictionary of Biography |firstC J |lastLloyd |titleConnor, Reginald Francis Xavier (Rex) (1907–1977) |id2connor-reginald-francis-rex-9813 |access-date2021-03-21}}</ref>
*1978 &ndash; Jomo Kenyatta, Kenyan politician, 1st President of Kenya (b. 1894)
*1979 &ndash; James T. Farrell, American novelist, short-story writer, and poet (b. 1904)
*1980 &ndash; James Smith McDonnell, American pilot, engineer, and businessman, founded McDonnell Aircraft (b. 1899)
*1981 &ndash; Vicente Manansala, Filipino painter (b. 1910)
*1985 &ndash; Charles Gibson (historian), Historian of Mexico and its Indians, President of the American Historical Association (b. 1920)
*1986 &ndash; Celâl Bayar, Turkish lawyer and politician, 3rd President of Turkey (b. 1883)
*1987 &ndash; Joseph P. Lash, American author and journalist (b. 1909)
*1989 &ndash; Robert Grondelaers, Belgian cyclist (b. 1933)
* 1989 &ndash; Huey P. Newton, American activist, co-founded the Black Panther Party (b. 1942)
*1991 &ndash; Colleen Dewhurst, Canadian-American actress (b. 1924)
* 1991 &ndash; Boris Pugo, Russian soldier and politician, Soviet Minister of Interior (b. 1937)
*1994 &ndash; Gilles Groulx, Canadian director and screenwriter (b. 1931)
* 1994 &ndash; Allan Houser, American sculptor and painter (b. 1914)
*1995 &ndash; Johnny Carey, Irish footballer and manager (b. 1919)
*1996 &ndash; Erwin Komenda, Austrian car designer and engineer (b. 1904)
*2000 &ndash; Abulfaz Elchibey, 2nd President of Azerbaijan (b. 1938)
*2003 &ndash; Arnold Gerschwiler, Swiss figure skater and coach (b. 1914)
*2004 &ndash; Konstantin Aseev, Russian chess player and trainer (b. 1960)
* 2004 &ndash; Angus Bethune, Australian soldier and politician, 33rd Premier of Tasmania (b. 1908)
* 2004 &ndash; Daniel Petrie, Canadian director and producer (b. 1920)
*2005 &ndash; Luc Ferrari, French-Italian director and composer (b. 1929)
* 2005 &ndash; Ernest Kirkendall, American chemist and metallurgist (b. 1914)
*2007 &ndash; Grace Paley, American short story writer and poet (b. 1922)
*2008 &ndash; Gladys Powers, English-Canadian soldier (b. 1899)
*2009 &ndash; Muriel Duckworth, Canadian pacifist, feminist, and activist (b. 1908)<ref>{{cite web |titlePeace activist Muriel Duckworth dies at 100 |urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/peace-activist-muriel-duckworth-dies-at-100-1.845788 |websiteCBC News |access-date21 January 2020}}</ref>
* 2009 &ndash; Elmer Kelton, American journalist and author (b. 1926)
*2010 &ndash; Stjepan Bobek, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1923)
*2011 &ndash; Nick Ashford, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942)
* 2011 &ndash; Jack Layton, Canadian academic and politician (b. 1950)
* 2011 &ndash; Casey Ribicoff, American philanthropist (b. 1922)
*2012 &ndash; Nina Bawden, English author (b. 1925)
* 2012 &ndash; Paul Shan Kuo-hsi, Chinese cardinal (b. 1923)
* 2012 &ndash; Jeffrey Stone, American actor and screenwriter (b. 1926)
*2013 &ndash; Paul Poberezny, American pilot and businessman, founded the Experimental Aircraft Association (b. 1921)
* 2013 &ndash; Andrea Servi, Italian footballer (b. 1984)
*2014 &ndash; U. R. Ananthamurthy, Indian author, poet, and playwright (b. 1932)
* 2014 &ndash; Emmanuel Kriaras, Greek lexicographer and philologist (b. 1906)
* 2014 &ndash; Pete Ladygo, American football player and coach (b. 1928)
* 2014 &ndash; Noella Leduc, American baseball player (b. 1933)
* 2014 &ndash; John Sperling, American businessman, founded the University of Phoenix (b. 1921)
* 2014 &ndash; John S. Waugh, American chemist and academic (b. 1929)
*2015 &ndash; Arthur Morris, Australian cricketer and journalist (b. 1922)
* 2015 &ndash; Ieng Thirith, Cambodian academic and politician (b. 1932)
* 2015 &ndash; Eric Thompson, English race car driver and book dealer (b. 1919)
*2016 &ndash; S. R. Nathan, 6th President of Singapore (b. 1924)
* 2016 &ndash; Toots Thielemans, Belgian and American jazz musician (b. 1922)
*2017 &ndash; Michael J. C. Gordon, British Computer scientist (b. 1948)
*2018 &ndash; Ed King, American musician (b. 1949)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/news/picture/notable-deaths-in-2018-idUSRTX5U1VJ|titleNotable Deaths in 2018|date2018-08-23|websiteReuters News/Pictures|access-date=2018-08-27}}</ref>
* 2018 &ndash; Krishna Reddy, Indian printmaker, sculptor and teacher (b. 1925)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2018/obituaries/notable-deaths.html|titleNotable Deaths 2018|newspaperThe New York Times Obituaries|date3 August 2018|access-date=2018-09-12 }}</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Rod Gilbert, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1941)<ref>{{Cite web|authorThe Athletic Staff|date2021-08-22|titleRod Gilbert, Rangers legend and Hall of Famer, dies at 80|urlhttps://theathletic.com/news/rod-gilbert-rangers-legend-and-hall-of-famer-dies-at-80/caF1c7KsLchI|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210823212157/https://theathletic.com/news/rod-gilbert-rangers-legend-and-hall-of-famer-dies-at-80/caF1c7KsLchI|archive-date2021-08-23|access-date2021-08-23|websiteThe Athletic|languageen}}</ref>
*2024 – Arthur J. Gregg, American military officer (b. 1928)<ref>{{Cite news |lastLanger |firstEmily |date2024-08-27 |titleArthur Gregg, Army trailblazer and Fort Gregg-Adams namesake, dies at 96 |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/obituaries/2024/08/27/arthur-gregg-army-fort-gregg-adams/ |access-date2024-08-28 |newspaperWashington Post |languageen-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list; do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information; do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
* Christian feast day:
**Guinefort, the holy greyhound, feast day traditionally.<ref name="greyhound">[http://www.thegreyhoundsaint.com/ Saint Guinefort: The Holy Greyhound]</ref>
**Immaculate Heart of Mary (Roman Catholic calendar of 1960)
**Queenship of Mary
**August 22 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
* International Day Commemorating the Victims of Acts of Violence Based on Religion or Belief
* Earliest day on which National Heroes' Day (Philippines) can fall, while August 28 is the latest; celebrated on the fourth Monday in August.
*Flag Day (Russia)
*Madras Day (Chennai and Tamil Nadu, India)
References
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External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/22 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day22}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/22 |titleHistorical Events on August 22 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 22}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_22 | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.138448 |
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{{This date in recent years}}
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Events
Pre-1600
*410 &ndash; The sacking of Rome by the Visigoths ends after three days.
*1172 &ndash; Henry the Young King and Margaret of France are crowned junior king and queen of England.
*1232 &ndash; Shikken Hojo Yasutoki of the Kamakura shogunate promulgates the Goseibai Shikimoku, the first Japanese legal code governing the samurai class.<ref>{{Cite book |titleAzuma Kagami (Hōjōbon) |atScroll 28 |languageja}} For date conversion, see {{Cite book |lastZhang |firstPeiyu |title三千五百年历日天象 |publisherElephant Press |year1997 |language=zh}}</ref>
*1353 &ndash; War of the Straits and Sardinian–Aragonese war: The Battle of Alghero results in a crushing victory of the allied Aragonese and Venetian fleet over the Genoese fleet, most of which is captured.<ref>{{cite book | last Musarra | first Antonio | title Il Grifo e il Leone: Genova e Venezia in lotta per il Mediterraneo | year 2020 | publisher Editori Laterza | location Bari and Rome | isbn 978-88-581-4072-7 | language Italian | pages=237–238 }}</ref>
*1557 &ndash; The Battle of St. Quentin results in Emmanuel Philibert becoming Duke of Savoy.
*1593 &ndash; Pierre Barrière failed an attempt to assassinate Henry IV of France.
*1597 &ndash; Jeongyu War: Battle of Chilcheollyang: A Japanese fleet of 500 ships destroys Joseon commander Won Gyun's fleet of 200 ships at Chilcheollyang.<ref>{{Cite book |lastHawley |firstSamuel |titleThe Imjin War: Japan's Sixteenth-Century Invasion of Korea and Attempt to Conquer China |publisherConquistador Press |year2014 |isbn9780992078621 |edition2nd |pages488–491 |language=en}}</ref>
*1600 &ndash; Ishida Mitsunari's Western Army commences the Siege of Fushimi Castle, which is lightly defended by a much smaller Tokugawa garrison led by Torii Mototada.<ref>{{Cite book |lastBryant |firstAnthony J. |titleSekigahara 1600: The Final Struggle For Power |publisherOsprey Publishing |year1995 |isbn9781855323957 |locationOxford, UK |page38 |languageen}}</ref>1601–1900
*1689 &ndash; The Treaty of Nerchinsk is signed by Russia and the Qing Empire (Julian calendar).
*1776 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: Members of the 1st Maryland Regiment repeatedly charged a numerically superior British force during the Battle of Long Island, allowing General Washington and the rest of the American troops to escape.<ref>{{cite web |titleA Precious Hour in American History The Maryland 400 at Long Island |urlhttp://www.mdva.state.md.us/MMMC/md400.html |websitewww.mdva.state.md.us |publisherMaryland Department of Veterans Affairs |access-dateMarch 15, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120305134522/http://www.mdva.state.md.us/MMMC/md400.html |archive-dateMarch 5, 2012 |quote...and the heroic stand and counter attack by the members of the Maryland 400 is still recognized as the State's major contribution to the struggle for independence. ... only ten (including Major Gist) of the 250 heroic Marylanders in his gallant counter-attack force had returned.|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*1791 &ndash; French Revolution: Frederick William II of Prussia and Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, issue the Declaration of Pillnitz, declaring the joint support of the Holy Roman Empire and Prussia for the French monarchy, agitating the French revolutionaries and contributing to the outbreak of the War of the First Coalition.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastBrowning |firstOscar |date1897 |titleThe Conference of Pillnitz |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3678218 |journalTransactions of the Royal Historical Society |volume11 |pages133–138 |doi10.2307/3678218 |jstor3678218 |s2cid=179001356 }}</ref>
*1793 &ndash; French Revolutionary Wars: The city of Toulon revolts against the French Republic and admits the British and Spanish fleets to seize its port, leading to the Siege of Toulon by French Revolutionary forces.
*1798 &ndash; Wolfe Tone's United Irish and French forces clash with the British Army in the Battle of Castlebar, part of the Irish Rebellion of 1798, resulting in the creation of the French puppet Republic of Connacht.
*1810 &ndash; Napoleonic Wars: The French Navy defeats the British Royal Navy, preventing them from taking the harbour of Grand Port on Île de France.
*1813 &ndash; French Emperor Napoleon I defeats a larger force of Austrians, Russians, and Prussians at the Battle of Dresden.
*1828 &ndash; Brazil and Argentina recognize the sovereignty of Uruguay in the Treaty of Montevideo.
*1832 &ndash; Black Hawk, leader of the Sauk tribe of Native Americans, surrenders to U.S. authorities, ending the Black Hawk War.
*1859 &ndash; Petroleum is discovered in Titusville, Pennsylvania, leading to the world's first commercially successful oil well.
*1881 &ndash; The Georgia hurricane makes landfall near Savannah, Georgia, resulting in an estimated 700 deaths.
*1883 &ndash; Eruption of Krakatoa: Four enormous explosions almost completely destroy the island of Krakatoa and cause years of climate change.
*1893 &ndash; The Sea Islands hurricane strikes the United States near Savannah, Georgia, killing between 1,000 and 2,000 people.
*1895 &ndash; Japanese invasion of Taiwan: Battle of Baguashan: The Empire of Japan decisively defeats a smaller Formosan army at Changhua, crippling the short-lived Republic of Formosa and leading to its surrender two months later.<ref>{{cite book |last1Davidson |first1James W. |author-linkJames W. Davidson |titleThe Island of Formosa, Past and Present: History, people, resources, and commercial prospects: Tea, camphor, sugar, gold, coal, sulphur, economical plants, and other productions |year1903 |publisherMacmillan |pages334–339 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/islandofformosap00davi |locationLondon and New York |ol6931635M |oclc=1887893 }}</ref>
*1896 &ndash; Anglo-Zanzibar War: The shortest war in world history (09:02 to 09:40), between the United Kingdom and Zanzibar.
1901–present
*1908 &ndash; The Qing dynasty promulgates the Qinding Xianfa Dagang, the first constitutional document in the history of China, transforming the Qing empire into a constitutional monarchy.<ref>{{cite book|author1Yong'an Ren|author2Xianyang Lu|titleA New Study on the Judicial Administrative System with Chinese Characteristics|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idedTkDwAAQBAJ&pgPA22|date2020|publisherSpringer Nature|isbn9789811541827|page22}}</ref>
*1914 &ndash; World War I: Battle of Étreux: A British rearguard action by the Royal Munster Fusiliers during the Great Retreat.
* 1914 &ndash; World War I: Siege of Tsingtao: A Japanese fleet commanded by Vice Admiral Sadakichi Kato imposes a blockade along the whole coastline of German Tsingtao, initiating the Siege of Tsingtao.<ref>{{Cite book |lastStephenson |firstCharles |titleThe Siege of Tsingtau |publisherPen & Sword Books |year2017 |isbn9781526702951 |locationBarnsley, South Yorkshire |pages89–92 |language=en}}</ref>
*1915 &ndash; Attempted assassination of Bishop Patrick Heffron, bishop of the Diocese of Winona, by Rev. Louis M. Lesches.
*1916 &ndash; World War I: The Kingdom of Romania declares war on Austria-Hungary, entering the war as one of the Allied nations.
*1918 &ndash; Mexican Revolution: Battle of Ambos Nogales: U.S. Army forces skirmish against Mexican Carrancistas in the only battle of World War I fought on American soil.
*1922 &ndash; Greco-Turkish War: The Turkish army takes the Aegean city of Afyonkarahisar from the Kingdom of Greece.
*1927 &ndash; Five Canadian women file a petition to the Supreme Court of Canada, asking: "Does the word 'Persons' in Section 24 of the British North America Act, 1867, include female persons?"
*1928 &ndash; The Kellogg–Briand Pact outlawing war is signed by fifteen nations. Ultimately sixty-one nations will sign it.
*1933 &ndash; The first Afrikaans Bible is introduced during a Bible Festival in Bloemfontein.
*1939 &ndash; First flight of the turbojet-powered Heinkel He 178, the world's first jet aircraft.
*1942 &ndash; First day of the Sarny Massacre, perpetrated by Germans and Ukrainians.
*1943 &ndash; World War II: Japanese forces evacuate New Georgia Island in the Pacific Theater of Operations during World War II.
* 1943 &ndash; World War II: Aerial bombardment by the Luftwaffe razes to the ground the village of Vorizia in Crete.
*1955 &ndash; The first edition of the Guinness Book of Records is published in Great Britain.<ref>{{cite web|titleGuinness World Records Corporate – Home|urlhttp://corporate.guinnessworldrecords.com/index.aspx|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150821044202/http://corporate.guinnessworldrecords.com/index.aspx|archive-date21 August 2015|workguinnessworldrecords.com}}</ref>
*1956 &ndash; The nuclear power station at Calder Hall in the United Kingdom was connected to the national power grid becoming the world's first commercial nuclear power station to generate electricity on an industrial scale.
*1962 &ndash; The Mariner 2 unmanned space mission is launched to Venus by NASA.
*1963 &ndash; An explosion at the Cane Creek potash mine near Moab, Utah kills 18 miners.<ref name"KMele-2018">{{cite book |last1Mele |first1Kymberly |titleDisaster at Cane Creek |date2018 |publisherKymberly Mele |isbn978-0998975207 |pages648}}</ref><ref name"CCZ-June/July 2018">{{cite web |last1Stiles |titleThe Disaster at Cane Creek: An Excerpt...by Kymberly Mele |urlhttps://www.canyoncountryzephyr.com/2018/06/04/the-disaster-at-cane-creek-an-excerpt-by-kymberly-mele/ |websiteCanyon Country Zephyr |access-date29 January 2021 |date=June 2018}}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; South Vietnamese junta leader Nguyễn Khánh enters into a triumvirate power-sharing arrangement with rival generals Trần Thiện Khiêm and Dương Văn Minh, who had both been involved in plots to unseat Khánh.
*1971 &ndash; An attempted coup d'état fails in the African nation of Chad. The Government of Chad accuses Egypt of playing a role in the attempt and breaks off diplomatic relations.
*1975 &ndash; The Governor of Portuguese Timor abandons its capital, Dili, and flees to Atauro Island, leaving control to a rebel group.
*1979 &ndash; The Troubles: Eighteen British soldiers are killed in an ambush by the Provisional Irish Republican Army near Warrenpoint, Northern Ireland, in the deadliest attack on British forces during Operation Banner. An IRA bomb also kills British royal family member Lord Mountbatten and three others on his boat at Mullaghmore, Republic of Ireland.
*1980 &ndash; South Korean presidential election: After successfully staging the Coup d'état of May Seventeenth, General Chun Doo-hwan, running unopposed, has the National Conference for Unification elect him President of the Fourth Republic of Korea.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/01361008.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://library.fes.de/pdf-files/iez/01361008.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleElectoral Politics in South Korea|lastCroissant|firstAurel|publisherFriedrich Ebert Foundation|pages=237–266}}</ref>
*1982 &ndash; Turkish military diplomat Colonel Atilla Altıkat is shot and killed in Ottawa. Justice Commandos of the Armenian Genocide claim to be avenging the massacre of {{frac|1|1|2}} million Armenians in the 1915 Armenian genocide.
*1985 &ndash; Major General Muhammadu Buhari, Chairman of the Supreme Military Council of Nigeria, is ousted from power in a coup d'état led by Major General Ibrahim Babangida.
*1985 &ndash; Space Shuttle Discovery is launched on STS-51-I to deploy three communication satellites and repair a fourth malfunctioning one.<ref name"spacefacts">{{Cite web |titleSTS-51I |urlhttp://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51i.htm |access-dateFebruary 26, 2014 |publisher=Spacefacts}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; The European Community recognizes the independence of the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.
* 1991 &ndash; Moldova declares independence from the USSR.
* 1992 – Aeroflot Flight 2808 crashes on approach to Ivanovo Yuzhny Airport, killing all 84 aboard.<ref>{{Cite web |titleASN Aircraft accident Tupolev 134A CCCP-65058 Ivanovo Airport (IWA) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19920827-3 |access-date2017-10-19 |website=Aviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Mars makes its closest approach to Earth in nearly 60,000 years, passing {{convert|34646418|mi}} distant.
* 2003 &ndash; The first six-party talks, involving South and North Korea, the United States, China, Japan and Russia, convene to find a peaceful resolution to the security concerns of the North Korean nuclear weapons program.
*2006 &ndash; Comair Flight 5191 crashes on takeoff from Blue Grass Airport in Lexington, Kentucky, bound for Hartsfield–Jackson Atlanta International Airport in Atlanta. Of the passengers and crew, 49 of 50 are confirmed dead in the hours following the crash.
*2009 &ndash; Internal conflict in Myanmar: The Burmese military junta and ethnic armies begin three days of violent clashes in the Kokang Special Region.
*2011 &ndash; Hurricane Irene strikes the United States east coast, killing 47 and causing an estimated $15.6&nbsp;billion in damage.<ref>{{cite news |titleNational Weather Service|date18 March 2019 |urlhttps://www.weather.gov/mhx/Aug272011EventReview |access-date20 June 2009 }}</ref>
Births
Pre-1600
* 865 &ndash; Rhazes, Persian polymath (d. 925)
*1407 &ndash; Ashikaga Yoshikazu, Japanese shōgun (d. 1425)
*1471 &ndash; George, Duke of Saxony (d. 1539)
*1487 &ndash; Anna of Brandenburg (d. 1514)
*1512 &ndash; Friedrich Staphylus, German theologian (d. 1564)
*1542 &ndash; John Frederick, Duke of Pomerania and Protestant Bishop of Cammin (d. 1600)
*1545 &ndash; Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma (d. 1592)
1601–1900
*1624 &ndash; Koxinga, Chinese-Japanese Ming loyalist (d. 1662)
*1637 &ndash; Charles Calvert, 3rd Baron Baltimore, English politician, 2nd Proprietor of Maryland (d. 1715)
*1665 &ndash; John Hervey, 1st Earl of Bristol, English politician (d. 1751)
*1669 &ndash; Anne Marie d'Orléans, queen of Sardinia (d. 1728)
*1677 &ndash; Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun, Austrian general (d. 1748)
*1724 &ndash; John Joachim Zubly, Swiss-American pastor, planter, and politician (d. 1781)
*1730 &ndash; Johann Georg Hamann, German philosopher and author (d. 1788)
*1770 &ndash; Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, German philosopher and academic (d. 1831)
*1785 &ndash; Agustín Gamarra, Peruvian general and politician, 10th and 14th President of Peru (d. 1841)<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |lastCastro Peña |first Jenny |editorLexus Editores |encyclopedia Grandes Forjadores del Perú |titleGamarra Messia, Agustín |edition 1st |year2000 |publisher Lexus |locationLima |language es |isbn9972-625-50-8 |pages 176–177}}</ref>
*1795 &ndash; Giorgio Mitrovich, Maltese politician (d. 1885)<ref>{{cite news |last1Mangion |first1Fabian |titleRecalling a brave, sincere patriot forgotten by Malta |urlhttps://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20150308/life-features/Recalling-a-brave-sincere-patriot-forgotten-by-Malta.559170 |workTimes of Malta |date8 March 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181225125956/https://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20150308/life-features/Recalling-a-brave-sincere-patriot-forgotten-by-Malta.559170 |archive-date25 December 2018 |access-date24 December 2018 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1803 &ndash; Edward Beecher, American minister and theologian (d. 1895)
*1809 &ndash; Hannibal Hamlin, American publisher and politician, 15th Vice President of the United States (d. 1891)
*1812 &ndash; Bertalan Szemere, Hungarian poet and politician, 3rd Prime Minister of Hungary (d. 1869)
*1822 &ndash; William Hayden English, American politician, U.S. Representative from Indiana and Democratic vice-presidential nominee (d. 1896)<ref>{{cite book |year 1908 |title Commemorative Biographical Record of Prominent and Representative Men of Indianapolis and Vicinity |pages 9–18 |publisher J.H. Beers & Co. |location Chicago, Illinois |url https://archive.org/details/commemorativebio00chicago}}</ref>
*1827 &ndash; Charles Lilley, English-Australian politician, 4th Premier of Queensland (d. 1897)
*1845 &ndash; Ödön Lechner, Hungarian architect, designed the Museum of Applied Arts and the Church of St Elisabeth (d. 1914)
* 1845 &ndash; Friedrich Martens, Estonian-Russian historian, lawyer, and diplomat (d. 1909)
*1856 &ndash; Ivan Franko, Ukrainian author and poet (d. 1916)
*1858 &ndash; Giuseppe Peano, Italian mathematician and philosopher (d. 1932)
*1864 &ndash; Hermann Weingärtner, German gymnast (d. 1919)
*1865 &ndash; James Henry Breasted, American archaeologist and historian (d. 1935)
* 1865 &ndash; Charles G. Dawes, American general and politician, 30th Vice President of the United States, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1951)
*1868 &ndash; Hong Beom-do, Korean general and activist (d. 1943)
*1870 &ndash; Amado Nervo, Mexican journalist, poet, and diplomat (d. 1919)
*1871 &ndash; Theodore Dreiser, American novelist and journalist (d. 1945)
*1874 &ndash; Carl Bosch, German chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
*1875 &ndash; Katharine McCormick, American biologist, philanthropist, and activist (d. 1967)
*1877 &ndash; Charles Rolls, English engineer and businessman, co-founded Rolls-Royce Limited (d. 1910)
* 1877 &ndash; Ernst Wetter, Swiss lawyer and politician, 48th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1963)
*1878 &ndash; Pyotr Nikolayevich Wrangel, Russian general (d. 1928)
*1884 &ndash; Vincent Auriol, French lawyer and politician, President of the French Republic (d. 1966)<ref>{{cite book |last1Jessup |first1John E. |titleAn Encyclopedic Dictionary of Conflict and Conflict Resolution, 1945–1996 |date1998 |publisherGreenwood Publishing Group |isbn978-0-313-28112-9 |page43 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhP7jJAkTd9MC&dqVincent+Auriol+1+january+1966&pgPA43 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1884 &ndash; Denis G. Lillie, British biologist, member of the 1910–1913 Terra Nova Expedition (d. 1963)
*1886 &ndash; Rebecca Clarke, English viola player and composer (d. 1979)<ref>{{cite book|firstDavid|lastGreene|titleGreene's Biographical Encyclopedia of Composers|locationLondon|publisherCollins|year1986|page1164|isbn978-0-00434-363-1}}</ref>
*1890 &ndash; Man Ray, American-French photographer and painter (d. 1976)
*1895 &ndash; Andreas Alföldi, Hungarian archaeologist and historian (d. 1981)
*1896 &ndash; Kenji Miyazawa, Japanese author and poet (d. 1933)
*1898 &ndash; Gaspard Fauteux, Canadian businessman and politician, 19th Lieutenant Governor of Quebec (d. 1963)
*1899 &ndash; C. S. Forester, English novelist (d. 1966)
1901–present
*1904 &ndash; Alar Kotli, Estonian architect (d. 1963)
* 1904 &ndash; Norah Lofts, English author (d. 1983)
* 1904 &ndash; John Hay Whitney, American businessman, publisher, and diplomat, founded J.H. Whitney & Company (d. 1982)
*1905 &ndash; Aris Velouchiotis, Greek soldier (d. 1945)
*1906 &ndash; Ed Gein, American murderer and body snatcher, The Butcher of Plainfield (d. 1982)
*1908 &ndash; Don Bradman, Australian cricketer and manager (d. 2001)
* 1908 &ndash; Lyndon B. Johnson, American commander and politician, 36th President of the United States (d. 1973)<ref name"UPI">{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for Aug. 27: Sarah Chalke, Chandra Wilson |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2022/08/27/Famous-birthdays-for-Aug-27-Sarah-Chalke-Chandra-Wilson/9181661386332/ |publisherUPI |access-date25 August 2023 |date27 August 2022}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; Sylvère Maes, Belgian cyclist (d. 1966)
* 1909 &ndash; Charles Pozzi, French race car driver (d. 2001)
* 1909 &ndash; Lester Young, American saxophonist and clarinet player (d. 1959)
*1911 &ndash; Kay Walsh, English actress and dancer (d. 2005)
*1912 &ndash; Gloria Guinness, Mexican journalist (d. 1980)
*1915 &ndash; Norman Foster Ramsey Jr., American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)
*1916 &ndash; Gordon Bashford, English engineer, co-designed the Range Rover (d. 1991)
* 1916 &ndash; Tony Harris, South African cricketer and rugby player (d. 1993)
* 1916 &ndash; Martha Raye, American actress and comedian (d. 1994)
*1917 &ndash; Peanuts Lowrey, American baseball player, coach, and manager (d. 1986)
*1918 &ndash; Jelle Zijlstra, Dutch economist and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 2001)
*1919 &ndash; Pee Wee Butts, American baseball player and coach (d. 1972)
* 1919 &ndash; Murray Grand, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2007)
*1920 &ndash; Baptiste Manzini, American football player (d. 2008)
* 1920 &ndash; James Molyneaux, Baron Molyneaux of Killead, Northern Irish soldier and politician (d. 2015)
*1921 &ndash; Georg Alexander, Duke of Mecklenburg (d. 1996)
* 1921 &ndash; Leo Penn, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1998)
*1922 &ndash; Roelof Kruisinga, Dutch physician and politician, Minister of Defence for The Netherlands (d. 2012)
*1923 &ndash; Jimmy Greenhalgh, English footballer and manager (d. 2013)
*1924 &ndash; David Rowbotham, Australian journalist and poet (d. 2010)
* 1924 &ndash; Rosalie E. Wahl, American lawyer and jurist (d. 2013)
*1925 &ndash; Andrea Cordero Lanza di Montezemolo, Italian cardinal (d. 2017)
* 1925 &ndash; Nat Lofthouse, English footballer and manager (d. 2011)
* 1925 &ndash; Saiichi Maruya, Japanese author and critic (d. 2012)
* 1925 &ndash; Bill Neilson, Australian politician, 34th Premier of Tasmania (d. 1989)
* 1925 &ndash; Jaswant Singh Neki, Indian poet and academic (d. 2015)
* 1925 &ndash; Carter Stanley, American bluegrass singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1966)
*1926 &ndash; George Brecht, American-German chemist and composer (d. 2008)
* 1926 &ndash; Kristen Nygaard, Norwegian computer scientist and academic (d. 2002)
*1928 &ndash; Péter Boross, Hungarian lawyer and politician, 54th Prime Minister of Hungary
* 1928 &ndash; Mangosuthu Buthelezi, South African politician, Chief Minister of KwaZulu (d. 2023)
* 1928 &ndash; Joan Kroc, American philanthropist (d. 2003)
*1929 &ndash; Ira Levin, American novelist, playwright, and songwriter (d. 2007)
* 1929 &ndash; George Scott, Canadian-American wrestler and promoter (d. 2014)
*1930 &ndash; Aase Foss Abrahamsen, Norwegian writer (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleAase Foss Abrahamsen |first |last|encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date22 August 2023|editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Aase_Foss_Abrahamsen |languageno|access-date19 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1930 &ndash; Gholamreza Takhti, Iranian wrestler and politician (d. 1968)
*1931 &ndash; Sri Chinmoy, Indian-American guru and poet (d. 2007)
* 1931 &ndash; Joe Cunningham, American baseball player and coach (d. 2021)
*1932 &ndash; Cor Brom, Dutch footballer and manager (d. 2008)
* 1932 &ndash; Antonia Fraser, English historian and author
*1935 &ndash; Ernie Broglio, American baseball player (d. 2019)
* 1935 &ndash; Michael Holroyd, English author
* 1935 &ndash; Frank Yablans, American screenwriter and producer (d. 2014)
*1936 &ndash; Joel Kovel, American scholar and author (d. 2018)
* 1936 &ndash; Lien Chan, Taiwanese politician, Vice President of the Republic of China
*1937 &ndash; Alice Coltrane, American pianist and composer (d. 2007)
* 1937 &ndash; Tommy Sands, American pop singer and actor<ref name="AP" />
*1939 &ndash; William Least Heat-Moon, American travel writer and historian<ref name="UPI" />
* 1939 &ndash; Edward Patten, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2005)
*1939 &ndash; Nikola Pilić, Yugoslav tennis player and coach
*1940 &ndash; Fernest Arceneaux, American singer and accordion player (d. 2008)
* 1940 &ndash; Sonny Sharrock, American guitarist (d. 1994)
*1941 &ndash; Cesária Évora, Cape Verdean singer (d. 2011)
* 1941 &ndash; János Konrád, Hungarian water polo player and swimmer (d. 2014)
* 1941 &ndash; Harrison Page, American actor
*1942 &ndash; Daryl Dragon, American keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2019)
* 1942 &ndash; Brian Peckford, Canadian educator and politician, 3rd Premier of Newfoundland and Labrador
*1943 &ndash; Chuck Girard, American singer-songwriter and pianist
* 1943 &ndash; Bob Kerrey, American lieutenant and politician, Medal of Honor recipient, 35th Governor of Nebraska
* 1943 &ndash; Tuesday Weld, American model and actress<ref name="AP" />
*1944 &ndash; G. W. Bailey, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1944 &ndash; Tim Bogert, American singer and bass player (d. 2021)
*1945 &ndash; Douglas R. Campbell, Canadian lawyer and judge
* 1945 &ndash; Marianne Sägebrecht, German actress<ref name="AP" />
*1946 &ndash; Tony Howard, Barbadian cricketer and manager
*1947 &ndash; Barbara Bach, American actress and model<ref name="UPI" />
* 1947 &ndash; Halil Berktay, Turkish historian and academic
* 1947 &ndash; Kirk Francis, American engineer and producer
* 1947 &ndash; Peter Krieg, German director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2009)
* 1947 &ndash; John Morrison, New Zealand cricketer and politician
* 1947 &ndash; Gavin Pfuhl, South African cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2002)
*1948 &ndash; John Mehler, American drummer
* 1948 &ndash; Sgt. Slaughter, American wrestler<ref>{{cite web |titleThis Day in Wrestling History (August 27): The E Stands For Extreme! |urlhttps://www.cagesideseats.com/2016/8/27/12580236/this-day-in-wrestling-history-august-27-the-e-stands-for-extreme |publisherCageSide Seats |access-date25 August 2023 |date=27 August 2016}}</ref>
* 1948 &ndash; Deborah Swallow, English historian and curator
* 1948 &ndash; Philippe Vallois, French director and screenwriter
*1949 &ndash; Jeff Cook, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2022) <ref>{{Cite magazine |lastFreeman |firstJon |date2022-11-08 |titleJeff Cook, Alabama Co-Founder and Guitarist, Dead at 73 |urlhttps://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-country/jeff-cook-alabama-guitarist-dead-obituary-1234627084/ |access-date2023-08-25 |magazineRolling Stone |languageen-US}}</ref>
* 1949 &ndash; Leah Jamieson, American computer scientist, engineer, and academic
* 1949 &ndash; Ann Murray, Irish soprano
*1950 &ndash; Charles Fleischer, American comedian and actor
* 1950 &ndash; Neil Murray, Scottish bass player and songwriter
* 1950 &ndash; Edmund Weiner, English lexicographer and author
*1951 &ndash; Buddy Bell, American baseball player and manager
* 1951 &ndash; Mack Brown, American football player and coach
* 1951 &ndash; Randall Garrison, American-Canadian criminologist and politician
*1952 &ndash; Paul Reubens, American actor and comedian (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news|lastShanfeld|firstEthan|dateJuly 31, 2023|titlePaul Reubens, Pee-wee Herman Actor, Dies at 70 After Private Bout of Cancer|urlhttps://variety.com/2023/film/news/paul-reubens-dead-pee-wee-herman-1235683504/|workVariety|access-date=July 31, 2023}}</ref>
*1953 &ndash; Tom Berryhill, American businessman and politician (d. 2020)
* 1953 &ndash; Alex Lifeson, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer<ref name="AP" />
* 1953 &ndash; Joan Smith, English journalist and author
* 1953 &ndash; Peter Stormare, Swedish actor, director, and playwright<ref name="AP" />
*1954 &ndash; John Lloyd, English tennis player and sportscaster
* 1954 &ndash; Rajesh Thakker, English physician and academic
* 1954 &ndash; Derek Warwick, English race car driver
*1955 &ndash; Robert Richardson, American cinematographer
* 1955 &ndash; Diana Scarwid, American actress<ref name="AP" />
*1956 &ndash; Glen Matlock, English singer-songwriter and bass player<ref name="AP" />
*1957 &ndash; Jeff Grubb, American game designer and author
* 1957 &ndash; Bernhard Langer, German golfer<ref name="UPI" />
*1958 &ndash; Sergei Krikalev, Russian engineer and astronaut
* 1958 &ndash; Tom Lanoye, Belgian author, poet, and playwright
* 1958 &ndash; Hugh Orde, British police officer<ref>{{cite web |titleSir Hugh Orde: Commissioner in waiting? |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/sir-hugh-orde-commissioner-in-waiting-2336904.html |websiteThe Independent |access-date7 April 2020 |languageen |date13 August 2011}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; Daniela Romo, Mexican singer, actress and TV hostess
* 1959 &ndash; Gerhard Berger, Austrian race car driver
* 1959 &ndash; Juan Fernando Cobo, Colombian painter and sculptor
* 1959 &ndash; Denice Denton, American engineer and academic (d. 2006)
* 1959 &ndash; Frode Fjellheim, Norwegian pianist and composer
* 1959 &ndash; András Petőcz, Hungarian author and poet
* 1959 &ndash; Jeanette Winterson, English journalist and novelist
*1961 &ndash; Yolanda Adams, American singer, producer, and actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1961 &ndash; Mark Curry, English television host and actor
* 1961 &ndash; Tom Ford, American fashion designer and film director<ref name="UPI" />
* 1961 &ndash; Steve McDowall, New Zealand rugby player
* 1961 &ndash; Helmut Winklhofer, German footballer
*1962 &ndash; Adam Oates, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleAdam Oates |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/adam-oates-8449951 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date25 August 2023}}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; Stephan Elliott, Australian actor, director, and screenwriter
* 1964 &ndash; Paul Bernardo, Canadian serial rapist and murderer
*1965 &ndash; Scott Dibble, American lawyer and politician
* 1965 &ndash; Wayne James, Zimbabwean cricketer and coach
* 1965 &ndash; Ange Postecoglou, Greek-Australian footballer and coach
*1966 &ndash; Jeroen Duyster, Dutch rower
* 1966 &ndash; René Higuita, Colombian footballer
* 1966 &ndash; Juhan Parts, Estonian lawyer and politician, 14th Prime Minister of Estonia
*1967 &ndash; Ogie Alcasid, Filipino singer-songwriter, producer, and actor
* 1967 &ndash; Rob Burnett, American football player and sportscaster
*1968 &ndash; Eric "Bobo" Correa, American musician<ref name="AP" />
* 1968 &ndash; Daphne Koller, Israeli-American computer scientist and academic
* 1968 &ndash; Michael Long, New Zealand golfer
* 1968 &ndash; Matthew Ridge, New Zealand rugby player and sportscaster
*1969 &ndash; Mark Ealham, English cricketer
* 1969 &ndash; Cesar Millan, Mexican-American dog trainer, television personality, and author
* 1969 &ndash; Reece Shearsmith, English actor, comedian and writer
* 1969 &ndash; Chandra Wilson, American actress and director<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 27, 2022 includes celebrities Aaron Paul, Paul Reubens |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-27-2022-includes-celebrities-aaron-paul-paul-reubens.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date25 August 2023 |date=27 August 2022}}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; Andy Bichel, Australian cricketer and coach
* 1970 &ndash; Mark Ilott, English cricketer
* 1970 &ndash; Tony Kanal, British-American bass player. songwriter, and record producer<ref name="AP" />
* 1970 &ndash; Jim Thome, American baseball player and manager
* 1970 &ndash; Karl Unterkircher, Italian mountaineer (d. 2008)
*1971 &ndash; Ernest Faber, Dutch footballer and manager
* 1971 &ndash; Kyung Lah, South Korean-American journalist
* 1971 &ndash; Hisayuki Okawa, Japanese runner
* 1971 &ndash; Aygül Özkan, German lawyer and politician
*1972 &ndash; Jaap-Derk Buma, Dutch field hockey player
* 1972 &ndash; The Great Khali, Indian professional wrestler<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/Bios/great_khali.html|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20161108085035/http://slam.canoe.com/Slam/Wrestling/Bios/great_khali.html|url-statusdead|archive-dateNovember 8, 2016|title = Slam Wrestling Homepage}}</ref>
* 1972 &ndash; Denise Lewis, English heptathlete
* 1972 &ndash; Jimmy Pop, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1972 &ndash; Pokwang, Filipino comedian, actress, television host and singer<ref namedate-year-correction>{{cite AV media |peopleAlonzo Bea (host), Pokwang (guest)|date1 April 2023 |titlePokwang Takes a Legit Lie Detector Test (#bybea Lie Detector Ep.11)|trans-title|typeVlog |languageen, fil |urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vJb3d5SjvyY8 |access-date22 September 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240922122429/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vJb3d5SjvyY8|archive-date22 September 2024|format |time3:42-4:05|location |publisherBea Alonzo|id |isbn|oclc |quoteAlonzo: Were you born on August 27, 1970? Pokwang: (197)2!... Hoy! 1972 ako!... [Hey, I'm born in 1972] Pokwang: if you are watching Wikipedia, Marietta Subong. August 27, 1972, Year of the Water Rat... |ref|via=YouTube}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Danny Coyne, Welsh footballer
* 1973 &ndash; Dietmar Hamann, German footballer and manager
* 1973 &ndash; Burak Kut, Turkish singer-songwriter
* 1973 &ndash; Johan Norberg, Swedish historian and author
*1974 &ndash; Aaron Downey, Canadian ice hockey player and coach<ref>{{cite web |titleAaron Downey |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/aaron-downey-8465992 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date25 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1974 &ndash; Manny Fernandez, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleManny Fernandez |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/manny-fernandez-8458988 |publisherNational Hockey League |access-date25 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1974 &ndash; Michael Mason, New Zealand cricketer
* 1974 &ndash; José Vidro, Puerto Rican-American baseball player
* 1974 &ndash; Mohammad Yousuf, Pakistani cricketer
*1975 &ndash; Blake Adams, American golfer
* 1975 &ndash; Mase, American rapper, songwriter and pastor<ref name="AP" />
* 1975 &ndash; Jonny Moseley, Puerto Rican-American skier and television host
* 1975 &ndash; Marko Rudan, Australian footballer and manager
*1976 &ndash; Sarah Chalke, Canadian actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1976 &ndash; Audrey C. Delsanti, French astronomer and biologist
* 1976 &ndash; Milano Collection A.T., Japanese wrestler
* 1976 &ndash; Carlos Moyá, Spanish-Swiss tennis player
* 1976 &ndash; Mark Webber, Australian race car driver
*1977 &ndash; Deco, Brazilian-Portuguese footballer
* 1977 &ndash; Justin Miller, American baseball player (d. 2013)
*1978 &ndash; Demetria McKinney, American actress and singer<ref name="AP" />
*1979 &ndash; Sarah Neufeld, Canadian violinist
* 1979 &ndash; Aaron Paul, American actor and producer<ref name="AP" />
* 1979 &ndash; Karel Rachůnek, Czech ice hockey player (d. 2011)<ref>{{cite news |titleA plane crash killed 43 people including all but one of players & coaches of Yaroslavl Lokomotiv |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/clip/120968050/a-plane-crash-killed-43-people/ |access-date16 March 2023 |workThe Daily Herald-Tribune |date8 September 2011 |page16 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>
* 1979 &ndash; Rusty Smith, American speed skater
*1981 &ndash; Patrick J. Adams, Canadian actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1981 &ndash; Maxwell Cabelino Andrade, Brazilian footballer
* 1981 &ndash; Chantal Djotodia, Beninese-Central African nurse and politician<ref>{{cite web |last124 heures au Bénin |first124 heures au Bénin |titleA la découverte de Chantal Vinadou Tohouégnon Djotodia 1ère Dame de Bangui |urlhttp://news.acotonou.com/h/6230.html |websitenews.acotonou.com |publisherA Cotonou |access-date=23 April 2024}}</ref>
* 1981 &ndash; Alessandro Gamberini, Italian footballer
* 1981 &ndash; Karla Mosley, American actress<ref name="AP" />
*1983 &ndash; Joanna McGilchrist, English rugby player and physiotherapist
*1984 &ndash; David Bentley, English footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleDavid Bentley: Blackburn Rovers return for Tottenham winger |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/football/21477227 |websiteBBC Sport |access-date7 April 2020 |languageen-gb |date15 February 2013}}</ref>
* 1984 &ndash; Amanda Fuller, American actress<ref name="AP" />
* 1984 &ndash; Sulley Muntari, Ghanaian footballer
*1985 &ndash; Kayla Ewell, American actress<ref name="UPI" />
* 1985 &ndash; Kevan Hurst, English footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleKevan Hurst - Player Profile - Fotball |urlhttps://www.eurosport.no/fotball/kevan-hurst_prs135052/person.shtml |websiteEurosport |access-date7 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1985 &ndash; Nikica Jelavić, Croatian footballer
* 1985 &ndash; Alexandra Nechita, Romanian-American painter and sculptor
*1986 &ndash; Lana Bastašić, Serbian-Bosnian author and translator<ref>{{Cite web |titleLana Bastašić |urlhttps://lanabastasic.com/ |access-date2022-12-08 |websiteLana Bastašić |language=bs-BA}}</ref>
* 1986 &ndash; Sebastian Kurz, Austrian politician, 25th Chancellor of Austria
* 1986 &ndash; Mario, American singer and actor<ref name="AP" />
*1987 &ndash; Joel Grant, English-Jamaican footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Darren McFadden, American football player
*1988 &ndash; Alexa PenaVega, American actress and singer<ref name="AP" />
*1989 &ndash; Romain Amalfitano, French footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleRomain Amalfitano set for Newcastle transfer as the French connection |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/sport/football/transfers/romain-amalfitano-set-for-newcastle-transfer-as-the-french-connection-continues-7778785.html |websiteThe Independent |access-date7 April 2020 |languageen |date23 May 2012}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; Juliana Cannarozzo, American figure skater and actress
*1990 &ndash; Tori Bowie, American athlete (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite web|titleTori Bowie|urlhttps://www.olympic.org/tori-bowie|publisherInternational Olympic Committee|access-date18 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1990 &ndash; Luuk de Jong, Dutch footballer
*1991 &ndash; Lee Sung-yeol, South Korean actor and singer
*1992 &ndash; Blake Jenner, American actor and singer<ref name="UPI" />
* 1992 &ndash; Stephen Morris, American football player
* 1992 &ndash; Kim Petras, German singer-songwriter
* 1992 &ndash; Ayame Goriki, Japanese actress and singer
*1993 &ndash; Sarah Hecken, German figure skater
* 1993 &ndash; Olivier Le Gac, French cyclist
*1994 &ndash; Ellar Coltrane, American actor<ref name="AP" />
* 1994 &ndash; Breanna Stewart, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleBreanna Stewart |urlhttps://www.wnba.com/player/1627668/breanna-stewart |publisherWNBA |access-date25 August 2023}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Jessie Mei Li, English actress<ref name="UPI" />
* 1995 &ndash; Sergey Sirotkin, Russian race car driver
*1997 &ndash; Lucas Paquetá, Brazilian footballer<ref>{{cite web |titleLucas Paquetá Stats, Goals, Records, Assists, Cups and more |urlhttps://fbref.com/en/players/9b6f7fd5/Lucas-Paqueta |websitefbref.com |access-dateAugust 25, 2024}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Kevin Huerter, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleKevin Huerter Game by Game Stats and Performance |urlhttps://www.espn.co.uk/nba/player/gamelog/_/id/4066372/kevin-huerter |websiteESPN |access-date7 April 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1998 &ndash; Matheus Nunes, Portuguese footballer<ref>{{cite web|titleMatheus Nunes|urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/76204/Matheus-Nunes/overview|websitePremier League|access-date27 August 2024}}</ref>
* 1998 &ndash; Rod Wave, American rapper, singer, and songwriter<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.xxlmag.com/rod-wave-arrested-battery-strangulation/|titleRod Wave Arrested For Battery By Strangulation|firstC. Vernon|lastColeman|publisherXXL|dateMay 19, 2022|accessdateApril 3, 2024|archive-dateApril 3, 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240403191057/https://www.xxlmag.com/rod-wave-arrested-battery-strangulation/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Franz Wagner, German basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleFranz Wagner |urlhttps://www.nba.com/player/1630532/franz-wagner |publisherNational Basketball Association |access-date25 August 2023}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; Kang Ju-hyeok, South Korean footballer<ref>{{cite web|lastLee|firstJong-kyun|script-titleko:'17세 루키' 강주혁 결승골.. FC서울, 인천 유나이티드에 1-0 승리|urlhttp://www.maniareport.com/view.php?ud2024072809512433626cf2d78c68_19|websiteMania Times|access-dateNovember 3, 2024|languageko|date=July 28, 2024}}</ref>
*2007 &ndash; Ariana Greenblatt, American actress<ref name"Tweet2">{{Cite tweet |number1431312493767397377 |userArianaG |titlei'm 14 today😭😭☺️☺️ |authorAriana Greenblatt |dateAugust 27, 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210828061256/https://twitter.com/ArianaG/status/1431312493767397377 |archive-dateAugust 28, 2021 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
<!--Do not add yourself, non-notable people, or other people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not add fictional characters to this list. Do not trust “this year in history” websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 542 &ndash; Caesarius of Arles, French bishop and saint (b. 470)
* 749 &ndash; Qahtaba ibn Shabib al-Ta'i, Persian general
* 827 &ndash; Pope Eugene II<ref>{{cite web |titleEugenius II {{!}} Pope, Roman, Italy, Papacy {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Eugenius-II |websitewww.britannica.com |access-date9 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
* 923 &ndash; Ageltrude, queen of Italy and Holy Roman Empress
*1146 &ndash; King Eric III of Denmark
*1255 &ndash; Little Saint Hugh of Lincoln (b. 1247)
*1312 &ndash; Arthur II, Duke of Brittany (b. 1261)
*1394 &ndash; Emperor Chōkei of Japan (b. 1343)
*1450 &ndash; Reginald West, 6th Baron De La Warr, English politician (b. 1395)
*1521 &ndash; Josquin des Prez, Flemish composer (b. 1450)
*1545 &ndash; Piotr Gamrat, Polish archbishop (b. 1487)
*1576 &ndash; Titian, Italian painter and educator (b. 1488)
*1590 &ndash; Pope Sixtus V (b. 1521)<ref>{{cite book |last1Woodward |first1Bernard Bolingbroke |last2Cates |first2William Leist Readwin |titleEncyclopaedia of Chronology: Historical and Biographical |date1872 |publisherLee and Shepard |page1289 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZeI0AQAAMAAJ&pgPA1289 |languageen}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1611 &ndash; Tomás Luis de Victoria, Spanish composer (b. c. 1548)
*1635 &ndash; Lope de Vega, Spanish poet and playwright (b. 1562)
*1664 &ndash; Francisco de Zurbarán, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1598)
*1748 &ndash; James Thomson, Scottish poet and playwright (b. 1700)
*1782 &ndash; John Laurens, American Revolutionary and abolitionist (b. 1754)
*1828 &ndash; Eise Eisinga, Dutch astronomer and academic, built the Eisinga Planetarium (b. 1744)
*1857 &ndash; Rufus Wilmot Griswold, American anthologist, poet, and critic (b. 1815)
*1865 &ndash; Thomas Chandler Haliburton, Canadian judge and politician (b. 1796)
*1871 &ndash; William Whiting Boardman, American lawyer and politician (b. 1794)
*1875 &ndash; William Chapman Ralston, American businessman and financier, founded the Bank of California (b. 1826)
*1891 &ndash; Samuel C. Pomeroy, American businessman and politician (b. 1816)
1901–present
*1903 &ndash; Kusumoto Ine, first Japanese female doctor of Western medicine (b. 1827)<ref>{{cite book|editor-last Tsubota|editor-first Itsuo|title Bakumatsu ishin no josei.|script-title ja:幕末維新の女性|trans-title Women of the late-Edo and Meiji Restoration periods|publisher Akatsuki Kyōiku Tosho|year 1982|oclc 25252060|series Nihon hakken jinbutsu shirīzu|volume 6|page=95}}</ref>
*1909 &ndash; Emil Christian Hansen, Danish physiologist and mycologist (b. 1842)
*1922 &ndash; Reşat Çiğiltepe, Turkish colonel (b. 1879)
*1929 &ndash; Herman Potočnik, Croatian-Austrian engineer (b. 1892)
*1931 &ndash; Frank Harris, Irish-American journalist and author (b. 1856)
* 1931 &ndash; Willem Hubert Nolens, Dutch priest and politician (b. 1860)
* 1931 &ndash; Francis Marion Smith, American miner and businessman (b. 1846)
*1935 &ndash; Childe Hassam, American painter and academic (b. 1859)
*1944 &ndash; Georg von Boeselager, German soldier (b. 1915)
*1945 &ndash; Hubert Pál Álgyay, Hungarian engineer, designed the Petőfi Bridge (b. 1894)
*1948 &ndash; Charles Evans Hughes, American lawyer and politician, 11th Chief Justice of the United States (b. 1862)
*1950 &ndash; Cesare Pavese, Italian author, poet, and critic (b. 1908)
*1956 &ndash; Pelageya Shajn, Russian astronomer and academic (b. 1894)
*1958 &ndash; Ernest Lawrence, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1901)
*1963 &ndash; W. E. B. Du Bois, American sociologist, historian, and activist (b. 1868)
* 1963 &ndash; Inayatullah Khan Mashriqi, Pakistani mathematician and scholar (b. 1888)
*1964 &ndash; Gracie Allen, American actress and comedian (b. 1895)
*1965 &ndash; Le Corbusier, Swiss-French architect and urban planner, designed the Philips Pavilion (b. 1887)
*1967 &ndash; Brian Epstein, English businessman and manager (b. 1934)
*1968 &ndash; Princess Marina of Greece and Denmark (b. 1906)
*1969 &ndash; Ivy Compton-Burnett, English author (b. 1884)
* 1969 &ndash; Erika Mann, German actress and author (b. 1905)
*1971 &ndash; Bennett Cerf, American publisher, co-founded Random House (b. 1898)
* 1971 &ndash; Margaret Bourke-White, American photographer and journalist (b. 1906)
*1975 &ndash; Haile Selassie, Ethiopian emperor (b. 1892)
*1978 &ndash; Gordon Matta-Clark, American painter and illustrator (b. 1943)
* 1978 &ndash; Ieva Simonaitytė, Lithuanian author and poet (b. 1897)
*1979 &ndash; Louis Mountbatten, 1st Earl Mountbatten of Burma, English admiral and politician, 44th Governor-General of India (b. 1900)
*1980 &ndash; Douglas Kenney, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1947)
*1981 &ndash; Valeri Kharlamov, Russian ice hockey player (b. 1948)
*1990 &ndash; Avdy Andresson, Estonian soldier and diplomat (b. 1899)
* 1990 &ndash; Stevie Ray Vaughan, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1954)
*1992 &ndash; Bengt Holbek, Danish folklorist (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Hansen |first1William |titleObituary: Bengt Holbek (1933–1992) |journalThe Journal of American Folklore |date1993 |volume106 |issue420 |pages184–189 |jstor541968 |issn0021-8715}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Frank Jeske, German footballer (b. 1960)
*1996 &ndash; Greg Morris, American actor (b. 1933)
*1998 &ndash; Essie Summers, New Zealand author (b. 1912)
*1999 &ndash; Hélder Câmara, Brazilian archbishop and theologian (b. 1909)
*2001 &ndash; Michael Dertouzos, Greek-American computer scientist and academic (b. 1936)
* 2001 &ndash; Abu Ali Mustafa, Palestinian politician (b. 1938)
*2002 &ndash; Edwin Louis Cole, American religious leader and author (b. 1922)
*2003 &ndash; Pierre Poujade, French soldier and politician (b. 1920)
*2004 &ndash; Willie Crawford, American baseball player (b. 1946)
*2005 &ndash; Giorgos Mouzakis, Greek trumpet player and composer (b. 1922)
* 2005 &ndash; Seán Purcell, Irish footballer (b. 1929)
*2006 &ndash; Hrishikesh Mukherjee, Indian director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1922)
* 2006 &ndash; Jesse Pintado, Mexican-American guitarist (b. 1969)
*2007 &ndash; Emma Penella, Spanish actress (b. 1930)
*2009 &ndash; Sergey Mikhalkov, Russian author and poet (b. 1913)
*2010 &ndash; Anton Geesink, Dutch martial artist (b. 1934)
* 2010 &ndash; Luna Vachon, Canadian-American wrestler and manager (b. 1962)
*2012 &ndash; Neville Alexander, South African linguist and activist (b. 1936)
* 2012 &ndash; Malcolm Browne, American journalist and photographer (b. 1931)
* 2012 &ndash; Art Heyman, American basketball player (b. 1941)
* 2012 &ndash; Ivica Horvat, Croatian footballer and manager (b. 1926)
* 2012 &ndash; Richard Kingsland, Australian captain and pilot (b. 1916)
* 2012 &ndash; Geliy Korzhev, Russian painter (b. 1925)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://russia-ic.com/news/show/14606#.UD2HDUSGRVv |titleFamous Soviet and Russian Artist Gely Korzhev Passes Away |websiteRussia IC |dateAugust 28, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230320150348/http://russia-ic.com/news/show/14606 |archive-dateMarch 20, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Chen Liting, Chinese director and playwright (b. 1910)
* 2013 &ndash; Bill Peach, Australian journalist (b. 1935)
* 2013 &ndash; Dave Thomas, Welsh golfer and architect (b. 1934)
*2014 &ndash; Jacques Friedel, French physicist and academic (b. 1921)
* 2014 &ndash; Valeri Petrov, Bulgarian poet, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1920)
* 2014 &ndash; Benno Pludra, German author (b. 1925)
*2015 &ndash; Kazi Zafar Ahmed, Bangladeshi politician, 8th Prime Minister of Bangladesh (b. 1939)
* 2015 &ndash; Pascal Chaumeil, French director and screenwriter (b. 1961)
* 2015 &ndash; Darryl Dawkins, American basketball player and coach (b. 1957)
*2016 &ndash; Cookie, Australian Major Mitchell's cockatoo, oldest recorded parrot (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite web|titleOldest parrot – living|urlhttp://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-parrot-living|publisherGuinness World Records|accessdate20 June 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150704223148/http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/oldest-parrot-living|archive-date4 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/museums/ct-brookfield-zoo-cookie-cockatoo-dead-20160829-column.html|title Cookie the Cockatoo at Brookfield Zoo dies|date29 August 2016|publisherChicago Tribune|accessdate=20 June 2023}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Bob Carr, American politician (b. 1943)<ref>{{Cite web |lastSnabes |firstMelissa Nann Burke and Anne |titleFormer U.S. Rep. Bob Carr remembered as mentor, advocate for transportation, arts funding |urlhttps://www.detroitnews.com/story/news/local/michigan/2024/08/28/former-rep-bob-carr-dead-at-81-remembered-as-advocate-for-roads-arts-funding/74974749007/ |access-date2024-08-30 |websiteThe Detroit News |language=en-US}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Juan Izquierdo, Uruguayan footballer (b. 1997)<ref>{{cite web|authorSavarese, Mauricio |titleUruguayan soccer player Juan Izquierdo has died, days after collapsing during a game in Brazil|urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/sports/soccer/2024/08/27/izquierdo-dead-nacional-soccer-uruguay/eea43c02-64e7-11ef-a399-4245aabdb0ed_story.html|dateAugust 27, 2024 |publisher=Washington Post}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Charlotte Kretschmann, German supercentenarian (b. 1909)<ref>{{Cite news |date2024-08-28 |titleCharlotte Kretschmann: Älteste Frau Deutschlands im Alter von 114 Jahren gestorben |urlhttps://www.spiegel.de/panorama/charlotte-kretschmann-aelteste-frau-deutschlands-im-alter-von-114-jahren-gestorben-a-6fcc7b8d-bb89-4c51-8dd0-35ee8dd2ddc0 |access-date2024-08-30 |workDer Spiegel |languagede |issn=2195-1349}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Leonard Riggio, American businessman (b. 1941)<ref>{{Cite news |dateAugust 27, 2024 |titleLeonard Riggio, who built Barnes & Noble into a bookselling empire, dies at 83 |urlhttps://www.npr.org/2024/08/27/nx-s1-5091174/barnes-noble-leonard-riggio-obituary |access-dateAugust 28, 2024 |work=NPR}}</ref>
<!--Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Baculus of Sorrento
**Caesarius of Arles
**Decuman
**Gebhard of Constance
**Euthalia
**John of Pavia
**Lycerius (or: Glycerius, Lizier)
**Máel Ruba (or Rufus) (Scotland)
**Margaret the Barefooted
**Monica of Hippo, mother of Augustine of Hippo
**Narnus
**Our Lady of La Vang
**Phanourios of Rhodes
**Rufus and Carpophorus
**Syagrius of Autun
**Thomas Gallaudet and Henry Winter Syle (Episcopal Church)
**August 27 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Independence Day (Republic of Moldova), celebrates the independence of Moldova from the USSR in 1991.
*Lyndon Baines Johnson Day (Texas, United States)
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/27 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day27}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/27 |titleHistorical Events on August 27 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 27}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_27 | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.241524 |
1014 | Alcohol (chemistry) | {{Short description|Organic compound with at least one hydroxyl (–OH) group}}
{{About|the class of chemical compounds|the alcohol found in alcoholic drinks|Alcohol (drug)||Alcohol (disambiguation)}}
<!-- please do not remove hatnote without discussion; "alcohols" redirects here -->
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Use American English|date=January 2024}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}
of an alcohol molecule ({{chem2|R3COH}}). The red and white balls represent the hydroxyl group ({{chem2|\sOH}}). The three "R"s stand for carbon substituents or hydrogen atoms.<ref>{{cite journal|titlealcohols|urlhttp://goldbook.iupac.org/A00204.html|journalIUPAC Gold Book|date2014 |doi10.1351/goldbook.A00204 |access-date16 December 2013|doi-access=free}}</ref>]]
In chemistry, an alcohol ({{etymology|ar|al-kuḥl|the kohl}}),<ref nameScienceFriday>{{Cite web |titleThe Origin Of The Word 'Alcohol' |urlhttps://www.sciencefriday.com/articles/the-origin-of-the-word-alcohol/ |access-date2024-09-30 |websiteScience Friday |languageen-US}}</ref> is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl ({{chem2|\sOH}}) functional group bound to a saturated carbon atom.<ref>{{GoldBookRef | title Alcohols | file A00204}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi10.1002/9780470771259|titleThe Hydroxyl Group |year1971 |editorSaul Patai|isbn978-0-470-77125-9|seriesPATAI'S Chemistry of Functional Groups }}</ref> Alcohols range from the simple, like methanol and ethanol, to complex, like sugar alcohols and cholesterol. The presence of an OH group strongly modifies the properties of hydrocarbons, conferring hydrophilic (water-loving) properties. The OH group provides a site at which many reactions can occur.{{TOC limit|3}}
History
The flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as Aristotle (384–322 BCE), Theophrastus ({{circa|371}}–287 BCE), and Pliny the Elder (23/24–79 CE).<ref>{{cite book|last1Berthelot|first1Marcellin|author1-linkMarcellin Berthelot|last2Houdas|first2Octave V.|year1893|titleLa Chimie au Moyen Âge|volumeI–III|locationParis|publisherImprimerie nationale}} vol. I, p. 137.</ref> However, this did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol, even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second- and third-century Roman Egypt.<ref>{{harvnb|Berthelot|Houdas|1893|locvol. I, pp. 138–139}}.</ref> An important recognition, first found in one of the writings attributed to Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (ninth century CE), was that by adding salt to boiling wine, which increases the wine's relative volatility, the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced.<ref>{{cite book|last1al-Hassan|first1Ahmad Y.|author-linkAhmad Y. al-Hassan|year2009|chapterAlcohol and the Distillation of Wine in Arabic Sources from the 8th Century|titleStudies in al-Kimya': Critical Issues in Latin and Arabic Alchemy and Chemistry|locationHildesheim|publisherGeorg Olms Verlag|pages283–298}} (same content also available on [http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html the author's website]).</ref> The distillation of wine is attested in Arabic works attributed to al-Kindī ({{circa|801}}–873 CE) and to al-Fārābī ({{circa|872}}–950), and in the 28th book of al-Zahrāwī's (Latin: Abulcasis, 936–1013) Kitāb al-Taṣrīf (later translated into Latin as Liber servatoris).<ref>{{harvnb|al-Hassan|2009}} (same content also available on [http://www.history-science-technology.com/notes/notes7.html the author's website]); cf. {{harvnb|Berthelot|Houdas|1893|locvol. I, pp. 141, 143}}. Sometimes, sulfur was also added to the wine (see {{harvnb|Berthelot|Houdas|1893|locvol. I, p. 143}}).</ref> In the twelfth century, recipes for the production of aqua ardens ("burning water", i.e., alcohol) by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of Latin works, and by the end of the thirteenth century, it had become a widely known substance among Western European chemists.<ref>{{cite book|lastMulthauf|firstRobert P.|author-linkRobert P. Multhauf|year1966|titleThe Origins of Chemistry|locationLondon|publisherOldbourne|isbn978-2-88124-594-7}} pp. 204–206.</ref>
The works of Taddeo Alderotti (1223–1296) describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a water-cooled still, by which an alcohol purity of 90% could be obtained.<ref>{{cite book|last1Holmyard|first1Eric John|author1-linkEric John Holmyard|date1957|titleAlchemy|locationHarmondsworth|publisherPenguin Books|isbn978-0-486-26298-7}} pp. 51–52.</ref> The medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by Arnald of Villanova (1240–1311 CE) and John of Rupescissa ({{circa|1310}}–1366), the latter of whom regarded it as a life-preserving substance able to prevent all diseases (the aqua vitae or "water of life", also called by John the quintessence of wine).<ref>{{cite book|lastPrincipe|firstLawrence M.|author-linkLawrence M. Principe|year2013|titleThe Secrets of Alchemy|locationChicago|publisherThe University of Chicago Press|isbn978-0-226-10379-2}} pp. 69–71.</ref>
Nomenclature
Etymology
The word "alcohol" derives from the Arabic kohl ({{langx|ar|الكحل|al-kuḥl}}), a powder used as an eyeliner.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.etymonline.com/search?qalcohol |titleAlcohol |access-date17 May 2018 |dictionaryEtymonline |lastHarper |firstDouglas |author-linkDouglas Harper |publisherMaoningTech}}</ref> The first part of the word ({{transl|ar|al-}}) is the Arabic definite article, equivalent to the in English. The second part of the word ({{transl|ar|kuḥl}}) has several antecedents in Semitic languages, ultimately deriving from the Akkadian {{lang|akk|{{cuneiform|6|𒎎𒋆𒁉𒍣𒁕}}}} ({{transl|akk|guḫlum}}), meaning stibnite or antimony.<ref>[https://archive.org/details/akkadischefremdw00zimmuoft?viewtheater#page/61 Zimmern, Heinrich (1915) Akkadische Fremdwörter als Beweis für babylonischen Kultureinfluss (in German), Leipzig: A. Edelmann, page 61]</ref>
Like its antecedents in Arabic and older languages, the term alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide {{chem2|Sb2S3}}. It was considered to be the essence or "spirit" of this mineral. It was used as an antiseptic, eyeliner, and cosmetic. Later the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general, and then narrowed again to ethanol, when "spirits" was a synonym for hard liquor.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.vias.org/encyclopedia/Alcohol_004.html |encyclopediaVIAS Encyclopedia |titleEtymology of the Word "Alcohol" |firstH. |lastLohninger |date21 December 2004 |access-date=17 May 2018}}</ref>
Paracelsus and Libavius both used the term alcohol to denote a fine powder, the latter speaking of an alcohol derived from antimony. At the same time Paracelsus uses the word for a volatile liquid; alcool or alcool vini occurs often in his writings.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitleAlcohol |volume1 |page=525}}</ref>
Bartholomew Traheron, in his 1543 translation of John of Vigo, introduces the word as a term used by "barbarous" authors for "fine powder." Vigo wrote: "the barbarous auctours use alcohol, or (as I fynde it sometymes wryten) alcofoll, for moost fine poudre."<ref name"OED-2016">{{cite encyclopedia |titlealcohol, n. |dictionaryOED Online |publisherOxford University Press |date=15 November 2016}}</ref>
The 1657 Lexicon Chymicum, by William Johnson glosses the word as "antimonium sive stibium."<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idd645AAAAcAAJ |titleLexicon Chymicum |lastJohnson |firstWilliam |year1652}}</ref> By extension, the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation, including "alcohol of wine," the distilled essence of wine. Libavius in Alchymia (1594) refers to "{{tooltip|vini alcohol vel vinum alcalisatum|wine alcohol or alkaline wine}}". Johnson (1657) glosses alcohol vini as "{{tooltip|quando omnis superfluitas vini a vino separatur, ita ut accensum ardeat donec totum consumatur, nihilque fæcum aut phlegmatis in fundo remaneat|when all the excess of the wine is separated from the wine, so that the kindling burns until it is all consumed, and no dregs or phlegm remains at the bottom}}." The word's meaning became restricted to "spirit of wine" (the chemical known today as ethanol) in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances so-called as "alcohols" in modern chemistry after 1850.<ref name="OED-2016"/>
The term ethanol was invented in 1892, blending "ethane" with the "-ol" ending of "alcohol", which was generalized as a libfix.<ref>{{cite journal |journalProc. Chem. Soc. |date8 July 1892 |page128 |titleContributions to an international system of nomenclature. The nomenclature of cycloids |firstHenry E. |lastArmstrong |quoteAs ol is indicative of an OH derivative, there seems no reason why the simple word acid should not connote carboxyl, and why al should not connote COH; the names ethanol ethanal and ethanoic acid or simply ethane acid would then stand for the OH, COH and COOH derivatives of ethane. |doi10.1039/PL8920800127 |volume8 |issue114 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idax1LAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA128}}</ref>
The term alcohol originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic drinks.
The suffix -ol appears in the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) chemical name of all substances where the hydroxyl group is the functional group with the highest priority. When a higher priority group is present in the compound, the prefix hydroxy- is used in its IUPAC name. The suffix -ol in non-IUPAC names (such as paracetamol or cholesterol) also typically indicates that the substance is an alcohol. However, some compounds that contain hydroxyl functional groups have trivial names that do not include the suffix -ol or the prefix hydroxy-, e.g. the sugars glucose and sucrose.
Systematic names
IUPAC nomenclature is used in scientific publications, and in writings where precise identification of the substance is important. In naming simple alcohols, the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds the suffix -ol, e.g., as in "ethanol" from the alkane chain name "ethane".<ref name"Reusch-2007">{{cite web | author William Reusch | work VirtualText of Organic Chemistry | title Alcohols | url http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/alcohol1.htm#alcnom | access-date 14 September 2007 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070919162404/http://www.cem.msu.edu/~reusch/VirtualText/alcohol1.htm#alcnom | archive-date 19 September 2007 | url-status dead}}</ref> When necessary, the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the -ol: propan-1-ol for {{chem2|CH3CH2CH2OH}}, propan-2-ol for {{chem2|CH3CH(OH)CH3}}. If a higher priority group is present (such as an aldehyde, ketone, or carboxylic acid), then the prefix hydroxy-is used,<ref name"Reusch-2007"/> e.g., as in 1-hydroxy-2-propanone ({{chem2|CH3C(O)CH2OH}}).<ref>Organic chemistry IUPAC nomenclature. [http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/79/r79_202.htm Alcohols Rule C-201].</ref> Compounds having more than one hydroxy group are called polyols. They are named using suffixes -diol, -triol, etc., following a list of the position numbers of the hydroxyl groups, as in propane-1,2-diol for CH<sub>3</sub>CH(OH)CH<sub>2</sub>OH (propylene glycol).
{| class="wikitable skin-invert-image"
|+ Example alcohols and representations
! Structural formula
! Skeletal formula
! Preferred IUPAC name
! Other systematic names
! Common names
! Degree
|- style="text-align: center"
| {{chem2|CH3\sCH2\sCH2\sOH}}
|
| propan-1-ol
| 1-propanol;<br />n-propyl alcohol
| propanol
| primary
|- style="text-align: center"
|
|
| propan-2-ol
| 2-propanol
| isopropyl alcohol;<br />isopropanol
| secondary
|- style="text-align: center"
|
|
| cyclohexanol
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| secondary
|- style="text-align: center"
|
|
| 2-methylpropan-1-ol
| 2-methyl-1-propanol
| isobutyl alcohol;<br />isobutanol
| primary
|- style="text-align: center"
|
|
| tert-amyl alcohol
| 2-methylbutan-2-ol;<br />2-methyl-2-butanol
| TAA
| tertiary
|}
In cases where the hydroxy group is bonded to an sp<sup>2</sup> carbon on an aromatic ring, the molecule is classified separately as a phenol and is named using the IUPAC rules for naming phenols.<ref>[http://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/79/r79_212.htm Organic Chemistry Nomenclature Rule C-203: Phenols]</ref> Phenols have distinct properties and are not classified as alcohols.
Common names
In other less formal contexts, an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word "alcohol", e.g., methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol. Propyl alcohol may be n-propyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol, depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain. As described under systematic naming, if another group on the molecule takes priority, the alcohol moiety is often indicated using the "hydroxy-" prefix.<ref name"chem.uiuc">{{cite web|titleHow to name organic compounds using the IUPAC rules|urlhttp://www.chem.uiuc.edu/GenChemReferences/nomenclature_rules.html|websitewww.chem.uiuc.edu|publisherTHE DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS|access-date14 November 2016}}</ref>
In archaic nomenclature, alcohols can be named as derivatives of methanol using "-carbinol" as the ending. For instance, {{chem2|(CH3)3COH}} can be named trimethylcarbinol.
Primary, secondary, and tertiary
{{anchor|secondary|tertiary}}
Alcohols are then classified into primary, secondary (sec-, s-), and tertiary (tert-, t-), based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group. The respective numeric shorthands 1°, 2°, and 3° are sometimes used in informal settings.<ref>{{cite web|last1Reusch|first1William|titleNomenclature of Alcohols|urlhttp://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Organic_Chemistry/Alcohols/Nomenclature_of_Alcohols|websitechemwiki.ucdavis.edu/|date2 October 2013|access-date17 March 2015}}</ref> The primary alcohols have general formulas {{chem2|RCH2OH}}. The simplest primary alcohol is methanol ({{chem2|CH3OH}}), for which R H, and the next is ethanol, for which {{chem2|1R CH3}}, the methyl group. Secondary alcohols are those of the form RR'CHOH, the simplest of which is 2-propanol ({{chem2|1R R' CH3}}). For the tertiary alcohols, the general form is RR'R"COH. The simplest example is tert-butanol (2-methylpropan-2-ol), for which each of R, R', and R" is {{chem2|CH3}}. In these shorthands, R, R', and R" represent substituents, alkyl or other attached, generally organic groups.Examples{| class"wikitable"
! Type
! Formula
! IUPAC Name
! Common name
|-
| rowspan="6"|Monohydric<br />alcohols
| {{chem2|CH3OH}}
| Methanol
| Wood alcohol
|-
| {{chem2|C2H5OH}}
| Ethanol
| Alcohol, Rubbing alcohol
|-
| {{chem2|C3H7OH}}
| Propan-2-ol
| Isopropyl alcohol,<br />Rubbing alcohol
|-
| {{chem2|C4H9OH}}
| Butan-1-ol
| Butanol,<br />Butyl alcohol
|-
| {{chem2|C5H11OH}}
| Pentan-1-ol
| Pentanol,<br />Amyl alcohol
|-
| {{chem2|C16H33OH}}
| Hexadecan-1-ol
| Cetyl alcohol
|-
| rowspan="7"|Polyhydric<br />alcohols<br />(sugar<br />alcohols)
| {{chem2|C2H4(OH)2}}
| Ethane-1,2-diol
| Ethylene glycol
|-
| {{chem2|C3H6(OH)2}}
| Propane-1,2-diol
| Propylene glycol
|-
| {{chem2|C3H5(OH)3}}
| Propane-1,2,3-triol
| Glycerol
|-
| {{chem2|C4H6(OH)4}}
| Butane-1,2,3,4-tetraol
| Erythritol,<br />Threitol
|-
| {{chem2|C5H7(OH)5}}
| Pentane-1,2,3,4,5-pentol
| Xylitol
|-
| {{chem2|C6H8(OH)6}}
| hexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol
| Mannitol,<br />Sorbitol
|-
| {{chem2|C7H9(OH)7}}
| Heptane-1,2,3,4,5,6,7-heptol
| Volemitol
|-
| rowspan="3"|Unsaturated<br />aliphatic alcohols
| {{chem2|C3H5OH}}
| Prop-2-ene-1-ol
| Allyl alcohol
|-
| {{chem2|C10H17OH}}
| 3,7-Dimethylocta-2,6-dien-1-ol
| Geraniol
|-
| {{chem2|C3H3OH}}
| Prop-2-yn-1-ol
| Propargyl alcohol
|-
| rowspan="2"|Alicyclic alcohols
| {{chem2|C6H6(OH)6}}
| Cyclohexane-1,2,3,4,5,6-hexol
| Inositol
|-
| {{chem2|C10H19OH}}
| 5-Methyl-2-(propan-2-yl)cyclohexan-1-ol
| Menthol
|}
Applications
(15+) per year, in litres of pure ethanol<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.who.int/entity/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.who.int/entity/substance_abuse/publications/global_status_report_2004_overview.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |titleGlobal Status Report on Alcohol 2004 |access-date28 November 2010}}</ref>]]
Alcohols have a long history of myriad uses. For simple mono-alcohols, which is the focus on this article, the following are most important industrial alcohols:<ref name"Falbe">{{Ullmann | first1 Jürgen | last1 Falbe | first2 Helmut | last2 Bahrmann | first3 Wolfgang | last3 Lipps | first4 Dieter | last4 Mayer | title Alcohols, Aliphatic | doi = 10.1002/14356007.a01_279}}.</ref>
* methanol, mainly for the production of formaldehyde and as a fuel additive
* ethanol, mainly for alcoholic beverages, fuel additive, solvent, and to sterilize hospital instruments.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAlcohol {{!}} Definition, Formula, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/science/alcohol |access-date2024-11-08 |websitewww.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>
* 1-propanol, 1-butanol, and isobutyl alcohol for use as a solvent and precursor to solvents
* C6–C11 alcohols used for plasticizers, e.g. in polyvinylchloride
* fatty alcohol (C12–C18), precursors to detergents
Methanol is the most common industrial alcohol, with about 12 million tons/y produced in 1980. The combined capacity of the other alcohols is about the same, distributed roughly equally.<ref name"Falbe"/>ToxicityWith respect to acute toxicity, simple alcohols have low acute toxicities. Doses of several milliliters are tolerated. For pentanols, hexanols, octanols, and longer alcohols, LD50 range from 2–5 g/kg (rats, oral). Ethanol is less acutely toxic.<ref>Ethanol toxicity</ref> All alcohols are mild skin irritants.<ref name"Falbe"/>
Methanol and ethylene glycol are more toxic than other simple alcohols. Their metabolism is affected by the presence of ethanol, which has a higher affinity for liver alcohol dehydrogenase. In this way, methanol will be excreted intact in urine.<ref name"Schep-2009">{{cite journal |vauthorsSchep LJ, Slaughter RJ, Vale JA, Beasley DM |titleA seaman with blindness and confusion |journalBMJ|volume339 |pagesb3929 |date30 September 2009|urlhttp://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/339/sep30_1/b3929|doi10.1136/bmj.b3929|pmid19793790|s2cid6367081 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 Zimmerman | first1 HE | last2 Burkhart | first2 KK | last3 Donovan | first3 JW | title Ethylene glycol and methanol poisoning: diagnosis and treatment | journal Journal of Emergency Nursing | volume 25 | issue 2 | pages 116–20 | year 1999 | pmid 10097201 | doi 10.1016/S0099-1767(99)70156-X }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 Lobert | first1 S | title Ethanol, isopropanol, methanol, and ethylene glycol poisoning | journal Critical Care Nurse | volume 20 | issue 6 | pages 41–7 | year 2000 | pmid 11878258 | doi 10.4037/ccn2000.20.6.41 }}</ref>Physical properties
In general, the hydroxyl group makes alcohols polar. Those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to most other compounds. Owing to the presence of the polar OH alcohols are more water-soluble than simple hydrocarbons. Methanol, ethanol, and propanol are miscible in water. 1-Butanol, with a four-carbon chain, is moderately soluble.
Because of hydrogen bonding, alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers. The boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 78.29&nbsp;°C, compared to 69&nbsp;°C for the hydrocarbon hexane, and 34.6&nbsp;°C for diethyl ether.
Occurrence in nature
Alcohols occur widely in nature, as derivatives of glucose such as cellulose and hemicellulose, and in phenols and their derivatives such as lignin.<ref>{{cite book |doi10.1002/14356007.a28_305 |chapterWood |titleUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date2000 |last1Nimz |first1Horst H. |last2Schmitt |first2Uwe |last3Schwab |first3Eckart |last4Wittmann |first4Otto |last5Wolf |first5Franz |isbn978-3-527-30385-4 }}</ref> Starting from biomass, 180 billion tons/y of complex carbohydrates (sugar polymers) are produced commercially (as of 2014).<ref>{{cite book |doi10.1002/14356007.n05_n07 |chapterCarbohydrates as Organic Raw Materials |titleUllmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry |date2010 |last1Lichtenthaler |first1Frieder W. |isbn978-3-527-30673-2 }}</ref> Many other alcohols are pervasive in organisms, as manifested in other sugars such as fructose and sucrose, in polyols such as glycerol, and in some amino acids such as serine. Simple alcohols like methanol, ethanol, and propanol occur in modest quantities in nature, and are industrially synthesized in large quantities for use as chemical precursors, fuels, and solvents.
Production
Hydroxylation
Many alcohols are produced by hydroxylation, i.e., the installation of a hydroxy group using oxygen or a related oxidant. Hydroxylation is the means by which the body processes many poisons, converting lipophilic compounds into hydrophilic derivatives that are more readily excreted. Enzymes called hydroxylases and oxidases facilitate these conversions.
Many industrial alcohols, such as cyclohexanol for the production of nylon, are produced by hydroxylation.
Ziegler and oxo processes
In the Ziegler process, linear alcohols are produced from ethylene and triethylaluminium followed by oxidation and hydrolysis.<ref name="Falbe"/> An idealized synthesis of 1-octanol is shown:
:{{chem2 | Al(C2H5)3 + 9 C2H4 -> Al(C8H17)3 }}
:{{chem2 | Al(C8H17)3 + 3O + 3 H2O -> 3 HOC8H17 + Al(OH)3 }}
The process generates a range of alcohols that are separated by distillation.
Many higher alcohols are produced by hydroformylation of alkenes followed by hydrogenation. When applied to a terminal alkene, as is common, one typically obtains a linear alcohol:<ref name="Falbe"/>
:{{chem2 | RCH\dCH2 + H2 + CO -> RCH2CH2CHO }}
:{{chem2 | RCH2CH2CHO + 3 H2 -> RCH2CH2CH2OH }}
Such processes give fatty alcohols, which are useful for detergents.
Hydration reactions
Some low molecular weight alcohols of industrial importance are produced by the addition of water to alkenes. Ethanol, isopropanol, 2-butanol, and tert-butanol are produced by this general method. Two implementations are employed, the direct and indirect methods. The direct method avoids the formation of stable intermediates, typically using acid catalysts. In the indirect method, the alkene is converted to the sulfate ester, which is subsequently hydrolyzed. The direct hydration uses ethylene (ethylene hydration)<ref name"Lodgsdon-1994">{{cite book |authorLodgsdon J.E. |year1994 |chapterEthanol |editorKroschwitz J.I. |titleEncyclopedia of Chemical Technology| edition4th |volume9 |page820 |locationNew York |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn978-0-471-52677-3}}</ref> or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil.
Hydration is also used industrially to produce the diol ethylene glycol from ethylene oxide.
Fermentation
Ethanol is obtained by fermentation of glucose (which is often obtained from starch) in the presence of yeast. Carbon dioxide is cogenerated. Like ethanol, butanol can be produced by fermentation processes. Saccharomyces yeast are known to produce these higher alcohols at temperatures above {{convert|75|°F|°C|abbron}}. The bacterium Clostridium acetobutylicum can feed on cellulose (also an alcohol) to produce butanol on an industrial scale.<ref name"Zverlov-2006">{{cite journal|last1Zverlov|first1W|last2Berezina|first2O|last3Velikodvorskaya|first3GA|last4Schwarz|first4WH|s2cid24074264|titleBacterial acetone and butanol production by industrial fermentation in the Soviet Union: use of hydrolyzed agricultural waste for biorefinery.|journalApplied Microbiology and Biotechnology|dateAugust 2006|volume71|issue5|pages587–97|doi10.1007/s00253-006-0445-z|pmid16685494}}</ref>SubstitutionPrimary alkyl halides react with aqueous NaOH or KOH to give alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution. Secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination (alkene) product instead. Grignard reagents react with carbonyl groups to give secondary and tertiary alcohols. Related reactions are the Barbier reaction and the Nozaki–Hiyama–Kishi reaction.ReductionAldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride (after an acidic workup). Another reduction using aluminium isopropoxide is the Meerwein–Ponndorf–Verley reduction. Noyori asymmetric hydrogenation is the asymmetric reduction of β-keto-esters.Hydrolysis
Alkenes engage in an acid catalyzed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols. Formation of a secondary alcohol via alkene reduction and hydration is shown:
:
The hydroboration-oxidation and oxymercuration-reduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis. Alkenes react with N-bromosuccinimide and water in halohydrin formation reaction. Amines can be converted to diazonium salts, which are then hydrolyzed.
Reactions<!-- This section is linked from Organic reaction -->
Deprotonation
With aqueous pK<sub>a</sub> values of around 16–19, alcohols are, in general, slightly weaker acids than water. With strong bases such as sodium hydride or sodium they form salts{{efn|Although commonly described as "salts", alkali metal alkoxides are actually better described structurally as oligomeric clusters or polymeric chains. For instance, potassium tert-butoxide consists of a cubane-like tetramer, {{chem2|[t\-BuOK]4}}, that persists even in polar solvents like THF.}} called alkoxides, with the general formula {{chem2|RO-M+}} (where R is an alkyl and M is a metal).
:{{chem2 | R\sOH + NaH -> R\sO-Na+ + H2 }}
:{{chem2 | 2 R\sOH + 2 Na -> 2 R\sO-Na+ + H2 }}
The acidity of alcohols is strongly affected by solvation. In the gas phase, alcohols are more acidic than in water.<ref>{{March6th|modecs1}}</ref> In DMSO, alcohols (and water) have a pK<sub>a</sub> of around 29–32. As a consequence, alkoxides (and hydroxide) are powerful bases and nucleophiles (e.g., for the Williamson ether synthesis) in this solvent. In particular, {{chem2|RO-}} or {{chem2|HO-}} in DMSO can be used to generate significant equilibrium concentrations of acetylide ions through the deprotonation of alkynes (see Favorskii reaction).<ref>{{cite journal|last1Ahmed|first1Jasimuddin|last2Swain|first2Asim Kumar|last3Das|first3Arpan|last4Govindarajan|first4R.|last5Bhunia|first5Mrinal|last6Mandal|first6Swadhin K.|date14 November 2019|titleA K-arylacetylide complex for catalytic terminal alkyne functionalization using KOtBu as a precatalyst|urlhttps://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2019/cc/c9cc07833a|journalChemical Communications|languageen|volume55|issue92|pages13860–13863|doi10.1039/C9CC07833A|pmid31670328|s2cid204974842|issn1364-548X}}</ref><ref>{{cite patent|numberWO1994012457A1|titleProcess for preparing tertiary alkynols|gdate1994-06-09|invent1Babler|inventor1-firstJames H.|urlhttps://patents.google.com/patent/WO1994012457A1/en}}</ref>Nucleophilic substitutionTertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl chloride. Primary and secondary alcohols are converted to the corresponding chlorides using thionyl chloride and various phosphorus chloride reagents.<ref>{{cite book |doi10.1002/9780470771259.ch11|chapterDisplacement of Hydroxyl Groups |titleThe Hydroxyl Group (1971) |year1971 |last1Brown |first1Geoffrey W. |seriesPATai's Chemistry of Functional Groups |pages593–639 |isbn978-0-470-77125-9 }}</ref>
:
Primary and secondary alcohols, likewise, convert to alkyl bromides using phosphorus tribromide, for example:
:{{chem2 | 3 R\sOH + PBr3 -> 3 RBr + H3PO3 }}
In the Barton–McCombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylborane-water complex in a radical substitution reaction.
Dehydration
Meanwhile, the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid. For example, with methanol:
:
Upon treatment with strong acids, alcohols undergo the E1 elimination reaction to produce alkenes. The reaction, in general, obeys Zaytsev's rule, which states that the most stable (usually the most substituted) alkene is formed. Tertiary alcohols are eliminated easily at just above room temperature, but primary alcohols require a higher temperature.
This is a diagram of acid catalyzed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethylene:
:
A more controlled elimination reaction requires the formation of the xanthate ester.
Protonolysis
Tertiary alcohols react with strong acids to generate carbocations. The reaction is related to their dehydration, e.g. isobutylene from tert-butyl alcohol. A special kind of dehydration reaction involves triphenylmethanol and especially its amine-substituted derivatives. When treated with acid, these alcohols lose water to give stable carbocations, which are commercial dyes.<ref name"Gessner-2000">{{Ullmann's | last1 Gessner | first1 Thomas | last2 Mayer | first2 Udo | title Triarylmethane and Diarylmethane Dyes | year 2000 | doi 10.1002/14356007.a27_179}}</ref>
classskin-invert-image|thumb|right|322px|Preparation of crystal violet by protonolysis of the tertiary alcohol.Esterification
Alcohol and carboxylic acids react in the so-called Fischer esterification. The reaction usually requires a catalyst, such as concentrated sulfuric acid:
:{{chem2 | R\sOH + R'\sCO2H -> R'\sCO2R + H2O }}
Other types of ester are prepared in a similar manner−for example, tosyl (tosylate) esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with 4-toluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine.
Oxidation
{{Main|Alcohol oxidation}}
Primary alcohols ({{chem2|R\sCH2OH}}) can be oxidized either to aldehydes ({{chem2|R\sCHO}}) or to carboxylic acids ({{chem2|R\sCO2H}}). The oxidation of secondary alcohols ({{chem2|R^{1}R^{2}CH\sOH}}) normally terminates at the ketone ({{chem2|R^{1}R^{2}C\dO}}) stage. Tertiary alcohols ({{chem2|R^{1}R^{2}R^{3}C\sOH}}) are resistant to oxidation.
The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde, which is transformed via an aldehyde hydrate ({{chem2|R\sCH(OH)2}}) by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid.
Reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones. These include Collins reagent and Dess–Martin periodinane. The direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using potassium permanganate or the Jones reagent.
See also
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* Beer chemistry
* Enol
* Ethanol fuel
* Fatty alcohol
* Index of alcohol-related articles
* List of alcohols
* Lucas test
* Polyol
* Rubbing alcohol
* Sugar alcohol
* Transesterification
* Wine chemistry
{{div col end}}
Notes
{{Notelist}}
Citations
{{Reflist|30em}}
General references
* {{cite book |lastMetcalf |firstAllan A. |year1999 |titleThe World in So Many Words |publisherHoughton Mifflin |isbn0-395-95920-9 <!--|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4O0W5XyQVCYC&pg=PA123#PPA123,M1-->}}
{{Sister bar|dQ156|wiktalcohol|voyalcohol|vCategory:Alcohol|sCategory:Alcohol|auto1|display=Alcohol}}
{{Alcohols|state=collapsed}}
{{Alcohol and health}}
{{Functional group}}
{{Poisoning and toxicity}}
{{Orgchemsuffixes}}
{{Chemical classes of psychoactive drugs}}
{{portal bar|Chemistry|Beer|Wine}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Antiseptics
Category:Functional groups
Category:Organic chemistry
Category:Addiction | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry) | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.267592 |
1016 | Achill Island | {{Short description|Island in County Mayo, Ireland}}
{{redirect|Achill|the village on the island of Canna, Scotland|A'Chill}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox islands
| name = Achill
| image_name = Achillsatmap.jpg
| image_caption = Topography of Achill
| image_map = Achill Island - County Mayo.svg
| pushpin_map = island of Ireland
| pushpin_relief = yes
| coordinates {{coord|53.964|-10.003|displayit}}
| native_name = Acaill, Oileán Acla
| native_name_link | nickname
| location = Atlantic Ocean
| archipelago = Achill
| total_islands = 3 (Achill, Innisbiggle and Achillbeg islands)
| major_islands = Achill
| coastline_km = 128
| highest_mount = Croaghaun
| elevation_m = 688
| area_acre = 36572
| country = Ireland
| country_admin_divisions_title = Province
| country_admin_divisions = Connacht
| country_admin_divisions_title_1 = County
| country_admin_divisions_1 = Mayo
| country_admin_divisions_title_2 = Barony
| country_admin_divisions_2 = Burrishoole
| population = 2,345
| population_as_of = 2022
| population_footnotes <ref name"Central Statistics Office">{{cite report |titlePopulation of Inhabited Islands Off the Coast|publisherCentral Statistics Office|date2023 |access-date29 June 2023|url=https://data.cso.ie/table/F1019}}</ref>
| density_km2 = 17.3
| additional_info = Ireland's largest island
}}
Achill Island ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|k|əl}}; {{langx|ga|Acaill, Oileán Acla}}) is an island off the west coast of Ireland in the historical barony of Burrishoole, County Mayo. It is the largest of the Irish isles and has an area of approximately {{convert|148|km2|sqmi|abbron}}. Achill had a population of 2,345 in the 2022 census.<ref name"Central Statistics Office"/> The island, which has been connected to the mainland by a bridge since 1887, is served by Michael Davitt Bridge, between the villages of Achill Sound and Polranny. Other centres of population include the villages of Keel, Dooagh, Dooega, Dooniver, and Dugort. There are a number of peat bogs on the island.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Natural World - Achill Tourism |urlhttps://achilltourism.com/experience-achill/the-natural-world/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240517225729/https://achilltourism.com/experience-achill/the-natural-world/ |archive-date2024-05-17 |access-date2024-05-17 |website=Achill Tourism}}</ref>
Roughly half of the island, including the villages of Achill Sound and Bun an Churraigh, are in the Gaeltacht (traditional Irish-speaking region) of Ireland,<ref>{{cite web|titleGaeltacht Boundaries Generalised to 50m|urlhttps://census2016.geohive.ie/datasets/b7ff1553e4b64799a88d82da5106efc8_1|access-date2020-11-21|websitecensus2016.geohive.ie|languageen-gb}}{{Dead link|dateMarch 2025 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> although the vast majority of the island's population speaks English as their daily language.{{Citation needed|date=September 2024}}
The island is within a civil parish, also called Achill, that includes Achillbeg, Inishbiggle and the Corraun Peninsula.
]]
History
It is believed that at the end of the Neolithic Period (around 4000 BC), Achill had a population of 500–1,000 people. The island was mostly forest until the Neolithic people began crop cultivation. Settlement increased during the Iron Age, and the dispersal of small promontory forts around the coast indicates the warlike nature of the times. Megalithic tombs and forts can be seen at Slievemore, along the Atlantic Drive and on Achillbeg.<ref name":0">{{Cite book|titleAchill Island: Archeology, History, Folklore|lastMcDonald|firstTheresa|publisherI.A.S. Publications|year2006|isbn0951997416|locationTullamore, Co. Offaly, Ireland|pages1–6}}</ref>Overlords
Achill Island lies in the historical barony of Burrishoole, in the territory of ancient Umhall (Umhall Uactarach and Umhall Ioctarach), that originally encompassed an area extending from the County Galway/Mayo border to Achill Head.
The hereditary chieftains of Umhall were the O'Malleys, recorded in the area in 814 AD when they successfully repelled an incursion by Viking attackers in Clew Bay. The Anglo-Norman invasion of Connacht in 1235 AD saw the territory of Umhall taken over by the Butlers and later by the de Burgos. The Butler Lordship of Burrishoole continued into the late 14th century when Thomas le Botiller was recorded as being in possession of Akkyll and Owyll.<ref name":0" />ImmigrationIn the 17th and 18th centuries, there was migration to Achill from other parts of Ireland, including from Ulster, due to the political and religious turmoil of the time. For a period, there were two different dialects of Irish being spoken on Achill. This led to several townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 Ordnance Survey, and some maps today give different names for the same place. Achill Irish has been described as having an Ulster Irish superstratum on top of a northern Connacht Irish substratum.<ref>{{cite book|titleThe Irish of Achill, Co. Mayo |firstGerard |lastStockman |seriesStudies in Irish Language and Literature, Department of Celtic, Q.U.B. |volume2 |publisherInstitute of Irish Studies, The Queen’s University of Belfast |year1974 |chapterPreface |pageII}}</ref> In the 19th and early 20th centuries, seasonal migration of farm workers to East Lothian to pick potatoes took place; these groups of 'tattie howkers' were known as Achill workers, although not all were from Achill, and were organised for potato merchants by gaffers or gangers.<ref>{{Cite book |lastHolmes |firstHeather |title'As good as a holiday': Potato harvesting in the Lothians from 1870 to the present |publisherTuckwell |year2000 |isbn |locationEast Linton, East Lothian |pages185–219}}</ref> Groups travelled from farm to farm to harvest the crop and were allocated basic accommodation. On 15 September 1937, ten young migrant potato pickers from Achill died in a fire at Kirkintilloch in Scotland.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Kirkintilloch Tragedy, 1937 – The Irish Story |urlhttps://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/24/the-kirkintilloch-tragedy-1937/#.Y-5FOnbP2M8 |access-date2023-02-16 |languageen-GB |archive-date16 February 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230216150511/https://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/24/the-kirkintilloch-tragedy-1937/#.Y-5FOnbP2M8 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleKirkintilloch Disaster |urlhttps://www.rte.ie//archives/category/disasters/2017/0917/902699-kirkintilloch-disaster/ |access-date2023-02-16 |websiteRTÉ Archives |languageen |archive-date16 February 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230216150510/https://www.rte.ie/archives/category/disasters/2017/0917/902699-kirkintilloch-disaster/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
Achill was connected to the mainland by Michael Davitt Bridge, a bridge connecting Achill Sound and Polranny, in 1887.
Specific historical sites and events
Grace O'Malley's Castle
Carrickkildavnet Castle is a 15th-century tower house associated with the O'Malley Clan, who were once a ruling family of Achill. Grace O' Malley, or Granuaile, the most famous of the O'Malleys, was born on Clare Island around 1530.<ref name"piratequeen">{{cite news |lastLynch |firstPeter |url http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20160615-the-pirate-queen-of-county-mayo |titleThe Pirate Queen of County Mayo |publisherBBC |date2016-06-20 |access-date2017-02-02}}</ref> Her father was the chieftain of the barony of Murrisk. The O'Malleys were a powerful seafaring family, who traded widely. Grace became a fearless leader and gained fame as a sea captain and pirate. She is reputed to have met Queen Elizabeth I in 1593. She died around 1603 and is buried in the O'Malley family tomb on Clare Island.
Achill Mission
The Achill Mission, also known as 'the Colony' at Dugort, was founded in 1831 by the Anglican (Church of Ireland) Rev Edward Nangle. The mission included schools, cottages, an orphanage, an infirmary and a guesthouse.<ref>{{Cite book|titleDugort, Achill Island 1831–1861|lastNi Ghiobuin|firstMealla C|publisherIrish Academic Press|year2001|isbn0716527405|locationDublin|pages7–21}}</ref>
The Colony gave rise to mixed assessments, particularly during the Great Famine when charges of "souperism" were leveled against Nangle.<ref>{{Cite book|titleThe Great Irish Famine: Impact, Ideology and Rebellion|urlhttps://archive.org/details/greatirishfamine00kine|url-accesslimited|lastKinealy|firstChristine|publisherPalgrave|year2002|isbn9780333677735|locationNew York|pages[https://archive.org/details/greatirishfamine00kine/page/n172 160]–166}}</ref> The provision of food across the Achill Mission schools - which also provided 'scriptural' religious instruction - was particularly controversial.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastByrne|firstPatricia|dateJanuary 2022|titleGod's Scourge on a Sinful Nation: The Great Famine from an Achill Mission Perspective|journalJournal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society|volume73|pages=29–30}}</ref>
For almost forty years, Nangle edited a newspaper called the Achill Missionary Herald and Western Witness, which was printed in Achill. He expanded his mission into Mweelin, Kilgeever, West Achill where a school, church, rectory, cottages and a training school were built. Edward's wife, Eliza, suffered poor health in Achill and died in 1852; she is buried with six of the Nangle children on the slopes of Slievemore in North Achill.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/a-controversial-mission-1.1521276|titleA controversial Mission|lastByrne|firstPatricia|newspaperThe Irish Times|date25 February 2020|archive-date28 May 2022|access-date25 February 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220528014131/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/heritage/a-controversial-mission-1.1521276|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 1848, at the height of the Great Famine, the Achill Mission published a prospectus seeking to raise funds for the acquisition of significant additional lands from Sir Richard O'Donnell. The document gives an overview, from the Mission's perspective, of its activities in Achill over the previous decade and a half including considerable sectarian unrest.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastByrne |firstPatricia |date2022 |titleEvangelical Mission Pivots to Landlord in Famine Achill |urlhttps://www.historyireland.ie |journalHistory Ireland |volume30 |issue4 |pages28–31 }}{{Dead link|dateFebruary 2024 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> In 1851, Edward Nangle confirmed the purchase of the land which made the Achill Mission the largest landowner on the island.
The Achill Mission began to decline slowly after Nangle was moved from Achill and it closed in the 1880s. When Edward Nangle died in 1883 there were opposing views on his legacy.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theirishstory.com/2013/09/09/weapons-of-his-own-forging-edward-nangle-controversial-in-life-and-in-death/|titleWeapons of his own forging: Edward nangle, Controversial in Life and in Death|lastByrne|firstPatricia|websiteThe Irish Story|access-date10 February 2020|archive-date2 October 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131002023740/http://www.theirishstory.com/2013/09/09/weapons-of-his-own-forging-edward-nangle-controversial-in-life-and-in-death/|url-statuslive}}</ref>RailwayIn 1894, the Westport – Newport railway line was extended to Achill Sound. The railway station is now a hostel. The train provided a great service to Achill, but it also is said to have fulfilled an ancient prophecy. Brian Rua O' Cearbhain had prophesied that 'carts on iron wheels' would carry bodies into Achill on their first and last journey. In 1894, the first train on the Achill railway carried the bodies of victims of the Clew Bay Drowning. This tragedy occurred when a boat overturned in Clew Bay, drowning thirty-two young people. They had been going to meet the steamer SS Elm<ref>{{cite web |title32 Achill People Drowned at Westport Quay |urlhttps://achilltourism.com/experience-achill/history/clew-bay-drownings-1894/ |websiteachilltourism.com |access-date15 October 2024 |archive-date20 July 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240720025050/https://achilltourism.com/experience-achill/history/clew-bay-drownings-1894/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> which would take them to Britain for potato picking.<ref>{{Cite book|lastByrne|firstPatricia|titleThe Veiled Woman of Achill|publisherThe Collins Press|year2012|isbn9781848891470|locationCork|pages6–15}}</ref>
The Kirkintilloch Fire in 1937 almost fulfilled the second part of the prophecy when the bodies of ten victims were carried by rail to Achill. While it was not literally the last train, the railway closed just two weeks later. These people had died in a fire in a bothy in Kirkintilloch. This term referred to the temporary accommodation provided for those who went to Scotland to pick potatoes, a migratory pattern that had been established in the early nineteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book|lastCoughlan|firstBrian|titleAchill Island, tattie hokers in Scotland and the Kirkintilloch tragedy 1937|publisherFour Courts Press|year2006|isbn9781846820038|locationDublin}}</ref>KildamhnaitKildamhnait on the south-east coast of Achill is named after St. Damhnait, or Dymphna, who founded a church there in the 7th century.<ref>{{cite news |date17 June 2002 |urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/an-irishman-s-diary-1.1060876 |titleAn Irishman's Diary |newspaperThe Irish Times |issn0791-5144 |locationDublin |languageen-ie |access-date8 February 2022}}</ref> There is also a holy well just outside the graveyard. The present church was built in the 1700s and the graveyard contains memorials to the victims of two of Achill's greatest tragedies, the Kirchintilloch Fire (1937) and the Clew Bay Drowning (1894).The MonasteryIn 1852, John MacHale, Roman Catholic Archbishop of Tuam, purchased land in Bunnacurry, on which a Franciscan Monastery was established, which, for many years, provided an education for local children. The building of the monastery was marked by a conflict between the Protestants of the mission colony and the workers building the monastery. The dispute is known in the island folklore as the Battle of the Stones.<ref>{{Cite book|lastJoyce|firstP.J.|urlhttps://archive.org/details/forgottenpartofi00joycrich|titleA Forgotten Part of Ireland|year1910|publishernone|locationTuam, Ireland|pages=[https://archive.org/details/forgottenpartofi00joycrich/page/148 148]}}</ref>
A monk who lived at the monastery for almost thirty years was Paul Carney. He wrote a biography of James Lynchehaun who was convicted for the 1894 attack on an Englishwoman named Agnes MacDonnell, which left her face disfigured, and the burning of her home, Valley House, Tonatanvally, North Achill. The home was rebuilt and MacDonnell died there in 1923, while Lynchehaun escaped to the US after serving 7 years and successfully resisted extradition but spent his last years in Scotland, where he died. Carney's great-grandniece, Patricia Byrne, wrote her own account of Mrs MacDonnell and Lynchehaun, entitled The Veiled Woman of Achill.<ref>[https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/assault-on-achill-1.515399 "Assault on Achill"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221027183556/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/assault-on-achill-1.515399 |date27 October 2022 }}, irishtimes.com. Accessed 27 October 2022.</ref>
Carney also wrote accounts of his lengthy fundraising trips across the U.S. at the start of the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastByrne|firstPatricia|year2009|titleTeller of Tales: An Insight into the Life and Times of Brother Paul Carney (1844–1928), Travelling 'Quester' and Chronicler of the Life of James Lynchehaun, nineteenth-century Achill Criminal.|urlhttps://tbreen.home.xs4all.nl/Journals/Galway.html|journalJournal of the Galway Archaeological and Historical Society|volume61|pages156–169|access-date9 March 2020|archive-date21 November 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191121204240/https://tbreen.home.xs4all.nl/Journals/Galway.html|url-statusdead}}</ref> The ruins of this monastery are still to be seen in Bunnacurry today.
Valley House
The historic Valley House is located in Tonatanvally, "The Valley", near Dugort, in the northeast of Achill Island. The present building sits on the site of a hunting lodge built by the Earl of Cavan in the 19th century. Its notoriety arises from an incident in 1894 in which the then owner, an Englishwoman, Mrs Agnes McDonnell, was savagely beaten and the house set alight by a local man, James Lynchehaun. Lynchehaun had been employed by McDonnell as her land agent, but the two fell out and he was sacked and told to quit his accommodation on her estate. A lengthy legal battle ensued, with Lynchehaun refusing to leave. At the time, in the 1890s, the issue of land ownership in Ireland was politically charged. After the events at the Valley House in 1895, Lynchehaun would falsely claim his actions were carried out on behalf of the Irish Republican Brotherhood and motivated by politics. He escaped from custody after serving seven years<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theirishstory.com/2011/01/05/today-in-irish-history-caught-fugitive-criminal-lynchehaun-arrested-5-january-1895/|titleToday In Irish History – Caught! Fugitive Criminal Lynchehaun Arrested, 5 January 1895|lastByrne|firstPatricia|access-date10 February 2020|archive-date24 December 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191224220517/https://www.theirishstory.com/2011/01/05/today-in-irish-history-caught-fugitive-criminal-lynchehaun-arrested-5-january-1895/|url-statuslive}}</ref> and fled to the United States seeking political asylum (although Michael Davitt refused to shake his hand, calling Lynchehaun a "murderer"), where he successfully defeated legal attempts by the British authorities to have him extradited to face charges arising from the attack and the burning of the Valley House. Agnes McDonnell suffered terrible injuries from the attack but survived and lived for another 23 years, dying in 1923. Lynchehaun is said to have returned to Achill on two occasions, once in disguise as an American tourist, and eventually died in Girvan, Scotland, in 1937. The Valley House is now a hostel and bar.<ref>{{Cite book|titleThe Veiled Woman of Achill: Island Outrage and A Playboy Drama|lastByrne|firstPatricia|publisherThe Collins Press|year2012|isbn9781848891470|locationCork, Ireland}}</ref>Deserted VillageClose to Dugort, at the base of Slievemore mountain lies the Deserted Village. There are approximately 80 ruined houses in the village. The houses were built of unmortared stone. Each house consisted of just one room. In the area surrounding the Deserted Village, including on the mountain slopes, there is evidence of 'lazy beds' in which crops like potatoes were grown. In Achill, as in other areas of Ireland, a 'rundale' system was used for farming. This meant that the land around a village was rented from a landlord. This land was then shared by all the villagers to graze their cattle and sheep. Each family would then have two or three small pieces of land scattered about the village, which they used to grow crops. For many years people lived in the village and then in 1845 famine struck in Achill as it did in the rest of Ireland. Most of the families moved to the nearby village of Dooagh, which is beside the sea, while others emigrated. Living beside the sea meant that fish and shellfish could be used for food. The village was completely abandoned and is now known as the 'Deserted Village'.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}}
While abandoned, the families that moved to Dooagh (and their descendants) continued to use the village as a 'booley village'.<ref>[http://www.achill247.com/pictures/slievemore-7.html Deserted village, Slievemore, Achill Island, achill247.com] Retrieved on 17 February 2008.</ref> This means that during the summer season, the younger members of the family, teenage boys and girls, would take the livestock to the area and tend flocks or herds on the hillside and stay in the houses of the Deserted Village. They would then return to Dooagh in the autumn. This custom continued until the 1940s. Boolying was also carried out in other areas of Achill, including Annagh on Croaghaun mountain and in Curraun. At Ailt, Kildownet, the remains of a similar deserted village can be found. This village was deserted in 1855 when the tenants were evicted by the local landlord so the land could be used for cattle grazing; the tenants were forced to rent holdings in Currane, Dooega and Slievemore. Others emigrated to America.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}}Archaeology
was a 'booley' village (see transhumance).]]
In 2009, a summer field school excavated Round House 2 on Slievemore Mountain under the direction of archaeologist Stuart Rathbone. Only the outside north wall, entrance way and inside of the Round House were completely excavated.<ref>Amanda Burt, member of Achill Field School, Summer 2009.</ref>
From 2004 to 2006, the Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project directed by Chuck Meide was sponsored by the College of William and Mary, the Institute of Maritime History, the Achill Folklife Centre (now the Achill Archaeology Centre), and the Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime Program (LAMP). This project focused on the documentation of archaeological resources related to Achill's rich maritime heritage. Maritime archaeologists recorded a 19th-century fishing station, an ice house, boat house ruins, a number of anchors which had been salvaged from the sea, 19th-century and more recent currach pens, a number of traditional vernacular watercraft including a possibly 100-year-old Achill yawl, and the remains of four historic shipwrecks.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.maritimehistory.org/content/achill-island-maritime-archaeology-project |titleAchill Island Maritime Archaeology Project &#124; Institute of Maritime History |publisherMaritimehistory.org |date20 February 2012 |access-date20 March 2012 |archive-date19 July 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110719185233/http://www.maritimehistory.org/content/achill-island-maritime-archaeology-project |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|titleMeide, Chuck and Kathryn Sikes (2014) Manipulating the Maritime Cultural Landscape: Vernacular Boats and Economic Relations on Nineteenth-Century Achill Island, Ireland. Journal of Maritime History 9(1):115–141 |date18 June 2014 |doi10.1007/s11457-013-9123-3 |volume9 |journalJournal of Maritime Archaeology |pages115–141 |authorMeide Chuck|s2cid161863374 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
A number of the oldest inhabited cottages in the area date from the activities of the Congested Districts Board for Ireland—a body set up around the turn of the 20th century in Ireland to improve the welfare of the inhabitants of small villages and towns. Many of the homes in Achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages. The Congested Districts Board for Ireland (CDB) subsidised the building of new, more spacious (though still small by modern standards) homes outside of the traditional villages.{{citation needed|dateJuly 2018}}Other places of interest{{More citations needed|section|dateDecember 2022}}
]]
, the third highest sea cliff in Europe]]
mountain dominates the centre of the island]]
, also known as Kildownet Castle]]
The cliffs of Croaghaun on the western end of the island are the third highest sea cliffs in Europe but are inaccessible by road. Near the westernmost point of Achill, Achill Head, is Keem Bay. Keel Beach is visited by tourists and used as a surfing location.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}} South of Keem beach is Moytoge Head, which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean. An old British observation post, built during World War I to prevent the Germans from landing arms for the Irish Republican Army, still stands on Moytoge. During the Emergency (WWII), this post was rebuilt by the Irish Defence Forces as a lookout post for the Coast Watching Service wing of the Defence Forces. It operated from 1939 to 1945.<ref>See Michael Kennedy, Guarding Neutral Ireland (Dublin, 2008), p. 50</ref>
The mountain of Slievemore, (672&nbsp;m) rises dramatically in the north of the island. On its slops is an abandoned village, the "Deserted Village". West of this ruined village is an old Martello tower, again built by the British to warn of any possible French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars. The area also has an approximately 5000-year-old Neolithic tomb.
Achillbeg ({{lang|ga|Acaill Beag}}, Little Achill) is a small island just off Achill's southern tip. Its inhabitants were resettled on Achill in the 1960s.<ref>Jonathan Beaumont (2005), Achillbeg: The Life of an Island; {{ISBN|0-85361-631-0}}</ref> A plaque to the boxer Johnny Kilbane is situated on Achillbeg and was erected to celebrate 100 years since his first championship win.<ref>{{cite news |lastMcNulty |firstAnton |date12 June 2012 |titleStatue of former boxing champion unveiled |urlhttps://www.mayonews.ie/news/home/1095104/statue-of-former-boxing-champion-unveiled.html |workThe Mayo News |locationWestport, Ireland |access-date15 October 2024 |archive-date5 December 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241205094731/https://www.mayonews.ie/news/home/1095104/statue-of-former-boxing-champion-unveiled.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
Caisleán Ghráinne, also known as Kildownet Castle, is a small tower house built in the early 1400s.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mythandlegends.net/newirelcastle1.html|titleIrish Castles-Grace O'Malley|websitemythandlegends.net|access-date13 June 2016|archive-date5 November 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161105134327/http://www.mythandlegends.net/newirelcastle1.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> It is located in Cloughmore, on the south of Achill Island. It is noted for its associations with Grace O'Malley, along with the larger Rockfleet Castle in Newport.Economy and tourismWhile a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made, its economy is largely dependent on tourism. Subventions from Achill people working abroad allowed a number of families to remain living in Achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}} In the past, fishing was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy has since reduced. At one stage, the island was known for its shark fishing, and basking shark in particular was fished for its valuable shark liver oil.
During the 1960s and 1970s, there was growth in tourism. The largest employers on Achill include its two hotels.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.irelandbyways.com/top-irish-peninsulas/the-west/the-western-isles/achill-island-co-mayo/ |titleAchill Island (Co. Mayo) |publisherIrelandbyways.com |access-date20 March 2012 |archive-date15 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190415235127/http://www.irelandbyways.com/top-irish-peninsulas/the-west/the-western-isles/achill-island-co-mayo/ |url-statusbot: unknown }}</ref> The island has several bars, cafes and restaurants. The island's Atlantic location means that seafood, including lobster, mussels, salmon, trout and winkles, are common. Lamb and beef are also popular.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.gotoireland.today/achill-island.html |titleAchill Island |websitegotoireland.today |access-date28 June 2021 |url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200325060641/http://www.gotoireland.today/achill-island.html |archive-date25 March 2020 }}</ref>
Religion
Most people on Achill are either Roman Catholic or Anglican (Church of Ireland).{{fact|date=October 2024}}
Catholic churches on the island include: Bunnacurry Church (Saint Josephs), The Valley Church (only open for certain events), Pollagh Church, Dooega Church and Achill Sound Church.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}
There is a Church of Ireland church (St. Thomas's church) at Dugort.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}
The House of Prayer, a controversial "religious retreat" on the island,<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid-20349394.html | titleHouse of Prayer returns to profit as donations increase | date21 August 2015 | access-date18 October 2024 | archive-date5 December 2024 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241205104114/https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid-20349394.html | url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid-30824349.html | titleMayo religious retreat accused of 'spiritual injury' by relatives of elderly man | date23 January 2018 | access-date18 October 2024 | archive-date5 December 2024 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241205094205/https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid-30824349.html | url-statuslive }}</ref> was established in 1993.<ref>{{cite news | urlhttps://www.irishtimes.com/news/crime-and-law/courts/high-court/man-under-spiritual-dominance-when-he-donated-200-000-to-house-of-prayer-court-told-1.3365731 | titleMan under 'spiritual dominance' when he donated €200,000 to House of Prayer, court told | newspaperThe Irish Times | archive-date5 December 2024 | access-date18 October 2024 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241205093308/https://www.irishtimes.com/news/crime-and-law/courts/high-court/man-under-spiritual-dominance-when-he-donated-200-000-to-house-of-prayer-court-told-1.3365731 | url-statuslive }}</ref> Artists For almost two centuries, a number of artists have had a close relationship with Achill Island, including the landscape painter Paul Henry.<ref>{{cite web|lastTourism|firstAchill|date7 September 2021|titleArtists Inspired by Achill|urlhttp://www.achill247.com/artists/paulhenry3.html|url-statuslive|websiteAchill Tourism|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20020111233139/http://www.achill247.com:80/artists/paulhenry3.html |archive-date11 January 2002 }}</ref> Within the emerging Irish Free State, Paul Henry's landscapes from Achill and other areas reinforced a vision of Ireland of communities living in harmony with the land.<ref>{{Cite book|lastNational Gallery of Ireland|titleShaping Ireland - Landscapes in Irish Art|publisherNational Gallery Of Ireland|year2019|isbn978-1-904288-76-3|locationDublin|page9}}</ref> He lived in Achill for almost a decade with his wife, artist Grace Henry and, while using similar subject-matter, the pair developed very different styles.<ref>{{Cite book|lastSteward|firstJames Christen|titleWhen Time Began to Rant and Rage - Figurative Painting from Twentieth-century ireland|publisherMerrell Holberton|year1999|isbn1-85894-059-1|locationLondon|page=68}}</ref>
This relationship of artists with Achill was particularly intense in the early decades of the twentieth century when Eva O'Flaherty (1874–1963) became a focal point for artistic networking on the island.<ref>{{Cite book|lastMurphy|firstMary J|titleAchill's Eva O'Flaherty - Forgotten Island Heroine|publisherKnockma Publishing|year2012|isbn978-0-9560749-1-1|locationIreland}}</ref> A network of over 200 artists linked to Achill is charted in "Achill Painters - An Island History" and includes painters such as the Belgian Marie Howet, the American Robert Henri, the modernist painter Mainie Jellett and contemporary artist Camille Souter.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://achilltourism.com/siopa/product/achill-painters-an-island-history/ | titleAchill Painters - an Island History | access-date7 September 2021 | archive-date20 January 2021 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210120140916/https://achilltourism.com/siopa/product/achill-painters-an-island-history/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
The 2018 Coming Home Art & The Great Hunger exhibition,<ref>{{Cite book|editor-lastO'Sullivan|editor-firstNiamh|titleComing Home: Art and the Great Hunger|publisherIreland's Great Hunger Museum, Quinnipiac University, USA|year2018|isbn978-0-9978374-8-3|locationIreland|pages172, 178}}</ref> in partnership with The Great Hunger Museum of Quinnipiac University, USA, featured Achill's Deserted Village and the island lazy beds prominently in works by Geraldine O'Reilly and Alanna O'Kelly; also included was an 1873 painting, 'Cottage, Achill Island' by Alexander Williams - one of the first artists to open up the island to a wider audience.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastByrne|firstPatricia|date9 September 2021|titleBook Review: Mary J. Murphy, Achill Painters - An Island History|urlhttps://www.theirishstory.com/2020/08/24/book-review-mary-j-murphy-achill-painters-an-island-history/#.YTdiMI5KjIU|journalThe Irish Story|viawww.theirishstory.com|archive-date7 September 2021|access-date7 September 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210907131135/https://www.theirishstory.com/2020/08/24/book-review-mary-j-murphy-achill-painters-an-island-history/#.YTdiMI5KjIU|url-statuslive}}</ref>Education
Hedge schools existed in most villages of Achill in various periods of history. A university was started by the missions to Achill in Mweelin.
At the turn of the 21st century there were two secondary schools in Achill: Mc Hale College and Scoil Damhnait. These two schools amalgamated, in 2011, to form Coláiste Pobail Acla.
For primary education, there are eight national schools. These including Bullsmouth NS, Valley NS, Bunnacurry NS, Dookinella NS, Dooagh NS, Saula NS, Achill Sound NS and Tonragee NS.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}}TransportRailAchill railway station, still on the mainland and not on the island, was opened by the Midland Great Western Railway on 13 May 1895, the terminus of its line from Westport via Newport and Mulranny. The station, and the line, were closed by the Great Southern Railways on 1 October 1937.<ref>{{cite web |titleAchill station |urlhttp://www.railscot.co.uk/Ireland/Irish_railways.pdf |workRailscot – Irish Railways |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070926042407/http://www.railscot.co.uk/Ireland/Irish_railways.pdf |archive-date26 September 2007 |access-date8 September 2007}}</ref> The Great Western Greenway, created during 2010 and 2011, follows the line's route<ref>{{cite web |titleHome |urlhttp://www.greenway.ie/ |workGreat Western Greenway |access-date10 August 2011 |archive-date30 July 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110730062455/http://greenway.ie/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> and has proved to be very successful in attracting visitors to Achill and the surrounding areas.RoadThe R319 road is the main road onto the island.<ref name"si54-2012">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2012/en/si/0054.html|titleS.I. No. 54/2012 — Roads Act 1993 (Classification of Regional Roads) Order 2012|workIrish Statute Book|access-date27 February 2013|archive-date9 May 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130509191521/http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2012/en/si/0054.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Bus Éireann's route 450 operates several times daily to Westport and Louisburgh from the island. Bus Éireann also provides transport for the area's secondary school children.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}}SportAchill has a Gaelic football club which competes in the junior championship and division 1E of the Mayo League. There are also Achill Rovers which play in the Mayo Association Football League.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://inform.fai.ie/League/Clubs/portals/AchillRoversFC/ |titleFAI Club Portal for Achill Rovers |access-date21 September 2013 |archive-date28 September 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130928035653/http://inform.fai.ie/League/Clubs/portals/AchillRoversFC/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
There is a 9-hole links golf course on the island.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.discoverireland.ie/Activities-Adventure/achill-golf-club/49339|titleAchill Golf Club|year2019|websiteDiscover Ireland|access-date2019-02-07|archive-date9 February 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190209180101/https://www.discoverireland.ie/Activities-Adventure/achill-golf-club/49339|url-statuslive}}</ref> Outdoor activities can be done through Achill Outdoor Education Centre.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.achilloutdoor.com/|titleAchill Outdoor|authorDave Jordan|access-date10 March 2011|archive-date9 March 2001|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010309013839/http://www.achilloutdoor.com/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Achill Island's rugged landscape and the surrounding ocean offers multiple locations for outdoor adventure activities, like surfing, kite-surfing and sea kayaking. Fishing and watersports are also common.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}} Sailing regattas featuring a local vessel type, the Achill Yawl, have been run since the 19th century.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2022}}DemographicsIn 2016, the population was 2,594,<ref>{{cite web|titleArcGIS Web. Application|urlhttp://airomaps.nuim.ie/id/AI_Atlas/?mobileBreakPoint400/|access-date2020-11-21|websiteairomaps.nuim.ie|archive-date1 November 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201101103428/http://airomaps.nuim.ie/id/AI_Atlas/?mobileBreakPoint400/|url-statusdead}}</ref> with 5.2% claiming they spoke Irish on a daily basis outside the education system.<ref>{{cite web|titleArcGIS Web Application|urlhttp://census.cso.ie/p10map51/|access-date2020-11-21|websitecensus.cso.ie|archive-date28 November 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171128021020/http://census.cso.ie/p10map51/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The island's population has declined from around 6,000 before the Great Famine of the mid-19th century.
The table below reports data on Achill Island's population taken from Discover the Islands of Ireland (Alex Ritsema, Collins Press, 1999) and the census of Ireland. {{Historical populations
| align = none
| cols = 3
|footnoteSources: {{cite web |url http://www.cso.ie/px/pxeirestat/Statire/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?MaintableCNA17&Planguage0 |titleCNA17: Population by Off Shore Island, Sex and Year |author Central Statistics Office |websiteCSO.ie |access-date12 October 2016}} {{cite report |titlePopulation of Inhabited Islands Off the Coast|publisherCentral Statistics Office|date2023 |access-date29 June 2023|url=https://data.cso.ie/table/F1019}}
|1841|4901
|1851|4030
|1861|4424
|1871|4757
|1881|5060
|1891|4677
|1901|4825
|1911|5260
|1926|4790
|1936|4808
|1946|4918
|1951|4906
|1956|4493
|1961|4069
|1966|3598
|1971|3129
|1979|3089
|1981|3101
|1986|3161
|1991|2802
|1996|2718
|2002|2620
|2006|2620
|2011|2569
|2016|2440
|2022|2345
}}
Notable people
* Heinrich Böll, German writer who spent several summers with his family and later lived several months per year on the island
* Charles Boycott (1832–1897), unpopular landowner from whom the term boycott arose
* Nancy Corrigan, pioneer aviator, second female commercial pilot in the US.
* Dermot Freyer (1883–1970), writer who opened a hotel on the island
* Paul Henry, artist, stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s
* James Kilbane, singer, lives on the island
* Johnny Kilbane, boxer
* Saoirse McHugh, former Green Party politician
* Danny McNamara, musician
* Richard McNamara, musician
* Eva O'Flaherty, Nationalist, model and milliner
* Manus Patten, recipient of the Scott Medal
* Thomas Patten, from Dooega. Died during the Siege of Madrid in December 1936
* Honor Tracy, author, lived there until her death in 1989
In popular culture
The island is featured throughout the film The Banshees of Inisherin in various locations on the island including Keem Bay, Cloughmore, and Purteen Pier.<ref>{{Cite web |lastNiall |date2022-11-01 |titleExact Filming Locations of 'The Banshees of Inisherin' (Ultimate In-Depth Guide) |urlhttps://www.sweetisleofmine.com/the-banshees-of-inisherin-exact-filming-locations/ |access-date8 November 2022 |archive-date3 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230103083227/https://www.sweetisleofmine.com/the-banshees-of-inisherin-exact-filming-locations/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The island is also the primary setting of the visual novel If Found....{{citation needed|dateOctober 2024}}Further reading
*Heinrich Böll: Irisches Tagebuch, Berlin, 1957
*Bob Kingston The Deserted Village at Slievemore, Castlebar, 1990
*Theresa McDonald: Achill: 5000 B.C. to 1900 A.D.: Archeology History Folklore, I.A.S. Publications [1992]
*Rosa Meehan: The Story of Mayo, Castlebar, 2003
*James Carney: The Playboy & the Yellow lady, 1986 Poolbeg<ref>{{cite book|authorJames Carney |urlhttps://openlibrary.org/b/OL2431852M/playboy_the_yellow_lady |titleThe playboy & the yellow lady |publisherOpen Library |access-date20 March 2012|isbn9780905169828 |year=1986 }}</ref>
*Hugo Hamilton: The Island of Talking,<ref>{{cite journal | urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/25469746 | jstor25469746 | titleThe Island of Talking | last1Hamilton | first1Hugo | journalIrish Pages | date2007 | volume4 | issue2 | pages23–31 | archive-date10 July 2024 | access-date10 July 2024 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240710213230/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25469746 | url-statuslive }}</ref> 2007
*Mealla Nī Ghiobúin: Dugort, Achill Island 1831–1861: The Rise and Fall of a Missionary Community, 2001
*Patricia Byrne: The Veiled Woman of Achill – Island Outrage & A Playboy Drama, 2012
*Mary J. Murphy: ''Achill's Eva O'Flaherty – Forgotten Island Heroine, 2011
*Patricia Byrne: The Preacher and The Prelate – The Achill Mission Colony and The Battle for Souls in Famine Ireland, 2018
*Mary J. Murphy, Achill Painters - An Island History'', 2020
See also
* List of islands of County Mayo
References
{{reflist|colwidth30em}}External links
{{Wikivoyage|Achill Island}}
{{Commons}}
{{EB1911 poster|Achill}}
* [http://www.ouririshheritage.org/category_id__29_path__0p2p.aspx Colaiste Pobail Acla students project on the Achill area]
* [http://www.staugustinelighthouse.org/LAMP/Research/achill-island Achill Island Maritime Archaeology Project]
* [http://www.visitachill.com VisitAchill multilingual visitor's site]
{{Gaeltacht}}
{{Mountains and hills of Connacht}}
{{County Mayo}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Islands of County Mayo
Category:Gaeltacht places in County Mayo | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achill_Island | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.289329 |
1017 | Allen Ginsberg | {{short description|American poet and writer (1926–1997)}}
{{for-multi|the American businessman|Alan Ginsburg|the serial killer who was born Allen Ginsberg|William MacDonald (serial killer)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Allen Ginsberg
| image = Allen Ginsberg 1979 - cropped.jpg
| caption = Ginsberg in 1979
| birth_name = Irwin Allen Ginsberg
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1926|6|3}}
| birth_place = Newark, New Jersey, U.S.
| death_date = {{death date and age|1997|4|5|1926|6|3}}
| death_place = New York City, U.S.
| education = Montclair State University<br />Columbia University (BA)<br />University of California, Berkeley
| partner = Peter Orlovsky (1954–1997)
| occupation = Writer, poet
| movement = Beat literature<br />Confessional poetry
| awards = National Book Award (1974)<br />Robert Frost Medal (1986)
| signature = Allen Ginsberg signature.svg
}}
Irwin Allen Ginsberg ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|ɪ|n|z|b|ɜːr|ɡ}}; June 3, 1926&nbsp;– April 5, 1997) was an American poet and writer. As a student at Columbia University in the 1940s, he began friendships with Lucien Carr, William S. Burroughs and Jack Kerouac, forming the core of the Beat Generation. He vigorously opposed militarism, economic materialism, and sexual repression, and he embodied various aspects of this counterculture with his views on drugs, sex, multiculturalism, hostility to bureaucracy, and openness to Eastern religions.<ref name"glbtq.com">{{Cite web |titleGinsberg, Allen (1926–1997) |urlhttp://www.glbtq.com/literature/ginsberg_a.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070313003635/http://www.glbtq.com/literature/ginsberg_a.html |archive-dateMarch 13, 2007 |access-dateAugust 9, 2015 |websiteglbtq.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastGinsberg |firstAllen |titleHowl, Kaddish and Other Poems |dateJuly 1, 2009 |publisherPenguin Books Ltd. |isbn978-0-14-119016-7 |locationLondon |page=0}}</ref>
Best known for his poem "Howl", Ginsberg denounced what he saw as the destructive forces of capitalism and conformity in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGinsberg |firstAllen |titleDeliberate Prose: Selected Essays 1952–1995 |dateMarch 20, 2001 |publisherHarperCollins |isbn978-0-06-093081-3 |locationNew York |pagexx–xxi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |dateDecember 29, 2002 |titleAbout Allen Ginsberg |urlhttps://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/episodes/allen-ginsberg/about-allen-ginsberg/613/ |publisherPBS}}</ref> San Francisco police and US Customs seized copies of "Howl" in 1956, and a subsequent obscenity trial in 1957 attracted widespread publicity due to the poem's language and descriptions of heterosexual and homosexual sex at a time when sodomy laws made male homosexual acts a crime in every state.<ref>{{Cite book |titleCensorship: a world encyclopedia. Volume 1–4 |publisherTaylor & Francis |year2015 |isbn978-1-135-00400-2 |editor-lastJones |editor-firstDerek |locationAbingdon |page955 |oclc910523065}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1Collins |first1Ronald K. L. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNEaEDwAAQBAJ&pgPA185 |titleThe People v. Ferlinghetti: The Fight to Publish Allen Ginsberg's Howl |last2Skover |first2David |publisherRowman & Littlefield |year2019 |isbn978-1-5381-2590-8 |pagexi |author-linkRonald K. L. Collins |author-link2David Skover}}</ref> The poem reflected Ginsberg's own sexuality and his relationships with a number of men, including Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong partner.<ref>{{Cite book |lastKramer |firstJane |titleAllen Ginsberg in America |date1968 |publisherRandom House |isbn978-1-299-40095-5 |locationNew York |pages43–46}}</ref> Judge Clayton W. Horn ruled that "Howl" was not obscene, asking: "Would there be any freedom of press or speech if one must reduce his vocabulary to vapid innocuous euphemisms?"<ref name"lean">{{Cite book |lastde Grazia |firstEdward |urlhttps://archive.org/details/girlsleanbackeve00degr_0 |titleGirls Lean Back Everywhere: The Law of Obscenity and the Assault on Genius |dateMarch 2, 1993 |publisherRandom House |isbn978-0-679-74341-5 |locationNew York |page338 |url-accessregistration}}</ref>
Ginsberg was a Buddhist who extensively studied Eastern religious disciplines. He lived modestly, buying his clothing in second-hand stores and residing in apartments in New York City's East Village.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAllen Ginsberg Project{{snd}}Bio |urlhttp://www.allenginsberg.org/index.php?pagebio |access-dateFebruary 18, 2013 |publisherallenginsberg.org}}</ref> One of his most influential teachers was Tibetan Buddhist Chögyam Trungpa, the founder of the Naropa Institute in Boulder, Colorado.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001|pp440–444}}</ref> At Trungpa's urging, Ginsberg and poet Anne Waldman started The Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics there in 1974.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001|pp=454–455}}</ref>
For decades, Ginsberg was active in political protests across a range of issues from the Vietnam War to the war on drugs.<ref>Ginsberg, Allen, Deliberate Prose, the foreword by Edward Sanders, p. xxi.</ref> His poem "September on Jessore Road" drew attention to refugees fleeing the 1971 Bangladeshi genocide, exemplifying what literary critic Helen Vendler described as Ginsberg's persistent opposition to "imperial politics" and the "persecution of the powerless".<ref>Vendler, Helen (January 13, 1986), "Books: A Lifelong Poem Including History", The New Yorker, p. 81.</ref> His collection The Fall of America shared the annual National Book Award for Poetry in 1974.<ref name"nba1974" /> In 1979, he received the National Arts Club gold medal and was inducted into the American Academy of Arts and Letters.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001|p484}}</ref> He was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 1995 for his book Cosmopolitan Greetings: Poems 1986–1992.<ref name"The Pulitzer Prizes {{pipe}} Poetry">{{Cite web |titleThe Pulitzer Prizes {{pipe}} Poetry |urlhttp://www.pulitzer.org/bycat/Poetry |access-dateOctober 31, 2010 |publisherPulitzer.org}}</ref>BiographyEarly life and familyGinsberg was born into a Jewish<ref>Pacernick, Gary. "[http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Allan+Ginsberg%3A+an+interview+by+Gary+Pacernick.-a019918392 Allen Ginsberg: An interview by Gary Pacernick]" (February 10, 1996), The American Poetry Review, July/August 1997. "Yeah, I am a Jewish poet. I'm Jewish."</ref> family in Newark, New Jersey, and grew up in nearby Paterson.<ref name"NYT" /> He was the second son of Louis Ginsberg, also born in Newark, a schoolteacher and published poet, and the former Naomi Levy, born in Nevel (Russia) and a fervent Marxist.<ref name"NYTObit">{{Cite news |lastHampton |firstWilborn |dateApril 6, 1997 |titleAllen Ginsberg, Master Poet Of Beat Generation, Dies at 70 |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/06/nyregion/allen-ginsberg-master-poet-of-beat-generation-dies-at-70.html |url-statuslive |access-dateApril 14, 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080311032659/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res9A0CE6D7143CF935A35757C0A961958260 |archive-dateMarch 11, 2008}}</ref>
As a teenager, Ginsberg began to write letters to The New York Times about political issues, such as World War II and workers' rights.<ref name"BioProject" /> He published his first poems in the Paterson Morning Call.<ref>David S. Wills, [https://www.beatdom.com/allen-ginsberg-first-poem/ "Allen Ginsberg's First Poem?"]</ref> While in high school, Ginsberg became interested in the works of Walt Whitman, inspired by his teacher's passionate reading.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> In 1943, Ginsberg graduated from Eastside High School and briefly attended Montclair State College before entering Columbia University on a scholarship from the Young Men's Hebrew Association of Paterson. Ginsberg intended to study law at Columbia but later changed his major to literature.<ref name"NYTObit" />
In 1945, he joined the Merchant Marine to earn money to continue his education at Columbia.<ref>Ginsberg, Allen (2008) The Letters of Allen Ginsberg. Philadelphia, Da Capo Press, p. 6.</ref> While at Columbia, Ginsberg contributed to the Columbia Review literary journal, the Jester humor magazine, won the Woodberry Poetry Prize, served as president of the Philolexian Society (literary and debate group), and joined Boar's Head Society (poetry society).<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref><ref name"columbiareview">{{Cite web |dateMay 22, 2014 |titleHistory |urlhttp://columbiareviewmag.com/history/ |access-dateMarch 5, 2016 |publisherColumbia Review}}</ref>
He was a resident of Hartley Hall, where other Beat Generation poets such as Jack Kerouac and Herbert Gold also lived.<ref>{{Cite web |titleMy generation – Columbia Spectator |urlhttps://www.columbiaspectator.com/2012/04/25/my-generation/ |access-dateJanuary 20, 2022 |websiteColumbia Daily Spectator}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastKrajicek |firstDavid J. |dateApril 5, 2012 |titleWhere Death Shaped the Beats |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/06/books/columbia-u-haunts-of-lucien-carr-and-the-beats.html |access-dateJanuary 20, 2022 |issn0362-4331}}</ref> Ginsberg has stated that he considered his required freshman seminar in Great Books, taught by Lionel Trilling, to be his favorite Columbia course. In 1948, he graduated from Columbia with a B.A in English and American Literature.<ref>Charters, Ann (July 2000) "Ginsberg's Life." American National Biography Online. American Council of Learned Societies.</ref>
According to The Poetry Foundation, Ginsberg spent several months in a mental institution after he pleaded insanity during a hearing. He was allegedly being prosecuted for harboring stolen goods in his dorm room. It was noted that the stolen property was not his, but belonged to an acquaintance.<ref>Allen Ginsberg." Allen Ginsberg Biography. Poetry Foundation, 2014. Web. November 6, 2014.</ref> Ginsberg also took part in public readings at the Episcopal St. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery which would later hold a memorial service for him after his death.<ref>{{Cite web |titleSt. Mark's Church in-the-Bowery |urlhttps://www.literarymanhattan.org/place/st-marks-church-in-the-bowery/ |access-dateApril 21, 2022 |websitewww.literarymanhattan.org |archive-dateMarch 12, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220312154310/https://www.literarymanhattan.org/place/st-marks-church-in-the-bowery/ |url-statususurped }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastMorgan |firstBill |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-nt1xVR4SrAC&pgPA104 |titleBeat Generation in New York: A Walking Tour of Jack Kerouac's City |dateNovember 1997 |publisherCity Lights Books |isbn978-0-87286-325-5}}</ref>
Relationship with his parents
Ginsberg referred to his parents in a 1985 interview as "old-fashioned delicatessen philosophers".<ref name"NYT" /> His mother was also an active member of the Communist Party and took Ginsberg and his brother Eugene to party meetings. Ginsberg later said that his mother "made up bedtime stories that all went something like: 'The good king rode forth from his castle, saw the suffering workers and healed them.'"<ref name"BioProject">{{Cite web |lastJones |firstBonesy |titleBiographical Notes on Allen Ginsberg |urlhttp://www.popsubculture.com/pop/bio_project/allen_ginsberg.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051023041027/http://www.popsubculture.com/pop/bio_project/allen_ginsberg.html |archive-dateOctober 23, 2005 |access-dateOctober 20, 2005 |publisherBiography Project}}</ref> Of his father Ginsberg said: "My father would go around the house either reciting Emily Dickinson and Longfellow under his breath or attacking T. S. Eliot for ruining poetry with his 'obscurantism.' I grew suspicious of both sides."<ref name"NYT" />
Naomi Ginsberg had schizophrenia which often manifested as paranoid delusions, disordered thinking and multiple suicide attempts.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastHADDA |firstJANET |date2008 |titleGinsberg in Hospital |journalAmerican Imago |volume65 |issue2 |pages229–259 |issn0065-860X |jstor26305281}}</ref> She would claim, for example, that the president had implanted listening devices in their home and that her mother-in-law was trying to kill her.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001|p26}}</ref><ref>Hyde, Lewis and Ginsberg, Allen (1984) On the poetry of Allen Ginsberg. University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|0-472-06353-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-472-06353-6}}. p. 421.</ref> Her suspicion of those around her caused Naomi to draw closer to young Allen, "her little pet," as Bill Morgan says in his biography of Ginsberg, titled I Celebrate Myself: The Somewhat Private Life of Allen Ginsberg.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007|p18}}</ref> She also tried to kill herself by slitting her wrists and was soon taken to Greystone, a mental hospital; she would spend much of Ginsberg's youth in mental hospitals.<ref>Dittman, Michael J. (2007), Masterpieces of Beat literature. Greenwood Publishing Group. {{ISBN|0-313-33283-5}}, pp. 57–58.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007|p13}}</ref> His experiences with his mother and her mental illness were a major inspiration for his two major works, "Howl" and his long autobiographical poem "Kaddish for Naomi Ginsberg (1894–1956)".<ref name"Breslin">Breslin, James (2003), "Allen Ginsberg: The Origins of Howl and Kaddish." in Poetry Criticism. David M. Galens (ed.). Vol. 47. Detroit: Gale.</ref>
When he was in junior high school, he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist. The trip deeply disturbed Ginsberg—he mentioned it and other moments from his childhood in "Kaddish".<ref name"Modern">{{Cite web |lastCharters |firstAnn |titleAllen Ginsberg's Life |urlhttp://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080511185747/http://www.english.uiuc.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm |archive-dateMay 11, 2008 |access-dateOctober 20, 2005 |publisherModern American Poetry website}}</ref> His experiences with his mother's mental illness and her institutionalization are also frequently referred to in "Howl." For example, "Pilgrim State, Rockland, and Grey Stone's foetid halls" is a reference to institutions frequented by his mother and Carl Solomon, ostensibly the subject of the poem: Pilgrim State Hospital and Rockland State Hospital in New York and Greystone Park Psychiatric Hospital in New Jersey.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007|p18}}</ref><ref name"orig">Ginsberg, Allen (1995). Howl: Original Draft Facsimile, Transcript & Variant Versions, Fully Annotated by Author, with Contemporaneous Correspondence, Account of First Public Reading, Legal Skirmishes, Precursor Texts & Bibliography. Barry Miles (Ed.). Harper Perennial. {{ISBN|0-06-092611-2}}. pp. 131, 132, 139–140.</ref><ref>Theado, Matt (2003) The Beats: A Literary Reference. Carroll & Graf Publishers. {{ISBN|0-7867-1099-3}}. p. 53.</ref> This is followed soon by the line "with mother finally ******." Ginsberg later admitted the deletion was the expletive "fucked."<ref name"orig"/> He also says of Solomon in section three, "I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother," once again showing the association between Solomon and his mother.<ref>{{harvnb|Raskin|2004|pp=156–157}}</ref>
Ginsberg received a letter from his mother after her death responding to a copy of "Howl" he had sent her. It admonished Ginsberg to be good and stay away from drugs; she says, "The key is in the window, the key is in the sunlight at the window—I have the key—Get married Allen don't take drugs—the key is in the bars, in the sunlight in the window."<ref>Hyde, Lewis and Ginsberg, Allen (1984), On the poetry of Allen Ginsberg. University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|0-472-06353-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-472-06353-6}}, pp. 426–427.</ref> In a letter she wrote to Ginsberg's brother Eugene, she said, "God's informers come to my bed, and God himself I saw in the sky. The sunshine showed too, a key on the side of the window for me to get out. The yellow of the sunshine, also showed the key on the side of the window."<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007|pp219–220}}</ref> These letters and the absence of a facility to recite kaddish inspired Ginsberg to write "Kaddish", which makes references to many details from Naomi's life, Ginsberg's experiences with her, and the letter, including the lines "the key is in the light" and "the key is in the window."<ref>Ginsberg, Allen (1961), Kaddish and Other Poems. Volume 2, Issue 14 of The Pocket Poets series. City Lights Books.</ref>New York Beats{{refimprovesect|dateAugust 2024}}
In Ginsberg's first year at Columbia he met fellow undergraduate Lucien Carr, who introduced him to a number of future Beat writers, including Jack Kerouac, William S. Burroughs, and John Clellon Holmes. They bonded, because they saw in one another an excitement about the potential of American youth, a potential that existed outside the strict conformist confines of post–World War II, McCarthy-era America.<ref>{{harvnb|Raskin|2004}}</ref> Ginsberg and Carr talked excitedly about a "New Vision" (a phrase adapted from Yeats' "A Vision"), for literature and America. Carr also introduced Ginsberg to Neal Cassady, for whom Ginsberg had a long infatuation.<ref>Barry Gifford, ed., As Ever: The Collected Correspondence of Allen Ginsberg & Neal Cassady.</ref> In the first chapter of his 1957 novel On the Road Kerouac described the meeting between Ginsberg and Cassady.<ref name="Modern" /> Kerouac saw them as the dark (Ginsberg) and light (Cassady) side of their "New Vision", a perception stemming partly from Ginsberg's association with communism, of which Kerouac had become increasingly distrustful. Though Ginsberg was never a member of the Communist Party, Kerouac named him "Carlo Marx" in On the Road. This was a source of strain in their relationship.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref>
Also, in New York, Ginsberg met Gregory Corso in the Pony Stable Bar. Corso, recently released from prison, was supported by the Pony Stable patrons and was writing poetry there the night of their meeting. Ginsberg claims he was immediately attracted to Corso, who was straight, but understood homosexuality after three years in prison. Ginsberg was even more struck by reading Corso's poems, realizing Corso was "spiritually gifted." Ginsberg introduced Corso to the rest of his inner circle. In their first meeting at the Pony Stable, Corso showed Ginsberg a poem about a woman who lived across the street from him and sunbathed naked in the window. Amazingly, the woman happened to be Ginsberg's girlfriend that he was living with during one of his forays into heterosexuality. Ginsberg took Corso over to their apartment. There the woman proposed sex with Corso, who was still very young and fled in fear. Ginsberg introduced Corso to Kerouac and Burroughs and they began to travel together. Ginsberg and Corso remained lifelong friends and collaborators.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}{{page needed|dateAugust 2024}}</ref>{{additional citation needed|dateAugust 2024}}
Shortly after this period in Ginsberg's life, he became romantically involved with Elise Nada Cowen after meeting her through Alex Greer, a philosophy professor at Barnard College whom she had dated for a while during the burgeoning Beat generation's period of development. As a Barnard student, Elise Cowen extensively read the poetry of Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, when she met Joyce Johnson and Leo Skir, among other Beat players.{{fact|dateAugust 2024}} As Cowen had felt a strong attraction to darker poetry most of the time, Beat poetry seemed to provide an allure to what suggests a shadowy side of her persona. While at Barnard, Cowen earned the nickname "Beat Alice" as she had joined a small group of anti-establishment artists and visionaries known to outsiders as beatniks, and one of her first acquaintances at the college was the beat poet Joyce Johnson who later portrayed Cowen in her books, including "Minor Characters" and Come and Join the Dance, which expressed the two women's experiences in the Barnard and Columbia Beat community.{{fact|dateAugust 2024}} Through his association with Elise Cowen, Ginsberg discovered that they shared a mutual friend, Carl Solomon, to whom he later dedicated his most famous poem "Howl." This poem is considered an autobiography of Ginsberg up to 1955, and a brief history of the Beat Generation through its references to his relationship to other Beat artists of that time.{{fact|dateAugust 2024}}The "Blake vision"In 1948, in an apartment in East Harlem, Ginsberg experienced an auditory hallucination while masturbating and reading the poetry of William Blake,<ref>{{Cite book |lastMorgan |firstBill |titleThe Typewriter Is Holy: The Complete, Uncensored History of the Beat Generation |publisherSimon and Schuster |year2010 |isbn978-1-4165-9242-6 |page34}}</ref> which he later referred to as his "Blake vision". Ginsberg claimed to have heard the voice of God—also described as the "voice of the Ancient of Days"—or of Blake himself reading "Ah! Sun-flower", "The Sick Rose" and "The Little Girl Lost". The experience lasted several days, with him believing that he had witnessed the interconnectedness of the universe; Ginsberg recounted that after looking at latticework on the fire escape of the apartment and then at the sky, he intuited that one had been crafted by human beings, while the other had been crafted by itself.<ref name"On the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg">{{Cite book |lastGinsberg |firstAllen |titleOn the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg |date1984 |publisherThe University of Michigan Press |isbn978-0-472-09353-3 |editor-lastHyde |editor-firstLewis |edition2002 |locationUnited States |page[https://archive.org/details/onpoetryofalleng0000unse/page/123 123] |chapterA Blake Experience |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/onpoetryofalleng0000unse/page/123}}</ref> He explained that this hallucination was not inspired by drug use, but said he sought to recapture the feeling of interconnectedness later with various drugs.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> Later, in 1955, he referenced his "Blake vision" in his poem "Sunflower Sutra", saying "—I rushed up enchanted—it was my first sunflower, memories of Blake—my visions—".<ref>{{Cite web |titleSunflower Sutra |urlhttps://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/49304/sunflower-sutra |access-date2025-03-26 |websiteThe Poetry Foundation}}</ref>
San Francisco Renaissance
Ginsberg moved to San Francisco during the 1950s. Before Howl and Other Poems was published in 1956 by City Lights, he worked as a market researcher.<ref name="Schumacher, Michael 2002">Schumacher, Michael (January 27, 2002). "Allen Ginsberg Project".</ref>
In 1954, in San Francisco, Ginsberg met Peter Orlovsky (1933–2010), with whom he fell in love and who remained his lifelong partner.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> Selections from their correspondence have been published.<ref>''Straight Hearts' Delight: Love Poems and Selected Letters'', by Allen Ginsberg and Peter Orlovsky, edited by Winston Leyland. Gay Sunshine Press, 1980, {{ISBN|0-917342-65-8}}.</ref>
Also in San Francisco, Ginsberg met members of the San Francisco Renaissance (James Broughton, Robert Duncan, Madeline Gleason and Kenneth Rexroth) and other poets who would later be associated with the Beat Generation in a broader sense. Ginsberg's mentor William Carlos Williams wrote an introductory letter to San Francisco Renaissance figurehead Kenneth Rexroth, who then introduced Ginsberg into the San Francisco poetry scene.<ref>{{Cite web |lastHartlaub |firstPeter |dateDecember 4, 2015 |orig-dateDecember 4, 2015 |titleHow the Beats helped build San Francisco's progressive future |urlhttps://www.sfchronicle.com/oursf/article/Our-SF-The-Beats-help-build-city-s-progressive-6676634.php |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221104174446/https://www.sfchronicle.com/oursf/article/Our-SF-The-Beats-help-build-city-s-progressive-6676634.php |archive-dateNovember 4, 2022 |access-dateJuly 31, 2024 |websiteThe San Francisco Chronicle |languageEnglish}}</ref> There, Ginsberg also met three budding poets and Zen enthusiasts who had become friends at Reed College: Gary Snyder, Philip Whalen, and Lew Welch. In 1959, along with poets John Kelly, Bob Kaufman, A. D. Winans, and William Margolis, Ginsberg was one of the founders of the Beatitude poetry magazine.
Wally Hedrick—a painter and co-founder of the Six Gallery—approached Ginsberg in mid-1955 and asked him to organize a poetry reading at the Six Gallery. At first, Ginsberg refused, but once he had written a rough draft of "Howl," he changed his "fucking mind," as he put it.<ref>{{harvnb|Raskin|2004}}</ref> Ginsberg advertised the event as "Six Poets at the Six Gallery." One of the most important events in Beat mythos, known simply as "The Six Gallery reading" took place on October 7, 1955.<ref name"npr">{{Cite web |lastSiegel |firstRobert |dateOctober 7, 2005 |titleBirth of the Beat Generation: 50 Years of 'Howl' |urlhttps://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId4950578 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061017033639/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId4950578 |archive-dateOctober 17, 2006 |access-dateOctober 2, 2006 |website=All Things Considered}}</ref> The event, in essence, brought together the East and West Coast factions of the Beat Generation. Of more personal significance to Ginsberg, the reading that night included the first public presentation of "Howl," a poem that brought worldwide fame to Ginsberg and to many of the poets associated with him. An account of that night can be found in Kerouac's novel The Dharma Bums, describing how change was collected from audience members to buy jugs of wine, and Ginsberg reading passionately, drunken, with arms outstretched.
''{{nbsp}}(1956)]]
Ginsberg's principal work, "Howl," is well known for its opening line: "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness, starving hysterical naked&nbsp;[...]." "Howl" was considered scandalous at the time of its publication, because of the rawness of its language. Shortly after its 1956 publication by San Francisco's City Lights Bookstore, it was banned for obscenity. The ban became a cause célèbre among defenders of the First Amendment, and was later lifted, after Judge Clayton W. Horn declared the poem to possess redeeming artistic value.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> Ginsberg and Shig Murao, the City Lights manager who was jailed for selling "Howl," became lifelong friends.<ref>Ball, Gordon, {{" '}}Howl' and Other Victories: A friend remembers City Lights' Shig Murao", San Francisco Chronicle, November 28, 1999.</ref>
Biographical references in "Howl"
Ginsberg claimed at one point that all of his work was an extended biography (like Kerouac's Duluoz Legend). "Howl" is not only a biography of Ginsberg's experiences before 1955, but also a history of the Beat Generation. Ginsberg also later claimed that at the core of "Howl" were his unresolved emotions about his schizophrenic mother. Though "Kaddish" deals more explicitly with his mother, "Howl" in many ways is driven by the same emotions. "Howl" chronicles the development of many important friendships throughout Ginsberg's life. He begins the poem with "I saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness", which sets the stage for Ginsberg to describe Cassady and Solomon, immortalizing them into American literature.<ref>{{harvnb|Raskin|2004}}</ref> This madness was the "angry fix" that society needed to function—madness was its disease. In the poem, Ginsberg focused on "Carl Solomon! I'm with you in Rockland", and, thus, turned Solomon into an archetypal figure searching for freedom from his "straightjacket". Though references in most of his poetry reveal much about his biography, his relationship to other members of the Beat Generation, and his own political views, "Howl," his most famous poem, is still perhaps the best place to start.{{citation needed|dateJanuary 2019}}To Paris and the "Beat Hotel", Tangier and IndiaIn 1957, Ginsberg surprised the literary world by abandoning San Francisco. After a spell in Morocco, he and Peter Orlovsky joined Gregory Corso in Paris. Corso introduced them to a shabby lodging house above a bar at 9 rue Gît-le-Cœur that was to become known as the Beat Hotel. They were soon joined by Burroughs and others. It was a productive, creative time for all of them. There, Ginsberg began his epic poem "Kaddish", Corso composed Bomb and Marriage, and Burroughs (with help from Ginsberg and Corso) put together Naked Lunch from previous writings. This period was documented by the photographer Harold Chapman, who moved in at about the same time, and took pictures constantly of the residents of the "hotel" until it closed in 1963. During 1962–1963, Ginsberg and Orlovsky travelled extensively across India, living half a year at a time in Calcutta (now Kolkata) and Benares (Varanasi). On his road to India he stayed two months in Athens ( August 29, 1961 – October 31, 1961) where he visited various sites such as Delphi, Mycines, Crete, and then continued his journey to Israel, Kenya and finally India.<ref>{{Cite web |dateJanuary 28, 2016 |titleΌταν ο ποιητής Άλεν Γκίνσμπεργκ επισκέφτηκε το Πέραμα. {{!}} LiFO |urlhttps://www.lifo.gr/now/athens/otan-o-poiitis-alen-gkinsmpergk-episkeftike-perama |access-dateJuly 13, 2022 |websitewww.lifo.gr |languageel}}</ref> Also during this time, he formed friendships with some of the prominent young Bengali poets of the time including Shakti Chattopadhyay and Sunil Gangopadhyay. Ginsberg had several political connections in India; most notably Pupul Jayakar who helped him extend his stay in India when the authorities were eager to expel him.England and the International Poetry IncarnationIn May 1965, Ginsberg arrived in London, and offered to read anywhere for free.<ref name"Ref-1">Nuttall, J (1968) Bomb Culture MacGibbon & Kee, {{ISBN|0-261-62617-5}}</ref> Shortly after his arrival, he gave a reading at Better Books, which was described by Jeff Nuttall as "the first healing wind on a very parched collective mind."<ref name"Ref-1" /> Tom McGrath wrote: "This could well turn out to have been a very significant moment in the history of England—or at least in the history of English Poetry."<ref name"Ref-2">Fountain, N: Underground: the London alternative press, 1966–1974, p. 16. Taylor & Francis, 1988 {{ISBN|0-415-00728-3}}.</ref>
Soon after the bookshop reading, plans were hatched for the International Poetry Incarnation,<ref name"Ref-2" /> which was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on June 11, 1965. The event attracted an audience of 7,000, who heard readings and live and tape performances by a wide variety of figures, including Ginsberg, Adrian Mitchell, Alexander Trocchi, Harry Fainlight, Anselm Hollo, Christopher Logue, George MacBeth, Gregory Corso, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Michael Horovitz, Simon Vinkenoog, Spike Hawkins and Tom McGrath. The event was organized by Ginsberg's friend, the filmmaker Barbara Rubin.<ref name"ginsbergproject">{{Cite web |lastHale |firstPeter |dateMarch 31, 2014 |titleBarbara Rubin (1945–1980) |urlhttp://ginsbergblog.blogspot.com/2014/03/barbara-rubin-1945-1980.html |websiteThe Allen Ginsberg Project}}</ref><ref name"osterweil">{{Cite web |lastOsterweil |firstAra |year2010 |titleQueer Coupling, or The Stain of the Bearded Woman |urlhttp://www.araosterweil.com/download/i/mark_dl/u/4009891857/4561222908/Framework%2051-2.1%20Osterweil%20article.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141020065346/http://www.araosterweil.com/download/i/mark_dl/u/4009891857/4561222908/Framework%2051-2.1%20Osterweil%20article.pdf |archive-dateOctober 20, 2014 |access-dateOctober 13, 2014 |websitearaosterweil.com |publisher=Wayne State University Press}}</ref>
Peter Whitehead documented the event on film and released it as Wholly Communion. A book featuring images from the film and some of the poems that were performed was also published under the same title by Lorrimer in the UK and Grove Press in US.
Continuing literary activity
. Photo taken in 1978]]
Though the term "Beat" is most accurately applied to Ginsberg and his closest friends (Corso, Orlovsky, Kerouac, Burroughs, etc.), the term "Beat Generation" has become associated with many of the other poets Ginsberg met and became friends with in the late 1950s and early 1960s. A key feature of this term seems to be a friendship with Ginsberg. Friendship with Kerouac or Burroughs might also apply, but both writers later strove to disassociate themselves from the name "Beat Generation." Part of their dissatisfaction with the term came from the mistaken identification of Ginsberg as the leader. Ginsberg never claimed to be the leader of a movement. He claimed that many of the writers with whom he had become friends in this period shared many of the same intentions and themes. Some of these friends include: David Amram, Bob Kaufman; Diane di Prima; Jim Cohn; poets associated with the Black Mountain College such as Charles Olson, Robert Creeley, and Denise Levertov; poets associated with the New York School such as Frank O'Hara and Kenneth Koch. LeRoi Jones before he became Amiri Baraka, who, after reading "Howl", wrote a letter to Ginsberg on a sheet of toilet paper. Baraka's independent publishing house Totem Press published Ginsberg's early work.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAmiri Baraka papers, 1945–2015 |urlhttp://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_6909686/ |access-dateOctober 10, 2020 |websitewww.columbia.edu |quoteBaraka's Totem Press: published early works by Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, and other Beat and Downtown experimental writers. |archive-dateMarch 19, 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220319042505/http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/archival/collections/ldpd_6909686/ |url-statusdead }}</ref>{{additional citation needed|dateAugust 2024}} Through a party organized by Baraka, Ginsberg was introduced to Langston Hughes while Ornette Coleman played saxophone.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastHarrison |firstK. C. |year2014 |titleLeRoi Jones's Radio and the Literary "Break" from Ellison to Burroughs |journalAfrican American Review |volume47 |issue2/3 |pages357–374 |doi10.1353/afa.2014.0042 |jstor24589759 |s2cid160151597}}</ref>
, taken in 1975]]
Later in his life, Ginsberg formed a bridge between the beat movement of the 1950s and the hippies of the 1960s, befriending, among others, Timothy Leary, Ken Kesey, Hunter S. Thompson, and Bob Dylan. Ginsberg gave his last public reading at Booksmith, a bookstore in the Haight-Ashbury neighborhood of San Francisco, a few months before his death.<ref>{{usurped|1[https://web.archive.org/web/20140714140634/http://fora.tv/2008/10/23/Bill_Morgan_The_Letters_of_Allen_Ginsberg Bill Morgan: The Letters of Allen Ginsberg]}}. Video at fora.tv. October 23, 2008.</ref> In 1993, Ginsberg visited the University of Maine at Orono to pay homage to the 90-year-old great Carl Rakosi.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastPERLOFF |firstMARJORIE |year2013 |titleAllen Ginsberg |journalPoetry |volume202 |issue4 |pages351–353 |jstor23561794}}</ref>
Buddhism and Krishna
{{See also|A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada|Mantra-Rock Dance}}
In 1950, Kerouac began studying Buddhism<ref name"tyger">{{Cite web |lastGinsberg |firstAllen |dateApril 3, 2015 |titleThe Vomit of a Mad Tyger |urlhttp://www.lionsroar.com/the-vomit-of-a-mad-tyger/ |access-dateApril 3, 2015 |publisherLion's Roar}}</ref> and shared what he learned from Dwight Goddard's Buddhist Bible with Ginsberg.<ref name"tyger" /> Ginsberg first heard about the Four Noble Truths and such sutras as the Diamond Sutra at this time.<ref name"tyger" /> Ginsberg's endorsement helped establish the Krishna movement within New York's bohemian culture.<ref>{{cite news |last1Prideaux |first1Ed |titleThe true story of Hare Krishna: Sex, drugs, The Beatles and 50 years of scandal |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/independentpremium/long-reads/hare-krishna-sex-god-beatles-hindu-guru-chant-temple-message-a9226531.html |access-date11 August 2024 |workThe Independent |date=December 3, 2019}}</ref>
Ginsberg's spiritual journey began early on with his spontaneous visions, and continued with an early trip to India with Gary Snyder.<ref name"tyger" /> Snyder had previously spent time in Kyoto to study at the First Zen Institute at Daitoku-ji Monastery.<ref name"tyger" /> At one point, Snyder chanted the Prajnaparamita, which in Ginsberg's words "blew my mind."<ref name"tyger" /> His interest piqued, Ginsberg traveled to meet the Dalai Lama as well as the Karmapa at Rumtek Monastery.<ref name"tyger" /> Continuing on his journey, Ginsberg met Dudjom Rinpoche in Kalimpong, who taught him: "If you see something horrible, don't cling to it, and if you see something beautiful, don't cling to it."<ref name="tyger" />
After returning to the United States, a chance encounter on a New York City street with Chögyam Trungpa Rinpoche (they both tried to catch the same cab),<ref>{{Cite book |lastFields |firstRick |titleHow the Swans Came to the Lake: A Narrative History of Buddhism in America |publisherShambhala Publications |year1992 |isbn978-0-87773-631-8 |page311}}</ref> a Kagyu and Nyingma Tibetan Buddhist master, led to Trungpa becoming his friend and lifelong teacher.<ref name"tyger" /> Ginsberg helped Trungpa and New York poet Anne Waldman in founding the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics at Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado.
Ginsberg was also involved with Krishnaism. He had started incorporating chanting the Hare Krishna mantra into his religious practice in the mid-1960s. After learning that A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada, the founder of the Hare Krishna movement in the Western world had rented a store front in New York, he befriended him, visiting him often and suggesting publishers for his books, and a fruitful relationship began. This relationship is documented by Satsvarupa dasa Goswami in his biographical account Srila Prabhupada Lilamrta. Ginsberg donated money, materials, and his reputation to help the Swami establish the first temple, and toured with him to promote his cause.<ref>{{Cite news |lastWills, D. |year2007 |titleBuddhism and the Beats |volume1 |pages9–13 |workBeatdom |publisherMauling Press |locationDundee |editor-lastWills, D. |urlhttp://www.beatdom.com/buddhism_and_the_beats.htm |access-dateMarch 4, 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100501050535/http://www.beatdom.com/buddhism_and_the_beats.htm |archive-date=May 1, 2010}}</ref>
at San Francisco International Airport. January 17, 1967]]
Despite disagreeing with many of Bhaktivedanta Swami's required prohibitions, Ginsberg often sang the Hare Krishna mantra publicly as part of his philosophy<ref name"Brooks 1992 78–9">{{Harvnb|Brooks|1992|pp78–9}}</ref> and declared that it brought a state of ecstasy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Szatmary|1996|p149}}</ref> He was glad that Bhaktivedanta Swami, an authentic swami from India, was now trying to spread the chanting in America. Along with other counterculture ideologists like Timothy Leary, Gary Snyder, and Alan Watts, Ginsberg hoped to incorporate Bhaktivedanta Swami and his chanting into the hippie movement, and agreed to take part in the Mantra-Rock Dance concert and to introduce the swami to the Haight-Ashbury hippie community.<ref name"Brooks 1992 78–9" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Ginsberg|Morgan|1986|p36}}</ref><ref group"nb">(from the "Houseboat Summit" panel discussion, Sausalito CA. February 1967)({{Harvnb|Cohen|1991|p=182}}):<br />
Ginsberg: So what do you think of Swami Bhaktivedanta pleading for the acceptance of Krishna in every direction?<br />
Snyder: Why, it's a lovely positive thing to say Krishna. It's a beautiful mythology and it's a beautiful practice.<br />
Leary: Should be encouraged.<br />
Ginsberg: He feels it's the one uniting thing. He feels a monopolistic unitary thing about it.<br />
Watts: I'll tell you why I think he feels it. The mantras, the images of Krishna have in this culture no foul association&nbsp;[...] [W]hen somebody comes in from the Orient with a new religion which hasn't got any of [horrible] associations in our minds, all the words are new, all the rites are new, and yet, somehow it has feeling in it, and we can get with that, you see, and we can dig that!</ref>
On January 17, 1967, Ginsberg helped plan and organize a reception for Bhaktivedanta Swami at San Francisco International Airport, where fifty to a hundred hippies greeted the Swami, chanting Hare Krishna in the airport lounge with flowers in hands.<ref>{{Harvnb|Muster|1997|p25}}</ref><ref group"nb">Addressing speculations that he was Allen Ginsberg's guru, Bhaktivedanta Swami answered a direct question in a public program, "Are you Allen Ginsberg's guru?" by saying, "I am nobody's guru. I am everybody's servant. Actually I am not even a servant; a servant of God is no ordinary thing." ({{Harvnb|Greene|2007|p85}}; {{Harvnb|Goswami|2011|pp196–7}})</ref> To further support and promote Bhaktivedanta Swami's message and chanting in San Francisco, Allen Ginsberg agreed to attend the Mantra-Rock Dance, a musical event 1967 held at the Avalon Ballroom by the San Francisco Hare Krishna temple. It featured some leading rock bands of the time: Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin, the Grateful Dead, and Moby Grape, who performed there along with the Hare Krishna founder Bhaktivedanta Swami and donated proceeds to the Krishna temple. Ginsberg introduced Bhaktivedanta Swami to some three thousand hippies in the audience and led the chanting of the Hare Krishna mantra.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bromley|Shinn|1989 |p106}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Chryssides|Wilkins|2006|p213}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastJoplin |firstLaura |titleLove, Janis |publisherVillard Books |year1992 |isbn0-679-41605-6 |locationNew York |page182}}</ref>
promotional poster featuring Allen Ginsberg along with leading rock bands.]]
Music and chanting were both important parts of Ginsberg's live delivery during poetry readings.<ref>Chowka, Peter Barry, "[http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/interviews.htm This is Allen Ginsberg?] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190408084404/http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/interviews.htm |dateApril 8, 2019 }}" (Interview), New Age Journal, April 1976. "I had known Swami Bhaktivedanta and was somewhat guided by him&nbsp;[...] spiritual friend. I practiced the Hare Krishna chant, practiced it with him, sometimes in mass auditoriums and parks in the Lower East Side of New York. Actually, I'd been chanting it since '63, after coming back from India. I began chanting it, in Vancouver at a great poetry conference, for the first time in '63, with Duncan and Olson and everybody around, and then continued. When Bhaktivedanta arrived on the Lower East Side in '66 it was reinforcement for me, like 'the reinforcements had arrived' from India."</ref> He often accompanied himself on a harmonium, and was often accompanied by a guitarist. It is believed that the Hindi and Buddhist poet Nagarjun had introduced Ginsberg to the harmonium in Banaras. According to Malay Roy Choudhury, Ginsberg refined his practice while learning from his relatives, including his cousin Savitri Banerjee.<ref>Klausner, Linda T. (April 22, 2011), "American Beat Yogi: An Exploration of the Hindu and Indian Cultural Themes in Allen Ginsberg", Masters Thesis: Literature, Culture, and Media[http://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?funcdownloadFile&recordOId2152608&fileOId=2152615 Lund University].</ref> When Ginsberg asked if he could sing a song in praise of Lord Krishna on William F. Buckley, Jr.'s TV show Firing Line on September 3, 1968, Buckley acceded and the poet chanted slowly as he played dolefully on a harmonium. According to Richard Brookhiser, an associate of Buckley's, the host commented that it was "the most unharried Krishna I've ever heard."<ref>Konigsberg, Eric (February 29, 2008), "Buckley's Urbane Debating Club: Firing Line Set a Standard For Political Discourse on TV", The New York Times, Metro Section, p. B1.</ref>
At the 1967 Human Be-In in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park, the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago, and the 1970 Black Panther rally at Yale campus Allen chanted "Om" repeatedly over a sound system for hours on end.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007|p=468}}</ref>
Ginsberg further brought mantras into the world of rock and roll when he recited the Heart Sutra in the song "Ghetto Defendant". The song appears on the 1982 album Combat Rock by British first wave punk band The Clash.
Ginsberg came in touch with the Hungryalist poets of Bengal, especially Malay Roy Choudhury, who introduced Ginsberg to the three fish with one head of Indian emperor Jalaluddin Mohammad Akbar. The three fish symbolised coexistence of all thought, philosophy, and religion.<ref>Mitra, Alo (May 9, 2008), [http://www.thewastepaper.blogspot.com/ HUNGRYALIST INFLUENCE ON ALLEN GINSBERG]. thewastepaper.blogspot.com.</ref>
In spite of Ginsberg's attraction to Eastern religions, the journalist Jane Kramer argues that he, like Whitman, adhered to an "American brand of mysticism" that was "rooted in humanism and in a romantic and visionary ideal of harmony among men."<ref>Kramer, Jane (1968), Allen Ginsberg in America. New York: Random House, p. xvii.</ref>
The Allen Ginsberg Estate and Jewel Heart International partnered to present "Transforming Minds: Kyabje Gelek Rimpoche and Friends", a gallery and online exhibition of images of Gelek Rimpoche by Allen Ginsberg, a student with whom he had an "indissoluble bond," in 2021 at Tibet House US in New York City.<ref>{{Cite web |titleTransforming Minds: Kyabje Gelek Rimnpohce and Friends |urlhttps://www.jewelheart.org/events/transforming-minds-kyabje-gelek-rimpoche-and-friends-photographs-by-allen-ginsberg/ |access-dateNovember 3, 2022 |websitejewelheart.org |publisherJewel Heart}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastSpiegel |firstAlison |dateSeptember 29, 2021 |titleInside the New Allen Ginsberg Photography Exhibit at Tibet House US |publisherTricycle Magazine |urlhttps://tricycle.org/article/allen-ginsberg-exhibit/ |access-dateNovember 3, 2022}}</ref> Fifty negatives from Ginsberg's Stanford University photo archive celebrated "the unique relationship between Allen and Rimpoche." The selection of never-before presented images, featuring great Tibetan masters including the Dalai Lama, Tibetologists, and students were "guided by Allen's extensive notes on the contact sheets and images he'd circled with the intention to print."<ref>{{Cite journal |lastPaljor Chatag |firstBen |date2022 |titleCuratorial Reflections on 'Transforming Minds: Kyabje Gelek Rimpoche and Friends, Photographs by Allen Ginsberg 1989–1997' |urlhttps://yeshe.org/curatorial-reflections-on-transforming-minds-kyabje-gelek-rimpoche-and-friends-photographs-by-allen-ginsberg-1989-1997/ |journalYeshe, A Journal of Tibetan Literature, Arts and Humanities |volume2 |issue1 |access-dateNovember 3, 2022}}</ref>Illness and deathIn 1960, he was treated for a tropical disease, and it is speculated that he contracted hepatitis from an unsterilized needle administered by a doctor, which played a role in his death 37 years later.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007|p312}}</ref>
Ginsberg was a lifelong smoker, and though he tried to quit for health and religious reasons, his busy schedule in later life made it difficult, and he always returned to smoking.
In the 1970s, Ginsberg had two minor strokes which were first diagnosed as Bell's palsy, which gave him significant paralysis and stroke-like drooping of the muscles in one side of his face. Later in life, he also had constant minor ailments such as high blood pressure. Many of these symptoms were related to stress, but he never slowed down his schedule.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007}}</ref>
Ginsberg won a 1974 National Book Award for The Fall of America (split with Adrienne Rich, Diving into the Wreck).<ref name="nba1974">In 1993, Ginsberg visited the University of Maine at Orono for a conference, to pay homage to the 90-year-old great [https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/carl-rakosi Carl Rakosi] and to read poems as well. [https://www.nationalbook.org/awards-prizes/national-book-awards-1974 "National Book Awards{{snd}}1974"]. National Book Foundation. Retrieved April 7, 2012 (with acceptance speech by Ginsberg and essay by John Murillo from the Awards 60-year anniversary blog).</ref>
In 1986, Ginsberg was awarded the Golden Wreath by the Struga Poetry Evenings International Festival in Macedonia, the second American poet to be so awarded since W. H. Auden. At Struga, Ginsberg met with the other Golden Wreath winners, Bulat Okudzhava and Andrei Voznesensky.
In 1989, Ginsberg appeared in Rosa von Praunheim's award-winning film Silence Death about the fight of gay artists in New York City for AIDS-education and the rights of HIV infected people.<ref name":1">{{Cite web |titleSilence Death |urlhttps://teddyaward.tv/en/archive?a-z1&selectS&id_film405 |publisher=Teddy Award}}</ref>
In 1993, the French Minister of Culture appointed Ginsberg a Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres.
Ginsberg continued to help his friends as much as he could: he gave money to Herbert Huncke out of his own pocket, regularly supplied neighbor Arthur Russell with an extension cord to power his home recording setup,<ref>{{Cite web |lastRhoades |firstLindsey |dateMarch 8, 2017 |titleEcho in Eternity: The Indelible Mark of Arthur Russell |urlhttps://www.stereogum.com/1928507/echo-in-eternity-the-indelible-mark-of-arthur-russell/franchises/sounding-board/ |websiteStereogum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |dateSeptember 13, 2010 |titleArthur Russell / Allen Ginsberg Track Discovered |url=https://www.clashmusic.com/news/arthur-russell-allen-ginsberg-track-discovered}}</ref> and housed a broke, drug-addicted Harry Smith.
With the exception of a special guest appearance at the NYU Poetry Slam on February 20, 1997, Ginsberg gave what is thought to be his last reading at The Booksmith in San Francisco on December 16, 1996.
After returning home from the hospital for the last time, where he had been unsuccessfully treated for congestive heart failure, Ginsberg continued making phone calls to say goodbye to nearly everyone in his address book. Some of the phone calls were sad and interrupted by crying, and others were joyous and optimistic.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007|p=649}}</ref> Ginsberg continued to write through his final illness, with his last poem, "Things I'll Not Do (Nostalgias)", written on March 30.<ref>Ginsberg, Allen Collected Poems 1947–1997, pp. 1160–61.</ref>
He died on April 5, 1997, surrounded by family and friends in his East Village loft in Manhattan, succumbing to liver cancer via complications of hepatitis at the age of 70.<ref name"NYTObit" /> Gregory Corso, Roy Lichtenstein, Patti Smith and others came by to pay their respects.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007|p651}}</ref> He was cremated, and his ashes were buried in his family plot in Gomel Chesed Cemetery in Newark.<ref name"nyt1">{{Cite news |lastStrauss |firstRobert |dateMarch 28, 2004 |titleSometimes the Grave Is a Fine and Public Place. |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2004/03/28/nyregion/sometimes-the-grave-is-a-fine-and-public-place.html |access-dateAugust 21, 2007}}</ref> He was survived by Orlovsky.
In 1998, various writers, including Catfish McDaris, read at a gathering at Ginsberg's farm to honor Allen and the Beats.<ref>{{Cite web |lastMichalis Limnios |dateMarch 1, 2013 |titlePoet and author Catfish McDaris says stories from his experiences from the poetry and music world |urlhttp://blues.gr/profiles/blogs/poet-and-author-catfish-mcdaris-says-stories-from-his-experiences |website=Blues.gr}}</ref>
Good Will Hunting (released in December 1997) was dedicated to Ginsberg, as well as Burroughs, who died four months later.<ref name"ES-19980303">{{Cite web |lastClarke |firstRoger |dateMarch 3, 1998 |titleRoger Clarke {{!}} Gus Van Sant |urlhttps://www.standard.co.uk/go/london/film/roger-clarke-6331844.html |access-dateMay 18, 2019 |websiteLondon Evening Standard}}</ref>
Social and political activism
Free speech
Ginsberg's willingness to talk about taboo subjects made him a controversial figure during the conservative 1950s, and a significant figure in the 1960s. In the mid-1950s, no reputable publishing company would even consider publishing Howl. At the time, such "sex talk" employed in Howl was considered by some to be vulgar or even a form of pornography, and could be prosecuted under law.<ref>{{harvnb|Raskin|2004}}</ref> Ginsberg used phrases such as "cocksucker", "fucked in the ass", and "cunt" as part of the poem's depiction of different aspects of American culture. Numerous books that discussed sex were banned at the time, including ''Lady Chatterley's Lover.<ref>{{harvnb|Raskin|2004}}</ref> The sex that Ginsberg described did not portray the sex between heterosexual married couples, or even longtime lovers. Instead, Ginsberg portrayed casual sex.<ref>{{harvnb|Raskin|2004}}</ref> For example, in Howl, Ginsberg praises the man "who sweetened the snatches of a million girls." Ginsberg used gritty descriptions and explicit sexual language, pointing out the man "who lounged hungry and lonesome through Houston seeking jazz or sex or soup." In his poetry, Ginsberg also discussed the then-taboo topic of homosexuality. The explicit sexual language that filled Howl'' eventually led to an important trial on First Amendment issues. Ginsberg's publisher was brought up on charges for publishing pornography, and the outcome led to a judge going on record dismissing charges, because the poem carried "redeeming social importance,"<ref name"Morgan">Morgan, Bill (ed.) (2006), "Howl" on Trial: The Battle for Free Expression. California: City of Lights.</ref> thus setting an important legal precedent. Ginsberg continued to broach controversial subjects throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. From 1970 to 1996, Ginsberg had a long-term affiliation with PEN American Center with efforts to defend free expression. When explaining how he approached controversial topics, he often pointed to Herbert Huncke: he said that when he first got to know Huncke in the 1940s, Ginsberg saw that he was sick from his heroin addiction, but at the time heroin was a taboo subject and Huncke was left with nowhere to go for help.<ref name"Deliberate">Ginsberg, Allen. Deliberate Prose: Selected Essays 1952–1995. Harper Perennial, 2001. {{ISBN|0-06-093081-0}}</ref>
Role in Vietnam War protests
]]
Ginsberg was a signer of the anti-war manifesto "A Call to Resist Illegitimate Authority", circulated among draft resistors in 1967 by members of the radical intellectual collective RESIST. Other signers and RESIST members included Mitchell Goodman, Henry Braun, Denise Levertov, Noam Chomsky, William Sloane Coffin, Dwight Macdonald, Robert Lowell, and Norman Mailer.<ref>Barsky, Robert F. (1998), [http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/4/5.html "Marching with the Armies of the Night"] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130116133359/http://cognet.mit.edu/library/books/chomsky/chomsky/4/5.html |dateJanuary 16, 2013 }} in Noam Chomsky: a life of dissent. 1st ed. Cambridge: M.I.T. Press</ref><ref>Mitford, Jessica (1969) The Trial of Dr. Spock, the Rev. William Sloane Coffin Jr., Michael Ferber, Mitchell Goodman, and Marcus Raskin [1st ed.]. New York: Knopf, p. 255.</ref> In 1968, Ginsberg signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War,<ref>"Writers and Editors War Tax Protest", New York Post. January 30, 1968.</ref> and later became a sponsor of the War Tax Resistance project, which practiced and advocated tax resistance as a form of anti-war protest.<ref>"A Call to War Tax Resistance", The Cycle, May 14, 1970, p.7.</ref>
He was present the night of the Tompkins Square Park riot (1988) and provided an eyewitness account to The New York Times.<ref>Purdham, Todd (August 14, 1988), [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?resFB0711FC3A540C778DDDA10894D0484D81 "Melee in Tompkins Sq. Park: Violence and Its Provocation"]. The New York Times, section 1, part 1, page 1, column 4: Metropolitan Desk.</ref>Relationship to communismGinsberg talked openly about his connections with communism and his admiration for past communist heroes and the labor movement at a time when the Red Scare and McCarthyism were still raging. He admired Fidel Castro and many other Marxist figures from the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQ2HroA5QrAwC&pgPA143 |titleFamily Business: Selected Letters Between a Father and Son |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |year2002 |isbn978-1-58234-216-0 |editor-lastSchumacher, Michael}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |dateApril 26, 1965 |titleALLEN GINSBERG (8/11/96) |urlhttp://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/interviews/episode-13/ginsberg1.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101109094231/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/coldwar/interviews/episode-13/ginsberg1.html |archive-dateNovember 9, 2010 |access-dateOctober 31, 2010 |publisherGwu.edu}}</ref> Ginsberg was a member of the Fair Play for Cuba Committee.<ref>{{cite book |last1Rojas |first1Rafael |titleFighting Over Fidel The New York Intellectuals and the Cuban Revolution |date2016 |publisherDuke University Press |page199}}</ref> In "America" (1956), Ginsberg writes: "America, I used to be a communist when I was a kid I'm not sorry". Biographer Jonah Raskin has claimed that, despite his often stark opposition to communist orthodoxy, Ginsberg held "his own idiosyncratic version of communism."<ref>{{harvnb|Raskin|2004|p170}}</ref> On the other hand, when Donald Manes, a New York City politician, publicly accused Ginsberg of being a member of the Communist Party, Ginsberg objected: "I am not, as a matter of fact, a member of the Communist party, nor am I dedicated to the overthrow of the U.S. government or any government by violence&nbsp;... I must say that I see little difference between the armed and violent governments both Communist and Capitalist that I have observed".<ref>Ginsberg, Allen (2008), The Letters of Allen Ginsberg. Philadelphia, Da Capo Press, p. 359. For context, see also {{harvnb|Morgan|2007|pp=474–75}}.</ref>
Ginsberg travelled to several communist countries to promote free speech. He claimed that communist countries, such as China, welcomed him because they thought he was an enemy of capitalism, but often turned against him when they saw him as a troublemaker. For example, in 1965 Ginsberg was deported from Cuba for publicly protesting the persecution of homosexuals.<ref name"english.illinois.edu">[http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm Allen Ginsberg's Life] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190329171519/http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/life.htm |dateMarch 29, 2019 }}. illinois.edu</ref> The Cubans sent him to Czechoslovakia, where one week after being named the Král majálesu ("King of May",<ref>Ginsberg, Allan (2001), Selected Poems 1947–1995, "Kral Majales", Harper Collins Publishers, p. 147.</ref> a students' festivity, celebrating spring and student life), Ginsberg was arrested for alleged drug use and public drunkenness, and the security agency StB confiscated several of his writings, which they considered to be lewd and morally dangerous. Ginsberg was then deported from Czechoslovakia on May 7, 1965,<ref name"english.illinois.edu" /><ref>Yanosik, Joseph (March 1996), [http://www.furious.com/perfect/pulnoc.html The Plastic People of the Universe]. furious.com.</ref> by order of the StB.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Vodrážka, Karel |last2Andrew Lass |year1998 |titleFinal Report on the Activities of the American Poet Allen Ginsberg and His Deportation from Czechoslovakia |urlhttps://www.scribd.com/doc/53963034/Final-Report-on-Allen-Ginsberg-s-Deportation |journalThe Massachusetts Review |volume39 |issue2 |pages187–196}}</ref> Václav Havel points to Ginsberg as an important inspiration.<ref name"Spontaneous">{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbM74g8M-SeQC&pgRA1-PT200 |titleSpontaneous Mind: Selected Interviews 1958–1996 |publisherHarperCollins |year2002 |isbn978-0-06-093082-0 |editor-lastDavid Carter}}</ref>
Gay rights
One contribution that is often considered his most significant and most controversial was his openness about homosexuality. Ginsberg was an early proponent of freedom for gay people. In 1943, he discovered within himself "mountains of homosexuality." He expressed this desire openly and graphically in his poetry.<ref>{{Cite web |dateJanuary 9, 2017 |titleLGBT History: Not Just West Village Bars |urlhttp://gvshp.org/blog/2017/01/09/lgbt-history-not-just-west-village-bars/ |access-dateSeptember 11, 2017 |websitegvshp.org}}</ref> He also struck a note for gay marriage by listing Peter Orlovsky, his lifelong companion, as his spouse in his ''Who's Who'' entry. Subsequent gay writers saw his frank talk about homosexuality as an opening to speak more openly and honestly about something often before only hinted at or spoken of in metaphor.<ref name"Deliberate" />
In writing about sexuality in graphic detail and in his frequent use of language seen as indecent, he challenged—and ultimately changed—obscenity laws.{{fact|dateAugust 2024}} He was a staunch supporter of others whose expression challenged obscenity laws (William S. Burroughs and Lenny Bruce, for example).{{fact|dateAugust 2024}}
NAMBLA membership
Ginsberg was a supporter and member of the North American Man/Boy Love Association (NAMBLA), a pedophilia and pederasty advocacy organization in the United States that works to abolish age of consent laws and legalize sexual relations between adults and children.<ref name"PedIJN">{{Cite news |lastJacobs |firstAndrea |year2002 |titleAllen Ginsberg's advocacy of pedophilia debated in community |workIntermountain Jewish News}}</ref>{{Citation needed|dateDecember 2022}} Saying that he joined the organization "in defense of free speech",<ref name"donnell-milner">{{Cite book |last1O'Donnell |first1Ian |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtv6Qgl021wkC |titleChild Pornography: Crime, Computers and Society |last2Milner |first2Claire |date2012 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-135-84635-0 |pages12–13 |access-dateNovember 29, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160513090118/https://books.google.com/books?idtv6Qgl021wkC |archive-dateMay 13, 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Ginsberg stated: "Attacks on NAMBLA stink of politics, witchhunting for profit, humorlessness, vanity, anger and ignorance&nbsp;...&nbsp;I'm a member of NAMBLA because I love boys too—everybody does, who has a little humanity".<ref>{{Cite web |lastThrift |firstMatt |dateJanuary 22, 2020 |titlePedophiles on display |urlhttp://mytjnow.com/2020/01/22/pedophiles-on-display/ |websiteMy TJ Now}}</ref> In 1994, Ginsberg appeared in a documentary on NAMBLA called Chicken Hawk: Men Who Love Boys (playing on the gay male slang term 'chickenhawk'), in which he read a "graphic ode to youth".<ref name"PedIJN" /> He read his poem "Sweet Boy, Gimme Yr Ass" from the book Mind Breaths.<ref name"Mind Breaths">{{Cite book |lastGinsberg |firstAllen |urlhttps://archive.org/details/mindbreathspoems00gins |titleMind Breaths |date1977 |publisherCity Lights Publisher |isbn0-313-29389-9 |locationSan Francisco, California |pages=34–35}}</ref>
In her 2002 book Heartbreak, Andrea Dworkin claimed Ginsberg had ulterior motives for allying with NAMBLA: {{blockquote|In 1982, newspapers reported in huge headlines that the Supreme Court had ruled child pornography illegal. I was thrilled. I knew Allen would not be. I did think he was a civil libertarian. But, in fact, he was a pedophile. He did not belong to the North American Man/Boy Love Association out of some mad, abstract conviction that its voice had to be heard. He meant it. I take this from what Allen said directly to me, not from some inference I made. He was exceptionally aggressive about his right to fuck children and his constant pursuit of underage boys.<ref>Dworkin, Andrea (2002), Heartbreak: The Political Memoir of a Feminist Militant. New York: Basic Books, p. 43.</ref>|}}In reference to his onetime friend Dworkin,<ref>{{Cite news |lastMiller |firstLaura |dateMarch 10, 2002 |titleAntiporn Star |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2002/03/10/books/antiporn-star.html |access-dateDecember 17, 2022 |issn0362-4331}}</ref> Ginsberg stated:
{{blockquote|I've known Andrea since she was a student. I had a conversation with her when I said I've had many young affairs, [with men who were] 16, 17, or 18. I said, 'What are you going to do, send me to jail?' And she said, 'You should be shot.' The problem is, she was molested when she was young, and she hasn't recovered from the trauma, and she's taking it out on ordinary lovers.<ref>{{Cite web |dateOctober 28, 2010 |titleGinsberg and Me |urlhttp://www.advocate.com/politics/commentary/2010/10/28/ginsberg-and-me |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20240726191349/https://www.advocate.com/politics/commentary/2010/10/28/ginsberg-and-me |archive-dateJuly 26, 2024 |access-dateDecember 17, 2022 |websitewww.advocate.com}}</ref>}}Recreational drugs
in 1991]]
Ginsberg talked often about drug use. He organized the New York City chapter of LeMar (Legalize Marijuana).<ref>Fisher, Marc (February 22, 2014). [https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/marijuanas-rising-acceptance-comes-after-many-failures-is-it-now-legalizations-time/2014/02/22/9adc8502-98dd-11e3-80ac-63a8ba7f7942_story.html Marijuana's rising acceptance comes after many failures. Is it now legalization's time?] The Washington Post. Retrieved August 3, 2016.</ref> Throughout the 1960s he took an active role in the demystification of LSD, and, with Timothy Leary, worked to promote its common use. He remained for many decades an advocate of marijuana legalization, and, at the same time, warned his audiences against the hazards of tobacco in his ''Put Down Your Cigarette Rag (Don't Smoke):'' "Don't Smoke Don't Smoke Nicotine Nicotine No / No don't smoke the official Dope Smoke Dope Dope."<ref>{{Cite book |lastPalmer |firstAlex |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idB4PEfAEwUQ8C&pgPA26 |titleLiterary Miscellany: Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Literature |dateOctober 27, 2010 |publisherSkyhorse Publishing Inc. |isbn978-1-61608-095-2}}</ref>CIA drug trafficking
{{See also|Allegations of CIA drug trafficking}}
Ginsberg worked closely with Alfred W. McCoy<ref name"convo">{{Cite web |lastHendryckx |firstMichiel |dateJune 21, 2018 |titleWhen Allen Ginsberg met the head of the CIA – and offered him a wager |urlhttps://theconversation.com/when-allen-ginsberg-met-the-head-of-the-cia-and-offered-him-a-wager-98363 |access-dateMarch 19, 2021 |websiteThe conversation}}</ref> on the latter's book The Politics of Heroin in Southeast Asia, which claimed that the CIA was knowingly involved in the production of heroin in the Golden Triangle of Burma, Thailand, and Laos.<ref name"Boca Raton News; October 1, 1972">{{Cite news |last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |dateOctober 1, 1972 |titleHeroin, U.S. tie probed |volume17 |page9B |workBoca Raton News |agencyUnited Press International |issue218 |locationBoca Raton, Florida |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1291&dat19721001&idusJTAAAAIBAJ&pg5921,3238572 |access-dateDecember 5, 2015}}</ref> In addition to working with McCoy, Ginsberg personally confronted Richard Helms, the director of the CIA in the 1970s, about the matter, but Helms denied that the CIA had anything to do with selling illegal drugs.<ref name"convo" /><ref>Ginsberg, Allen, and Hyde, Lewis. On the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1984. Print.</ref> Ginsberg wrote many essays and articles, researching and compiling evidence of the CIA's alleged involvement in drug trafficking, but it took ten years, and the publication of McCoy's book in 1972, before anyone took him seriously.<ref name"convo" /> In 1978, Ginsberg received a note from the chief editor of The New York Times, apologizing for not having taken his allegations seriously.<ref>{{harvnb|Morgan|2007|pp470–477}}</ref> The political subject is dealt with in his song/poem "CIA Dope calypso". The United States Department of State responded to McCoy's initial allegations stating that they were "unable to find any evidence to substantiate them, much less proof."<ref name"Daytona Beach Morning Journal; June 3, 1972">{{Cite news |last<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |dateJune 3, 1972 |titleHeroin Charges Aired |volumeXLVII |page6 |workDaytona Beach Morning Journal |agencyAssociated Press |issue131 |locationDaytona Beach Florida |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?nid1873&dat19720601&idjE8fAAAAIBAJ&pg1052,514907 |access-dateDecember 5, 2015}}</ref> Subsequent investigations by the Inspector General of the CIA,<ref>{{Cite book |lastSelect Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities |titleFinal Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities |dateApril 26, 1976 |publisherU.S. Government Printing Office |seriesReport – 94th Congress, 2d session, Senate ; no. 94-755 |volumeBook 1 |locationWashington, D.C. |pages227–228 |hdl2027/mdp.39015070725273 |ref{{harvid|Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities|1976}} |author-linkChurch Committee}}</ref> United States House Committee on Foreign Affairs,<ref>{{Cite book |lastUnited States House Committee on Foreign Affairs |urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idmdp.39015078590943;view2up;seq1 |titleThe U.S. Heroin Problem and Southeast Asia: Report of a Staff Survey Team of the Committee of Foreign Affairs |dateJanuary 11, 1973 |publisherU.S. Government Printing Office |locationWashington, D.C. |pages10, 30, 61 |ref{{harvid|Report of a Staff Survey Team of the Committee of Foreign Affairs|1973}} |author-linkUnited States House Committee on Foreign Affairs |access-dateMay 23, 2017}}</ref> and United States Senate Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities, a.k.a. the Church Committee,{{sfn|Final Report of the Select Committee to Study Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities|1976|pp205, 227}} also found the charges to be unsubstantiated.
Work
Most of Ginsberg's very early poetry was written in formal rhyme and meter like that of his father, and of his idol William Blake. His admiration for the writing of Jack Kerouac inspired him to take poetry more seriously. In 1955, upon the advice of a psychiatrist, Ginsberg dropped out of the working world to devote his entire life to poetry.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAllen Ginsberg, Master Poet of Beat Generation, Dies at 70 |urlhttps://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/01/04/08/specials/ginsberg-obit.html?moduleinline |access-dateOctober 23, 2022 |websitearchive.nytimes.com}}</ref> Soon after, he wrote Howl, the poem that brought him and his Beat Generation contemporaries to national attention and allowed him to live as a professional poet for the rest of his life. Later in life, Ginsberg entered academia, teaching poetry as Distinguished Professor of English at Brooklyn College from 1986 until his death.<ref>Lawlor, William. Beat culture : lifestyles, icons, and impact. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO, 2005. Print.</ref>Inspiration from friends
Ginsberg claimed throughout his life that his biggest inspiration was Kerouac's concept of "spontaneous prose." He believed literature should come from the soul without conscious restrictions. Ginsberg was much more prone to revise than Kerouac. For example, when Kerouac saw the first draft of Howl, he disliked the fact that Ginsberg had made editorial changes in pencil (transposing "negro" and "angry" in the first line, for example). Kerouac only wrote out his concepts of spontaneous prose at Ginsberg's insistence because Ginsberg wanted to learn how to apply the technique to his poetry.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref>
The inspiration for Howl was Ginsberg's friend, Carl Solomon, and Howl is dedicated to him. Solomon was a Dada and Surrealism enthusiast (he introduced Ginsberg to Artaud) who had bouts of clinical depression. Solomon wanted to commit suicide, but he thought a form of suicide appropriate to dadaism would be to go to a mental institution and demand a lobotomy. The institution refused, giving him many forms of therapy, including electroshock therapy. Much of the final section of the first part of Howl is a description of this.
Ginsberg used Solomon as an example of all those ground down by the machine of "Moloch." Moloch, to whom the second section is addressed, is a Levantine god to whom children were sacrificed. Ginsberg may have gotten the name from the Kenneth Rexroth poem "Thou Shalt Not Kill," a poem about the death of one of Ginsberg's heroes, Dylan Thomas. Moloch is mentioned a few times in the Torah and references to Ginsberg's Jewish background are frequent in his work. Ginsberg said the image of Moloch was inspired by peyote visions he had of the Francis Drake Hotel in San Francisco which appeared to him as a skull; he took it as a symbol of the city (not specifically San Francisco, but all cities).<ref>{{Cite magazine |lastKramer |firstJane |dateAugust 10, 1968 |titleThe Father of Flower Power |urlhttp://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1968/08/17/paterfamilias-i |magazineThe New Yorker |access-dateApril 3, 2022}}</ref> Ginsberg later acknowledged in various publications and interviews that behind the visions of the Francis Drake Hotel were memories of the Moloch of Fritz Lang's film Metropolis (1927) and of the woodcut novels of Lynd Ward.<ref name"orig"/> Moloch has subsequently been interpreted as any system of control, including the conformist society of post-World War II America, focused on material gain, which Ginsberg frequently blamed for the destruction of all those outside of societal norms.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref>
He also made sure to emphasize that Moloch is a part of humanity in multiple aspects, in that the decision to defy socially created systems of control—and therefore go against Moloch—is a form of self-destruction. Many of the characters Ginsberg references in Howl, such as Neal Cassady and Herbert Huncke, destroyed themselves through excessive substance abuse or a generally wild lifestyle. The personal aspects of Howl are perhaps as important as the political aspects. Carl Solomon, the prime example of a "best mind" destroyed by defying society, is associated with Ginsberg's schizophrenic mother: the line "with mother finally fucked" comes after a long section about Carl Solomon, and in Part III, Ginsberg says: "I'm with you in Rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother." Ginsberg later admitted that the drive to write Howl was fueled by sympathy for his ailing mother, an issue which he was not yet ready to deal with directly. He dealt with it directly with 1959's Kaddish,<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> which had its first public reading at a Catholic Worker Friday Night meeting, possibly due to its associations with Thomas Merton.<ref>{{Cite web |lastCornell |firstTom |author-linkTom Cornell |titleCatholic Worker Pacifism: An Eyewitness to History |urlhttp://catholicworker.com/peacetc.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100317165844/http://www.catholicworker.com/peacetc.htm |archive-dateMarch 17, 2010 |access-dateMay 1, 2010 |websiteCatholic Worker Homepage}}</ref>Inspiration from mentors and idolsGinsberg's poetry was strongly influenced by Modernism (most importantly the American style of Modernism pioneered by William Carlos Williams), Romanticism (specifically William Blake and John Keats), the beat and cadence of jazz (specifically that of bop musicians such as Charlie Parker), and his Kagyu Buddhist practice and Jewish background. He considered himself to have inherited the visionary poetic mantle handed down from the English poet and artist William Blake, the American poet Walt Whitman and the Spanish poet Federico García Lorca. The power of Ginsberg's verse, its searching, probing focus, its long and lilting lines, as well as its New World exuberance, all echo the continuity of inspiration that he claimed.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref><ref name"Deliberate" /><ref name="Spontaneous" />
He corresponded with William Carlos Williams, who was then in the middle of writing his epic poem Paterson about the industrial city near his home. After attending a reading by Williams, Ginsberg sent the older poet several of his poems and wrote an introductory letter. Most of these early poems were rhymed and metered and included archaic pronouns like "thee." Williams disliked the poems and told Ginsberg, "In this mode perfection is basic, and these poems are not perfect."<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref><ref name"Deliberate" /><ref name"Spontaneous" />
Though he disliked these early poems, Williams loved the exuberance in Ginsberg's letter. He included the letter in a later part of Paterson. He encouraged Ginsberg not to emulate the old masters, but to speak with his own voice and the voice of the common American. From Williams, Ginsberg learned to focus on strong visual images, in line with Williams' own motto "No ideas but in things." Studying Williams' style led to a tremendous shift from the early formalist work to a loose, colloquial free verse style. Early breakthrough poems include ''Bricklayer's Lunch Hour and Dream Record.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref><ref name="Spontaneous" />
Carl Solomon introduced Ginsberg to the work of Antonin Artaud (To Have Done with the Judgement of God and Van Gogh: The Man Suicided by Society), and Jean Genet (Our Lady of the Flowers''). Philip Lamantia introduced him to other Surrealists and Surrealism continued to be an influence (for example, sections of "Kaddish" were inspired by André Breton's Free Union). Ginsberg claimed that the anaphoric repetition of Howl and other poems was inspired by Christopher Smart in such poems as Jubilate Agno. Ginsberg also claimed other more traditional influences, such as: Franz Kafka, Herman Melville, Fyodor Dostoevsky, Edgar Allan Poe, and Emily Dickinson.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref><ref name="Deliberate" />
Ginsberg also made an intense study of haiku and the paintings of Paul Cézanne, from which he adapted a concept important to his work, which he called the Eyeball Kick. He noticed in viewing Cézanne's paintings that when the eye moved from one color to a contrasting color, the eye would spasm, or "kick." Likewise, he discovered that the contrast of two seeming opposites was a common feature in haiku. Ginsberg used this technique in his poetry, putting together two starkly dissimilar images: something weak with something strong, an artifact of high culture with an artifact of low culture, something holy with something unholy. The example Ginsberg most often used was "hydrogen jukebox" (which later became the title of a song cycle composed by Philip Glass with lyrics drawn from Ginsberg's poems). Another example is Ginsberg's observation on Bob Dylan during Dylan's hectic and intense 1966 electric-guitar tour, fueled by a cocktail of amphetamines,<ref>{{Cite news |dateDecember 30, 1999 |titleA lot of nerve |workThe Guardian |locationLondon |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/culture/1999/dec/30/artsfeatures.bobdylan |access-dateApril 23, 2010}}</ref> opiates,<ref>{{Cite web |dateOctober 4, 2007 |titleThe Ten Most Incomprehensible Bob Dylan Interviews of All Time{{snd}}Vulture |urlhttps://nymag.com/daily/entertainment/2007/10/the_ten_most_incomprehensible.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101127162320/http://nymag.com/daily/entertainment/2007/10/the_ten_most_incomprehensible.html |archive-dateNovember 27, 2010 |access-dateOctober 31, 2010 |websiteNew York}}</ref> alcohol,<ref>{{Cite web |lastPlotz |firstDavid |dateMarch 8, 1998 |titleBob Dylan{{snd}}By David Plotz{{snd}}Slate Magazine |urlhttp://www.slate.com/id/1855/ |access-dateOctober 31, 2010 |websiteSlate}}</ref> and psychedelics,<ref>{{Cite news |lastO'Hagan |firstSean |dateMarch 25, 2001 |titleWell, how does it feel? |workThe Guardian |locationLondon |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2001/mar/25/features.review7 |access-dateApril 23, 2010}}</ref> as a Dexedrine Clown. The phrases "eyeball kick" and "hydrogen jukebox" both show up in Howl, as well as a direct quote from Cézanne: "Pater Omnipotens Aeterna Deus".<ref name"Deliberate" />Inspiration from music
{{see also|Songs of Innocence and Experience (Allen Ginsberg album)}}
Allen Ginsberg also found inspiration in music. He frequently included music in his poetry, invariably composing his tunes on an old Indian harmonium, which he often played during his readings.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFirst Blues: Rags, Ballads and Harmonium Songs {{!}} Smithsonian Folkways |urlhttps://folkways.si.edu/allen-ginsberg/first-blues-rags-ballads-and-harmonium-songs/american-folk-poetry/album/smithsonian |access-dateMarch 10, 2018 |websiteSmithsonian Folkways Recordings}}</ref> He wrote and recorded music to accompany William Blake's Songs of Innocence and Songs of Experience. He also recorded a handful of other albums. To create music for Howl and Wichita Vortex Sutra, he worked with the minimalist composer, Philip Glass.
Ginsberg worked with, drew inspiration from, and inspired artists such as Bob Dylan, The Clash, Patti Smith,<ref>{{Cite book |lastSmith |firstPatti |titleJust Kids |publisherEcco |date2010 |isbn978-0-06-093622-8 |locationNew York |page123}}</ref> Phil Ochs, and The Fugs.<ref name="Schumacher, Michael 2002" /> He worked with Dylan on various projects and maintained a friendship with him over many years.<ref>Wills, D., [http://www.beatdom.com/allen-ginsberg-and-bob-dylan/ "Allen Ginsberg and Bob Dylan"], Beatdom No. 1 (2007).</ref>
In 1981, Ginsberg recorded a song called "Birdbrain." He was backed by the Gluons, and the track was released as a single.<ref>{{Cite web |dateDecember 2011 |titleBirdbrain! |urlhttps://allenginsberg.org/2011/12/birdbrain/ |access-dateJune 13, 2022 |websiteThe Allen Ginsberg Project}}</ref> In 1996, he recorded a song co-written with Paul McCartney and Philip Glass, "The Ballad of the Skeletons",<ref>{{Cite web |titleBallad of the Skeletons – Allen Ginsberg – Songs, Reviews, Credits |urlhttps://www.allmusic.com/album/ballad-of-the-skeletons-mw0000081957 |websiteAllMusic}}</ref> which reached number 8 on the Triple J Hottest 100 for that year.
Style and technique
From the study of his idols and mentors and the inspiration of his friends—not to mention his own experiments—Ginsberg developed an individualistic style that's easily identified as Ginsbergian.<ref>{{Cite journal |authorGorski, Hedwig |titleInterview with Robert Creeley |journalJournal of American Studies of Turkey |dateSpring 2008 |pages73–81 |issue27 |urlhttp://www.ake.hacettepe.edu.tr/Install/JASTFiles/jast27.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120328094817/http://www.ake.hacettepe.edu.tr/Install/JASTFiles/jast27.pdf |issn1300-6606 |archive-dateMarch 28, 2012 |access-dateOctober 10, 2011}}</ref> Ginsberg stated that Whitman's long line was a dynamic technique few other poets had ventured to develop further, and Whitman is also often compared to Ginsberg because their poetry sexualized aspects of the male form.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref><ref name"Deliberate" /><ref name="Spontaneous" />
Many of Ginsberg's early long line experiments contain some sort of anaphora, repetition of a "fixed base" (for example "who" in Howl, "America" in America) and this has become a recognizable feature of Ginsberg's style.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastJackson |firstBrian |date2010 |titleModernist Looking: Surreal Impressions in the Poetry of Allen Ginsberg |urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/751273038 |journalTexas Studies in Literature and Language |volume52 |issue3 |pages298–323 |doi10.1353/tsl.2010.0003 |s2cid162063608 |id{{ProQuest|751273038}} |viaProQuest}}</ref> He said later this was a crutch because he lacked confidence; he did not yet trust "free flight."<ref>{{Cite book |titleOn the poetry of Allen Ginsberg |date1984 |publisherUniversity of Michigan Press |editorHyde, Lewis |isbn0-472-09353-3 |locationAnn Arbor |page82 |oclc10878519}}</ref> In the 1960s, after employing it in some sections of Kaddish ("caw" for example) he, for the most part, abandoned the anaphoric form. 'Latter-Day Beat' Bob Dylan is known for using anaphora, as in 'Tangled Up in Blue' where the phrase, returned to at the end of every verse, takes the place of a chorus.<ref name"Deliberate" /><ref name="Spontaneous" />
Several of his earlier experiments with methods for formatting poems as a whole became regular aspects of his style in later poems. In the original draft of Howl, each line is in a "stepped triadic" format reminiscent of William Carlos Williams.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal |lastVan Durme |firstDebora |dateMay 2014 |titleClassical myth in Allen Ginsberg's Howl |urlhttps://lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/162/600/RUG01-002162600_2014_0001_AC.pdf |url-statuslive |journalGhent University Faculty of Arts and Philosophy |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://lib.ugent.be/fulltxt/RUG01/002/162/600/RUG01-002162600_2014_0001_AC.pdf |archive-dateOctober 9, 2022}}</ref> He abandoned the "stepped triadic" when he developed his long line although the stepped lines showed up later, most significantly in the travelogues of The Fall of America.{{citation needed|dateAugust 2012}} Howl and Kaddish, arguably his two most important poems, are both organized as an inverted pyramid, with larger sections leading to smaller sections. In America, he also experimented with a mix of longer and shorter lines.<ref name"Deliberate" /><ref name="Spontaneous" />
Ginsberg's mature style made use of many specific, highly developed techniques, which he expressed in the "poetic slogans" he used in his Naropa teaching. Prominent among these was the inclusion of his unedited mental associations so as to reveal the mind at work ("First thought, best thought." "Mind is shapely, thought is shapely.") He preferred expression through carefully observed physical details rather than abstract statements ("Show, don't tell." "No ideas but in things.")<ref>Rabinowitz, Jacob, Blame it on Blake, Amazon/Independent 2019, {{ISBN|978-1-09513-905-9}}, pp. 55–63.</ref> In these he carried on and developed traditions of modernism in writing that are also found in Kerouac and Whitman.
In Howl and in his other poetry, Ginsberg drew inspiration from the epic, free verse style of the 19th-century American poet Walt Whitman.<ref>Ginsberg, Allen Deliberate Prose, pp. 285–331.</ref> Both wrote passionately about the promise (and betrayal) of American democracy, the central importance of erotic experience, and the spiritual quest for the truth of everyday existence. J. D. McClatchy, editor of the Yale Review, called Ginsberg "the best-known American poet of his generation, as much a social force as a literary phenomenon." McClatchy added that Ginsberg, like Whitman, "was a bard in the old manner—outsized, darkly prophetic, part exuberance, part prayer, part rant. His work is finally a history of our era's psyche, with all its contradictory urges." McClatchy's barbed eulogies define the essential difference between Ginsberg ("a beat poet whose writing was&nbsp;[...] journalism raised by combining the recycling genius with a generous mimic-empathy, to strike audience-accessible chords; always lyrical and sometimes truly poetic") and Kerouac ("a poet of singular brilliance, the brightest luminary of a 'beat generation' he came to symbolise in popular culture&nbsp;[...] [though] in reality he far surpassed his contemporaries&nbsp;[...] Kerouac is an originating genius, exploring then answering—like Rimbaud a century earlier, by necessity more than by choice—the demands of authentic self-expression as applied to the evolving quicksilver mind of America's only literary virtuoso&nbsp;[...]").<ref name"NYT">{{Cite news |lastHampton, Willborn |dateApril 6, 1997 |titleAllen Ginsberg, Master Poet Of Beat Generation, Dies at 70 |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1997/04/06/nyregion/allen-ginsberg-master-poet-of-beat-generation-dies-at-70.html}}</ref>
Bibliography
* Howl and Other Poems (1956), {{ISBN|978-0-87286-017-9}}
* Kaddish and Other Poems (1961), {{ISBN|978-0-87286-019-3}}
* Empty Mirror: Early Poems (1961), {{ISBN|978-0-87091-030-2}}
* Reality Sandwiches (1963), {{ISBN|978-0-87286-021-6}}
* The Yage Letters (1963){{snd}}with William S. Burroughs
* Planet News (1968), {{ISBN|978-0-87286-020-9}}
* Indian Journals (1970), {{ISBN|0-8021-3475-0}}
* First Blues: Rags, Ballads & Harmonium Songs 1971 - 1974 (1975), {{ISBN|0-916190-05-6}}
* The Gates of Wrath: Rhymed Poems 1948–1951 (1972), {{ISBN|978-0-912516-01-1}}
* The Fall of America: Poems of These States (1973), {{ISBN|978-0-87286-063-6}}
* Iron Horse (1973)
* Allen Verbatim: Lectures on Poetry, Politics, Consciousness by Allen Ginsberg (1974), edited by Gordon Ball, {{ISBN|0-07-023285-7}}
* Sad Dust Glories: poems during work summer in woods (1975)
* Mind Breaths (1978), {{ISBN|978-0-87286-092-6}}
* Plutonian Ode: Poems 1977–1980 (1981), {{ISBN|978-0-87286-125-1}}
* Collected Poems 1947–1980 (1984), {{ISBN|978-0-06-015341-0}}. Republished with later material added as Collected Poems 1947-1997, New York, HarperCollins, 2006
* White Shroud Poems: 1980–1985 (1986), {{ISBN|978-0-06-091429-5}}
* Cosmopolitan Greetings Poems: 1986–1993 (1994)
* Howl Annotated (1995)
* Illuminated Poems (1996)
* Selected Poems: 1947–1995 (1996)
* Death and Fame: Poems 1993–1997 (1999)
* Deliberate Prose 1952–1995 (2000)
* Howl & Other Poems 50th Anniversary Edition (2006), {{ISBN|978-0-06-113745-7}}
* The Book of Martyrdom and Artifice: First Journals and Poems 1937-1952 (Da Capo Press, 2006)
* The Selected Letters of Allen Ginsberg and Gary Snyder (Counterpoint, 2009)
* I Greet You at the Beginning of a Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg, 1955–1997 (City Lights, 2015)
* The Best Minds of My Generation: A Literary History of the Beats (Grove Press, 2017)
Selected discography
* Howl And Other Poems (1959) Fantasy - 7006
* None (1965) with Gregory Corso, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, and Andrei Voznesensky Lovebooks - LB0001
* Allen Ginsberg Reading at Better Books (1965) Better Books – 16156/57
* Reads Kaddish (A 20th Century American Ecstatic Narrative Poem) (1966) Atlantic – 4001
* The Ginsbergs At The ICA (1967) with Louise Ginsberg Saga Psyche – PSY 3000
* Consciousness & Practical Action (1967) Liberation Records – DL 16
* Challenge Seminar (1968) with Gregory Bateson and R.D. Laing Liberation Records – DL 23
* ''Ginsberg's Thing (1969) Transatlantic Records – TRA 192
* Songs Of Innocence And Experience (1970) MGM Records – FTS-3083, Verve Forecast – FTS-3083
* America Today! (The World's Greatest Poets Vol. I) (1971) with Gregory Corso and Lawrence Ferlinghetti CMS – CMS 617
* Gate, Two Evenings With Allen Ginsberg Vol.1 Songs (1980) Loft – LOFT 1001
* First Blues: Rags, Ballads & Harmonium Songs (1981) Folkways Records – FSS 37560
* First Blues (1983) John Hammond Records – W2X 37673
* Allen Ginsberg With Still Life (1983) with Still Life Local Anesthetic Records – LA LP-001
* Üvöltés (1987) with Hobo Krém – SLPM 37048
* The Lion For Real (1989) Great Jones – GJ-6004
* September On Jessore Road (1992) with the Mondriaan Quartet Soyo Records – 0001
* Cosmopolitan Greetings (1993) with George Gruntz Schweiz – MGB CD 9203, Migros-Genossenschafts-Bund – MGB CD 9203
* Hydrogen Jukebox (1993) with Philip Glass Elektra Nonesuch – 9 79286-2
* Allen Ginsberg: Material Wealth (Allen’s voice in poems and songs 1956-1996)<ref>{{Cite web |dateFebruary 9, 2024 |titlepoeticjusticemagazine.com/2024/02/08/allen-ginsberg-material-wealth-allens-voice-in-poems-and-songs-1956-1996/ |urlhttps://poeticjusticemagazine.com/2024/02/08/allen-ginsberg-material-wealth-allens-voice-in-poems-and-songs-1956-1996/ |access-dateDecember 11, 2024 |websitePoetic Justice Magazine}}</ref>(2024)HonorsHis collection The Fall of America shared the annual U.S. National Book Award for Poetry in 1974.<ref name"nba1974" />
Ginsberg won a 1974 National Book Award for The Fall of America (split with Adrienne Rich, Diving into the Wreck'').<ref name="nba1974" />
In 1979, he received the National Arts Club gold medal and was inducted into the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters.<ref>{{harvnb|Miles|2001|p=484}}</ref>
In 1986, Ginsberg was awarded the Golden Wreath by the Struga Poetry Evenings International Festival in Macedonia, the second American poet to be so awarded since W. H. Auden. At Struga, Ginsberg met with the other Golden Wreath winners, Bulat Okudzhava and Andrei Voznesensky.
In 1989, Ginsberg appeared in Rosa von Praunheim's award-winning film Silence Death about the fight of gay artists in New York City for AIDS-education and the rights of HIV infected people.<ref name":1" />
In 1993, the French Minister of Culture appointed Ginsberg a Chevalier des Arts et des Lettres. Ginsberg was a Pulitzer Prize finalist in 1995 for his book Cosmopolitan Greetings: Poems 1986–1992.<ref name"The Pulitzer Prizes {{pipe}} Poetry" /> In 1993, he received a John Jay Award posthumously from Columbia.<ref>{{Cite web |titlefamous-alums – Columbia Spectator |urlhttps://www.columbiaspectator.com/dummy/2017/08/27/famous-alums/ |access-dateJanuary 20, 2022 |websiteColumbia Daily Spectator}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |dateDecember 14, 2016 |titleJohn Jay Awards |urlhttps://www.college.columbia.edu/alumni/about/honors/john-jay-awards |access-dateJanuary 20, 2022 |websiteColumbia College Alumni Association}}</ref>
In 2014, Ginsberg was one of the inaugural honorees in the Rainbow Honor Walk, a walk of fame in San Francisco's Castro neighborhood noting LGBTQ people who have "made significant contributions in their fields."<ref name":022">{{Cite web |lastShelter |firstScott |dateMarch 14, 2016 |titleThe Rainbow Honor Walk: San Francisco's LGBT Walk of Fame |urlhttps://quirkytravelguy.com/lgbt-walk-fame-rainbow-honor-san-francisco/ |access-dateJuly 28, 2019 |websiteQuirky Travel Guy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |dateSeptember 2, 2014 |titleCastro's Rainbow Honor Walk Dedicated Today: SFist |urlhttps://sfist.com/2014/09/02/castros_rainbow_honor_walk_dedicate/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190810075052/https://sfist.com/2014/09/02/castros_rainbow_honor_walk_dedicate/ |archive-dateAugust 10, 2019 |access-dateAugust 13, 2019 |websiteSFist – San Francisco News, Restaurants, Events, & Sports}}</ref><ref name":3">{{Cite web |lastCarnivele |firstGary |dateJuly 2, 2016 |titleSecond LGBT Honorees Selected for San Francisco's Rainbow Honor Walk |urlhttp://www.gaysonoma.com/2016/07/second-lgbt-honorees-selected-for-san-franciscos-rainbow-honor-walk/ |access-dateAugust 12, 2019 |websiteWe The People}}</ref>See also
{{Portal|Poetry|LGBTQ|Biography}}
* The Life and Times of Allen Ginsberg (film)
* :Category:Works by Allen Ginsberg
* Allen Ginsberg Live in London
* Hungry generation
* Howl (2010 film)
* LGBT culture in New York City
* List of LGBT people from New York City
* Central Park Be-In
* Trevor Carolan
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Burroughs by Howard Brookner
* List of peace activists
* Kill Your Darlings
* Jewish Buddhist
* American poetry
Notes
{{Reflist|groupnb}}References{{Reflist}}Sources* {{Cite book |last1Bromley |first1David G. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idF-EuD3M2QYoC&pgPA106 |titleKrishna consciousness in the West |last2Shinn |first2Larry D. |publisherBucknell University Press |year1989 |isbn978-0-8387-5144-2 |author-linkDavid G. Bromley |author-link2Larry Shinn}}
* {{Cite book |lastBrooks |firstCharles R. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5tjtDZ438h4C |titleThe Hare Krishnas in India |publisherMotilal Banarsidass Publishers |year1992 |isbn978-81-208-0939-0 |edition=1st}}
* {{Cite book |last1Chryssides |first1George D. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHgFlebSZKLcC&pgPA213 |titleA reader in new religious movements |last2Wilkins |first2Margaret Z. |publisherContinuum International Publishing Group |year2006 |isbn978-0-8264-6168-1 |author-linkGeorge D. Chryssides}}
* {{Cite book |lastCohen |firstAllen |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2AkeAgAACAAJ |titleThe San Francisco Oracle. The psychedelic newspaper of the Haight-Ashbury (1966–1968). Facsimile edition |publisherRegent Press |year1991 |isbn978-0-916147-11-2 |editor-lastAllen Cohen |edition1st |author-link=Allen Cohen (poet)}}
* {{Cite book |lastMiles |firstBarry |titleGinsberg: A Biography |publisherVirgin Publishing |date2001 |isbn978-0-7535-0486-4 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |lastMorgan |firstBill |titleI Celebrate Myself: The Somewhat Private Life of Allen Ginsberg |publisherPenguin |year2007 |isbn978-0-14-311249-5 |locationNew York |author-linkBill Morgan (archivist)}}
* {{Cite book |last1Ginsberg |first1Allen |titleKanreki: a tribute to Allen Ginsberg, Part 2 |last2Morgan |first2Bill |publisherUniversity of California |year=1986}}
* {{Cite book |lastGoswami |firstMukunda |titleMiracle on Second Avenue |publisherTorchlight Publishing |year2011 |isbn978-0-9817273-4-9 |author-link=Mukunda Goswami}}
* {{Cite book |lastGreene |firstJoshua M. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBSZtZUWge-IC |titleHere somes the Sun: The spiritual and musical journey of George Harrison |publisherJohn Wiley and Sons |year2007 |isbn978-0-470-12780-3 |edition=reprint}}
* {{Cite book |lastMuster |firstNori Jean |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDw3-xD05wnoC |titleBetrayal of the spirit: my life behind the headlines of the Hare Krishna movement |publisherUniversity of Illinois Press |year1997 |isbn978-0-252-06566-8 |edition=reprint}}
* {{cite book| lastRaskin |firstJonah |date2004 |titleAmerican Scream: Allen Ginsberg's Howl and the Making of the Beat Generation |locationBerkeley |publisherUniversity of California Press |isbn=0-520-24015-4}}
* Schumacher, Michael (ed.). Family Business: Selected Letters Between a Father and Son. Bloomsbury (2002), paperback, 448 pages, {{ISBN|1-58234-216-4}}
* {{Cite book |lastSzatmary |firstDavid P. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkjzaAAAAMAAJ |titleRockin' in time: a social history of rock-and-roll |publisherPrentice Hall |year1996 |isbn978-0-13-440678-7 |edition3rd}}Further reading
* Boer, Charles. Charles Olson in Connecticut. North Carolina Wesleyan College Press, 1991, (1975). {{ISBN|0-933598-28-9}}.
* Bullough, Vern L. Before Stonewall: Activists for Gay and Lesbian Rights in Historical Context. Harrington Park Press, 2002. pp 304–311.
* Charters, Ann (ed.). The Portable Beat Reader. Penguin Books. New York. 1992. {{ISBN|0-670-83885-3}} (hc); {{ISBN|0-14-015102-8}} (pbk)
* Collins, Ronald & Skover, David. Mania: The Story of the Outraged & Outrageous Lives that Launched a Cultural Revolution (Top-Five books, March 2013)
* Gifford, Barry (ed.). As Ever: The Collected Letters of Allen Ginsberg & Neal Cassady. Berkeley: Creative Arts Books (1977).
* Ginsberg, Allen. Travels with Ginsberg: A Postcard Book. San Francisco: City Lights (2002). {{ISBN|978-0-87286-397-2}}
* Hrebeniak, Michael. ''Action Writing: Jack Kerouac's Wild Form, Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois UP, 2006.
* Kashner, Sam. When I Was Cool, My Life at the Jack Kerouac School, New York: HarperCollins Perennial, 2005. {{ISBN|0-06-000566-1}}
* McBride, Dick. Cometh With Clouds (Memory: Allen Ginsberg) Cherry Valley Editions, 1982 {{ISBN|0-916156-51-6}}
* Morgan, Bill (ed.), I Greet You at the Beginning of a Great Career: The Selected Correspondence of Lawrence Ferlinghetti and Allen Ginsberg, 1955–1997. San Francisco: City Lights Publishers, 2015.
* Schumacher, Michael. Dharma Lion: A Biography of Allen Ginsberg.'' New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994.
* Trigilio, Tony. ''Allen Ginsberg's Buddhist Poetics. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press, 2007. {{ISBN|0-8093-2755-4}}
* Trigilio, Tony. "Strange Prophecies Anew": Rereading Apocalypse in Blake, H.D., and Ginsberg. Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2000. {{ISBN|0-8386-3854-6}}.
* Tytell, John. Naked Angels: Kerouac, Ginsberg, Burroughs. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1976. {{ISBN|1-56663-683-3}}
* Warner, Simon (ed.). Howl for Now: A 50th anniversary celebration of Allen Ginsberg's epic protest poem''. West Yorkshire, UK: Route (2005), paperback, 144 pages, {{ISBN|1-901927-25-3}}
External links
{{Sister project links|autoyes|dQ6711}}
Archives
* [https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4078710 George Dowden papers on the Allen Ginsberg bibliography, 1966–1971] at [https://library.columbia.edu/libraries/rbml.html Rare Book and Manuscripts Library, Columbia University Libraries]
* [https://library.udel.edu/special/findaids/view?docIdead/mss0481.xml Materials related to Allen Ginsberg in the Robert A. Wilson collection] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220319042455/https://library.udel.edu/special/findaids/view?docIdead/mss0481.xml |dateMarch 19, 2022 }} at [https://library.udel.edu/special/ Special Collections, University of Delaware Library]
* [https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf5c6004hb/ Allen Ginsberg papers] at [https://library.stanford.edu/spc/manuscripts-division Special Collections and University Archives, Stanford Libraries] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201104071043/https://library.stanford.edu/spc/manuscripts-division |dateNovember 4, 2020 }}
Audio recordings and interviews
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141110170800/http://hcl.harvard.edu/poetryroom/listeningbooth/poets/ginsberg.cfm Audio recordings of Allen Ginsberg], from the Woodberry Poetry Room, Harvard University
* [https://archive.org/details/micadeckerlibrary?and%5B%5D=allen%20ginsberg Audio recordings of Allen Ginsberg], from Maryland Institute College of Art's Decker Library, Internet Archive
* [http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/interviews.htm Modern American Poetry] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190408084404/http://www.english.illinois.edu/maps/poets/g_l/ginsberg/interviews.htm |dateApril 8, 2019 }}, interview
Other links
* [http://www.allenginsberg.org/ The Allen Ginsberg Trust]
* {{isfdb name|id22260|nameAllen Ginsberg}}
* {{Cite journal |lastThomas Clark |dateSpring 1966 |titleAllen Ginsberg, The Art of Poetry No. 8 |urlhttp://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4389/the-art-of-poetry-no-8-allen-ginsberg |journalThe Paris Review |volumeSpring 1966 |issue=37}}
* [http://www.pen.org/nonfiction/case-histories-allen-ginsberg Case Histories: Allen Ginsberg at PEN.org] honoring Ginsberg's work, from PEN American Center
* [http://www.poets.org/agins Allen Ginsberg on Poets.org] With audio clips, poems, and related essays, from the Academy of American Poets
* [https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6393328 "After 50 Years, Ginsberg's Howl Still Resonates"] NPR October 27, 2006
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110424181903/http://www.lensculture.com/ginsberg.html?thisPic=100 Allen Ginsberg photographs with hand-written captions] at LensCulture
* [http://www.shambhalasun.com/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id3003&Itemid0 Autobiographical Article in Shambhala Sun Magazine] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131215164608/http://www.shambhalasun.com/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id3003&Itemid0 |dateDecember 15, 2013 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20191223012327/https://www.muckrock.com/news/archives/2015/apr/30/fbi-agents-instructed-not-interview-allen-ginsberg/ FBI agents were warned against interviewing Allen Ginsberg, fearing it would result in "embarrassment" from] MuckRock.com
* {{Find a Grave|7477649}}
* Allen Ginsberg materials in "[https://exhibitions.lib.udel.edu/beat-visions-and-the-counterculture/ Beat Visions and the Counterculture]" (online exhibition) at [https://library.udel.edu/special/ Special Collections, University of Delaware Library]
{{Allen Ginsberg|state=collapsed}}
{{William S. Burroughs}}
{{Poets in The New American Poetry 1945–1960}}
{{Chicago Seven}}
{{Struga Poetry Evenings Golden Wreath Laureates}}
{{Authority control}}
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Category:Yippies | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen_Ginsberg | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.343409 |
1018 | Algebraically closed field | In mathematics, a field is algebraically closed if every non-constant polynomial in (the univariate polynomial ring with coefficients in ) has a root in . In other words, a field is algebraically closed if the fundamental theorem of algebra holds for it.
Every field K is contained in an algebraically closed field C, and the roots in C of the polynomials with coefficients in K form an algebraically closed field called an algebraic closure of K. Given two algebraic closures of K there are isomorphisms between them that fix the elements of K.
Algebraically closed fields appear in the following chain of class inclusions:
Examples
As an example, the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed, because the polynomial equation x^2+1=0 has no solution in real numbers, even though all its coefficients (1 and 0) are real. The same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed; in particular, the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed. By contrast, the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. Another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of (complex) algebraic numbers.
No finite field F is algebraically closed, because if a1, a2, ..., an are the elements of F, then the polynomial (x − a1)(x − a2) ⋯ (x − an) + 1
has no zero in F. However, the union of all finite fields of a fixed characteristic p (p prime) is an algebraically closed field, which is, in fact, the algebraic closure of the field \mathbb F_p with p elements.
The field \mathbb{C}(x) of rational functions with complex coefficients is not closed; for example, the polynomial y^2 - x has roots \pm\sqrt{x}, which are not elements of \mathbb{C}(x).
Equivalent properties
Given a field F, the assertion "F is algebraically closed" is equivalent to other assertions:
The only irreducible polynomials are those of degree one
The field F is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the polynomial ring F[x] are those of degree one.
The assertion "the polynomials of degree one are irreducible" is trivially true for any field. If F is algebraically closed and p(x) is an irreducible polynomial of F[x], then it has some root a and therefore p(x) is a multiple of . Since p(x) is irreducible, this means that , for some . On the other hand, if F is not algebraically closed, then there is some non-constant polynomial p(x) in F[x] without roots in F. Let q(x) be some irreducible factor of p(x). Since p(x) has no roots in F, q(x) also has no roots in F. Therefore, q(x) has degree greater than one, since every first degree polynomial has one root in F.
Every polynomial is a product of first degree polynomials
The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial p(x) of degree n ≥ 1, with coefficients in F, splits into linear factors. In other words, there are elements k, x1, x2, ..., xn of the field F such that p(x) = k(x − x1)(x − x2) ⋯ (x − xn).
If F has this property, then clearly every non-constant polynomial in F[x] has some root in F; in other words, F is algebraically closed. On the other hand, that the property stated here holds for F if F is algebraically closed follows from the previous property together with the fact that, for any field K, any polynomial in K[x] can be written as a product of irreducible polynomials.
Polynomials of prime degree have roots
If every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F, then every non-constant polynomial has a root in F. It follows that a field is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial over F of prime degree has a root in F.
The field has no proper algebraic extension
The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper algebraic extension.
If F has no proper algebraic extension, let p(x) be some irreducible polynomial in F[x]. Then the quotient of F[x] modulo the ideal generated by p(x) is an algebraic extension of F whose degree is equal to the degree of p(x). Since it is not a proper extension, its degree is 1 and therefore the degree of p(x) is 1.
On the other hand, if F has some proper algebraic extension K, then the minimal polynomial of an element in K \ F is irreducible and its degree is greater than 1.
The field has no proper finite extension
The field F is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper finite extension because if, within the previous proof, the term "algebraic extension" is replaced by the term "finite extension", then the proof is still valid. (Finite extensions are necessarily algebraic.)
Every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector
The field F is algebraically closed if and only if, for each natural number n, every linear map from Fn into itself has some eigenvector.
An endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector if and only if its characteristic polynomial has some root. Therefore, when F is algebraically closed, every endomorphism of Fn has some eigenvector. On the other hand, if every endomorphism of Fn has an eigenvector, let p(x) be an element of F[x]. Dividing by its leading coefficient, we get another polynomial q(x) which has roots if and only if p(x) has roots. But if , then q(x) is the characteristic polynomial of the n×n companion matrix
\begin{pmatrix}
0 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & -a_0\\
1 & 0 & \cdots & 0 & -a_1\\
0 & 1 & \cdots & 0 & -a_2\\
\vdots & \vdots & \ddots & \vdots & \vdots\\
0 & 0 & \cdots & 1 & -a_{n-1}
\end{pmatrix}.
Decomposition of rational expressions
The field F is algebraically closed if and only if every rational function in one variable x, with coefficients in F, can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form a/(x − b)n, where n is a natural number, and a and b are elements of F.
If F is algebraically closed then, since the irreducible polynomials in F[x] are all of degree 1, the property stated above holds by the theorem on partial fraction decomposition.
On the other hand, suppose that the property stated above holds for the field F. Let p(x) be an irreducible element in F[x]. Then the rational function 1/p can be written as the sum of a polynomial function q with rational functions of the form a/(x – b)n. Therefore, the rational expression
\frac1{p(x)}-q(x)=\frac{1-p(x)q(x)}{p(x)}
can be written as a quotient of two polynomials in which the denominator is a product of first degree polynomials. Since p(x) is irreducible, it must divide this product and, therefore, it must also be a first degree polynomial.
Relatively prime polynomials and roots
For any field F, if two polynomials are relatively prime then they do not have a common root, for if was a common root, then p(x) and q(x) would both be multiples of and therefore they would not be relatively prime. The fields for which the reverse implication holds (that is, the fields such that whenever two polynomials have no common root then they are relatively prime) are precisely the algebraically closed fields.
If the field F is algebraically closed, let p(x) and q(x) be two polynomials which are not relatively prime and let r(x) be their greatest common divisor. Then, since r(x) is not constant, it will have some root a, which will be then a common root of p(x) and q(x).
If F is not algebraically closed, let p(x) be a polynomial whose degree is at least 1 without roots. Then p(x) and p(x) are not relatively prime, but they have no common roots (since none of them has roots).
Other properties
If F is an algebraically closed field and n is a natural number, then F contains all nth roots of unity, because these are (by definition) the n (not necessarily distinct) zeroes of the polynomial xn − 1. A field extension that is contained in an extension generated by the roots of unity is a cyclotomic extension, and the extension of a field generated by all roots of unity is sometimes called its cyclotomic closure. Thus algebraically closed fields are cyclotomically closed. The converse is not true. Even assuming that every polynomial of the form xn − a splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed.
If a proposition which can be expressed in the language of first-order logic is true for an algebraically closed field, then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic. Furthermore, if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic 0, then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic 0, but there is some natural number N such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristic p when p > N.
Every field F has some extension which is algebraically closed. Such an extension is called an algebraically closed extension. Among all such extensions there is one and only one (up to isomorphism, but not unique isomorphism) which is an algebraic extension of F; it is called the algebraic closure of F.
The theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination.
Notes
References
Category:Field (mathematics) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraically_closed_field | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.365041 |
1019 | August 6 | Events
Pre-1600
686 – The Ummayad forces suffer a deceisive defeat against the pro-Alid forces under Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar in the battle of Khazir.
1284 – The Republic of Pisa is defeated in the Battle of Meloria by the Republic of Genoa, thus losing its naval dominance in the Mediterranean.
1538 – Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada.
1601–1900
1661 – The Treaty of The Hague is signed by Portugal and the Dutch Republic.
1777 – American Revolutionary War: The bloody Battle of Oriskany prevents American relief of the Siege of Fort Stanwix.
1787 – Sixty proof sheets of the Constitution of the United States are delivered to the Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
1806 – Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, declares the moribund empire to be dissolved, although he retains power in the Austrian Empire.
1819 – Norwich University is founded in Vermont as the first private military school in the United States.
1824 – Peruvian War of Independence: Patriot forces led by Simón Bolívar defeat the Spanish Royalist army in the Battle of Junín.
1825 – The Bolivian Declaration of Independence is proclaimed.
1861 – Britain imposes the Lagos Treaty of Cession to suppress slavery in what is now Nigeria.
1862 – American Civil War: The Confederate ironclad is scuttled on the Mississippi River after suffering catastrophic engine failure near Baton Rouge, Louisiana.
1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Spicheren is fought, resulting in a German victory.
1870 – Franco-Prussian War: The Battle of Wörth results in a decisive German victory.
1890 – At Auburn Prison in New York, murderer William Kemmler becomes the first person to be executed by electric chair.
1901–present
1901 – Kiowa land in Oklahoma is opened for white settlement, effectively dissolving the contiguous reservation.
1914 – World War I: U-boat campaign: Two days after the United Kingdom had declared war on Germany over the German invasion of Belgium, ten German U-boats leave their base in Heligoland to attack Royal Navy warships in the North Sea.
1914 – World War I: Serbia declares war on Germany; Austria declares war on Russia.
1915 – World War I: Battle of Sari Bair: The Allies mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major Allied landing of reinforcements at Suvla Bay.
1917 – World War I: Battle of Mărășești between the Romanian and German armies begins.
1926 – Gertrude Ederle becomes the first woman to swim across the English Channel.
1926 – First public screening using the Vitaphone process
1940 – Estonia is annexed by the Soviet Union.
1942 – Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands becomes the first reigning queen to address a joint session of the United States Congress.
1944 – The Warsaw Uprising occurs on August 1. It is brutally suppressed and all able-bodied men in Kraków are detained afterwards to prevent a similar uprising, the Kraków Uprising, that was planned but never carried out.
1945 – World War II: Hiroshima, Japan is devastated when the atomic bomb "Little Boy" is dropped by the United States B-29 Enola Gay. Around 70,000 people are killed instantly, and some tens of thousands die in subsequent years from burns and radiation poisoning.
1956 – After going bankrupt in 1955, the American broadcaster DuMont Television Network makes its final broadcast, a boxing match from St. Nicholas Arena in New York in the Boxing from St. Nicholas Arena series.
1958 – Law of Permanent Defense of Democracy, outlawing the Communist Party of Chile and banning 26,650 persons from the electoral lists, is repealed in Chile.
1960 – Cuban Revolution: Cuba nationalizes American and foreign-owned property in the nation.
1962 – Jamaica becomes independent from the United Kingdom.
1965 – US President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Voting Rights Act of 1965 into law.
1986 – A low-pressure system that redeveloped off the New South Wales coast dumps a record 328 millimeters (13 inches) of rain in a day on Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
1990 – Gulf War: The United Nations Security Council orders a global trade embargo against Iraq in response to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait.
1991 – Tim Berners-Lee releases files describing his idea for the World Wide Web. WWW makes its first appearance as a publicly available service on the Internet.
1991 – Takako Doi, chair of the Social Democratic Party, becomes Japan's first female speaker of the House of Representatives.
1996 – NASA announces that the ALH 84001 meteorite, thought to originate from Mars, contains evidence of primitive life-forms.
1997 – Korean Air Flight 801 crashed at Nimitz Hill, Guam, killing 229 of the 254 people on board.
2001 – Erwadi fire incident: Twenty-eight mentally ill persons tied to a chain are burnt to death at a faith based institution at Erwadi, Tamil Nadu.
2008 – A military junta led by Mohamed Ould Abdel Aziz stages a coup d'état in Mauritania, overthrowing president Sidi Ould Cheikh Abdallahi.
2010 – Flash floods across a large part of Jammu and Kashmir, India, damages 71 towns and kills at least 255 people.
2011 – War in Afghanistan: A United States military helicopter is shot down, killing 30 American special forces members and a working dog, seven Afghan soldiers, and one Afghan civilian. It was the deadliest single event for the United States in the War in Afghanistan.
2012 – NASA's Curiosity rover lands on the surface of Mars.
2015 – A suicide bomb attack kills at least 15 people at a mosque in the Saudi city of Abha.
Births
Pre-1600
1180 – Emperor Go-Toba of Japan (d. 1239)
1504 – Matthew Parker, English archbishop (d. 1575)
1572 – Fakhr-al-Din II, Druze emir (d. 1635)
1601–1900
1605 – Bulstrode Whitelocke, English lawyer (d. 1675)
1609 – Richard Bennett, English-American politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (d. 1675)
1619 – Barbara Strozzi, Italian composer and singer-songwriter (d. 1677)
1622 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Dutch admiral (d. 1666)
1638 – Nicolas Malebranche, French priest and philosopher (d. 1715)
1644 – Louise de La Vallière, French mistress of Louis XIV of France (d. 1710)
1651 – François Fénelon, French archbishop and poet (d. 1715)
1656 – Claude de Forbin, French general (d. 1733)
1666 – Maria Sophia of Neuburg (d. 1699)
1667 – Johann Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (d. 1748)
1697 – Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1745)
1715 – Luc de Clapiers, marquis de Vauvenargues, French author (d. 1747)
1765 – Petros Mavromichalis, Greek general and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Greece (d. 1848)
1766 – William Hyde Wollaston, English chemist and physicist (d. 1828)
1768 – Jean-Baptiste Bessières, French general and politician (d. 1813)
1775 – Daniel O'Connell, Irish lawyer and politician, Lord Mayor of Dublin (d. 1847)
1809 – Alfred, Lord Tennyson, English poet (d. 1892)
1826 – Thomas Alexander Browne, English-Australian author (d. 1915)
1835 – Hjalmar Kiærskou, Danish botanist (d. 1900)
1844 – Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (d. 1900)
1844 – James Henry Greathead, South African-English engineer (d. 1896)
1848 – Susie Taylor, American writer and first black Army nurse (d. 1912)
1846 – Anna Haining Bates, Canadian-American giant (d. 1888)
1868 – Paul Claudel, French poet and playwright (d. 1955)
1874 – Charles Fort, American author (d. 1932)
1877 – Wallace H. White Jr., American lawyer and politician (d. 1952)
1880 – Hans Moser, Austrian actor and singer (d. 1964)
1881 – Leo Carrillo, American actor (d. 1961)
1881 – Alexander Fleming, Scottish biologist, pharmacologist, and botanist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1955)
1881 – Louella Parsons, American journalist (d. 1972)
1883 – Constance Georgina Adams, South African botanist (d. 1968)
1883 – Scott Nearing, American economist and educator (d. 1983)
1886 – Edward Ballantine, American composer and academic (d. 1971)
1887 – Dudley Benjafield, English racing driver (d. 1957)
1889 – George Kenney, Canadian-American general (d. 1977)
1889 – John Middleton Murry, English poet and author (d. 1957)
1891 – William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim, English field marshal and politician, 13th Governor-General of Australia (d. 1970)
1895 – Frank Nicklin, Australian politician, 28th Premier of Queensland (d. 1978)
1900 – Cecil Howard Green, English-American geophysicist and businessman, co-founded Texas Instruments (d. 2003)
1901–present
1901 – Dutch Schultz, American gangster (d. 1935)
1903 – Virginia Foster Durr, American civil rights activist (d. 1999)
1904 – Jean Dessès, Greek-Egyptian fashion designer (d. 1970)
1904 – Henry Iba, American basketball player and coach (d. 1993)
1906 – Vic Dickenson, American trombonist (d. 1984)
1908 – Maria Ludwika Bernhard, Polish classical archaeologist and a member of WWII Polish resistance (d. 1998)
1908 – Helen Jacobs, American tennis player and commander (d. 1997)
1908 – Lajos Vajda, Hungarian painter and illustrator (d. 1941)
1909 – Diana Keppel, Countess of Albemarle (d. 2013)
1910 – Adoniran Barbosa, Brazilian musician, singer, composer, humorist, and actor (d. 1982)
1910 – Charles Crichton, English director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 1999)
1911 – Lucille Ball, American actress, television producer and businesswoman (d. 1989)
1911 – Norman Gordon, South African cricketer (d. 2014)
1911 – Constance Heaven, English author and actress (d. 1995)
1912 – Richard C. Miller, American photographer (d. 2010)
1914 – Gordon Freeth, Australian lawyer and politician, 24th Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs (d. 2001)
1916 – Richard Hofstadter, American historian and academic (d. 1970)
1916 – Dom Mintoff, Maltese journalist and politician, 8th Prime Minister of Malta (d. 2012)
1917 – Barbara Cooney, American author and illustrator (d. 2000)
1917 – Robert Mitchum, American actor (d. 1997)
1918 – Norman Granz, American-Swiss record producer and manager (d. 2001)
1919 – Pauline Betz, American tennis player (d. 2011)
1920 – John Graves, American author (d. 2013)
1920 – Ella Raines, American actress (d. 1988)
1922 – Freddie Laker, English businessman, founded Laker Airways (d. 2006)
1922 – Dan Walker, American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Illinois (d. 2015)
1923 – Jess Collins, American painter (d. 2004)
1923 – Paul Hellyer, Canadian engineer and politician, 16th Canadian Minister of Defence (d. 2021)
1924 – Samuel Bowers, American white supremacist, co-founded the White Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (d. 2006)
1924 – Ella Jenkins, American folk singer (d. 2024)
1926 – Elisabeth Beresford, English journalist and author (d. 2010)
1926 – Frank Finlay, English actor (d. 2016)
1926 – Clem Labine, American baseball player and manager (d. 2007)
1926 – János Rózsás, Hungarian author (d. 2012)
1926 – Norman Wexler, American screenwriter (d. 1999)
1928 – Herb Moford, American baseball player (d. 2005)
1928 – Andy Warhol, American painter, photographer and film director (d. 1987)
1929 – Mike Elliott, Jamaican saxophonist
1929 – Roch La Salle, Canadian politician, 42nd Canadian Minister of Public Works (d. 2007)
1930 – Abbey Lincoln, American singer-songwriter and actress (d. 2010)
1931 – Chalmers Johnson, American scholar and author (d. 2010)
1932 – Michael Deeley, English screenwriter and producer
1932 – Howard Hodgkin, English painter (d. 2017)
1932 – Charles Wood, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2020)
1933 – A. G. Kripal Singh, Indian cricketer (d. 1987)
1934 – Piers Anthony, English-American soldier and author
1934 – Chris Bonington, English mountaineer and author
1934 – Billy Boston, Welsh rugby player and soldier
1935 – Fortunato Baldelli, Italian cardinal (d. 2012)
1935 – Octavio Getino, Spanish-Argentinian director and screenwriter (d. 2012)
1937 – Baden Powell de Aquino, Brazilian guitarist and composer (d. 2000)
1937 – Charlie Haden, American bassist and composer (d. 2014)
1937 – Barbara Windsor, English actress (d. 2020)
1938 – Paul Bartel, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2000)
1938 – Peter Bonerz, American actor and director
1938 – Bert Yancey, American golfer (d. 1994)
1940 – Mukhu Aliyev, Russian philologist and politician, 2nd President of Dagestan
1940 – Egil Kapstad, Norwegian pianist and composer (d. 2017)
1940 – Louise Sorel, American actress
1941 – Ray Culp, American baseball player
1942 – Byard Lancaster, American saxophonist and flute player (d. 2012)
1943 – Jon Postel, American computer scientist and academic (d. 1998)
1944 – Inday Badiday, Filipino journalist and actress (d. 2003)
1944 – Michael Mingos, English chemist and academic
1944 – Martin Wharton, English bishop
1945 – Ron Jones, English director and production manager (d. 1993)
1946 – Allan Holdsworth, English guitarist, songwriter, and producer (d. 2017)
1947 – Radhia Cousot, French computer scientist and academic (d. 2014)
1949 – Dino Bravo, Italian-Canadian wrestler (d. 1993)
1950 – Dorian Harewood, American actor
1951 – Catherine Hicks, American actress
1951 – Daryl Somers, Australian television host and singer
1952 – Pat MacDonald, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
1952 – David McLetchie, Scottish lawyer and politician (d. 2013)
1952 – Ton Scherpenzeel, Dutch keyboard player, songwriter, and producer
1954 – Mark Hughes, English-Australian rugby league player
1956 – Bill Emmott, English journalist and author
1957 – Bob Horner, American baseball player
1957 – Jim McGreevey, American lawyer and politician, 52nd Governor of New Jersey
1958 – Randy DeBarge, American singer-songwriter and bass player
1959 – Rajendra Singh, Indian environmentalist
1959 – Joyce Sims, American singer (d. 2022)
1960 – Dale Ellis, American basketball player
1961 – Mary Ann Sieghart, English journalist and radio host
1962 – Michelle Yeoh, Malaysian-Hong Kong actress and producer
1963 – Charles Ingram, English soldier, author, and game show contestant
1963 – Kevin Mitnick, American computer security consultant, author, and convicted hacker (d. 2023)
1964 – Kemi Omololu-Olunloyo, Nigerian journalist, activist, social media expert, and pharmacist
1965 – Stéphane Peterhansel, French racing driver
1965 – Yuki Kajiura, Japanese pianist and composer
1965 – David Robinson, American basketball player and lieutenant
1968 – Jack de Gier, Dutch footballer
1969 – Simon Doull, New Zealand cricketer and sportscaster
1969 – Elliott Smith, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2003)
1970 – M. Night Shyamalan, Indian-American director, producer, and screenwriter
1972 – Geri Halliwell, English singer-songwriter, dancer, and actress
1972 – Jason O'Mara, Irish actor
1981 – Diána Póth, Hungarian figure skater
1983 – Robin van Persie, Dutch footballer
1984 – Vedad Ibišević, Bosnian footballer
1984 – Maja Ognjenović, Serbian volleyball player
1984 – Jesse Ryder, New Zealand cricketer
1985 – Mickaël Delage, French cyclist
1985 – Bafétimbi Gomis, French footballer
1985 – Garrett Weber-Gale, American swimmer
1986 – Raphael Pyrasch, German rugby player
1987 – Leanne Crichton, Scottish footballer
1991 – Wilmer Flores, Venezuelan baseball player
1991 – Jiao Liuyang, Chinese swimmer
1995 – Rebecca Peterson, Swedish tennis player
1999 – Hunter Greene, American baseball player
1999 – Rebeka Masarova, Spanish-Swiss tennis player
2002 – Nessa Barrett, American singer-songwriter.
2004 – Takhmina Ikromova, Uzbekistani rhythmic gymnast
Deaths
Pre-1600
258 – Pope Sixtus II
523 – Pope Hormisdas (b. 450)
750 – Marwan II, Umayyad general and caliph (b. 688)
1027 – Richard III, Duke of Normandy
1162 – Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona (b. 1113)
1195 – Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria (b. 1129)
1221 – Saint Dominic, Spanish priest, founded the Dominican Order (b. 1170)
1272 – Stephen V of Hungary (b. 1239)
1384 – Francesco I of Lesbos
1412 – Margherita of Durazzo, Queen consort of Charles III of Naples (b. 1347)
1414 – Ladislaus of Naples (b. 1377)
1458 – Pope Callixtus III (b. 1378)
1530 – Jacopo Sannazaro, Italian poet (b. 1458)
1553 – Girolamo Fracastoro, Italian physician (b. 1478)
1588 – Josias I, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg, Count of Waldeck-Eisenberg (1578–1588) (b. 1554)
1601–1900
1628 – Johannes Junius, German lawyer and politician (b. 1573)
1637 – Ben Jonson, English poet and playwright (b. 1572)
1645 – Lionel Cranfield, 1st Earl of Middlesex, English merchant and politician (b. 1575)
1657 – Bohdan Khmelnytsky, Ukrainian soldier and politician, 1st Hetman of Zaporizhian Host (b. 1595)
1660 – Diego Velázquez, Spanish painter and educator (b. 1599)
1666 – Tjerk Hiddes de Vries, Frisian naval hero and commander (b. 1622)
1679 – John Snell, Scottish-English soldier and philanthropist, founded the Snell Exhibition (b. 1629)
1694 – Antoine Arnauld, French mathematician and philosopher (b. 1612)
1695 – François de Harlay de Champvallon, French archbishop (b. 1625)
1753 – Georg Wilhelm Richmann, Estonian-Russian physicist and academic (b. 1711)
1757 – Ádám Mányoki, Hungarian painter (b. 1673)
1794 – Henry Bathurst, 2nd Earl Bathurst, English lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1714)
1815 – James A. Bayard, American lawyer and politician (b. 1767)
1828 – Konstantin von Benckendorff, Russian general and diplomat (b. 1785)
1850 – Edward Walsh, Irish poet (b. 1805)
1866 – John Mason Neale, English priest, scholar, and hymnwriter (b. 1818)
1881 – James Springer White, American religious leader, co-founded the Seventh-day Adventist Church (b. 1821)
1893 – Jean-Jacques Challet-Venel, Swiss lawyer and politician (b. 1811)
1901–present
1904 – Eduard Hanslick, Austrian author and critic (b. 1825)
1906 – George Waterhouse, English-New Zealand politician, 7th Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1824)
1915 – Jennie de la Montagnie Lozier, American physician (b. 1841)
1920 – Stefan Bastyr, Polish pilot and author (b. 1890)
1925 – Surendranath Banerjee, Indian academic and politician (b. 1848)
1925 – Gregorio Ricci-Curbastro, Italian mathematician (b. 1853)
1931 – Bix Beiderbecke, American cornet player, pianist, and composer (b. 1903)
1945 – Richard Bong, American soldier and pilot, Medal of Honor recipient (b. 1920)
1945 – Hiram Johnson, American lawyer and politician, 23rd Governor of California (b. 1866)
1946 – Tony Lazzeri, American baseball player and coach (b. 1903)
1952 – Betty Allan, Australian statistician and biometrician (b. 1905)
1959 – Preston Sturges, American director, screenwriter, and playwright (b. 1898)
1964 – Cedric Hardwicke, English actor and director (b. 1893)
1968 – Ye Gongchuo, Chinese politician, poet, and calligrapher (b. 1881)
1969 – Theodor W. Adorno, German sociologist and philosopher (b. 1903)
1970 – Nikos Tsiforos, Greek director and screenwriter (b. 1912)
1973 – Fulgencio Batista, Cuban colonel and politician, 9th President of Cuba (b. 1901)
1976 – Gregor Piatigorsky, Russian-American cellist and educator (b. 1903)
1978 – Pope Paul VI (b. 1897)
1978 – Edward Durell Stone, American architect, designed Radio City Music Hall and the Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts (b. 1902)
1979 – Feodor Felix Konrad Lynen, German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1911)
1983 – Klaus Nomi, German singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1944)
1985 – Forbes Burnham, Guyanese politician, 2nd President of Guyana (b. 1923)
1986 – Emilio Fernández, Mexican actor, director, and screenwriter (b. 1904)
1987 – Ira C. Eaker, American general (b. 1896)
1990 – Jacques Soustelle, French anthropologist and politician (b. 1912)
1991 – Shapour Bakhtiar, Iranian soldier and politician, 74th Prime Minister of Iran (b. 1915)
1991 – Roland Michener, Canadian lawyer and politician, 20th Governor General of Canada (b. 1900)
1991 – Harry Reasoner, American journalist, co-created 60 Minutes (b. 1923)
1992 – Leszek Błażyński, Polish boxer (b. 1949)
1993 – Tex Hughson, American baseball player (b. 1916)
1994 – Domenico Modugno, Italian singer-songwriter and politician (b. 1928)
1997 – Shin Ki-ha, South Korean lawyer and politician (b. 1941)
1998 – André Weil, French-American mathematician and academic (b. 1906)
2001 – Jorge Amado, Brazilian novelist and poet (b. 1912)
2001 – Adhar Kumar Chatterji, Indian Naval officer (b. 1914)
2001 – Wilhelm Mohnke, German general (b. 1911)
2001 – Shan Ratnam, Sri Lankan physician and academic (b. 1928)
2001 – Dorothy Tutin, English actress (b. 1930)
2002 – Edsger W. Dijkstra, Dutch physicist, computer scientist, and academic (b. 1930)
2003 – Julius Baker, American flute player and educator (b. 1915)
2004 – Rick James, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1948)
2004 – Donald Justice, American poet and academic (b. 1925)
2005 – Robin Cook, Scottish educator and politician, Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs (b. 1946)
2005 – Creme Puff, tabby domestic cat, oldest recorded cat (b. 1967)
2007 – Zsolt Daczi, Hungarian guitarist (b. 1969)
2008 – Angelos Kitsos, Greek lawyer and author (b. 1934)
2009 – Riccardo Cassin, Italian mountaineer and author (b. 1909)
2009 – Willy DeVille, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1950)
2009 – John Hughes, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1950)
2011 – Fe del Mundo, Filipino pediatrician and educator (b. 1911)
2012 – Richard Cragun, American-Brazilian ballet dancer and choreographer (b. 1944)
2012 – Marvin Hamlisch, American pianist, composer, and conductor (b. 1944)
2012 – Robert Hughes, Australian-American author and critic (b. 1938)
2012 – Bernard Lovell, English physicist and astronomer (b. 1913)
2012 – Mark O'Donnell, American playwright (b. 1954)
2012 – Ruggiero Ricci, American violinist and educator (b. 1918)
2012 – Dan Roundfield, American basketball player (b. 1953)
2013 – Stan Lynde, American author and illustrator (b. 1931)
2013 – Mava Lee Thomas, American baseball player (b. 1929)
2013 – Jerry Wolman, American businessman (b. 1927)
2014 – Ralph Bryans, Northern Irish motorcycle racer (b. 1941)
2014 – Ananda W.P. Guruge, Sri Lankan scholar and diplomat (b. 1928)
2014 – John Woodland Hastings, American biochemist and academic (b. 1927)
2015 – Ray Hill, American football player (b. 1975)
2015 – Orna Porat, German-Israeli actress (b. 1924)
2017 – Betty Cuthbert, Australian sprinter (b. 1938)
2017 – Darren Daulton, American baseball player (b. 1962)
2018 – Joël Robuchon, French Chef (b. 1945)
2018 – Margaret Heckler, American politician (b. 1931)
2018 – Anya Krugovoy Silver, American poet (b. 1968)
2024 – Billy Bean, American baseball player (b. 1964)
2024 – Connie Chiume, South African actress and filmmaker (b. 1952)
Holidays and observances
Christian holidays and observances
Transfiguration of Jesus
Anna Maria Rubatto
Hormisdas
Justus and Pastor
August 6 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan's Accession Day. (United Arab Emirates)
Independence Day (Bolivia), celebrates the independence of Bolivia from Spain in 1825.
Independence Day (Jamaica), celebrates the independence of Jamaica from the United Kingdom in 1962.
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References
External links
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_6 | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.571940 |
1020 | Anatoly Karpov | {{Short description|Russian chess grandmaster (born 1951)}}
{{Family name hatnote|Yevgenyevich|Karpov|lang=Eastern Slavic}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox chess biography
| name = Anatoly Karpov<br/>{{nobold|{{lang|ru| Анатолий Карпов}}}}
| image = Anatoly Karpov 2017 april.jpg
| caption = Karpov in 2017
| country = {{ubl|Soviet Union (until 1991)|Russia (since 1991)}}
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1951|05|23}}
| birth_place = Zlatoust, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russian SFSR, Soviet Union
| title = Grandmaster (1970)
| worldchampion = {{ubl|1975–1985 (undisputed)|1993–1999 (FIDE)}}
| rating | peakrating 2780 (July 1994)
| peakranking = No. 1 (January 1976)
| FideID = 4100026
| module {{Listen|embedyes|filenameAnatolij Karpov voice.oga|titleAnatoly Karpov's voice|description=from the Echo of Moscow program, 9 March 2006}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| embed = yes
| office1 = Member of the State Duma for Tyumen Oblast's Party List
| term_start1 = 21 December 2011
| term_end1 | party United Russia
}}
}}
Anatoly Yevgenyevich Karpov ({{langx|ru|Анато́лий Евге́ньевич Ка́рпов}}, {{IPA|ru|ɐnɐˈtolʲɪj jɪvˈɡʲenʲjɪvʲɪtɕ ˈkarpəf|IPA}}; born May 23, 1951) is a Russian and former Soviet chess grandmaster, former World Chess Champion, and politician. He was the 12th World Chess Champion from 1975 to 1985, a three-time FIDE World Champion (1993, 1996, 1998), twice World Chess champion as a member of the USSR team (1985, 1989), and a six-time winner of Chess Olympiads as a member of the USSR team (1972, 1974, 1980, 1982, 1986, 1988). The International Association of Chess Press awarded him nine Chess Oscars (1973–77, 1979, 1980, 1981, 1984).
Karpov's chess tournament successes include over 160 first-place finishes.<ref>{{cite web | firstEric | lastvan Reem | titleKarpov, Kortchnoi win Unzicker Gala | urlhttp://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid2569 | publisherChessBase | dateAugust 11, 2005 | access-dateJuly 2, 2009}} In his 1994 book My Best Games, Karpov says he played some 200 tournaments and matches, and won more than 100.</ref> He had a peak Elo rating of 2780, and his 102 total months world number one is the third-longest of all time, behind Magnus Carlsen and Garry Kasparov. Karpov is also an elected Member of the State Duma in Russia. Since 2006, he has chaired the Commission for Ecological Safety and Environmental Protection of the Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation, and since 2007 he has been a member of the Public Council under the Ministry of Defence.<ref>{{Cite web|dateFebruary 8, 2021|titleAnatoly Karpov elected as Deputy Secretary General of the Assembly|urlhttp://eurasia-assembly.org/en/news/anatoly-karpov-elected-deputy-secretary-general-assembly|access-dateFebruary 24, 2022|websiteOfficial site of the Eurasian Peoples' Assembly|languageen-us}}</ref>
Early life
Karpov was born into a Russian family on May 23, 1951,<ref>How Karpov Wins, p. xiii</ref><ref>Deep Blue: An Artificial Intelligence Milestonebats, p. 44</ref> in Zlatoust, in the Urals region of the former Soviet Union, and learned to play chess at the age of four.<ref>{{cite magazine|titleAnatoly Karpov|lastKeene|firstRaymond|magazineChess Life & Review|dateOctober 1978|volumeXXIII|number10|page539}}</ref> His early rise in chess was swift, as he became a candidate master by age 11. At 12, he was accepted into Mikhail Botvinnik's prestigious chess school, though Botvinnik made the following remark about the young Karpov: "The boy does not have a clue about chess, and there's no future at all for him in this profession."<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/01/books/getting-it-off-his-chess.html|titleGetting It Off His Chess|lastArrabal|firstFernando|dateMarch 1, 1992|workThe New York Times|access-date=February 15, 2021}}</ref>
Karpov acknowledged that his understanding of chess theory was very confused at that time, and later wrote that the homework Botvinnik assigned greatly helped him, since it required that he consult chess books and work diligently.<ref name"KarpovOnKarpov">{{cite book | titleKarpov on Karpov: A Memoirs of a Chess World Champion | authorKarpov, A. | publisherAtheneum | year1992 | isbn0-689-12060-5}}</ref> Karpov improved so quickly under Botvinnik's tutelage that he became the youngest Soviet master in history at the age of fifteen in 1966; this tied the record established by Boris Spassky in 1952.<ref>{{Cite web |authorEditorial Staff |dateApril 15, 2022 |titleBoris Spassky - The Russian Chess Grandmaster Legend - Chess Player Profile |urlhttps://www.chessjournal.com/boris-spassky/ |access-dateAugust 4, 2022 |websiteThe Chess Journal |languageen-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleANATOLY KARPOV |urlhttps://ruchess.ru:443/en/persons_of_day/anatoly_karpov/ |access-dateAugust 4, 2022 |websiteФедерация шахмат России |languageen}}</ref>
Career
Young master
Karpov finished first in his first international tournament, in Třinec, several months later, ahead of Viktor Kupreichik. In 1967, he won the annual Niemeyer Tournament in Groningen.<ref>{{cite magazine|titleJunior Meet|magazineChess Review|dateApril 1968|volume36|number4|page99|quoteThe Niemeyer International Junior Tournament in Groningen, Holland, went to Karpov of the Soviet Union with 5½–1½, half a point ahead of Jocha of Hungary.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.365chess.com/tournaments/EU-ch_U18_f-A_6768_1967/26508 |titleEU-ch U18 f-A 6768 1967|website365Chess.com|access-dateOctober 20, 2013}}</ref> Karpov won a gold medal for academic excellence in high school, and entered Moscow State University in 1968 to study mathematics. He later transferred to Leningrad State University, eventually graduating from there in economics. One reason for the transfer was to be closer to his coach, grandmaster Semyon Furman, who lived in Leningrad. In his writings, Karpov credits Furman as a major influence on his development as a world-class player.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1992/03/01/books/getting-it-off-his-chess.html |firstFernando |lastArrabal |titleGetting It Off His Chess |dateMarch 1, 1992 |websiteThe NY Times |access-dateNovember 16, 2022}}</ref>
In 1969, Karpov became the first Soviet player since Spassky (1955) to win the World Junior Championship, scoring an undefeated 10/11 in the final A group at Stockholm.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Wch_U20_fin-A_1969/26788 |titleWch U20 fin-A|publisher365Chess.com|access-dateOctober 20, 2013}}</ref> This victory earned him the International Master title.<ref>{{cite magazine|titleTenth Junior World Championship. Stockholm, August 10 – 29, 1969|lastTrifunovich|firstPetar|magazineChess Review|dateOctober 1969|volume37|number10|page315}}</ref> In 1970, Karpov tied for fourth and fifth places with Pal Benko at an international tournament in Caracas, Venezuela,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Caracas_1970/22885 |titleCaracas 1970|website365Chess.com|access-dateOctober 20, 2013}}</ref> and earned the international grandmaster title.<ref>{{cite magazine|titleDon't Walk – Run|lastKavalek|firstLubosh|magazineChess Life & Review|dateSeptember 1970|volumeXXV|number9|page483|quoteAnatoli Karpov is a new International Grandmaster. Playing "waiting chess" he just made the grandmaster norm.}}</ref> FIDE awarded him the title during its 41st congress, held during the Chess Olympiad in Siegen, West Germany in September 1970.<ref>{{cite magazine|titleFIDE'S 41st -and Greatest -Congress|lastCramer|firstFred|magazineChess Life & Review|dateJanuary 1971|volumeXXVI|number1|page24|quoteThe Congress awarded IGM titles to Anatoly Karpov and Buchuti Gurgenldze of the USSR and to Walter Browne of Australia.}}</ref>
Grandmaster
Karpov won the 1971 Alekhine Memorial tournament in Moscow (jointly with Leonid Stein), ahead of a star-studded field, for his first significant adult victory.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Alekhine_mem_1971/23191|titleAlekhine mem 1971 |websitewww.365chess.com}}</ref> His Elo rating shot from 2540 in 1971 to 2660 in 1973,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.olimpbase.org/Elo/player/Karpov,%20Anatoly.html|titleFIDE rating history: Karpov, Anatoly}}</ref> during which he shared second place in the 1973 Soviet championship, one point behind Spassky,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.olimpbase.org/ind-urs/urs-1973.html|title41st Soviet Chess Championship, Moscow 1973|websitewww.olimpbase.org}}</ref> and qualified for the Leningrad Interzonal.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.365chess.com/tournaments/Leningrad_Interzonal_1973/23554|titleLeningrad Interzonal 1973 |websitewww.365chess.com}}</ref>CandidateKarpov's world junior championship qualified him for one of the two Interzonals,<ref>[https://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/zonals/1972-75q.htm Zonal Qualifiers 1972-1975], Mark Weeks' Chess Pages</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|titleThe 1973 Interzonals|lastCramer|firstFred|magazineChess Life & Review|dateJanuary 1973|volumeXXVIII|number1|page=34}}</ref> a stage in the 1975 World Championship cycle to choose the challenger to play world champion Bobby Fischer. He finished equal first in the Leningrad Interzonal, qualifying for the 1974 Candidates Matches.
Karpov defeated Lev Polugaevsky by the score of +35 in the first Candidates' match, earning the right to face former champion Boris Spassky in the semifinal round. Karpov was on record saying that he believed Spassky would easily beat him and win the Candidates' cycle to face Fischer, and that he (Karpov) would win the following Candidates' cycle in 1977. Spassky won the first game as Black in good style, but tenacious, aggressive play from Karpov secured him overall victory by +4−16.
The Candidates' final was played in Moscow with Victor Korchnoi. Karpov took an early lead, winning the second game against the Sicilian Dragon, then scoring another victory in the sixth game. Following ten consecutive draws, Korchnoi threw away a winning position in the seventeenth game to give Karpov a 3–0 lead. In game 19, Korchnoi succeeded in winning a long endgame, then notched a speedy victory after a blunder by Karpov two games later. Three more draws, the last agreed by Karpov when he was in a clearly better position, closed the match, with Karpov prevailing +3−219, entitling him to move on to challenge Fischer for the world title.<ref>chessgames.com, [https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chess.pl?tid79939 Karpov - Korchnoi Candidates Final (1974)]</ref>
Match with Fischer in 1975
Though a world championship match between Karpov and Fischer was highly anticipated, those hopes were never realised. Fischer not only insisted that the match be the first to ten wins (draws not counting), but also that the champion retain the crown if the score was tied 9–9. FIDE, the International Chess Federation, refused to allow this proviso, and gave both players a deadline of April 1, 1975, to agree to play the match under the FIDE-approved rules.<ref>{{cite magazine |lastHochberg |firstBurt |dateMay 1975 |titleNews & Views |magazine=Chess Life and Review
|locationNewburgh, New York |publisherUnited States Chess Federation }}</ref> When Fischer did not agree, FIDE President Max Euwe declared on April 3, 1975, that Fischer had forfeited his title and Karpov was the new World Champion.<ref>{{cite book |lastByrne |firstRobert |author-linkRobert Byrne (chess player) |date1976 |titleAnatoly Karpov, The Road to the World Chess Championship |locationNew York |publisherBantam Books |page1 |isbn=0-553-02876-6}}</ref> Karpov later attempted to set up another match with Fischer, but the negotiations fell through. This thrust the young Karpov into the role of World Champion without having faced the reigning champion.
Garry Kasparov argued that Karpov would have had good chances because he had beaten Spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough professional, and indeed had higher quality games, while Fischer had been inactive for three years.<ref>Kasparov, My Great Predecessors, part IV: Fischer, p. 474</ref> This view is echoed by Karpov himself.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://en.chessbase.com/post/karpov-interview-tania-sachdev|titleKarpov on Fischer, Korchnoi, Kasparov and the chess world today|publisherChessbase|dateFebruary 5, 2020|access-dateFebruary 6, 2020}}</ref> Spassky thought that Fischer would have won in 1975, but Karpov would have qualified again and beaten Fischer in 1978.<ref>In [http://www.chesscafe.com/text/polgar26.pdf an article] (PDF) published in 2004 on the Chesscafe website Susan Polgar wrote: "I spoke to Boris Spassky about this same issue and he believes that Bobby would have won in 1975, but that Anatoly would have won the rematch."</ref> Karpov has said that if he had had the opportunity to play Fischer for the championship in his twenties, he could have been a much better player as a result.<ref>{{Cite web |dateMay 21, 2021 |title"Каспаров получил от меня 48 бесплатных уроков". Большое интервью Карпова |urlhttps://www.sport-express.ru/chess/reviews/kak-prohodili-matchi-po-shahmatam-anatoliya-karpova-protiv-garri-kasparova-intervyu-1790651/ |access-dateJuly 4, 2022 |websitesport-express.ru |languageru}}</ref>World champion<!-- This section is linked from World Chess Championship -->
and wife in 1976]]
Determined to prove himself a legitimate champion, Karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years. He convincingly won the Milan tournament in 1975, and captured his first of three Soviet titles in 1976. He created a phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world. Karpov held the record for most consecutive tournament victories (9) until it was shattered by Garry Kasparov (15). As a result, most chess professionals soon agreed that Karpov was a legitimate world champion.<ref name"WinningChessStrategies">{{cite book |lastSeirawan |firstYasser |titleWinning Chess Strategies |year2005 |publisherMicrosoft Press |isbn=978-1857443851}}</ref>
In 1978, Karpov's first title defence was against Viktor Korchnoi, the opponent he had defeated in the 1973–75 Candidates' cycle; the match was played at Baguio, Philippines, with the winner needing six victories.
As in 1974, Karpov took an early lead, winning the eighth game after seven draws to open the match. When the score was +5−220 in Karpov's favour, Korchnoi staged a comeback, and won three of the next four games to draw level with Karpov. Karpov then won the very next game to retain the title (+6−521).<ref>chessgames.com, [https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chess.pl?tid54641 Karpov vs Korchnoi, 1978]</ref> Three years later, Korchnoi reemerged as the Candidates' winner against German finalist Robert Hübner to challenge Karpov in Merano, Italy. Karpov handily won this match, 11–7 (+6−210), in what is remembered as the "Massacre in Merano".
Karpov's tournament career reached a peak at the Montreal "Tournament of Stars" tournament in 1979, where he finished joint first (+7−110) with Mikhail Tal ahead of a field of strong grandmasters completed by Jan Timman, Ljubomir Ljubojević, Boris Spassky, Vlastimil Hort, Lajos Portisch, Robert Hübner, Bent Larsen and Lubomir Kavalek. He dominated Las Palmas in 1977 with 13½/15. He also won the prestigious Bugojno tournament in 1978 (shared), 1980 and 1986, the Linares tournament in 1981 (shared with Larry Christiansen) and 1994, the Tilburg tournament in 1977, 1979, 1980, 1982, and 1983, and the Soviet Championship in 1976, 1983, and 1988.<ref name"chessgames, 2002">chessgames.com, [https://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessplayer?pid=20719 Anatoly Karpov]</ref>
Karpov represented the Soviet Union at six Chess Olympiads, in all of which the USSR won the team gold medal. He played as the first reserve at Skopje 1972, winning the board prize with 13/15. At Nice 1974, he advanced to board one and again won the board prize with 12/14. At La Valletta 1980, he was again board one and scored 9/12. At Lucerne 1982, he scored 6½/8 on board one. At Dubai 1986, he scored 6/9 on board two. His last was Thessaloniki 1988, where on board two he scored 8/10. In Olympiad play, Karpov lost only two games out of 68 played.<ref>{{Cite web |titleKarpov at 70: "My great blunder was I agreed to hold the match with Kasparov in the Soviet Union" |urlhttps://chess24.com/en/read/news/karpov-at-70-my-great-blunder-was-i-agreed-to-hold-the-match-with-kasparov-in-the-soviet-union |access-dateJune 2, 2022 |websitechess24.com |languageen}}</ref> To illustrate Karpov's dominance over his peers as champion, his score was +13−122 versus Spassky, +819 versus Robert Hübner, +12−129 versus Ulf Andersson, +3−110 versus Vasily Smyslov, +119 versus Mikhail Tal, +19-723 versus Ljubomir Ljubojević.<ref name"chessgames, 2002" />
Rivalry with Kasparov
{{excerpt|Karpov-Kasparov Rivalry|Overview}}
FIDE champion again (1993–1999)
In 1992, Karpov lost a Candidates Match against Nigel Short. But in the World Chess Championship 1993, Karpov reacquired the FIDE World Champion title when Kasparov and Short split from FIDE. Karpov defeated Timman – the loser of the Candidates' final against Short.
The next major meeting of Kasparov and Karpov was the 1994 Linares chess tournament. The field, in eventual finishing order, was Karpov, Kasparov, Shirov, Bareev, Kramnik, Lautier, Anand, Kamsky, Topalov, Ivanchuk, Gelfand, Illescas, Judit Polgár, and Beliavsky; with an average Elo rating of 2685, the highest ever at that time. Impressed by the strength of the tournament, Kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightly be called the world champion of tournaments. Perhaps spurred on by this comment, Karpov played the best tournament of his life. He was undefeated and earned 11 points out of 13 (the best world-class tournament winning percentage since Alekhine won San Remo in 1930), finishing 2½ points ahead of second-place Kasparov and Shirov. Many of his wins were spectacular (in particular, his win over Topalov is considered possibly the finest of his career). This performance against the best players in the world put his Elo rating tournament performance at 2985, the highest performance rating of any player in history up until 2009, when Magnus Carlsen won the category XXI Pearl Spring chess tournament with a performance of 3002. Chess statistician Jeff Sonas considers Karpov's Linares performance the best tournament result in history.<ref>[http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=5828 "Facts and figures: Magnus Carlsen's performance in Nanjing"]. ChessBase. Retrieved October 26, 2009.</ref>
Karpov defended his FIDE title against the rising star Gata Kamsky (+6−39) in 1996. In 1998, FIDE largely scrapped the old system of Candidates' Matches, instead having a large knockout event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks. In the first of these events, the FIDE World Chess Championship 1998, champion Karpov was seeded straight into the final, defeating Viswanathan Anand (+2−22, rapid tiebreak 2–0). In the subsequent cycle, the format was changed, with the champion having to qualify. Karpov refused to defend his title, and ceased to be FIDE World Champion after the FIDE World Chess Championship 1999.<ref>{{cite news |author1Leonard Barden |titleGames |workThe Guardian |date4 September 1999 |locationGreater London |page37 |quoteAnatoly Karpov refused to defend his title because of the absence of a challenge round and has now filed a breach of contract suit against the world chess body, claiming more than $1m in compensation.}}</ref>Towards retirementKarpov's classical tournament play has been seriously limited since 1997, since he prefers to be more involved in Russian politics. He had been a member of the Supreme Soviet Commission for Foreign Affairs and the president of the Soviet Peace Fund before the Soviet Union dissolved. In addition, he has been involved in several disputes with FIDE.<ref>{{Cite web|dateJuly 22, 1999|titleKarpov may sue over LV tourney - Las Vegas Sun Newspaper|urlhttps://lasvegassun.com/news/1999/jul/22/karpov-may-sue-over-lv-tourney/|access-dateMay 6, 2021|websitelasvegassun.com|languageen}}</ref> In the September 2009 FIDE rating list, he dropped out of the world's Top 100 for the first time. Karpov usually limits his play to exhibition events, and has revamped his style to specialize in rapid chess. In 2002, he won a match against Kasparov, defeating him in a rapid time control match 2½–1½. In 2006, he tied for first with Kasparov in a blitz tournament, ahead of Korchnoi and Judit Polgár.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid3310|titleThe Credit Suisse Blitz – in pictures|dateAugust 27, 2006|publisherChessBase|access-date=October 21, 2010}}</ref>
Karpov and Kasparov played a mixed 12-game match from September 21–24, 2009, in Valencia, Spain. It consisted of four rapid (or semi-rapid) and eight blitz games and took place exactly 25 years after the two players' legendary encounter at the World Chess Championship 1984.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://previews.chessdom.com/kasparov-karpov-valencia-2009 |titleKasparov and Karpov to play 12 games match in Valencia |access-dateJuly 8, 2009 |publisherChessdom |archive-dateJuly 12, 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090712002707/http://previews.chessdom.com/kasparov-karpov-valencia-2009 |url-statusdead }}</ref> Kasparov won the match 9–3. Karpov played a match against Yasser Seirawan in 2012 in St. Louis, Missouri, an important center of the North American chess scene, winning 8–6 (+5−36).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://saintlouischessclub.org/news/2012-06-12/karpov-seirawan-head-rapid-play-saint-louis|titleKarpov, Seirawan Head to Rapid Play in Saint Louis |dateJune 12, 2012 |publisherSt Louis Chess Club|access-dateJune 12, 2012}}</ref> In November 2012, he won the Cap d'Agde rapid tournament that bears his name (Anatoly Karpov Trophy), beating Vasyl Ivanchuk (ranked 9th in the October 2012 FIDE world rankings) in the final.Professional and political career after retirement from chess In 2003, Karpov opened his first American chess school in Lindsborg, Kansas.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAnatoly Karpov International School of Chess|urlhttp://www.anatolykarpovchessschool.org/history.html|access-dateSeptember 19, 2021|websitewww.anatolykarpovchessschool.org}}</ref> On March 2, 2022, the school announced a name change to International Chess Institute of the Midwest due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.facebook.com/InternationalChessInstituteoftheMidwest/posts/pfbid02giD1VtacQPeb8pxUTcieTAYvSiCu4KNdtNCCz8m67doSfpYFsxNUfDSU347umwJTl|titleInternational School of Chess of the Midwest|websitewww.facebook.com}}</ref>
Karpov has been a member of the sixth, seventh and eighth Russian State Dumas.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://duma.gov.ru/duma/persons/99111854/|titleКарпов Анатолий Евгеньевич|websiteГосударственная Дума}}</ref> Since 2005, he has been a member of the Public Chamber of Russia. He has involved himself in several humanitarian causes, such as advocating the use of iodised salt.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.unicef.org/ceecis/reallives_1345.html|titleStories from the region|websitewww.unicef.org|access-dateMarch 26, 2018|archive-dateJanuary 8, 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100108100717/http://www.unicef.org/ceecis/reallives_1345.html|url-statusdead}}</ref> On December 17, 2012, Karpov supported the Dima Yakovlev Law banning adoption of Russian orphans by U.S. citizens.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://vote.duma.gov.ru/vote/79982|title(2 чтение) ФЗ №186614-6 "О мерах воздействия на лиц, причастных к нарушению основополагающих прав и свобод человека, прав и свобод граждан РФ" – Система анализа результатов голосований на заседаниях Государственной Думы|websitevote.duma.gov.ru|access-dateMarch 26, 2018}}</ref>
Karpov expressed support of the unilateral annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation, and accused Europe of trying to demonize Putin.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aif.ru/society/people/rusofobiya_zashkalivaet|titleАнатолий Карпов: Европа пытается демонизировать Путина, а не Россию|firstВладимир|lastКожемякин|websitewww.aif.ru|dateJune 23, 2015|access-dateMarch 26, 2018}}</ref> In August 2019, Maxim Dlugy said that Karpov had been waiting since March for the approval of a non-immigrant visa to the United States, despite frequently visiting the country since 1972. Karpov had been scheduled to teach a summer camp at the Chess Max Academy. Dlugy said that Karpov had been questioned at the US embassy in Moscow about whether he planned to communicate with American politicians.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-usa-karpov/russian-chess-legend-anatoly-karpov-unable-to-get-u-s-visa-friend-says-idUKKCN1VC031|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190822032245/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-usa-karpov/russian-chess-legend-anatoly-karpov-unable-to-get-u-s-visa-friend-says-idUKKCN1VC031|url-statusdead|archive-dateAugust 22, 2019|titleRussian chess legend Anatoly Karpov unable to get U.S. visa, friend says|dateAugust 22, 2019|workReuters|access-dateAugust 22, 2019|languageen}}</ref> Karpov was among the Russian State Duma members placed under sanctions by the EU and UK during the Russo-Ukrainian War.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://chess-news.ru/node/28745|titleАнатолий Карпов попадает под санкции Европейского союза|websitechess-news.ru|dateFebruary 23, 2022|access-dateFebruary 23, 2022|archive-dateFebruary 24, 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220224133535/http://chess-news.ru/node/28745|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleCONSOLIDATED LIST OF FINANCIAL SANCTIONS TARGETS IN THE UK |urlhttps://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1150217/Russia.pdf |access-date16 April 2023}}</ref> In March 2022, after the start of the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the FIDE Council suspended Karpov's title of FIDE Ambassador for Life.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Official Statement of FIDE Council |urlhttps://www.fide.com/news/1603 |access-dateMarch 3, 2022 |websitewww.fide.com |languageen}}</ref>
In November 2022, Karpov was placed in an induced coma after receiving a head injury.<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-10-31 |titleBreaking News: Anatoly Karpov in hospital with fractured skull |urlhttps://en.chessbase.com/post/breaking-news-anatoly-karpov-in-hospital-after-incident |access-date2022-11-02 |websiteChess News |languageen}}</ref> Karpov's daughter Sofia and the Russian Chess Federation said that he had accidentally fallen.<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-10-31 |titleConflicting claims as Anatoly Karpov enters induced coma: Assault or a domestic accident? |urlhttps://www.marca.com/en/more-sports/2022/10/31/635ff87c268e3e2a678b4570.html |access-date2022-11-02 |websiteMARCA |languageen}}</ref> Karpov made a full recovery from the injury.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://en.chessbase.com/post/karpov-is-back-home | titleKarpov is back home | dateNovember 18, 2022 }}</ref>Candidate for FIDE presidencyIn March 2010, Karpov announced that he would be a candidate for the presidency of FIDE. The election took place in September 2010 at the 39th Chess Olympiad.<ref>{{Cite web |firstPeter |lastDoggers |urlhttp://www.chessvibes.com/reports/karpov-candidate-for-fide-president/#more-22636 |dateMarch 2, 2010 |titleKarpov candidate for FIDE President |access-dateMarch 2, 2010 |publisherChess Vibes |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100305224226/http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/karpov-candidate-for-fide-president/#more-22636 |archive-dateMarch 5, 2010}}</ref> In May, a fundraising event took place in New York with the participation of Kasparov and Magnus Carlsen, who both supported his bid and campaigned for him.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid6343|titleBig Karpov fund-raiser in New York|dateMay 18, 2010|publisherChessBase|access-dateMarch 26, 2018}}</ref> Nigel Short also supported Karpov's candidacy. On September 29, 2010, Kirsan Ilyumzhinov was reelected as president of FIDE, 95 votes to 55.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://reports.chessdom.com/news-2010/fide-elections-2010-ilyumzhinov-karpov |titleKirsan Ilyumzhinov wins 2010 FIDE elections |workChessdom.com |year2010 |access-dateOctober 11, 2010 |archive-dateOctober 2, 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101002103318/http://reports.chessdom.com/news-2010/fide-elections-2010-ilyumzhinov-karpov |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Style
Karpov's playing style, described as a "boa constrictor",<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1980/09/17/archives/chess-revengeful-karpov-presses-like-a-cool-boa-constrictor.html|titleChess:; Revengeful Karpov Presses Like a Cool Boa Constrictor Unsuspected Strength Shown|lastByrne|firstRobert|dateSeptember 17, 1980|workThe New York Times|access-dateFebruary 15, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://apnews.com/article/deec2a2e3dd5acb07764b0c37c19f3e2|titleKarpov A Master Of Willpower, Squeeze Play With AM-World Chess|lastGoodman|firstDavid|dateDecember 19, 1987|workAP News|access-dateFebruary 15, 2021}}</ref> is solidly positional, taking minimal risks but reacting mercilessly to the slightest error by his opponent. As a result, he is often compared to José Raúl Capablanca, the third world champion.<ref>{{cite magazine|titleKeres Annotates... Two Karpov Wins|magazineChess Life & Review|dateJanuary 1973|volumeXXVIII|number1|page8|quoteHis general style of play is rather calm, centered on positional considerations and somehow recalling Capablanca's attitudes towards the game.}}</ref> Karpov himself describes his style as follows:<blockquote>Let us say the game may be continued in two ways: one of them is a beautiful tactical blow that gives rise to variations that don't yield to precise calculations; the other is clear positional pressure that leads to an endgame with microscopic chances of victory.... I would choose [the latter] without thinking twice. If the opponent offers keen play I don't object; but in such cases I get less satisfaction, even if I win, than from a game conducted according to all the rules of strategy with its ruthless logic.<ref>{{cite book |last1Hooper |first1David |author-link1David Vincent Hooper |last2Whyld |first2Kenneth |author-link2Ken Whyld |year1996 |titleThe Oxford Companion to Chess |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idedEZAQAAIAAJ&q%22would+choose+the+latter+without+thinking+twice%22+%22of+victory%22 |locationOxford |publisherOxford University Press |page192 |isbn0192800493 |access-date26 September 2016 }}</ref></blockquote>Notable games{{AN chess|possecright}}
*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1067748 Viktor Korchnoi vs. Anatoly Karpov, Moscow 1973] Karpov sacrifices a pawn for a strong center and {{chessgloss|queenside}} attack.
*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid1068373 Anatoly Karpov vs. Gyula Sax, Linares 1983] Karpov sacrifices for an attack that wins the game 20 moves later, after another spectacular sacrifice from Karpov and counter-sacrifice from Sax. It won the tournament's first {{chessgloss|brilliancy prize}}. This was not the first time Karpov used the sharp Keres Attack (6.g4) – see his win in [http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid1057525 Anatoly Karpov vs. Vlastimil Hort, Alekhine Memorial Tournament, Moscow 1971].
*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid1038842 Anatoly Karpov vs. Veselin Topalov, Dos Hermanas 1994] This game features a sham sacrifice of two pieces, which Karpov regains with a {{chessgloss|forcing move|forcing}} variation, culminating in the win of an exchange with a technically won endgame.HobbiesKarpov's extensive stamp collection of Belgian philately and Belgian Congo stamps and postal history covering mail from 1742 through 1980 was sold by David Feldman's auction company between December 2011<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.davidfeldman.com/buying/auctions/upcoming-auctions/autumn-sales-series-geneva-december-6-10-2011/belgium-collection/ |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130102115140/http://www.davidfeldman.com/buying/auctions/upcoming-auctions/autumn-sales-series-geneva-december-6-10-2011/belgium-collection/ |url-statusdead |archive-dateJanuary 2, 2013 |titleBelgium collection formed by Anatoly Karpov |publisherDavid Feldman |year2011 |access-dateOctober 12, 2011 }}</ref> and 2012. He is also known to have large chess stamp and chess book collections. His private chess library consists of 9,000 books.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.watch-clone.com/articles/c4.html |titleAnatoly Karpov: The Owner of the Unique Stamp Collection |publisherWatch-Clone.com |access-dateMarch 28, 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110218055011/http://www.watch-clone.com/articles/c4.html |archive-dateFebruary 18, 2011 }}</ref>
Karpov is also an enthusiastic Backgammon player.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1979/12/23/archives/backgammon-eschew-the-obvious-to-force-miss-muffet-off-that-tuffet.html | titleBackgammon | workThe New York Times | dateDecember 23, 1979 | last1Magriel | first1Paul }}</ref>
Honours and awards
* Order of Merit for the Fatherland, 3rd class (2001) – for outstanding contribution to the implementation of charitable programmes, the strengthening of peace and friendship between the peoples
* Order of Friendship (2011) – for his great contribution to strengthening peace and friendship between peoples and productive social activities
* Order of Lenin (1981)
* Order of the Red Banner of Labour (1978)
* Order of Merit, 2nd class (Ukraine) (November 13, 2006) – for his contribution to the victims of the Chernobyl disaster
* Order of Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow, 2nd class (1996)
* Order of St. Sergius of Radonezh, 2nd class (2001)
* Medal "For outstanding contribution to the Collector business in Russia"
* Honorary member of the Soviet Philately Society (1979)
* Diploma of the State Duma of the Russian Federation No. 1
* Order "For outstanding achievements in sport" (Republic of Cuba)
* Medal of Tsiolkovsky Cosmonautics Federation of Russia
* Medal "For Strengthening the penal system", 1st and 2nd class
* Breastplate of the 1st degree of the Interior Ministry
* International Association of Chess Press, 9 times voted the best chess player of the year and awarded the "Chess Oscar"
* Order of Saint Nestor the Chronicler, 1st class
* Asteroid 90414 Karpov is named after Karpov<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://tournaments.chessdom.com/kasparov-karpov-valencia-2009-day-3|titleKasparov – Karpov Valencia 2009, day 3 LIVE! - Chessdom|websitetournaments.chessdom.com|access-dateMarch 26, 2018}}</ref>
* Anatoly Karpov International Chess Tournament, an annual round-robin tournament held in his honour in Poikovsky, Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug, Russia since 2000<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://poikovsky.dem.ru/background.htm|titleBackground of the tournament|website3rd Karpov International Chess Tournament|access-dateAugust 28, 2015|archive-dateMay 17, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210517090153/http://poikovsky.dem.ru/background.htm|url-statusdead}}</ref>Books
Karpov has authored or co-authored several books, most of which have been translated into English.
* Karpov, A.E. Ninth vertical. 1978. Moscow: Molodaya Gvardia.
*{{cite book
| last1=Karpov
| first1=Anatoly
| last2=Roshal
| first2=Alexander
| author-link2= Alexander Roshal
| title=Chess Is My Life
| publisher=Pergamon Press
| year=1979
| isbn=0-0802-3119-5}}
*{{cite book
| last=Karpov
| first=Anatoly
| title=The Open Game in Action
| publisher=Batsford
| year=1988
| isbn=978-0713460964}}
*{{cite book
| last=Karpov
| first=Anatoly
| title=The Semi-Open Game in Action
| publisher=Collier
| year=1988
| isbn=978-0020218012}}
*{{cite book
| last=Karpov
| first=Anatoly
| title=The Closed Openings in Action
| publisher=Collier/MacMillan
| year=1990
| isbn=978-0020339854}}
*{{cite book
| last=Karpov
| first=Anatoly
| title=The Semi-Closed Openings in Action
| publisher=Collier/MacMillan
| year=1990
| isbn=978-0020218050}}
*{{cite book
| last=Karpov
| first=Anatoly
| year=1990
| title=Karpov on Karpov: Memoirs of a chess world champion
| publisher=Liberty Publishing
| isbn= 0-689-12060-5}} (also a 1992 Simon & Schuster edition)
*{{cite book
| last=Karpov
| first=Anatoly
| year=1992
| title=Beating the Grünfeld
| publisher=Batsford
| isbn= 978-0-7134-6468-9}}
*{{cite book
| last=Karpov
| first=Anatoly
| title=Caro-Kann Defence: Advance Variation and Gambit System
| publisher=Batsford
| year=2006
| isbn=0-7134-9010-1}}
*{{cite book
| last=Karpov
| first=Anatoly
| title=My Best Games
| publisher=Edition Olms
| year=2007
| isbn=978-3-2830-1002-7}}
*{{cite book
| last1=Karpov
| first1=Anatoly
| last2=Henley
| first2=Ron
| author-link2= Ron Henley (chess player)
| title=Elista Diaries: Karpov–Kamsky, Karpov–Anand, Anand Mexico City 2007 World Chess Championship Matches
| publisher=Batsford
| year=2007
| isbn=978-0-923891-97-8}}
*{{cite book
| last=Karpov
| first=Anatoly
| title=How To Play The English Opening
| publisher=Batsford
| year=2007
| isbn978-0-7134-9065-7}}References{{Reflist}}Further reading
* Fine, Rueben (1983). ''The World's Great Chess Games. Dover. {{ISBN|0-486-24512-8}}.
* Hurst, Sarah (2002). Curse of Kirsan: Adventures in the Chess Underworld''. Russell Enterprises. {{ISBN|978-1-88869-0-156}}.
* {{Cite book
|last1Károlyi|first1Tibor|author-link=Tibor Károlyi (chess player)
|last2Aplin|first2Nick|author-link2=Nick Aplin
|title=Endgame Virtuoso Anatoly Karpov
|year=2007
|publisher=New in Chess
|isbn=978-90-5691-202-4}}
*{{cite book
|last=Karolyi
|first= Tibor
|title=Karpov's Strategic Wins 1: The Making of a Champion 1961–1985
|year=2011
|publisher=Quality Chess
|isbn=978-1-906552-41-1}}
*{{cite book
|last=Karolyi
|first= Tibor
|title=Karpov's Strategic Wins 2: The Prime Years 1986–2009
|year=2011
|publisher=Quality Chess
|isbn=978-1-906552-42-8}}
* Karpov, Anatoly (2003). ''Anatoly Karpov's Best Games. Batsford. {{ISBN|0-7134-7843-8}}.
*{{Cite book
|lastKasparov|firstGarry|author-link=Garry Kasparov
|year=2006
|title=My Great Predecessors, part V
|publisher = Everyman Chess
|isbn=1-85744-404-3
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Markland
|first=Peter
|author-link=Peter Markland
|title=The Best of Karpov
|year=1975
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-217534-2}}
* Winter, Edward G., editor (1981).World Chess Champions''. Pergamon Press. {{ISBN|0-08-024094-1}}.
External links
{{Sister project links|auto=1}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060629052152/http://www.karpov.on.ru/ Karpov's official homepage] {{in lang|ru}}
* {{365Chess.com player|Anatoly_Karpov}}
* {{Chessgames player|20719}}
* {{OlimpBase player|r93brrbf}}
* Edward Winter, [http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/korchnoikarpov.html "Books about Korchnoi and Karpov"], Chess Notes
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160303224921/http://www.onlinechesslessons.net/2012/06/19/anatoly-karpov-interview/ 25 minute video interview with Karpov], OnlineChessLessons.NET, June 19, 2012
* "Anatoly Karpov tells all" (2015 interview by Sport Express, translated by ChessBase): [http://en.chessbase.com/post/anatoly-karpov-tells-all-1-4 part 1], [http://en.chessbase.com/post/anatoly-karpov-tells-all-2-4 part 2], [http://en.chessbase.com/post/anatoly-karpov-tells-all-3-4 part 3], [http://en.chessbase.com/post/anatoly-karpov-tells-all-4-4 part 4]
{{S-start}}
{{S-ach|aw}}
{{s-bef|before= Bobby Fischer}}
{{s-ttl|titleWorld Chess Champion|years 1975–1985}}
{{s-aft|after= Garry Kasparov}}
{{s-bef|before= Garry Kasparov}}
{{s-ttl|titleFIDE World Chess Champion|years 1993–1999}}
{{s-aft|after= Alexander Khalifman}}
{{S-ach|ach}}
{{s-bef|before = Bobby Fischer<br />Garry Kasparov}}
{{s-ttl|title World No. 1|years January 1, 1976 – December 31, 1983<br />July 1, 1985 – December 31, 1985}}
{{s-aft|after = Garry Kasparov<br />Garry Kasparov}}
{{S-end}}
{{World Chess Championships}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Karpov, Anatoly}}
Category:1951 births
Category:Living people
Category:People from Zlatoust
Category:United Russia politicians
Category:Communist Party of the Soviet Union members
Category:Members of the Congress of People's Deputies of the Soviet Union
Category:Sixth convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)
Category:Seventh convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)
Category:Eighth convocation members of the State Duma (Russian Federation)
Category:Members of the Civic Chamber of the Russian Federation
Category:Soviet chess players
Category:Soviet chess writers
Category:Soviet journalists
Category:Soviet male writers
Category:Russian chess players
Category:Russian chess writers
Category:Russian male journalists
Category:Russian philatelists
Category:20th-century Russian male writers
Category:21st-century Russian male writers
Category:Russian sportsperson-politicians
Category:Russian book and manuscript collectors
Category:Chess Olympiad competitors
Category:Chess Grandmasters
Category:World chess champions
Category:World Junior Chess Champions
Category:Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Category:Honorary members of the Russian Academy of Arts
Category:Russian individuals subject to United Kingdom sanctions
Category:Honoured Masters of Sport of the USSR
Category:UNICEF Goodwill Ambassadors
Category:Recipients of the Order of Lenin
Category:Recipients of the Order of the Red Banner of Labour
Category:Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 2nd class
Category:Recipients of the Order "For Merit to the Fatherland", 3rd class
Category:Recipients of the Order of Holy Prince Daniel of Moscow
Category:Recipients of the Olympic Order
Category:Recipients of the Order of Merit (Ukraine), 2nd class
Category:Recipients of the Order of Merit (Ukraine), 3rd class
Category:Recipients of the Order of May | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoly_Karpov | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.598016 |
1021 | Aspect ratio | The aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions. For example, the aspect ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter side—the ratio of width to height, when the rectangle is oriented as a "landscape".
The aspect ratio is most often expressed as two integer numbers separated by a colon (x:y), less commonly as a simple or decimal fraction. The values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but, rather, the proportion between width and height. As an example, 8:5, 16:10, 1.6:1, and 1.6 are all ways of representing the same aspect ratio.
In objects of more than two dimensions, such as hyperrectangles, the aspect ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side.
Applications and uses
The term is most commonly used with reference to:
Graphic / image
Image aspect ratio
Display aspect ratio
Paper size
Standard photographic print sizes
Motion picture film formats
Standard ad size
Pixel aspect ratio
Photolithography: the aspect ratio of an etched, or deposited structure is the ratio of the height of its vertical side wall to its width.
HARMST High Aspect Ratios allow the construction of tall microstructures without slant
Tire code
Tire sizing
Turbocharger impeller sizing
Wing aspect ratio of an aircraft or bird
Astigmatism of an optical lens
Nanorod dimensions
Shape factor (image analysis and microscopy)
Finite Element Analysis
Flag design; see List of aspect ratios of national flags
Aspect ratios of simple shapes
Rectangles
For a rectangle, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the width to the height of the rectangle. A square has the smallest possible aspect ratio of 1:1.
Examples:
4:3 = 1.: Some (not all) 20th century computer monitors (VGA, XGA, etc.), standard-definition television
\sqrt{2}:1 = 1.414...: international paper sizes (ISO 216)
3:2 = 1.5: 35mm still camera film, iPhone (until iPhone 5) displays
16:10 = 1.6: commonly used widescreen computer displays (WXGA)
Φ:1 = 1.618...: golden ratio, close to 16:10
5:3 = 1.: super 16 mm, a standard film gauge in many European countries
16:9 = 1.: widescreen TV and most laptops
2:1 = 2: dominoes
64:27 = 2.: ultra-widescreen, 21:9
32:9 = 3.: super ultra-widescreen
Ellipses
For an ellipse, the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis. An ellipse with an aspect ratio of 1:1 is a circle.
center|500px
Aspect ratios of general shapes
In geometry, there are several alternative definitions to aspect ratios of general compact sets in a d-dimensional space:
The diameter-width aspect ratio (DWAR) of a compact set is the ratio of its diameter to its width. A circle has the minimal DWAR which is 1. A square has a DWAR of \sqrt{2}.
The cube-volume aspect ratio (CVAR) of a compact set is the d-th root of the ratio of the d-volume of the smallest enclosing axes-parallel d-cube, to the set's own d-volume. A square has the minimal CVAR which is 1. A circle has a CVAR of \sqrt{2}. An axis-parallel rectangle of width W and height H, where W>H, has a CVAR of \sqrt{W^2/WH} = \sqrt{W/H}.
If the dimension d is fixed, then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors.
Notations
Aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as x:y (pronounced "x-to-y").
Cinematographic aspect ratios are usually denoted as a (rounded) decimal multiple of width vs unit height, while photographic and videographic aspect ratios are usually defined and denoted by whole number ratios of width to height. In digital images there is a subtle distinction between the display aspect ratio (the image as displayed) and the storage aspect ratio (the ratio of pixel dimensions); see Distinctions.
See also
Axial ratio
Ratio
Equidimensional ratios in 3D
List of film formats
Squeeze mapping
Scale (ratio)
Vertical orientation
References
Category:Ratios | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect_ratio | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.605254 |
1022 | Auto racing | {{short description|Motorsport involving the racing of cars for competition}}
{{About|the motorsport|the video game|Auto Racing (video game)}}
{{Redirect-multi|3|Auto race|Racing cars|Race driver|other uses|Auto race (disambiguation)|the Welsh pop band|Racing Cars|the racing simulation video game series|TOCA Race Driver}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{Infobox sport
| image = Texas Grand Prix 2023 turn 1 action1.jpg
| imagesize | caption Many stock cars entering the first turn during the 2023 EchoPark Automotive Grand Prix
| union = FIA
| nickname | first August 30, 1867
| firstlabel = First contested
| registered | clubs
| contact | team
| mgender = Yes
| category = Outdoor and indoor
| ball | olympic 1900 Summer Olympics (demonstration only)
}}
Auto racing (also known as car racing, motor racing,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/motor-racing |titlemotor racing (noun) definition and synonyms Macmillan Dictionary |websitemacmillandictionary.com |access-date2019-09-02}}</ref> or automobile racing) is a motorsport involving the racing of automobiles for competition. In North America, the term is commonly used to describe all forms of automobile sport including non-racing disciplines.
Auto racing has existed since the invention of the automobile. Races of various types were organized, with the first recorded as early as 1867. Many of the earliest events were effectively reliability trials, aimed at proving these new machines were a practical mode of transport, but soon became an important way for automobile makers to demonstrate their machines. By the 1930s, specialist racing cars had developed.
There are now numerous different categories, each with different rules and regulations.
History
{{Main|History of auto racing}}
classified first in his Peugeot Type 5 3hp in the Paris–Rouen.<!-- Note discrepancy that text below states that Peugeot (the car manufacturer) was the winner. -->]]
in Paris-Madrid 1903]]
track in 2007]]
The first prearranged match race of two self-powered road vehicles over a prescribed route occurred at 4:30 A.M. on August 30, 1867, between Ashton-under-Lyne and Old Trafford, England, a distance of {{Convert|8|mi|km|abbron|spus}}. It was won by the carriage of Isaac Watt Boulton.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.gracesguide.co.uk/Isaac_Watt_Boulton|titleIsaac Watt Boulton |websitegracesguide.co.uk |access-date2016-07-27}}</ref>
Internal combustion auto racing events began soon after the construction of the first successful gasoline-fueled automobiles. The first organized contest was on April 28, 1887, by the chief editor of Paris publication {{Lang|fr|Le Vélocipède}}, Monsieur Fossier.<ref name="8W"/> It ran {{convert|2|km}} from Neuilly Bridge to the Bois de Boulogne.
On July 22,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k613226v |titleLe Petit journal |page1 |dateJuly 23, 1894 |websiteGallica |languagefr |access-date2019-09-02}}</ref> 1894, the Parisian magazine {{Lang|fr|Le Petit Journal}} organized what is considered to be the world's first motoring competition, from Paris to Rouen. One hundred and two competitors paid a 10-franc entrance fee.<ref name"8W"/>
The first American automobile race is generally considered to be the Thanksgiving Day Chicago Times-Herald race of November 28, 1895.<ref name"berger" /> Press coverage of the event first aroused significant American interest in the automobile.<ref name "berger">{{cite book|firstMichael L. |lastBerger |titleThe automobile in American history and culture: a reference guide |url https://books.google.com/books?idoRwMv8iNP-MC&pgPA278 |year2001 |publisherGreenwood Publishing Group |isbn978-0-313-24558-9| page278 }}</ref>
The Targa Florio was an open road endurance automobile race held in the mountains of Sicily, Italy near the island's capital of Palermo. Founded in 1906, it was the oldest sports car racing event, part of the World Sportscar Championship between 1955 and 1973, and it was discontinued in 1977.
The oldest surviving sports car racing event is the 24 Hours of Le Mans, begun in 1923. It is run by the Automobile Club of the West (ACO). Team Ferrari won the race in 2023.
With auto construction and racing dominated by France, the French automobile club ACF staged a number of major international races, usually from or to Paris, connecting with another major city, in France or elsewhere in Europe.
Aspendale Racecourse, in Australia, was the world's first purpose-built motor racing circuit, opening in January 1906. The pear-shaped track was close to a mile in length, with slightly banked curves and a gravel surface of crushed cement.
Brooklands, in Surrey, England, was the first purpose-built 'banked' motor racing venue, opening in June 1907.<ref>{{cite magazine |magazineAutocar |volume127 |issue3731 |lastSammy |firstDavis |author-linkS. C. H. "Sammy" Davis |titleHow Brooklands started |page43 |dateAugust 17, 1967}}</ref> It featured a {{convert|4.43|km|2|abbron}} concrete track with high-speed banked corners.
One of the oldest existing purpose-built and still in use automobile race course in the United States is the {{convert|2.5|mi|km|adjmid|-long}} Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana. It is the largest capacity sports venue of any variety worldwide, with a top capacity of some 257,000+ seated spectators.<ref>{{cite web |url http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_menu/stadium_list/100000.shtml |titleStadium List: 100 000+ Stadiums |websiteworldstadiums.com|access-date2013-09-02 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20061023205044/http://www.worldstadiums.com/stadium_menu/stadium_list/100000.shtml |archive-dateOctober 23, 2006 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
NASCAR was founded by Bill France Sr. on February 21, 1948, with the help of several other drivers. The first NASCAR "Strictly Stock" race ever was held on June 19, 1949, at Daytona Beach, Florida, U.S..
From 1962, sports cars temporarily took a back seat to GT cars, with the {{Lang|fr|Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile|italicno}} (FIA) replacing the World Championship for Sports Cars with the International Championship for GT Manufacturers.<ref>{{cite book |last1Jenkinson |first1Dennis |titleThe Automobile Year Book of Sports Car Racing |date1983 |publisherMotorbooks International |isbn=9782880011291}}</ref>
From 1962 through 2003, NASCAR's premier series was called the Winston Cup Series, sponsored by R. J. Reynolds Tobacco Company cigarette brand Winston. The changes that resulted from RJR's involvement, as well as the reduction of the schedule from 56 to 34 races a year, established 1972 as the beginning of NASCAR's "modern era".
The IMSA GT Series evolved into the American Le Mans Series, which ran its first season in 1998.<ref>{{cite news|lastPerez|firstA.J.|titleLe Mans series showcases prototype race cars|url http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/sports/motor/2007-08-29-lemans-motor_N.htm |access-dateAugust 20, 2008 |workUSA Today |publisherGannett Company |dateAugust 30, 2007}}</ref> The European races eventually became the closely related European Le Mans Series, both of which mix prototypes and GTs.
{{Lang|es|Turismo Carretera|italic=no}} (TC) is a popular touring car racing series in Argentina, and one of the oldest car racing series still active in the world. The first TC competition took place in 1931 with 12 races, each in a different province. Future Formula One star Juan Manuel Fangio (Chevrolet) won the 1940 and 1941 editions of the TC. It was during this time that the series' Chevrolet-Ford rivalry began, with Ford acquiring most of its historical victories.
Over the last few years, auto racing has seen a transformative shift, echoing past pivots.{{citation needed|dateJuly 2023}} The industry, much like the cars it champions, has had to navigate through a global pandemic and a persistent chip shortage, each threatening to derail production schedules.{{citation needed|dateJuly 2023}} At the same time, a new course is being charted towards an electric future, a dramatic change in direction that is challenging the old guard of gasoline engines. There is also a growing number of events for electric racing cars, such as the Formula E, the Eco Grand Prix or the Electric GT Championship.<ref>{{Cite web |lastSheikh |firstShahzad |date2024-05-25 |titleElectric motorsports: racing towards the future |urlhttps://evlife.world/en/ae/tech/electric-motorsports-racing-towards-the-future/ |access-date2024-10-28 |websiteEVLife |languageen-US}}</ref>{{citation needed|dateJuly 2023}}CategoriesOpen-wheel racing
{{Main|Formula racing|Open-wheel car}}
driving the Ferrari 150º Italia at Sepang International Circuit]]
IndyCar driven by Pippa Mann during practice for the 2019 Indianapolis 500]]
car racing at the Hockenheimring, 2008]]
electric race-car of the Delft University of Technology]]
In single-seater (open-wheel) racing, the wheels are not covered, and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track. The most popular varieties of open-wheel road racing are Formula One, IndyCar Series and Super Formula. In Europe and Asia, open-wheeled racing is commonly referred to as 'Formula', with appropriate hierarchical suffixes. In North America, the 'Formula' terminology is not followed (with the exception of Formula One). The sport is usually arranged to follow an international format (such as Formula One), a regional format (such as the Formula 3 Euro Series), and/or a domestic, or country-specific, format (such as the German Formula 3 championship, or the British Formula Ford).
Formula One is a worldwide series that runs only street circuit and race tracks. These cars are heavily based on technology and their aerodynamics. The speed record was set in 2005 by Juan Pablo Montoya hitting 373&nbsp;km/h (232&nbsp;mph).<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.redbull.com/au-en/fastest-f1-records|titleBlink and you'll miss these F1 records|workRed Bull|access-date2018-08-08|language=en}}</ref> Some of the most prominent races are the Monaco Grand Prix, the Italian Grand Prix, and the British Grand Prix. The season ends with the crowning of the World Championship for drivers and constructors.
In the United States, the most popular series is the IndyCar Series. The cars have traditionally been similar to, though less technologically sophisticated than, F1 cars, with more restrictions on technology aimed at controlling costs. While these cars are not as technologically advanced, they are faster, in part due to their lower downforce compared to Formula One cars, and also because they compete on oval race tracks, being able to average a lap at 388&nbsp;km/h (241&nbsp;mph). The series' biggest race is the Indianapolis 500, which is commonly referred to as "The Greatest Spectacle in Racing" due to being the longest continuously run race in the series and having the largest crowd for a single-day sporting event (350,000+).
The other major international single-seater racing series is Formula 2 (formerly known as Formula 3000 and GP2 Series). Regional series include Super Formula and Formula V6 Asia (specifically in Asia), Formula Renault 3.5 (also known as the World Series by Renault, succession series of World Series by Nissan), Formula Three, Formula Palmer Audi and Formula Atlantic. In 2009, the FIA Formula Two Championship brought about the revival of the F2 series. Domestic, or country-specific, series include Formula Three and Formula Renault, with the leading introductory series being Formula Ford.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFormula Ford |urlhttps://www.formulaford.org.au/about}}</ref>
Single-seater racing is not limited merely to professional teams and drivers. There exist many amateur racing clubs. In the UK, the major club series are the Monoposto Racing Club, BRSCC F3 (formerly ClubF3, formerly ARP F3), Formula Vee and Club Formula Ford. Each series caters to a section of the market, with some primarily providing low-cost racing, while others aim for an authentic experience using the same regulations as the professional series (BRSCC F3). The SCCA is also responsible for sanctioning single-seater racing in much of North America.
There are other categories of single-seater racing, including kart racing, which employs a small, low-cost machine on small tracks. Many of the current top drivers began their careers in karts. Formula Ford represents the most popular first open-wheel category for up-and-coming drivers stepping up from karts. The series is still the preferred option, as it has introduced an aero package and slicks, allowing the junior drivers to gain experience in a race car with dynamics closer to Formula One. The Star Mazda Series is another entry-level series. Indy Lights represent the last step on the Road to Indy, being less powerful and lighter than an IndyCar racer.
Students at colleges and universities can also take part in single-seater racing through the Formula SAE competition, which involves designing and building a single-seater car in a multidisciplinary team and racing it at the competition. This also develops other soft skills, such as teamwork, while promoting motorsport and engineering.
The world's first all-female Formula racing team was created in 2006. The group was an assemblage of drivers from different racing disciplines and formed for an MTV reality pilot, which was shot at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca.
In December 2005, the FIA gave approval to Superleague Formula racing, which debuted in 2008, whereby the racing teams are owned and run by prominent sports clubs such as A.C. Milan and Liverpool F.C.
After 25 years away from the sport, former Formula 2 champion Jonathan Palmer reopened the F2 category again; most drivers have graduated from the Formula Palmer Audi series. The category is officially registered as the FIA Formula Two championship. Most rounds have two races and are support races to the FIA World Touring Car Championship.
Touring car racing
{{Main|Touring car racing}}
Race of Japan]]
Touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with production-derived four-seat race cars. The lesser use of aerodynamics means following cars have a much easier time following and passing than in open-wheel racing. It often features full-contact racing with subtle bumping and nudging due to the small speed differentials and large grids.
The major touring car championships conducted worldwide are the Supercars Championship (Australia), British Touring Car Championship, Deutsche Tourenwagen Masters (DTM), World Touring Car Championship and the World Touring Car Cup. The European Touring Car Cup is a one-day event open to Super 2000 specification touring cars from Europe's many national championships. While Super GT traces its lineage to the now-defunct JGTC, the cars are much more similar to GT3 race cars than proper touring cars, and also have much more aggressive aerodynamics.
The Sports Car Club of America's SPEED World Challenge Touring Car and GT championships are dominant in North America. America's historic Trans-Am Series is undergoing a period of transition, but is still the longest-running road racing series in the U.S. The National Auto Sport Association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in home-built factory-derived vehicles on various local circuits.
Sports car racing
{{Main|Sports car racing}}
at Silverstone in 2011]]
, a Le Mans Prototype car, during an endurance race]]
In sports car racing, production-derived versions of two-seat sports cars, also known as grand tourers (GTs), and purpose-built sports prototype cars compete within their respective classes on closed circuits. The premier championship series of sports car racing is the FIA World Endurance Championship. The main series for GT car racing is the GT World Challenge Europe, divided into two separate championships: the GT World Challenge Europe Sprint Cup and the GT World Challenge Europe Endurance Cup. This series has formed after the folding of the various FIA GT championships.
The prevailing classes of GT cars are GT3, GT4 and GT2 class cars. GT2 cars have powerful engines, often exceeding 600 horsepower. However, they have less downforce than GT3 cars and also have less driver aids. GT3 cars are far and away the most popular class of GT cars, with premier racing series such as the FIA World Endurance Championship and IMSA both using GT3 as their top class of GT car. GT3 cars have more significant aero than a GT2 car, but also have less horsepower, typically falling in between 500 and 550 horsepower. GT4 class cars have very little aerodynamics and less horsepower than GT3 machinery, typically around 450 horsepower. GT4 typically serves as the last step up to premier GT-class racing.
Other major GT championships include the GT World Challenge America, GT World Challenge Asia, Super GT, and the International GT Open. There are minor regional and national GT series using mainly GT4 and GT3 cars featuring both amateur and professional drivers.
Sports prototypes, unlike GT cars, do not rely on road-legal cars as a base. They are closed-wheel and often closed-cockpit purpose-built race cars intended mainly for endurance racing. They have much lower weight, more horsepower and more downforce compared to GT cars, making them much faster. They are raced in the 24 hours of Le Mans (held annually since 1923) and in the (European) Le Mans series, Asian Le Mans Series and the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship. These cars are referred to as LMP (Le Mans prototype) cars with LMH and LMDh cars being run mainly by manufacturers and the slightly less powerful LMP2 cars run by privateer teams. All three Le Mans Series run GT cars in addition to Le Mans Prototypes; these cars have different restrictions than the FIA GT cars.
Another prototype and GT racing championship exists in the United States; the Grand-Am, which began in 2000, sanctions its own endurance series, the Rolex Sports Car Series, which consists of slower and lower-cost Daytona Prototype race cars compared to LMP and FIA GT cars. The Rolex Sports Car Series and American Le Mans Series announced a merger between the two series forming the WeatherTech SportsCar Championship starting in 2014.
These races are often conducted over long distances, at least {{convert|1000|km|0|abbr=on}}, and cars are driven by teams of two or more drivers, switching every few hours. Due to the performance difference between production-based sports cars and purpose-built sports prototypes, one race usually involves several racing classes, each fighting for its own championship.
Famous sports car races include the 24 Hours of Le Mans, the Rolex 24 at Daytona, 24 Hours of Spa-Franchorchamps, the 12 Hours of Sebring, the 6 Hours of Watkins Glen, and the {{convert|1000|mi|km|adjon}} Petit Le Mans at Road Atlanta. There is also the 24 Hours of the Nürburgring on the famed Nordschleife track and the Dubai 24 Hour, which is aimed at GT3 and below cars with a mixture of professional and pro-am drivers.Production-car racing
{{Main|Production car racing}}
Production-car racing, otherwise known as "showroom stock" in the US, is an economical and rules-restricted version of touring-car racing, mainly used to restrict costs. Numerous production racing categories are based on particular makes of cars.
Most series, with a few exceptions, follow the Group N regulation. There are several different series that are run all over the world, most notably, Japan's Super Taikyu and IMSA's Firehawk Series, which ran in the 1980s and 1990s all over the United States.
Stock car racing
{{Main|Stock car racing}}
for the 2015 Daytona 500]]
leads the field racing three-wide multiple rows back at Daytona International Speedway in the 2015 Daytona 500.]]
stock car on an asphalt track]]
In North America, stock car racing is the most popular form of auto racing.<ref>{{cite news|lastFryer |firstJenna |titleAddition of IndyCar champ Hornish will give Penske third Cup team|url https://www.espn.com/racing/news/story?id3099978&seriesId2 |access-dateFebruary 8, 2009|workESPN News Services |agencyAssociated Press |publisherESPN Internet Ventures|dateNovember 8, 2007|locationCharlotte, North Carolina}}</ref> Primarily raced on oval tracks, stock cars vaguely resemble production cars, but are in fact purpose-built racing machines that are built to tight specifications and, together with touring cars, also called Silhouette racing cars.
The largest stock car racing governing body is NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing). NASCAR's premier series is the NASCAR Cup Series, its most famous races being the Daytona 500, the Southern 500, the Coca-Cola 600, and the Brickyard 400. NASCAR also runs several feeder series, including the Xfinity Series and Craftsman Truck Series (a pickup truck racing series). The series conduct races across the entire continental United States. NASCAR also sanctions series outside of the United States, including the NASCAR Canada Series, NASCAR Mexico Series, NASCAR Whelen Euro Series, and NASCAR Brasil Sprint Race.
NASCAR also governs several smaller regional series, such as the Whelen Modified Tour. Modified cars are best described as open-wheel cars. Modified cars have no parts related to the stock vehicle for which they are named after. A number of modified cars display a "manufacturer's" logo and "vehicle name", yet use components produced by another automobile manufacturer.
There are also other stock car governing bodies, most notably the Automobile Racing Club of America (ARCA).
In the UK, British Stock car racing is also referred to as "Short Circuit Racing". UK Stock car racing started in the 1950s and grew rapidly through the 1960s and 1970s. Events take place on shale or tarmac tracks&nbsp;– usually around 1/4&nbsp;mile long. There are around 35 tracks in the UK and upwards of 7000 active drivers. The sport is split into three basic divisions&nbsp;– distinguished by the rules regarding car contact during racing. The most famous championship are the BriSCA F1 Stock Cars.
Full-contact formulas include Bangers, Bombers, and Rookie Bangers&nbsp;– and racing features Demolition Derbies, Figure of Eight, and Oval Racing.
Semi Contact Formulas include BriSCA F1, F2, and Superstox&nbsp;– where bumpers are used tactically.
Non-contact formulas include National Hot Rods, Stock Rods, and Lightning Rods.
One-make racing
{{See also|One-Design|Spec racing}}
One-make, or single marque, championships often employ production-based cars from a single manufacturer or even a single model from a manufacturer's range. There are numerous notable one-make formulae from various countries and regions, some of which&nbsp;– such as the Porsche Supercup and, previously, IROC&nbsp;– have fostered many distinct national championships. Single marque series are often found at the club level, to which the production-based cars, limited modifications, and close parity in performance are very well suited. Some of the better-known single-make series are the Mini 7 Championship (Europe's longest-running one-make championship), the Radical European Masters, John Cooper Mini Challenge, Clio Cup, Ginettas, Caterhams, BMWs, and MX5s. There are also single-chassis single seater formulae, such as Formula Renault and Formula BMW, usually as "feeder" series for "senior" race formula (in the fashion of farm teams).
Drag racing
{{Main|Drag racing}}
in Tarlton, Gauteng, South Africa]]
launching at a dragstrip]]
In drag racing, the objective is to complete a given straight-line distance, from a standing start, ahead of a vehicle in a parallel lane. This distance is traditionally {{convert|1/4|mi|m}}, though {{convert|1000|ft|m}} and {{convert|1/8|mi|m}} are also common. The vehicles may or may not be given the signal to start at the same time, depending on the class of racing. Vehicles range from the everyday car to the purpose-built dragster. Speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class. Average street cars cover the {{frac|4}} mile in 12 to 16&nbsp;seconds, whereas a top fuel dragster takes 4.5&nbsp;seconds or less, reaching speeds of up to {{convert|530|km/h|0|abbr=on}}. Drag racing was organized as a sport by Wally Parks in the early 1950s through the National Hot Rod Association (NHRA). The NHRA was formed to discourage street racing.
When launching, a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 3.4 g (33&nbsp;m/s<sup>2</sup>), and when braking parachutes are deployed the deceleration is 4&nbsp;g (39&nbsp;m/s<sup>2</sup>), more than the Space Shuttle experiences. A top fuel car can be heard over {{convert|8|mi|km}} away and can generate a reading from 1.5 to 3.9 on the Richter scale.<ref>{{cite web| urlhttp://topfuel.nhra.com/blog/nhra-notebook/2007/07/26/22660/ | titleHerbert's engine thunders to 3.9 on Richter scale | dateJuly 26, 2007 | workNHRA.com | access-dateAugust 11, 2010 }}{{dead link|dateMarch 2018 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
<!-- Need more details to verify this reference:<ref>NHRA Mile High Nationals 2001, and 2002 testing from the National Seismology Center.</ref> -->
Drag racing is two cars head-to-head, the winner proceeding to the next round. Professional classes are all first to the finish line wins. Sportsman racing is handicapped (slower car getting a head start) using an index (a lowest e.t. allowed), and cars running under (quicker than) their index "break out" and lose. The slowest cars, bracket racers, are also handicapped, but rather than an index, they use a dial-in.
Off-road racing
{{Main|Off-road racing}}
in a Hummer H3 during a Best in the Desert race]]
In off-road racing, various classes of specially modified vehicles, including cars, compete in races through off-road environments. In North America these races often take place in the desert, such as the famous Baja 1000. Another format for off-road racing happens on closed-course short course tracks such as Crandon International Off-Road Raceway. In the 1980s and 1990s, the short course was extended to racing inside stadiums in the Mickey Thompson Entertainment Group; this format was revived by Robby Gordon in 2013 with his Stadium Super Trucks series.
In Europe, "offroad" refers to events such as autocross or rallycross, while desert races and rally-raids such as the Paris-Dakar, Master Rallye or European "bajas" are called "cross-country rallies".
Kart racing
{{Main|Kart racing}}
The modern kart was invented by Art Ingels, a fabricator at the Indianapolis-car manufacturer Kurtis-Kraft, in Southern California in 1956. Ingels took a small chainsaw engine and mounted it to a simple tube-frame chassis weighing less than 100&nbsp;lb. Ingels, and everyone else who drove the kart, were startled at its performance capabilities. The sport soon blossomed in Southern California, and quickly spread around the world. Although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport, kart racing, or karting, can be an economical way for amateurs to try racing and is also a fully-fledged international sport in its own right. A large proportion of professional racing drivers began in karts, often from a very young age, such as Michael Schumacher and Fernando Alonso. Several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport, notably Wayne Rainey, who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a hand-controlled kart. As one of the cheapest ways to race, karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide.
Despite their diminutive size, karts of the most powerful class, superkart (assuming a weight of 205&nbsp;kg (452&nbsp;lb), and a power output of 100&nbsp;hp (75&nbsp;kW)), can have a power-to-weight ratio (including the driver) of 490&nbsp;hp/tonne (0.22&nbsp;hp/lb). Without the driver, this figure doubles, to almost 980&nbsp;hp/tonne (0.44&nbsp;hp/lb).
Historical racing
, Monterey, 2008]]
{{Main|Historic motorsport}}
Historic motorsport or vintage motorsport uses vehicles limited to a particular era. Only safety precautions are modernized in these hobbyist races. A historical event can be of various types of motorsport disciplines, from road racing to rallying. Because it is based on a particular era it is more hobbyist-oriented, reducing corporate sponsorship. The only modern equipment used is related to safety and timing. A historical event can be of a number of different motorsport disciplines.
Some of the most famous events include the Goodwood Festival of Speed and Goodwood Revival in Britain and Monterey Historic in the United States. Championships range from "grass root" Austin Seven racing to the FIA Thoroughbred Grand Prix Championship for classic Formula One chassis. While there are several professional teams and drivers in historical racing, this branch of auto sport tends to be contested by wealthy car owners and is thus more amateur and less competitive in its approach.
Other categories
{{see also|Category:Auto racing by type}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* Autocross
* Autograss
* Banger racing
* Board track racing
* Demolition derby
* Dirt speedway racing
* Dirt track racing
* Drifting (motorsport)
* Eco-Marathon
* Electric drag racing
* Folkrace
* High Performance Drivers Education
* Hillclimbing
* Ice racing
* Legends car racing
* Midget car racing
* Mini Sprint
* Monster truck
* Mud bogging
* Power Wheels Racing
* Pickup truck racing
* Rallycross
* Road racing
* Short track motor racing
* Slalom
* Solar car racing
* Sprint car racing
* Swamp Buggy racing
* Wheelstand Competition
}}
Scoring
{{unsourced section|date=December 2024}}
Each motor racing series has a points system, and a set of rules and regulations that define how points are accrued. Nearly all series award points according to the finishing position of the competitors in each race. Some series only award points for a certain number of finishing positions. In Formula One, for example, only the top ten finishers get points. Drivers may be forced to finish the race or complete a certain number of the laps in order to score points.
In some series, points are also awarded based on lap leading, lap times, overtaking and qualifying positions (in particular by achieving pole positions and fastest laps). In NASCAR, for example, besides receiving points depending on the final standings, one point is awarded for leading a lap and one point for leading the most laps in the race. In other series, such as for the National Hot Rod Association, points are awarded for attempting the race along with a podium finish in any of the four qualifying rounds, as an incentive to have drivers participate week after week to compete.
Use of flags
{{Main|Racing flags}}
In many types of auto races, particularly those held on closed courses, flags are displayed to indicate the general status of the track and to communicate instructions to competitors. While individual series have different rules, and the flags have changed from the first years (e.g., red used to start a race), these are generally accepted.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Flag
! Displayed from the start tower
! Displayed from the observation post
|-
|
|The session has started or resumed after a full course caution or stop.
|End of the hazardous section of the track.
|-
|
|Full course caution condition for ovals. On road courses, it means a local area of caution. Depending on the type of racing, either two yellow flags will be used for a full course caution or a sign with 'SC' (Safety car) will be used as the field follows the pace/safety car on track and no cars may pass. However, if the safety car gives a green light, then the cars behind can pass the safety car (lapped cars only).
|Local caution condition&nbsp;—no cars may pass at the particular corner where being displayed. When Stationary indicates hazard off-course, when Waving indicates hazard on-course.
|-
|
|Debris, fluid, or other hazard on the track surface.
|Debris, fluid, or other hazard on the track surface.
|-
|
|The car with the indicated number must pit for consultation.
|The session is halted, all cars on the course must return to the pit lane. May also be seen combined with a green flag to indicate oil on the track, typically referred to as a 'pickle' flag combination.
|-
|
|The car with the indicated number has mechanical trouble and must pit.
|
|-
|
|The driver of the car with the indicated number has been penalized for misbehaviour.
|
|-
|
|The driver of the car with the indicated number is disqualified or will not be scored until they report to the pits.
|
|-
|
|The car should give way to faster traffic. This may be an advisory or an order depending on the series.
|A car is being advised or ordered to give way to faster traffic approaching.
|-
|
|The session is stopped. All cars must halt on the track or return to the pit lane.
|
|-
|
|Depending on the series, either one lap remains or a slow vehicle is on the track.
|A slow vehicle is on the track.
|-
|
|The session has concluded.
|
|}
Accidents
{{see also|Deaths in motorsports}}
The worst accident in racing history is the 1955 Le Mans disaster, where more than 80 people died, including the French driver Pierre Levegh.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://jalopnik.com/just-how-horrifying-was-the-worst-crash-in-motorsports-1589382023/1710702151 |titleMore Than 80 People Died In A Single Racing Crash 60 Years Ago Today |firstPatrick |lastGeorge |date6 November 2015 |access-date25 October 2018 |workJalopnik |publisherGizmodo Media Group}}</ref>
Racing-car setup
{{Main|Racing setup}}
In auto racing, the racing setup or car setup is the set of adjustments made to the vehicle to optimize its behaviour (performance, handling, reliability, etc.). Adjustments can occur in suspensions, brakes, transmissions, engines, tires, and many others.
Aerodynamics
Aerodynamics and airflow play big roles in the setup of a race car. Aerodynamic downforce improves the race car's handling by lowering the center of gravity and distributing the weight of the car equally on each tire.<ref name"Adams, Eric 2006">{{cite journal |journalPopular Science |titleThe Perfect Racecar |dateApril 2006 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMY3SEwT-K0oC&qThe+Perfect+Racecar&pgPA50 |last1Adams |first1Eric |first2Joe |last2Brown |volume268 |issue4 |pages50–51 |access-date2019-09-02}}</ref> Once this is achieved, fuel consumption decreases and the forces against the car are significantly lowered. Many aerodynamic experiments are conducted in wind tunnels, to simulate real-life situations while measuring the various drag forces on the car.<ref name"Diba, Fereydoon 2014">{{cite journal |last1Diba |first1Fereydoon |last2Barari |first2Ahmad |last3Esmailzadeh |first3Ebrahim |titleHandling and safety enhancement of race cars using active aerodynamic systems |journalVehicle System Dynamics |date10 July 2014 |volume52 |issue9 |pages1171–1190 |doi10.1080/00423114.2014.930158 |bibcode2014VSD....52.1171D |s2cid110554353 }}</ref> These "Rolling roads" produce many wind situations and direct air flow at certain speeds and angles.<ref>{{cite journal |lastMarston |firstSteve |titleSpectacles of Speed: Modernity, Masculinity, and Auto Racing in Kansas, 1909–1918 |journalKansas History: A Journal of the Central Plains |dateAutumn 2015 |volume38 |pages192–207 |url https://www.kshs.org/publicat/history/2015autumn_marston.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.kshs.org/publicat/history/2015autumn_marston.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date3 September 2019}}</ref> When a diffuser is installed under the car, the amount of drag force is significantly lowered, and the overall aerodynamics of the vehicle is positively adjusted.<ref name"Diba, Fereydoon 2014"/> Wings and canards channel the airflow in the most efficient way to get the least amount of drag from the car. It is experimentally proven that downforce is gained and the vehicle's handling is considerably changed when aerodynamic wings on the front and rear of the vehicle are installed.<ref name"Diba, Fereydoon 2014"/>
Suspension
Suspension plays a huge part in giving the race car the ability to be driven optimally. Shocks are mounted vertically or horizontally to prevent the body from rolling in the corners. The suspension is important because it makes the car stable and easier to control and keeps the tires on the road when driving on uneven terrain. It works in three different ways including vertically, longitudinally, and laterally to control movement when racing on various tracks.<ref name"Adams, Eric 2006"/>TyresTyres called R-Compounds are commonly used in motorsports for high amounts of traction. The soft rubber allows them to expand when they are heated up, making more surface area on the pavement, therefore producing the most traction.<ref name"Adams, Eric 2006"/> These types of tyres do not have grooves on them. Tyre pressure is dependent on the temperature of the tyre and track when racing. Each time a driver pulls into the pits, the tyre pressure and temperature should be tested for optimal performance. When the tyres get too hot they will swell or inflate and need to be deflated to the correct pressure.<ref name"Adams, Eric 2006"/> When the tyres are not warmed up they will not perform as well.BrakesBrakes on a race car are imperative in slowing and stopping the car at precise times and wear quickly depending on the road or track on which the car is being raced, how many laps are being run, track conditions due to weather, and how many caution runs require more braking. There are three variables to consider in racing: brake pedal displacement, brake pedal force, and vehicle deceleration.<ref name"Groot, S. 2011">de Groot, S., et al. "Car Racing In A Simulator: Validation And Assessment Of Brake Pedal Stiffness." Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments 20.1 (2011): 47–61. Academic Search Complete. Web. 7 Dec. 2016.</ref> Various combinations of these variables work together to determine the stiffness, sensitivity, and pedal force of the brakes. When using the brakes effectively, the driver must go through a buildup phase and end with a modulating phase. These phases include attaining maximum deceleration and modulating the brake pressure.<ref name"Groot, S. 2011"/> Brake performance is measured in bite and consistency. Bite happens when the driver first applies the brakes and they have not warmed up to the correct temperature to operate efficiently. Consistency is measured in how consistent the friction is during the entire time of braking. These two measurements determine the wear of the brakes.<ref name"Groot, S. 2011"/>
Engine
The race car's engine needs a considerable amount of air to produce maximum power. The air intake manifold sucks the air from scoops on the hood and front bumper and feeds it into the engine. Many engine modifications to increase horsepower and efficiency are commonly used in many racing-sanctioning bodies.<ref name"Adams, Eric 2006"/> Engines are tuned on a machine called a dynamometer, which is commonly known in the racing world as a DYNO. The car is driven onto the DYNO and many gauges and sensors are hooked up to the car that are controlled by an online program to test force, torque, or power. Through the testing, the car's engine maps can be changed to get the most horsepower and ultimately speed out of the vehicle.Racing drivers{{more citations needed section|dateFebruary 2013}}
racing drivers Max Verstappen (left), Daniel Ricciardo (center), and Nico Rosberg (right) celebrate on the podium of the 2016 Malaysian Grand Prix]]
Racing drivers, at the highest levels, can be paid by the team, or by sponsors, and can command substantial salaries. Drivers who pay for their positions, or seats, within racing teams are typically known as pay drivers, or gentleman drivers. Drivers may also enter events as privateers.
Contrary to popular assumption, racing drivers as a group do not have unusually strong reflexes or peripheral response time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Memmert |first1D. |last2Simons |first2DJ |last3Grimme |first3T. |titleThe relationship between visual attention and expertise in sports |journalPsychol Sport Exerc. |dateOctober 2009 |volume10 |pages146–151|doi10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.06.002 }}</ref> During repeated physiological and psychological evaluations of professional racing drivers, the two characteristics that stand out are racers' near-obsessive need to control their surroundings—psychological—and an unusual ability to process fast-moving information —physiological. Researchers have noted a strong correlation between racing driver psychological profiles and those of fighter pilots. In tests comparing racing drivers to the general public, the greater the complexity of the information processing matrix, the greater the speed gap between the two groups.<ref>{{Cite journal |titleDifferences between racing and non-racing drivers: A simulator study using eye-tracking |year2017 |pmc5679571 |last1Van Leeuwen |first1P. M. |last2De Groot |first2S. |last3Happee |first3R. |last4De Winter |first4J. C. |journalPLOS ONE |volume12 |issue11 |pagese0186871 |doi10.1371/journal.pone.0186871 |pmid29121090 |bibcode2017PLoSO..1286871V |doi-access=free }}</ref>
Due partly to the performance capabilities of modern racing cars, racing drivers require a high level of fitness, focus, and the ability to concentrate at high levels for long periods in an inherently difficult environment. They often complain about injuries in the lumbar, shoulder, and neck regions.<ref name"2W"/> Racing drivers experience large g-forces due to formula cars and sports prototypes generating high levels of downforce, and being able to corner at high speeds.<ref>{{cite news|titleDriving a Race Car Takes Strength and Stamina: These Athletes Travel in Fast Lane but Keep Fit|urlhttps://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1985-05-19-sp-9410-story.html |access-dateFebruary 24, 2013|workThe Los Angeles Times |agencyAssociated Press |publisherTribune Publishing |dateMay 19, 1985|locationIndianapolis}}</ref> Formula One drivers routinely experience lateral loads in excess of {{Convert|4.5|g-force|lkon|abbr|m/s2 ft/s2}}, requiring drivers to commit to frequent neck training regimens.<ref>{{cite news|lastNorton|firstCharlie|titleFormula One drivers feel the G-force|urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/motoring/motorsport/7681665/Formula-One-drivers-feel-the-G-force.html |access-dateApril 11, 2013|workThe Daily Telegraph |dateMay 10, 2010}}</ref>
See also
{{Portal|Sports}}
* Outline of auto racing
* List of auto racing tracks
* Motorcycle racing
* Race track
* List of auto racing films
* Racing video game
References
{{reflist|refs<ref name"2W">{{cite journal |vauthorsKoutras C, Buecking B, Jaeger M, Ruchholtz S, Heep H |titleMusculoskeletal injuries in auto racing: a retrospective study of 137 drivers |journalPhys Sportsmed | volume 42 | issue 4 | pages 80–86 | year 2014 | pmid 25419891 | doi 10.3810/psm.2014.11.2094 |s2cid22425278 }}</ref>
<ref name"8W">{{cite web | urlhttp://forix.autosport.com/8w/bdb.html | titleThe cradle of motorsport |firstRémi |lastPaolozzi | dateMay 28, 2003 | workWelcome to Who? What? Where? When? Why? on the World Wide Web | publisherForix, Autosport, 8W}}</ref>
}}
External links
* {{Commons category-inline|Automobile racing}}
; Sanctioning bodies
* [https://www.motorsportuk.org/ Motorsports UK Association]
* [http://www.americanlemans.com/ American Le Mans Series (ALMS)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150817050745/http://www.indycar.com/ Indy Racing League (IRL)]
* [http://www.FIA.com Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160422084627/http://www.grandamerican.com/ Grand American Road Racing Association]
* [http://www.icscc.com International Conference of Sports Car Clubs (ICSCC)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20191030232225/http://www.ihra.com/ International Hot Rod Association (IHRA)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081009000433/http://imsaracing.net/ International Motor Sports Association (IMSA)]
* [http://www.nasaproracing.com National Auto Sport Association]
* [http://www.nascar.com/ National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR)]
* [http://www.nhra.com National Hot Rod Association (NHRA)]
* [https://www.noprep.com No Prep Racing]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150824032706/http://score-international.com/ SCORE International Off-Road Racing]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150807042740/http://www.scca.org/ Sports Car Club of America (SCCA)]
* [http://www.usacracing.com/ United States Auto Club (USAC)]
* [http://www.formula1.com/ Formula One (F1)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090522095748/http://www.cams.com.au/ Confederation of Australian Motorsport (CAMS)]
* [http://bitd.com/ Best In The Desert Off-Road Racing]
{{Class of Auto racing}}
{{Automobile endurance races}}
{{Racing}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Auto Racing}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto_racing | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.646440 |
1023 | Anarcho-capitalism | {{Short description|Political philosophy and economic theory}}
{{Redirect|Ancap||ANCAP (disambiguation){{!}}ANCAP| |Neo-feudalism (disambiguation)}}
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<!-- NOTE: Anarcho-capitalism is not listed in the Liberalism navigation sidebar--><ref name":1">Rothbard, Murray N., [https://mises.org/library/betrayal-american-right-0 The Betrayal of the American Right] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171030214712/https://mises.org/library/betrayal-american-right-0 |date30 October 2017 }} (2007): 188</ref> and is also used by the Swedish AnarkoKapitalistisk Front{{citation needed|dateMay 2024}}|261x261px]]
Anarcho-capitalism (colloquially: ancap or an-cap) is a political philosophy and economic theory that advocates for the abolition of centralized states in favor of stateless societies, where systems of private property are enforced by private agencies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Geloso |first1Vincent |last2Leeson |first2Peter T. |year2020 |titleAre Anarcho-Capitalists Insane? Medieval Icelandic Conflict Institutions in Comparative Perspective |urlhttps://www.cairn.info/revue-d-economie-politique-2020-6-page-957.htm |journalRevue d'économie politique |languageen |volume130 |issue6 |pages957–974 |doi10.3917/redp.306.0115 |s2cid235008718 |issn0373-2630 |quoteAnarcho-capitalism is a variety of libertarianism according to which all government institutions can and should be replaced by private ones. |doi-accessfree |access-date5 August 2022 |archive-date5 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220805230848/https://www.cairn.info/revue-d-economie-politique-2020-6-page-957.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> Anarcho-capitalists argue that society can self-regulate and civilize through the voluntary exchange of goods and services. This would ideally result in a voluntary society<ref name":2">{{cite encyclopedia |year2008 |titleAnarcho-Capitalism |encyclopediaThe Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |publisherSage; Cato Institute |locationThousand Oaks, California |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyxNgXs3TkJYC&pgPT51 |lastMorriss |firstAndrew |editor-lastHamowy |editor-firstRonald |editor-linkRonald Hamowy |pages13–14 |doi10.4135/9781412965811.n8 |isbn978-1-4129-6580-4 |oclc750831024 |access-date19 June 2020 |archive-date7 February 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240207152725/https://books.google.com/books?idyxNgXs3TkJYC&pgPT51#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Stringham51">{{cite book |firstEdward |lastStringham |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnft4e62nicsC&pgPA51 |titleAnarchy and the law: the political economy of choice |year2007 |page51 |publisherTransaction Publishers |isbn978-1-4128-0579-7 |access-date21 October 2016 |archive-date7 February 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240207152713/https://books.google.com/books?idnft4e62nicsC&pgPA51#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"marshallpitzer">{{cite web |lastMarshall |firstPeter |titleDemanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism – The New Right and Anarcho-capitalism |urlhttp://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html |access-date2 July 2020 |websitedwardmac.pitzer.edu |archive-date19 April 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210419011544/http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/dward/newrightanarchocap.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name":8">{{Cite web |lastCosta |firstDaniel |date21 October 2022 |titleAnarcho-capitalism |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/anarcho-capitalism |access-date25 October 2022 |websiteEncyclopædia Britannica |languageen |archive-date25 October 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221025005604/https://www.britannica.com/topic/anarcho-capitalism |url-statuslive }}</ref> based on concepts such as the non-aggression principle, free markets and self-ownership. In such a society, private property rights would be enforced by private agencies. In the absence of statute private defence agencies and/or insurance companies would operate competitively in a market and fulfill the roles of courts and the police, similar to a state apparatus. Some anarcho-capitalist philosophies understand control of private property as part of the self, and some permit slavery.<ref name"Block-2003">{{cite journal |lastBlock |firstWalter |date2003 |titleToward a Libertarian Theory of Inalienability: A Critique of Rothbard, Barnett, Smith, Kinsella, Gordon, and Epstein |urlhttps://mises.org/library/toward-libertarian-theory-inalienability-critique-rothbard-barnett-smith-kinsella-gordon-and |journalThe Journal of Libertarian Studies |publisherMises Institute |volume17 |issue3}}</ref><ref name"Vandenberg-Block-2022">{{cite journal |last1Vandenberg |first1Christopher |last2Block |first2Walter E. |date2022 |titleThe Case in Favor of the Voluntary Slave Contract |urlhttps://hrcak.srce.hr/en/278683 |journalPolitical Analysis: Croatian and International Politics Quarterly |publisherHRČAK |volume11 |issue41 |pages=22–29}}</ref>
According to its proponents, various historical theorists have espoused philosophies similar to anarcho-capitalism.<ref name"Hoppe 2001">Hoppe, Hans-Hermann (31 December 2001). [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe5.html "Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140111070712/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe5.html |date11 January 2014 }}. Lew Rockwell.com. Retrieved 5 July 2020.</ref> While the earliest extant attestation of "anarchocapitalism" {{sic}} is in Karl Hess's essay "The Death of Politics" published by Playboy in March 1969,<ref name "HessDoP">{{cite web|urlhttp://fare.tunes.org/books/Hess/dop.html|title The Death of Politics|lastHess|first Karl|orig-dateMarch 1969|date 2003|websiteFaré's Home Page|publisher Playboy|access-date9 October 2023|quote Laissez-faire capitalism, or anarchocapitalism [sic], is simply the economic form of the libertarian ethic. Laissez-faire capitalism encompasses the notion that men should exchange goods and services, without regulation, solely on the basis of value for value. It recognizes charity and communal enterprises as voluntary versions of this same ethic. Such a system would be straight barter, except for the widely felt need for a division of labor in which men, voluntarily, accept value tokens such as cash and credit. Economically, this system is anarchy, and proudly so.|archive-date2 August 2019|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190802164945/http://fare.tunes.org/books/Hess/dop.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name "Johnson2015">{{cite web|urlhttps://c4ss.org/content/39997|title Karl Hess on Anarcho-Capitalism|lastJohnson|first Charles|date28 August 2015|website Center for a Stateless Society|access-date9 October 2023|quote '''In fact, the earliest documented, printed use of the word "anarcho-capitalism" that I can find [6] actually comes neither from Wollstein nor from Rothbard, but from Karl Hess's manifesto "The Death of Politics," which was published in Playboy in March, 1969.' [boldface in original]|archive-date4 October 2023|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20231004131548/https://c4ss.org/content/39997|url-statuslive}}</ref> American economist Murray Rothbard was credited with coining the terms anarcho-capitalist''<ref name "Leeson">{{cite book |lastLeeson |firstRobert |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_pQ4DwAAQBAJ&pgPA180 |titleHayek: A Collaborative Biography, Part IX: The Divine Right of the 'Free' Market |publisherSpringer |year2017 |isbn978-3-319-60708-5 |page180 |quoteTo the original 'anarchocapitalist' (Rothbard coined the term) [...]. |access-date18 March 2023 |archive-date25 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230425065230/https://books.google.com/books?id_pQ4DwAAQBAJ&pgPA180 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name "Crocetta">Roberta Modugno Crocetta, "Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism in the contemporary debate. A critical defense", Ludwig Von Mises Institute. [https://web.archive.org/web/20050511201301/https://mises.org/journals/scholar/roberta.pdf Archived] from the [https://mises.org/journals/scholar/roberta.pdf original]. quote: "Murray Rothbard suggests the anarcho-capitalist mode, [...]"</ref> and anarcho-capitalism in 1971.<ref name "Flood2010">Flood, Anthony (2010). [http://anthonyflood.com/rothbardknowyourrights.htm Untitled preface to Rothbard's "Know Your Rights"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110811135031/http://anthonyflood.com/rothbardknowyourrights.htm |date11 August 2011 }}, originally published in WIN: Peace and Freedom through Nonviolent Action, Volume 7, No. 4, 1 March 1971, 6–10. Flood's quote: "Rothbard's neologism, 'anarchocapitalism,' probably makes its first appearance in print here."</ref> A leading figure in the 20th-century American libertarian movement,<ref name":8" /> Rothbard synthesized elements from the Austrian School, classical liberalism and 19th-century American individualist anarchists and mutualists Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker, while rejecting the labor theory of value.<ref name"Miller 1987">{{cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/blackwellencyclo0000unse_w3j5 |titleBlackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought |year1987 |publisherWiley-Blackwell |isbn978-0-631-17944-3 |editor1-lastMiller |editor1-firstDavid |locationHoboken |page290 |quoteA student and disciple of the Austrian economist Ludwig von Mises, Rothbard combined the laissez-faire economics of his teacher with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Lysander Spooner and Benjamin Tucker. |display-editorsetal |url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref name"Bottomore 1991">{{cite book |lastBottomore |firstTom |urlhttps://archive.org/details/dictionarymarxis00bott |titleA Dictionary of Marxist Thought |publisherBlackwell Reference |year1991 |isbn0-63118082-6 |locationOxford |page[https://archive.org/details/dictionarymarxis00bott/page/n22 21] |chapterAnarchism |url-accesslimited}}</ref><ref name"Outhwaite 2003">{{cite book |lastOuthwaite |firstWilliam |urlhttps://archive.org/details/blackwelldiction0002edunse_m6t9 |titleThe Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought |year2003 |publisherWiley-Blackwell |isbn978-0-631-22164-7 |locationHoboken |page13 |chapterAnarchism |quoteTheir successors today, such as Murray Rothbard, having abandoned the labor theory of value, describe themselves as anarcho-capitalists. |url-accessregistration}}</ref> Rothbard's anarcho-capitalist society would operate under a mutually agreed-upon "legal code which would be generally accepted, and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow".<ref name"Rothbard" /> This legal code would recognize contracts between individuals, private property, self-ownership and tort law in keeping with the non-aggression principle.<ref name":8" /><ref name"Rothbard" /><ref name"miseslawproperty" /> Unlike a state, enforcement measures would only apply to those who initiated force or fraud.<ref>{{Cite web |date2014-07-30 |titleRole of Personal Justice in Anarcho-capitalism, The {{!}} Mises Institute |urlhttps://mises.org/journal-libertarian-studies/role-personal-justice-anarcho-capitalism |access-date2024-08-07 |websitemises.org |languageen}}</ref> Rothbard views the power of the state as unjustified, arguing that it violates individual rights and reduces prosperity, and creates social and economic problems.<ref name=":8" />
Anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians cite several historical precedents of what they believe to be examples of quasi-anarcho-capitalism,{{refn|<ref name"Rothbard" /><ref name"ANCAP FAQ" /><ref name"Friedman-79" /><ref name"Long-Vikings">{{Cite web |lastLong |firstRoderick T. |author-linkRoderick T. Long |date6 June 2002 |titlePrivatization, Viking Style: Model or Misfortune? (The Vikings Were Libertarians) |urlhttps://www.lewrockwell.com/2002/06/roderick-t-long/the-vikings-were-libertarians |access-date15 June 2020 |publisherLewRockwell.com |archive-date8 December 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151208172838/https://www.lewrockwell.com/2002/06/roderick-t-long/the-vikings-were-libertarians/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"tabarroki" />}} including the Republic of Cospaia,<ref>{{Cite web |lastMcFarland |firstEllie |date11 April 2020 |titleThe Republic of Cospaia: An Anarchist Renaissance City |urlhttps://mises.org/power-market/republic-cospaia-anarchist-renaissance-city |access-date9 October 2022 |websiteMises Institute |languageen |archive-date3 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220903034224/https://mises.org/power-market/republic-cospaia-anarchist-renaissance-city |url-statuslive }}</ref> Acadia,<ref name":9">{{Cite web |lastWilliams |firstBenjamin |date9 August 2022 |titleThe Acadian Community: An Anarcho-Capitalist Success Story |urlhttps://mises.org/wire/acadian-community-anarcho-capitalist-success-story |access-date5 December 2022 |websiteMises Institute |languageen |archive-date5 December 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221205100027/https://mises.org/wire/acadian-community-anarcho-capitalist-success-story |url-statuslive }}</ref> Anglo-Saxon England,<ref name":3">{{Cite web |lastMorriss |firstAndrew P. |date15 August 2008 |titleAnarcho-Capitalism |urlhttps://www.libertarianism.org/topics/anarcho-capitalism |access-date21 August 2022 |websiteLibertarianism.org |quoteAlthough most anarchists oppose all large institutions, public or private, anarcho-capitalists oppose the state, but not private actors with significant market power. |archive-date22 September 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200922211040/https://www.libertarianism.org/topics/anarcho-capitalism |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name":2" /> Medieval Iceland,<ref name":9" /> the American Old West,<ref name":9" /> Gaelic Ireland,<ref name=":8" /> and merchant law, admiralty law, and early common law.
Anarcho-capitalism is distinguished from minarchism, which advocates a minimal governing body (typically a night-watchman state limited to protecting individuals from aggression and enforcing private property) and from objectivism (which is a broader philosophy advocating a limited role, yet unlimited size, of said government).<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPUev30VZ04kC |titleAnarchism/Minarchism: Is a Government Part of a Free Country? |year2008 |publisherAshgate |isbn978-0-7546-6066-8 |editor1-lastLong |editor1-firstRoderick T. |editor2-lastMachan |editor2-firstTibor R.}}</ref> Anarcho-capitalists consider themselves to be anarchists despite supporting private property and private institutions.<ref name=":3" />
{{TOC limit|limit4}} Classification
{{See also|Anarchism and capitalism}}
Anarcho-capitalism developed from Austrian School-neoliberalism and individualist anarchism.<ref name"Tormey">{{cite book|lastTormey|firstSimon|year2004|titleAnti-capitalism: A Beginner's Guide|pages118–119|publisherOneworld|isbn978-1851683420}}</ref><ref name"Perlin">{{cite book|lastPerlin|firstTerry M.|year1979|titleContemporary Anarchism|publisherTransaction Books|page7}}</ref><ref name"Raico">{{cite book|lastRaico|firstRalph|year2004|titleAuthentic German Liberalism of the 19th Century|publisherEcole Polytechnique, Centre de Recherce en Epistemologie Appliquee, Unité associée au CNRS}}</ref><ref name"Heider">{{cite book|lastHeider|firstUlrike|year1994|titleAnarchism: Left, Right, and Green|publisherCity Lights|page3}}</ref><ref name"Outhwaite">{{cite book|lastOuthwaite|firstWilliam|year2002|titleThe Blackwell Dictionary of Modern Social Thought|chapterAnarchism|page21}}</ref><ref name"Bottomore">{{cite book|lastBottomore|firstTom|titleDictionary of Marxist Thought|chapterAnarchism|year1991}}</ref><ref name"Ostergaard2">{{cite web|lastOstergaard|firstGeofrey|urlhttp://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad6.html|titleResisting the Nation State: The Pacifist and Anarchist Tradition|websitePeace Pledge Union Publications|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080725025426/http://www.ppu.org.uk/e_publications/dd-trad6.html|archive-date25 July 2008}}. Retrieved 20 June 2020.</ref> Almost all anarchist movements do not consider anarcho-capitalism to be anarchist because it lacks the historically central anti-capitalist emphasis of anarchism. They also argue that anarchism is incompatible with capitalist structures.<ref name":10">{{cite book|quoteThe philosophy of “anarcho-capitalism” dreamed up by the “libertarian’ New Right, has nothing to do with Anarchism as known by the Anarchist movement proper.|author-linkAlbert Meltzer|lastMeltzer|firstAlbert|titleAnarchism: Arguments For and Against|publisherAK Press|year2000|page50}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|quoteIn fact, few anarchists would accept the “anarcho-capitalists” into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice, Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary co-operation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the State, might therefore best be called right-wing libertarians rather than anarchists|firstPeter|lastMarshall|titleDemanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism|publisherHarper Perennial|locationLondon|year2008|page565}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|quoteIt is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Murray Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)|author-linkSaul Newman|lastNewman|firstSaul|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSiqBiViUsOkC&qanarcho-capitalism+right+libertarian&pgPA43|titleThe Politics of Postanarchism|publisherEdinburgh University Press|year2010|page43|isbn0748634959}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|urlhttp://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secFcon.html|chapterSection F – Is "anarcho"-capitalism a type of anarchism?|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190909065550/http://anarchism.pageabode.com/afaq/secFcon.html |archive-date9 September 2019|titleAn Anarchist FAQ|volumeI|publisherAK Press|year2008|isbn978-1902593906}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|quote“Libertarian” and “libertarianism” are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for “anarchist” and “anarchism”, largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of “anarchy” and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, “minimal statism” and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Murray Rothbard and Robert Nozick and their adoption of the words “libertarian” and “libertarianism”. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition|titleAnarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward|firstDavid|lastGoodway|publisherLiverpool University Press|locationLiverpool|year2006|page4}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|quoteWithin Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However Rothbard's claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist venders...so what remains is shrill anti-statism conjoined to a vacuous freedom in hackneyed defense of capitalism. In sum, the "anarchy" of Libertarianism reduces to a liberal fraud|urlhttp://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy|titleLibertarianism: Bogus Anarchy|firstPeter|lastSabatini|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200107105115/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy |archive-date7 January 2020|issue41|date1994–95|journalAnarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed}}'</ref> According to several scholars, Anarcho-capitalism lies outside the tradition of the vast majority of anarchist schools of thought and is more closely affiliated with capitalism, right-libertarianism and neoliberalism.<ref name":10" /><ref name"Marshall 1992" /><ref name"Jennings 1993" /><ref name"Franks 2013" /><ref name"Newman 2010" /><ref name"Pele Riley p1743872120978202">{{cite journal |last1Pele |first1Antonio |last2Riley |first2Stephen |date2 February 2021 |titleFor a Right to Health Beyond Biopolitics: The Politics of Pandemic and the 'Politics of Life' |journalLaw, Culture and the Humanities |publisherSage Publications |doi10.1177/1743872120978201 |s2cid234042976 |issn1743-8721 |urlhttps://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/14115635 |quoteIn his Cours on The Birth of Biopolitics, Foucault has exclusively dedicated his lectures on (neo)liberalism (e.g. German ordoliberalism and the American 'anarcho-capitalism'), offering his apologies for not having examined thoroughly this idea of biopolitics. |doi-accessfree |access-date19 June 2023 |archive-date8 February 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240208210754/https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/For_a_Right_to_Health_Beyond_Biopolitics_The_Politics_of_Pandemic_and_the_Politics_of_Life_/14115635 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Traditionally, anarchists oppose and reject capitalism, and consider "anarcho-capitalism" to be a contradiction in terms,<ref name"White & Williams 2014" /><ref>{{Cite book |lastMarshall |firstPeter H. |urlhttps://archive.org/details/Demanding_the_impossible_9781604862706 |titleDemanding the impossible : a history of anarchism: be realistic! Demand the impossible! |year2010 |publisherPM Press |isbn978-1-60486-268-3 |locationOakland, CA |pages564–565 |oclc611612065 |url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref name"Gay & Gay 1999, p. 15" /> although anarcho-capitalists and some right-libertarians consider anarcho-capitalism to be a form of anarchism.<ref name":6" /><ref name":4" /><ref name":5" /><ref name"brooks2" />
According to the Encyclopædia Britannica:<ref name":8" />{{Blockquote|textAnarcho-capitalism challenges other forms of anarchism by supporting private property and private institutions with significant economic power.}}Anarcho-capitalism is occasionally seen as part of the New Right.<ref name":0" /><ref name":13">{{Cite book |lastVincent |firstAndrew |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idigrwb3rsOOUC&pgPA66 |titleModern Political Ideologies |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |year2009 |isbn978-1-4443-1105-1 |edition3rd |locationHoboken |page66 |quoteWhom to include under the rubric of the New Right remains puzzling. It is usually seen as an amalgam of traditional liberal conservatism, Austrian liberal economic theory (Ludwing von Mises and Hayek), extreme libertarianism (anarcho-capitalism), and crude populism. |access-date18 March 2023 |archive-date12 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230512212239/https://books.google.com/books?idigrwb3rsOOUC&pgPA66 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Philosophy (1926–1995), who is credited with coining the words anarcho-capitalist<ref name "Leeson"/><ref name "Crocetta"/> and anarcho-capitalism.<ref name "Flood2010"/>|alt=Murray Rothbard in the 1970s]]
{{primary sources|section|date=July 2020}}
Author J Michael Oliver says that during the 1960s, a philosophical movement arose in the US that championed "reason, ethical egoism, and free-market capitalism". According to Oliver, anarcho-capitalism is a political theory which logically follows the philosophical conclusions of Objectivism, a philosophical system developed by Ayn Rand, but he acknowledges that his advocacy of anarcho-capitalism is "quite at odds with Rand's ardent defense of 'limited government{{'"}}.<ref>{{Cite book |authorJ Michael Oliver |titleThe New Libertarianism: Anarcho-Capitalism |year2013 |isbn978-1-4910-6862-5 |pages11–12,173|publisherCreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform}}</ref> Professor Lisa Duggan also says that Rand's anti-statist, pro–"free market" stances went on to shape the politics of anarcho-capitalism.<ref name"Dissent Magazine 2019">{{cite web |titleAyn Rand and the Cruel Heart of Neoliberalism |websiteDissent Magazine |date22 May 2019 |urlhttps://www.dissentmagazine.org/online_articles/ayn-rand-and-the-cruel-heart-of-neoliberalism |access-date29 October 2021 |firstLisa |lastDuggan |author-linkLisa Duggan |archive-date29 October 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211029160640/https://www.dissentmagazine.org/online_articles/ayn-rand-and-the-cruel-heart-of-neoliberalism |url-statuslive }}</ref>
According to Patrik Schumacher, the political ideology and programme of anarcho-capitalism envisages the radicalization of the neoliberal "rollback of the state", and calls for the extension of "entrepreneurial freedom" and "competitive market rationality" to the point where the scope for private enterprise is all-encompassing and "leaves no space for state action whatsoever".<ref name"pschu" /> On the state Anarcho-capitalists oppose the state and seek to privatize any useful service the government presently provides, such as education, infrastructure, or the enforcement of law.<ref name"pschu" /><ref name"Kinna 2012" /> They see capitalism and the "free market" as the basis for a free and prosperous society. Murray Rothbard stated that the difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism is the difference between "peaceful, voluntary exchange" and a "collusive partnership" between business and government that "uses coercion to subvert the free market".<ref>Rothbard, Murray N., [https://www.mises.org/article.aspx?Id1559 A Future of Peace and Capitalism] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081016170817/http://mises.org/article.aspx?Id1559 |date16 October 2008 }}; Murray N. Rothbard, [https://www.mises.org/article.aspx?control910 Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081016170817/http://mises.org/article.aspx?Id1559 |date16 October 2008 }}.</ref> Rothbard argued that all government services, including defense, are inefficient because they lack a market-based pricing mechanism regulated by "the voluntary decisions of consumers purchasing services that fulfill their highest-priority needs" and by investors seeking the most profitable enterprises to invest in.<ref name"Rothbard-P&M">{{cite book |lastRothbard |firstMurray |titlePower and Market |year1977 |edition2nd |author-linkMurray Rothbard |orig-date1970}} published in {{cite book |lastRothbard |firstMurray |urlhttps://mises.org/library/man-economy-and-state-power-and-market |titleMan, Economy, and State with Power and Market |year2009 |publisherMises Institute |isbn978-1-933550-27-5 |edition2nd |access-date15 June 2020 |archive-date18 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220818171401/https://mises.org/library/man-economy-and-state-power-and-market |url-statuslive }}</ref>{{rp|1051|quoteIt is all the more curious, incidentally, that while *laissez-faireists* should by the logic of their position, be ardent believers in a single, unified world government so that no one will live in a state of "anarchy" in relation to anyone else, they almost never are.}}
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Rothbard used the term anarcho-capitalism to distinguish his philosophy from anarchism that opposes private property<ref>[http://search.eb.com/eb/article-234237 "Libertarianism"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240208210833/https://academic.eb.com/ |date8 February 2024 }} (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 30 July 2007.</ref> as well as to distinguish it from individualist anarchism.<ref name="autogenerated1">Murray Rothbard (2000). "Egalitarianism as A Revolt Against Nature And Other Essays: and other essays". Ludwig von Mises Institute, 2000. p. 207.</ref> Other terms sometimes used by proponents of the philosophy include:
* Individualist anarchism<ref name"Avrich 1996">Avrich, Paul (1996). Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America (abridged paperback ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 282. {{ISBN|978-0691044941}}. "Although there are many honorable exceptions who still embrace the 'socialist' label, most people who call themselves individualist anarchists today are followers of Murray Rothbard's Austrian economics and have abandoned the labor theory of value."</ref><ref>Carson, Kevin (2006). Studies in Mutualist Political Economy. [http://www.mutualist.org/id112.html "Preface"]. {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110415135834/http://www.mutualist.org/id112.html|date=15 April 2011}} Charleston: BookSurge Publishing. {{ISBN|978-1419658693}}. "Murray N. Rothbard (1926–1995), American economist, historian, and individualist anarchist."</ref>
* Natural order<ref name="Hoppe 2001" />
* Ordered anarchy<ref name="Hoppe 2001" />
* Private-law society<ref name="Hoppe 2001" />
* Private-property anarchy<ref name="Hoppe 2001" />
* Radical capitalism<ref name="Hoppe 2001" />
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Maverick Edwards of the Liberty University describes anarcho-capitalism as a political, social, and economic theory that places markets as the central "governing body" and where government no longer "grants" rights to its citizenry.<ref name"Edwards 2021">{{cite journal | lastEdwards | firstMaverick | titleThe Failure of Imagination: A Theoretical and Pragmatic Analysis of Utopianism as an Orientation for Human Life | journalLiberty University Journal of Statesmanship & Public Policy | date9 January 2021 | volume1 | issue2 | urlhttps://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/jspp/vol1/iss2/2 | access-date16 January 2022 | archive-date16 January 2022 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220116172514/https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/jspp/vol1/iss2/2/ | url-statuslive }}</ref> Non-aggression principle Writer Stanisław Wójtowicz says that although anarcho-capitalists are against centralized states, they believe that all people would naturally share and agree to a specific moral theory based on the non-aggression principle.<ref name"swnauka">{{Cite journal |authorStanisław Wójtowicz |year2017 |titleAnarcho-capitalism, or can we do away with the state |urlhttp://nauka-pan.pl/index.php/nauka/article/view/747 |journalNauka |issue4 |issn1231-8515 |quoteThe last problem is especially vexing, since anarcho-capitalists seem to be caught up in a contradiction here. On one hand, they are proponents of a specific moral theory (based on non-aggression principle), on the other hand, they do not allow for any central, monopolistic agency to impose that moral theory on society. |access-date4 January 2021 |archive-date29 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201029100842/http://nauka-pan.pl/index.php/nauka/article/view/747 |url-statuslive }}</ref> While the Friedmanian formulation of anarcho-capitalism is robust to the presence of violence and in fact, assumes some degree of violence will occur,<ref>Friedman, David D. (1989) [http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Libertarian/Machinery_of_Freedom/MofF_Chapter_41.html "Chapter 41: Problems"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201111182546/http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Libertarian/Machinery_of_Freedom/MofF_Chapter_41.html |date11 November 2020 }}. The Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism (2nd ed.). La Salle: Open Court Press. {{ISBN|0-8126-9069-9}}.</ref> anarcho-capitalism as formulated by Rothbard and others holds strongly to the central libertarian nonaggression axiom,<ref name="swnauka" /> sometimes non-aggression principle. Rothbard wrote:
{{blockquote|The basic axiom of libertarian political theory holds that every man is a self-owner, having absolute jurisdiction over his own body. In effect, this means that no one else may justly invade, or aggress against, another's person. It follows then that each person justly owns whatever previously unowned resources he appropriates or "mixes his labor with". From these twin axioms – self-ownership and "homesteading" – stem the justification for the entire system of property rights titles in a free-market society. This system establishes the right of every man to his own person, the right of donation, of bequest (and, concomitantly, the right to receive the bequest or inheritance), and the right of contractual exchange of property titles.<ref name"miseslawproperty">Rothbard, Murray (Spring 1982). [https://www.mises.org/rothbard/lawproperty.pdf "Law, Property Rights, and Air Pollution"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140921104222/http://www.mises.org/rothbard/lawproperty.pdf |date=21 September 2014 }}. Cato Journal. 2 (1): 55–99.</ref>}}
Rothbard's defense of the self-ownership principle stems from what he believed to be his falsification of all other alternatives, namely that either a group of people can own another group of people, or that no single person has full ownership over one's self. Rothbard dismisses these two cases on the basis that they cannot result in a universal ethic, i.e. a just natural law that can govern all people, independent of place and time. The only alternative that remains to Rothbard is self-ownership which he believes is both axiomatic and universal.<ref name"Rothbard-1982.2">Rothbard, Murray (1982). [https://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp The Ethics of Liberty] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141109113441/http://mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp |date=9 November 2014 }}. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press. p. 162. {{ISBN|978-0-8147-7506-6}}.</ref>
In general, the non-aggression axiom is described by Rothbard as a prohibition against the initiation of force, or the threat of force, against persons (in which he includes direct violence, assault and murder) or property (in which he includes fraud, burglary, theft and taxation).<ref name"Rothbard">{{Cite book |lastRothbard |firstMurray |urlhttps://mises.org/library/new-liberty-libertarian-manifesto |titleFor a New Liberty |year1978 |publisherMises Institute |isbn978-1-61016-448-1 |locationAuburn |page282 |access-date26 December 2020 |archive-date28 October 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141028122904/http://mises.org/rothbard/newlibertywhole.asp |url-statuslive }}</ref>{{rp|24–25}} The initiation of force is usually referred to as aggression or coercion. The difference between anarcho-capitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom. Minarchist libertarians such as libertarian political parties would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form, retaining at the very least public police, courts, and military. However, others might give further allowance for other government programs. In contrast, Rothbard rejects any level of "state intervention", defining the state as a coercive monopoly and as the only entity in human society, excluding acknowledged criminals, that derives its income entirely from coercion, in the form of taxation, which Rothbard describes as "compulsory seizure of the property of the State's inhabitants, or subjects."<ref name="Rothbard-1982.2" />
Some anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard accept the non-aggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or natural law basis. It is in terms of the non-aggression principle that Rothbard defined his interpretation of anarchism, "a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression ['against person and property']"; and wrote that "what anarchism proposes to do, then, is to abolish the State, i.e. to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion".<ref>Rothbard, Murray N. (1975) [https://www.mises.org/journals/lf/1975/1975_01.pdf "Society Without A State"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131210042358/http://mises.org/journals/lf/1975/1975_01.pdf |date10 December 2013 }} Libertarian Forum newsletter (January 1975).</ref> In an interview published in the American libertarian journal The New Banner, Rothbard stated that "capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism, and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism".<ref name":6">Rothbard, Murray (25 February 1972). [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard103.html "Exclusive Interview With Murray Rothbard"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150618045309/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard103.html |date18 June 2015 }}. The New Banner: A Fortnightly Libertarian Journal. Retrieved 10 September 2020.</ref> Property Private property Anarcho-capitalists postulate the privatization of everything, including cities with all their infrastructures, public spaces, streets and urban management systems.<ref name"pschu">{{Cite web |authorPatrik Schumacher |year2016 |titleThe Stages of Capitalism and the Styles of Architecture |urlhttps://www.patrikschumacher.com/Texts/The%20Stages%20of%20Capitalism%20and%20the%20Styles%20of%20Architecture.html |access-date22 December 2020 |publisherASA web-magazine |archive-date8 February 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200208205457/http://www.patrikschumacher.com/Texts/The%20Stages%20of%20Capitalism%20and%20the%20Styles%20of%20Architecture.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |authorCristóbal Matarán López |year2021 |titleThe Austrian school of Madrid |journalThe Review of Austrian Economics |volume36 |pages61–79 |doi10.1007/s11138-021-00541-0 |quoteIn addition, Professor Huerta de Soto has become one of the most prominent and resolute defenders of the Anarchocapitalism, that is, the full and complete privatisation of all goods and services. |doi-accessfree}}</ref>
Central to Rothbardian anarcho-capitalism are the concepts of self-ownership and original appropriation that combines personal and private property. Hans-Hermann Hoppe wrote:
{{blockquote|Everyone is the proper owner of his own physical body as well as of all places and nature-given goods that he occupies and puts to use by means of his body, provided only that no one else has already occupied or used the same places and goods before him. This ownership of "originally appropriated" places and goods by a person implies his right to use and transform these places and goods in any way he sees fit, provided only that he does not change thereby uninvitedly the physical integrity of places and goods originally appropriated by another person. In particular, once a place or good has been first appropriated by, in John Locke's phrase, 'mixing one's labor' with it, ownership in such places and goods can be acquired only by means of a voluntary&nbsp;– contractual&nbsp;– transfer of its property title from a previous to a later owner.<ref name"Hoppe-2002">{{Cite web |lastHoppe |firstHans-Hermann |author-linkHans-Hermann Hoppe |date20 May 2002 |titleRothbardian Ethics |urlhttp://archive.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe7.html |access-date15 June 2020 |websiteLewRockwell.com |archive-date13 March 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140313203720/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/hoppe/hoppe7.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
Rothbard however rejected the Lockean proviso, and followed the rule of "first come, first served", without any consideration of how much resources are left for other individuals.<ref name="tennessee" /><ref>John Locke, Second Treatise of Government, Chapter V, paragraph 27.</ref>
Anarcho-capitalists advocate private ownership of the means of production and the allocation of the product of labor created by workers within the context of wage labour and the free market – that is through decisions made by property and capital owners, regardless of what an individual needs or does not need.<ref name":12" /> Original appropriation allows an individual to claim any never-before-used resources, including land and by improving or otherwise using it, own it with the same "absolute right" as their own body, and retaining those rights forever, regardless of whether the resource is still being used by them. According to Rothbard, property can only come about through labor, therefore original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around it{{snd}}it is only by using land and by mixing one's labor with it that original appropriation is legitimized: "Any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be". Rothbard argued that the resource need not continue to be used in order for it to be the person's property as "for once his labor is mixed with the natural resource, it remains his owned land. His labor has been irretrievably mixed with the land, and the land is therefore his or his assigns' in perpetuity".<ref name"Rothbard-MES">{{Cite book |lastRothbard |firstMurray |titleMan, Economy, and State |year1993 |edition2nd |author-linkMurray Rothbard |orig-date1962}} published in {{cite book |lastRothbard |firstMurray |titleMan, Economy, and State with Power and Market |year2009 |publisherMises Institute |isbn978-1-933550-27-5 |edition2nd |urlhttps://mises.org/library/man-economy-and-state-power-and-market |access-date15 June 2020 |archive-date18 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220818171401/https://mises.org/library/man-economy-and-state-power-and-market |url-status=live }}</ref>{{rp|170}}
Rothbard also spoke about a theory of justice in property rights:
{{blockquote|It is not enough to call simply for the defense of "the rights of private property"; there must be an adequate theory of justice in property rights, else any property that some State once decreed to be "private" must now be defended by libertarians, no matter how unjust the procedure or how mischievous its consequences.<ref name="autogenerated1" />}}
In Justice and Property Rights, Rothbard wrote that "any identifiable owner (the original victim of theft or his heir) must be accorded his property".<ref>Rothbard, Murray (2000). [https://mises.org/library/justice-and-property-rights-failure-utilitarianism "Justice and Property Rights: The Failure of Utilitarianism"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200825043047/https://mises.org/library/justice-and-property-rights-failure-utilitarianism |date25 August 2020 }}. In Egalitarianism as a Revolt Against Nature and Other Essays (2nd ed.). Auburn: Mises Institute. p. 113. {{ISBN|978-1610164627}}.</ref><ref>Cobin, John M. (2009). A Primer on Modern Themes in Free Market Economics and Policy. Irvine: Universal-Publishers. p. 557. {{ISBN|978-1610167024}}.</ref> In the case of slavery, Rothbard claimed that in many cases "the old plantations and the heirs and descendants of the former slaves can be identified, and the reparations can become highly specific indeed". Rothbard believed slaves rightfully own any land they were forced to work on under the homestead principle. If property is held by the state, Rothbard advocated its confiscation and "return to the private sector",<ref>Deist, Jeff (7 December 2019). [https://mises.org/power-market/rothbard-slavery-reparations "Rothbard on Slavery Reparations"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200828194210/https://mises.org/power-market/rothbard-slavery-reparations |date28 August 2020 }}. Mises Institute. Retrieved 6 September 2020.</ref> writing that "any property in the hands of the State is in the hands of thieves, and should be liberated as quickly as possible".<ref name"Gordon 2019">Gordon, David, ed.; Rothbard, Murray; Fuller, Edward W. (2019). Rothbard A to Z. Auburn: Mises Institute. {{ISBN|978-1610167024}}.</ref> Rothbard proposed that state universities be seized by the students and faculty under the homestead principle. Rothbard also supported the expropriation of nominally "private property" if it is the result of state-initiated force such as businesses that receive grants and subsidies.<ref>Carson, Kevin (28 September 2012). [https://c4ss.org/content/12938 "The Left-Rothbardians, Part I: Rothbard"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190924152853/https://c4ss.org/content/12938 |date24 September 2019 }}. Center for a Stateless Society. "What most people ordinarily identify as the stereotypical 'libertarian' privatization proposal, unfortunately, goes something like this: sell it to a giant corporation on terms that are most advantageous to the corporation. Rothbard proposed, instead, was to treat state property as unowned, and allow it to be homesteaded by those actually occupying it and mixing their labor with it. This would mean transforming government utilities, schools, and other services into consumer cooperatives and placing them under the direct control of their present clientele. It would mean handing over state industry to workers' syndicates and transforming it into worker-owned cooperatives". Retrieved 10 January 2020.</ref> Rothbard further proposed that businesses who receive at least 50% of their funding from the state be confiscated by the workers,<ref>Rothbard, Murray (Spring 1965). "Left and Right: The Prospects for Liberty". Left and Right: A Journal of Libertarian Thought. 1 (1): 4–22.</ref><ref>Long, Roderick T. (8 April 2006). [https://mises.org/library/rothbards-left-and-right-forty-years-later "Rothbard's 'Left and Right': Forty Years Later"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191010073127/https://mises.org/library/rothbards-left-and-right-forty-years-later |date10 October 2019 }}. Mises Institute. Rothbard Memorial Lecture, Austrian Scholars Conference 2006. Retrieved 17 March 2020.</ref> writing: "What we libertarians object to, then, is not government per se but crime, what we object to is unjust or criminal property titles; what we are for is not 'private' property per se but just, innocent, non-criminal private property".<ref name"Gordon 2019" />
Similarly, Karl Hess wrote that "libertarianism wants to advance principles of property but that it in no way wishes to defend, willy nilly, all property which now is called private ... Much of that property is stolen. Much is of dubious title. All of it is deeply intertwined with an immoral, coercive state system".<ref name"Hess1969">{{cite journal |lastHess |firstKarl |author-linkKarl Hess |titleLetter From Washington: Where Are The Specifics? |journalThe Libertarian Forum |date15 June 1969 |volumeI |issueVI |page2}} published in {{Cite book |urlhttps://cdn.mises.org/Libertarian%20Forum_Volume_1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cdn.mises.org/Libertarian%20Forum_Volume_1.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |titleThe Complete Libertarian Forum: 1969–1984 |year2006 |publisherLudwig von Mises Institute |isbn978-1-933550-02-2 |editor-lastRothbard |editor-firstMurray N. |editor-linkMurray Rothbard |volume1: 1969–1975 |page26 |access-date15 June 2020}}</ref>
Anarchists view capitalism as an inherently authoritarian and hierarchical system and seek the abolishment of private property.<ref name"proudhon-prop">Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph (1840). What is Property?</ref> There is disagreement between anarchists and anarcho-capitalists<ref>{{Cite web |authorMurray Rothbard |author-linkMurray Rothbard |titleConcepts of the role of intellectuals in social change toward laissez faire |urlhttps://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081216214953/https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf |archive-date16 December 2008<!--Added by DASHBot--> |access-date28 December 2008}}</ref> as the former generally rejects anarcho-capitalism as a form of anarchism and considers anarcho-capitalism a contradiction in terms,<ref>Weick, David. Anarchist Justice. pp. 223–24</ref><ref>Sabatini, Peter. Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy.</ref> while the latter holds that the abolishment of private property would require expropriation which is "counterproductive to order" and would require a state.<ref name"libertarianpapers">Stacy, Don (2011). [http://libertarianpapers.org/articles/2011/lp-3-3.pdf "Review of Kosanke's Instead of Politics – Don Stacy"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181001010127/http://libertarianpapers.org/articles/2011/lp-3-3.pdf |date1 October 2018 }}. Libertarian Papers. 3 (3).</ref> Common property As opposed to anarchists,<ref>{{Cite web |last1Sandra Jeppesen |last2Anna Kruzynski |last3Rachel Sarrasin |year2014 |titleThe anarchist commons |urlhttp://www.mediaactionresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Anarchist-Commons-FINAL.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.mediaactionresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Anarchist-Commons-FINAL.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |publisherEphemera}}</ref> most anarcho-capitalists reject the commons.<ref name"Holcombe" /> However, some of them propose that non-state public or community property can also exist in an anarcho-capitalist society.<ref name="Holcombe" /> For anarcho-capitalists, what is important is that it is "acquired" and transferred without help or hindrance from what they call the "compulsory state". Deontological anarcho-capitalists believe that the only just and most economically beneficial way to acquire property is through voluntary trade, gift, or labor-based original appropriation, rather than through aggression or fraud.<ref>Avrich, Paul. Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America, Abridged Paperback Edition (1996), p. 282.</ref>
Anarcho-capitalists state that there could be cases where common property may develop in a Lockean natural rights framework. Anarcho-capitalists make the example of a number of private businesses which may arise in an area, each owning the land and buildings that they use, but they argue that the paths between them become cleared and trodden incrementally through customer and commercial movement. These thoroughfares may become valuable to the community, but according to them ownership cannot be attributed to any single person and original appropriation does not apply because many contributed the labor necessary to create them. In order to prevent it from falling to the "tragedy of the commons", anarcho-capitalists suggest transitioning from common to private property, wherein an individual would make a homesteading claim based on disuse, acquire title by the assent of the community consensus, form a corporation with other involved parties, or other means.<ref name"Holcombe">{{Cite journal |lastHolcombe |firstRandall G. |author-linkRandall G. Holcombe |year2005 |titleCommon Property in Anarcho-Capitalism |urlhttps://cdn.mises.org/19_2_1.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cdn.mises.org/19_2_1.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |journalJournal of Libertarian Studies |volume19 |issue2 (Spring) |pages3–29 |access-date=15 June 2020}}</ref>
American economist Randall G. Holcombe sees challenges stemming from the idea of common property under anarcho-capitalism, such as whether an individual might claim fishing rights in the area of a major shipping lane and thereby forbid passage through it.<ref name"Holcombe" /> In contrast, Hoppe's work on anarcho-capitalist theory is based on the assumption that all property is privately held, "including all streets, rivers, airports, and harbors" which forms the foundation of his views on immigration.<ref name"Holcombe" />
Intellectual property
Some anarcho-capitalists strongly oppose intellectual property (i.e., trademarks, patents, copyrights). Stephan N. Kinsella argues that ownership only relates to tangible assets.<ref>{{cite book|lastKinsella |firstN. Stephan |urlhttps://cdn.mises.org/Against%20Intellectual%20Property_2.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://cdn.mises.org/Against%20Intellectual%20Property_2.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |titleAgainst Intellectual Property |publisherLudwig Von Mises Institute |year2008}}</ref> Contractual society The society envisioned by anarcho-capitalists has been labelled by them as a "contractual society" which Rothbard described as "a society based purely on voluntary action, entirely unhampered by violence or threats of violence"<ref name"Rothbard-MES" />{{rp|84}} The system relies on contracts between individuals as the legal framework which would be enforced by private police and security forces as well as private arbitrations.<ref name"kazmi">{{Cite book |authorZaheer Kazmi |titlePolite Anarchy in International Relations Theory |publisherPalgrave Macmillan US |year2012 |isbn978-1-137-02813-6 |seriesThe Palgrave Macmillan History of International Thought |page46 |quoteNotably, in light of latter-day anarcho-capitalism, Tucker had also advocated the privatisation of the policing and security functions of the state to protect people and property and accepted the use of violence as means of enforcing contracts.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1Nathan W. Schlueter |author2Nikolai G. Wenzel |titleSelfish Libertarians and Socialist Conservatives? |publisherStanford University Press |year2018 |isbn978-1-5036-0029-4 |page138}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1Carl Levy |author2Matthew Adams |titleThe Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |year2019 |isbn978-3-319-75620-2 |page=558}}</ref>
Rothbard argues that limited liability for corporations could also exist through contract, arguing that "[c]orporations are not at all monopolistic privileges; they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital. On the purely free market, those men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation".<ref name="Rothbard-P&M" />
There are limits to the right to contract under some interpretations of anarcho-capitalism. Rothbard believes that the right to contract is based in inalienable rights<ref name"Rothbard-1982.2" /> and because of this any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will, preventing a person from permanently selling himself or herself into unindentured slavery. That restriction aside, the right to contract under anarcho-capitalist order would be pretty broad. For example, Rothbard went as far as to justify stork markets, arguing that a market in guardianship rights would facilitate the transfer of guardianship from abusive or neglectful parents to those more interested or suited to raising children.<ref>{{cite web |authorMurray Rothbard |date4 May 2007 |titleChildren and Rights |urlhttps://mises.org/library/children-and-rights |publisherMises Institute |access-date7 July 2020 |archive-date31 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231183556/https://mises.org/library/children-and-rights |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date2 September 2016 |titleWhere did Donald Trump get his racialized rhetoric? From libertarians |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2016/09/02/where-did-donald-trump-get-his-racialized-rhetoric-from-libertarians/ |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-date7 July 2020 |archive-date12 October 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161012131625/https://www.washingtonpost.com/posteverything/wp/2016/09/02/where-did-donald-trump-get-his-racialized-rhetoric-from-libertarians/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Other anarcho-capitalists have also suggested the legalization of organ markets, as in Iran's renal market. Other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract.<ref name"Nozick-1974">{{cite book |lastNozick |firstRobert |titleAnarchy, State, and Utopia |year1974 |publisherBasic Books |locationNew York |author-linkRobert Nozick}}{{pages needed|date=July 2020}}</ref>
Included in the right of contract is "the right to contract oneself out for employment by others". While anarchists criticize wage labour describing it as wage slavery, anarcho-capitalists view it as a consensual contract.<ref name"radcap" /> Some anarcho-capitalists prefer to see self-employment prevail over wage labor. David D. Friedman has expressed a preference for a society where "almost everyone is self-employed" and "instead of corporations there are large groups of entrepreneurs related by trade, not authority. Each sells not his time, but what his time produces".<ref name"radcap">{{cite book|lastFriedman |firstDavid |author-linkDavid D. Friedman |titleThe Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism |publisherHarper & Row |year1973 |isbn978-0-06-091010-5 |pages144–145}}</ref>
Law and order and the use of violence
Different anarcho-capitalists propose different forms of anarcho-capitalism and one area of disagreement is in the area of law. In The Market for Liberty, Morris and Linda Tannehill object to any statutory law whatsoever. They argue that all one has to do is ask if one is aggressing against another in order to decide if an act is right or wrong.<ref>Brown, Susan Love, The Free Market as Salvation from Government: The Anarcho-Capitalist View, Meanings of the Market: The Free Market in Western Culture, edited by James G. Carrier, Berg/Oxford, 1997, p. 113.</ref> However, while also supporting a natural prohibition on force and fraud, Rothbard supports the establishment of a mutually agreed-upon centralized libertarian legal code which private courts would pledge to follow, as he presumes a high degree of convergence amongst individuals about what constitutes natural justice.<ref>{{cite book |firstGeorge |lastKlosko |titleThe Oxford Handbook of the History of Political Philosophy |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford |year2011 |page=684}}</ref>
Unlike both the Tannehills and Rothbard who see an ideological commonality of ethics and morality as a requirement, David D. Friedman proposes that "the systems of law will be produced for profit on the open market, just as books and bras are produced today. There could be competition among different brands of law, just as there is competition among different brands of cars".<ref name"koltwm">Friedman, David. The Machinery of Freedom. Second edition. La Salle, Ill, Open Court, pp. 116–17.</ref> Friedman says whether this would lead to a libertarian society "remains to be proven". He says it is a possibility that very un-libertarian laws may result, such as laws against drugs, but he thinks this would be rare. He reasons that "if the value of a law to its supporters is less than its cost to its victims, that law ... will not survive in an anarcho-capitalist society".<ref>{{cite book|lastFriedman |firstDavid |author-linkDavid D. Friedman |titleThe Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism |publisherHarper & Row |year1973 |isbn978-0-06-091010-5 |pages=127–128}}</ref>
Anarcho-capitalists only accept the collective defense of individual liberty (i.e. courts, military, or police forces) insofar as such groups are formed and paid for on an explicitly voluntary basis. However, their complaint is not just that the state's defensive services are funded by taxation, but that the state assumes it is the only legitimate practitioner of physical force{{snd}}that is, they believe it forcibly prevents the private sector from providing comprehensive security, such as a police, judicial and prison systems to protect individuals from aggressors. Anarcho-capitalists believe that there is nothing morally superior about the state which would grant it, but not private individuals, a right to use physical force to restrain aggressors. If competition in security provision were allowed to exist, prices would also be lower and services would be better according to anarcho-capitalists. According to Molinari: "Under a regime of liberty, the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries".<ref name"Molinari-1849">{{cite book|lastDe Molinari |firstGustave |year1849 |urlhttp://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm |titleThe Production of Security |translator-firstJ. Huston |translator-lastMcCulloch |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927000023/http://praxeology.net/GM-PS.htm |archive-date27 September 2007 |access-date15 July 2006}}</ref> Proponents believe that private systems of justice and defense already exist, naturally forming where the market is allowed to "compensate for the failure of the state", namely private arbitration, security guards, neighborhood watch groups and so on.<ref name"Stringham 53">{{cite journal |last1Stringham |first1Edward |last2Curott |first2Nicholas |year2010 |editor-lastLopez |editor-firstEdward |titleThe Rise of Government Law Enforcement in England |journalThe Pursuit of Justice: Law and Economics of Legal Institutions |publisherIndependent Institute |ssrn1711665}}</ref><ref name"Stringham 52">{{cite journal |lastStringham |firstEdward |titleMarket Chosen Law |journalJournal of Libertarian Studies |date12 December 1999 |volume14 (1998–1999) |issue1 (Winter) |pages53–77 |ssrn1676257}}</ref><ref name"Stringham 51">{{cite journal |last1Stringham |first1Edward |last2Zywicki |first2Todd |date5 November 2005 |titleRivalry and Superior Dispatch: An Analysis of Competing Courts in Medieval and Early Modern England |journalGeorge Mason Law & Economics Research Paper |volume10 |issue57 |doi10.2139/ssrn.1703598 |ssrn1703598 |s2cid154834118}}</ref><ref name"Friedman-1973">{{cite book|lastFriedman |firstDavid |author-linkDavid D. Friedman |titleThe Machinery of Freedom: Guide to a Radical Capitalism |publisherHarper & Row |year1973 |isbn978-0-06-091010-5 |chapter29 |chapter-urlhttp://www.daviddfriedman.com/Libertarian/Machinery_of_Freedom/MofF_Chapter_29.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101231170941/http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Libertarian/Machinery_of_Freedom/MofF_Chapter_29.html |archive-date31 December 2010}}</ref> These private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as private defense agencies. The defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on taxation, or by cooperative self-help by groups of individuals.<ref name"Rothbard" />{{rp|223}} Edward Stringham argues that private adjudication of disputes could enable the market to internalize externalities and provide services that customers desire.<ref name"Stringham 2015">{{cite book |lastStringham |firstEdward |titlePrivate Governance |year2015 |publisherOxford University Press}}</ref><ref name"Stringham 60">{{cite journal |last1Caplan |first1Bryan |last2Stringham |first2Edward |year2008 |titlePrivatizing the Adjudication of Disputes |journalTheoretical Inquiries in Law |volume9 |issue2 |pages503–28 |doi10.2202/1565-3404.1195 |ssrn1674441 |s2cid=154304272}}</ref>
at the Battle of Bunker Hill during the American Revolutionary War, a war which anarcho-capitalists such as Murray Rothbard admired and believed it was the only American war that could be justified<ref>{{cite web |titleJust War and Rothbardian Libertarianism {{!}} Encyclopedia of Military Ethics |urlhttps://www.militaryethics.org/Just-War-and-Rothbardian-Libertarianism/13/ |websitewww.militaryethics.org |access-date2 November 2023 |archive-date28 November 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231128124912/https://www.militaryethics.org/Just-War-and-Rothbardian-Libertarianism/13/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Rothbard stated that the American Revolutionary War and the American Civil War were the only two just wars in American military history.<ref>{{Citation |lastRothbard |firstMurray N. |titleAmerica's Two Just Wars: 1775 and 1861 |date5 July 2017 |workThe Costs of War |pages119–133 |publisherRoutledge |doi10.4324/9781315131481-4 |isbn978-1-315-13148-1}}</ref> Some anarcho-capitalists such as Rothbard feel that violent revolution is counter-productive and prefer voluntary forms of economic secession to the extent possible.<ref>{{cite journal |lastRothbard |firstMurray |author-linkMurray Rothbard |year1981 |titleKonkin on Libertarian Strategy |urlhttp://www.rothbard.it/articles/konkin-on-libertarian.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.rothbard.it/articles/konkin-on-libertarian.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |journalStrategy of the New Libertarian Alliance}}</ref> Retributive justice is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarcho-capitalist society. According to Matthew O'Keefee{{who|dateNovember 2023}}, some anarcho-capitalists believe prisons or indentured servitude would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarcho-capitalist property relations while others believe exile or forced restitution are sufficient.<ref name"OKeefe1989">{{Cite journal |lastO'Keeffe |firstMatthew |year1989 |titleRetribution Versus Restitution |urlhttp://libertarian.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/legan005.pdf |journalLegal Notes |locationLondon |publisherLibertarian Alliance |volume5 |isbn1-870614-22-4 |issn0267-7083|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220203193034/http://libertarian.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/legan005.pdf|archive-date3 February 2022}}</ref> Rothbard stressed the importance of restitution as the primary focus of a libertarian legal order<ref name"tennessee">{{Cite web |lastHall |firstLarry M |dateDecember 1990 |titleAnarcho-Capitalist Threads in Modern Libertarianism: The Social Thought of Murray Rothbard |urlhttps://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article4312&contextutk_graddiss |access-date23 July 2023 |websitetennessee.edu |page140 |archive-date24 March 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230324032927/https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article4312&contextutk_graddiss |url-statuslive }}</ref> and advocated for corporal punishment for petty vandals and the death penalty for murders.
American economist Bruce L. Benson argues that legal codes may impose punitive damages for intentional torts in the interest of deterring crime. Benson gives the example of a thief who breaks into a house by picking a lock. Even if caught before taking anything, Benson argues that the thief would still owe the victim for violating the sanctity of his property rights. Benson opines that despite the lack of objectively measurable losses in such cases, "standardized rules that are generally perceived to be fair by members of the community would, in all likelihood, be established through precedent, allowing judgments to specify payments that are reasonably appropriate for most criminal offenses".<ref>{{cite book |lastBenson |firstBruce |urlhttps://archive.org/details/toserveprotectpr00bens |titleTo Serve and Protect: Privatization and Community in Criminal Justice |publisherNYU Press |year1998 |isbn978-0-8147-1327-3 |pages[https://archive.org/details/toserveprotectpr00bens/page/n263 235]–38 |url-access=limited}}</ref>
Morris and Linda Tannehill raise a similar example, saying that a bank robber who had an attack of conscience and returned the money would still owe reparations for endangering the employees' and customers' lives and safety, in addition to the costs of the defense agency answering the teller's call for help. However, they believe that the robber's loss of reputation would be even more damaging. They suggest that specialized companies would list aggressors so that anyone wishing to do business with a man could first check his record, provided they trust the veracity of the companies' records. They further theorise that the bank robber would find insurance companies listing him as a very poor risk and other firms would be reluctant to enter into contracts with him.<ref>{{cite book |lastTannehill, Linda and Morris |urlhttps://www.mises.org/books/marketforliberty.pdf |titleThe Market for Liberty |publisherFox & Wilkes |year1993 |isbn978-0-930073-08-4 |locationSan Francisco |pages105–106 |access-date30 June 2011 |archive-date3 October 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141003011703/http://www.mises.org/books/marketforliberty.pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Influences
Murray Rothbard has listed different ideologies of which his interpretations, he said, have influenced anarcho-capitalism.<ref name"Miller 1987" /><ref name"Bottomore 1991" /> This includes his interpretation of anarchism, and more precisely individualist anarchism; classical liberalism and the Austrian School of economic thought. Scholars additionally associate anarcho-capitalism with neo-classical liberalism, radical neoliberalism and right-libertarianism.<ref name"Marshall 1992" /><ref name"Newman 2010" /><ref name"Goodway 2006" /> Anarchism
{{Main|Anarchism and capitalism}}
In both its social and individualist forms, anarchism is usually considered an anti-capitalist<ref name"Jun 2009">{{cite journal|lastJun |firstNathan |dateSeptember 2009 |titleAnarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle: A Brief History and Commentary |journalWorkingUSA |volume12 |number3 |pages507–508 |doi10.1111/j.1743-4580.2009.00251.x |issn1089-7011 |urlhttps://philarchive.org/rec/JUNAPA-2 |quote[Anarchists oppose] all centralized and hierarchical forms of government (e.g., monarchy, representative democracy, state socialism, etc.), economic class systems (e.g., capitalism, Bolshevism, feudalism, slavery, etc.), autocratic religions (e.g., fundamentalist Islam, Roman Catholicism, etc.), patriarchy, heterosexism, white supremacy, and imperialism.}}</ref><ref name"Williams 2018">Williams, Dana M. (2018). "Contemporary Anarchist and Anarchistic Movements". Sociology Compass. Wiley. 12 (6): 4. {{doi|10.1111/soc4.12582}}. {{ISSN|1751-9020}}.</ref> and radical left-wing or far-left<ref>{{Cite journal |lastKahn |firstJoseph |date5 August 2000 |titleAnarchism, the Creed That Won't Stay Dead; The Spread of World Capitalism Resurrects a Long-Dormant Movement |journalThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/05/arts/anarchism-creed-that-won-t-stay-dead-spread-world-capitalism-resurrects-long.html |access-date26 September 2023 |archive-date26 September 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230926114130/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/08/05/arts/anarchism-creed-that-won-t-stay-dead-spread-world-capitalism-resurrects-long.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastMoynihan |firstColin |titleBook Fair Unites Anarchists. In Spirit, Anyway |journalThe New York Times |date16 April 2007 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/16/nyregion/16anarchists.html |access-date26 September 2023 |archive-date14 September 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210914000000/https://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/16/nyregion/16anarchists.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"brooks2" /> movement that promotes libertarian socialist economic theories such as collectivism, communism, individualism, mutualism and syndicalism.<ref>Guerin, Daniel (1970). Anarchism: From Theory to Practice. Monthly Review Press. pp. 12, 35. {{ISBN|978-0853451280}}.</ref> Because anarchism is usually described alongside libertarian Marxism as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement and as having a historical association with anti-capitalism and socialism, anarchists believe that capitalism is incompatible with social and economic equality and therefore do not recognize anarcho-capitalism as an anarchist school of thought.<ref name"Marshall 1992">Marshall, Peter (1992). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: HarperCollins. pp. 564–565. {{ISBN|978-0-00-217855-6}}. "Anarcho-capitalists are against the State simply because they are capitalists first and foremost. [...] They are not concerned with the social consequences of capitalism for the weak, powerless and ignorant. [...] As such, anarcho-capitalism overlooks the egalitarian implications of traditional individualist anarchists like Spooner and Tucker. In fact, few anarchists would accept the 'anarcho-capitalists' into the anarchist camp since they do not share a concern for economic equality and social justice. Their self-interested, calculating market men would be incapable of practising voluntary cooperation and mutual aid. Anarcho-capitalists, even if they do reject the state, might therefore best be called right-wing libertarians rather than anarchists."</ref><ref name"Goodway 2006">Goodway, David (2006). Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow: Left-Libertarian Thought and British Writers from William Morris to Colin Ward. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. p. 4. {{"'}}Libertarian' and 'libertarianism' are frequently employed by anarchists as synonyms for 'anarchist' and 'anarchism', largely as an attempt to distance themselves from the negative connotations of 'anarchy' and its derivatives. The situation has been vastly complicated in recent decades with the rise of anarcho-capitalism, 'minimal statism' and an extreme right-wing laissez-faire philosophy advocated by such theorists as Rothbard and Nozick and their adoption of the words 'libertarian' and 'libertarianism'. It has therefore now become necessary to distinguish between their right libertarianism and the left libertarianism of the anarchist tradition."</ref><ref name"Newman 2010">Newman, Saul (2010). The Politics of Postanarchism. Edinburgh University Press. p. 43. "It is important to distinguish between anarchism and certain strands of right-wing libertarianism which at times go by the same name (for example, Rothbard's anarcho-capitalism)." {{ISBN|0748634959}}.</ref> In particular, anarchists argue that capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining the class structure of a capitalist society requires coercion which is incompatible with an anarchist society.<ref name"Tame, Chris R 1983. p. 56">Tame, Chris R. (October 1983). The Chicago School: Lessons from the Thirties for the Eighties. Economic Affairs. p. 56.</ref><ref name"McKay 2008">McKay, Iain (2008). An Anarchist FAQ. 1. "What are the myths of capitalist economics?" "Is 'anarcho'-capitalism a type of anarchism?" Oakland/Edinburgh: AK Press. {{ISBN|978-1902593906}}.</ref> The usage of libertarian is also in dispute.<ref>Marshall, Peter (1992). Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism. London: HarperCollins. p. 641. {{ISBN|978-0-00-217855-6}}. "For a long time, libertarian was interchangeable in France with anarchist but in recent years, its meaning has become more ambivalent."</ref> While both anarchists and anarcho-capitalists have used it, libertarian was synonymous with anarchist until the mid-20th century, when anarcho-capitalist theory developed.<ref name"Goodway 2006" /><ref>{{cite book|lastCohn |firstJesse |date20 April 2009 |chapterAnarchism |editor-lastNess |editor-firstImmanuel |titleThe International Encyclopedia of Revolution and Protest |locationOxford |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |pages1–11 (6) |doi10.1002/9781405198073.wbierp0039 |isbn978-1-4051-9807-3 |quote[...] 'libertarianism' [...] a term that, until the mid-twentieth century, was synonymous with 'anarchism' per se}}</ref>
Anarcho-capitalists are distinguished from the dominant anarchist tradition by their relation to property and capital. While both anarchism and anarcho-capitalism share general antipathy towards government authority, anarcho-capitalism favors free-market capitalism. Anarchists, including egoists such as Max Stirner, have supported the protection of an individual's freedom from powers of both government and private property owners.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastFrancis |firstMark |dateDecember 1983 |titleHuman Rights and Libertarians |journalAustralian Journal of Politics & History |volume29 |issue3 |page462 |doi10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x |issn0004-9522}}</ref> In contrast, while condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties, anarcho-capitalists support freedoms based on private property rights. Anarcho-capitalist theorist Murray Rothbard argued that protesters should rent a street for protest from its owners. The abolition of public amenities is a common theme in some anarcho-capitalist writings.<ref>{{cite journal |lastFrancis |firstMark |dateDecember 1983 |titleHuman Rights and Libertarians |journalAustralian Journal of Politics & History |volume29 |issue3 |pages462–463 |doi10.1111/j.1467-8497.1983.tb00212.x |issn0004-9522}}</ref>
As anarcho-capitalism puts laissez-faire economics before economic equality, it is commonly viewed as incompatible with the anti-capitalist and egalitarian tradition of anarchism. Although anarcho-capitalist theory implies the abolition of the state in favour of a fully laissez-faire economy,<ref name"Gay & Gay 1999">Gay, Kathlyn; Gay, Martin (1999). Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO. {{ISBN|978-0-87436-982-3}}.</ref> it lies outside the tradition of anarchism.{{refn|<ref name"Marshall 1992" /><ref name"Jennings 1993">Jennings, Jeremy (1993). "Anarchism". In Eatwell, Roger; Wright, Anthony (eds.). Contemporary Political Ideologies. London: Pinter. pp. 127–146. {{ISBN|978-0-86187-096-7}}. "[...] anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community" (p. 143).</ref><ref name"Gay & Gay 1999, p. 15">Gay, Kathlyn; Gay, Martin (1999). Encyclopedia of Political Anarchy. ABC-CLIO. p. 15. {{ISBN|978-0-87436-982-3}}. "For many anarchists (of whatever persuasion), anarcho-capitalism is a contradictory term, since 'traditional' anarchists oppose capitalism".</ref><ref name"Morriss 2008">Morriss, Andrew (2008). "Anarcho-capitalism". In Hamowy, Ronald (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Sage; Cato Institute. pp. 13–14. {{doi|10.4135/9781412965811.n8}}. {{ISBN|978-1-4129-6580-4}}. {{OCLC|191924853}}. "Social anarchists, those anarchists with communitarian leanings, are critical of anarcho-capitalism because it permits individuals to accumulate substantial power through markets and private property."</ref><ref name"Franks 2013">Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). "Anarchism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 385–404. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001}}. "Individualisms that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms such as the economic-power relations of anarcho-capitalism [...] are incompatible with practices of social anarchism. [...] Increasingly, academic analysis has followed activist currents in rejecting the view that anarcho-capitalism has anything to do with social anarchism" (pp. 393–394).</ref>}} While using the language of anarchism,<ref name"Davis 2019, p. 64" /> anarcho-capitalism only shares anarchism's antipathy towards the state<ref name"Gay & Gay 1999" /> and not anarchism's antipathy towards hierarchy as theorists expect from anarcho-capitalist economic power relations.<ref name"Davis 2019, p. 64">Davis, Laurence (2019). "Individual and Community". In Levy, Carl; Adams, Matthew S. (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism. Cham: Springer. pp. 47–70. {{doi|10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_3}}. {{ISBN|978-3-319-75619-6}}.</ref> It follows a different paradigm from anarchism and has a fundamentally different approach and goals.<ref name"Davis 2019, p. 64" /> In spite of the anarcho- in its title,<ref name"Davis 2019, p. 64" /> anarcho-capitalism is more closely affiliated with capitalism, right-libertarianism, and liberalism than with anarchism.<ref name"Pele Riley p1743872120978202" />{{refn|<ref name"Marshall 1992" /><ref name"Jennings 1993" /><ref name"Gay & Gay 1999, p. 15" /><ref name"Morriss 2008" /><ref name"Franks 2013" />}} Some within this laissez-faire tradition reject the designation of anarcho-capitalism, believing that capitalism may either refer to the laissez-faire market they support or the government-regulated system that they oppose.<ref>{{cite book|editor1-lastLong |editor1-firstRoderick T. |editor2-lastMachan |editor2-firstTibor R. |year2008 |titleAnarchism/Minarchism: Is a Government Part of a Free Country? |publisherAshgate |pagevii |isbn=978-0-7546-6066-8}}</ref>
Rothbard argued that anarcho-capitalism is the only true form of anarchism{{snd}}the only form of anarchism that could possibly exist in reality as he maintained that any other form presupposes authoritarian enforcement of a political ideology such as "redistribution of private property", which he attributed to anarchism.<ref name":6" /> According to this argument, the capitalist free market is "the natural situation" that would result from people being free from state authority and entails the establishment of all voluntary associations in society such as cooperatives, non-profit organizations, businesses and so on. Moreover, anarcho-capitalists, as well as classical liberal minarchists, argue that the application of anarchist ideals as advocated by what they term "left-wing anarchists" would require an authoritarian body of some sort to impose it. Based on their understanding and interpretation of anarchism, in order to forcefully prevent people from accumulating capital, which they believe is a goal of anarchists, there would necessarily be a redistributive organization of some sort which would have the authority to in essence exact a tax and re-allocate the resulting resources to a larger group of people. They conclude that this theoretical body would inherently have political power and would be nothing short of a state. The difference between such an arrangement and an anarcho-capitalist system is what anarcho-capitalists see as the voluntary nature of organization within anarcho-capitalism contrasted with a "centralized ideology" and a "paired enforcement mechanism" which they believe would be necessary under what they describe as a "coercively" egalitarian-anarchist system.<ref name"Tame, Chris R 1983. p. 56" />
Rothbard also argued that the capitalist system of today is not properly anarchistic because it often colludes with the state. According to Rothbard, "what Marx and later writers have done is to lump together two extremely different and even contradictory concepts and actions under the same portmanteau term. These two contradictory concepts are what I would call 'free-market capitalism' on the one hand, and 'state capitalism' on the other". "The difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism", writes Rothbard, "is precisely the difference between, on the one hand, peaceful, voluntary exchange, and on the other, violent expropriation". He continues: "State capitalism inevitably creates all sorts of problems which become insoluble".<ref name=":6" />
Traditional anarchists reject the notion of capitalism, hierarchies and private property.<ref name"Funnell 2007">Funnell, Warwick (2007). [https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1001&contextaabfj "Accounting and the Virtues of Anarchy"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211115205625/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1001&contextaabfj |date15 November 2021 }}. Australasian Accounting, Business and Finance Journal. 1 (1) 18–27. {{doi|10.14453/aabfj.v1i1.2}}.</ref><ref name"Williams 2012">Williams, Dana (2012). "From Top to Bottom, a Thoroughly Stratified World: An Anarchist View of Inequality and Domination". Race, Gender & Class. 19 (3/4): 9–34. {{JSTOR|43497486}}.</ref><ref name"White & Williams 2014">White, Richard; Williams, Colin (2014). [http://www.ephemerajournal.org/contribution/anarchist-economic-practices-%E2%80%98capitalist%E2%80%99-society-some-implications-organisation-and "Anarchist Economic Practices in a 'Capitalist' Society: Some Implications for Organisation and the Future of Work"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211115205823/http://www.ephemerajournal.org/contribution/anarchist-economic-practices-%E2%80%98capitalist%E2%80%99-society-some-implications-organisation-and |date15 November 2021}}. Ephermera: Theory and Politics in Organization. 14 (4): 947–971. {{ssrn|2707308}}.</ref> Albert Meltzer argued that anarcho-capitalism simply cannot be anarchism because capitalism and the state are inextricably interlinked and because capitalism exhibits domineering hierarchical structures such as that between an employer and an employee.<ref>{{Cite book |lastCasey |firstGerard |titleFreedom's Progress? |publisherAndrews UK Limited |year2018 |isbn978-1-84540-942-5 |page670}}</ref> Anna Morgenstern approaches this topic from the opposite perspective, arguing that anarcho-capitalists are not really capitalists because "mass concentration of capital is impossible" without the state.<ref>{{Cite book |lastJun |firstNathan J. |titleBrill's Companion to Anarchism and philosophy |publisherBrill |year2017 |isbn978-90-04-35688-7 |page293}}</ref> According to Jeremy Jennings, "[i]t is hard not to conclude that these ideas," referring to anarcho-capitalism, have "roots deep in classical liberalism" and "are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is." For Jennings, "anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual (as the 'anarcho-capitalists' appear to believe) but, as we have already seen, for the extension of individuality and community."<ref>{{Cite book |lastJennings |firstJeremy |titleContemporary Political Ideologies |publisherA & C Black |year1999 |isbn978-0-8264-5173-6 |editor-lastEatwell |editor-firstRoger |editionreprinted, 2nd |locationLondon |page147 |chapterAnarchism |editor2-lastWright |editor2-firstAnthony}}</ref> Similarly, Barbara Goodwin, Emeritus Professor of Politics at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, argues that anarcho-capitalism's "true place is in the group of right-wing libertarians", not in anarchism.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGoodwin |firstBarbara |titleUsing Political Ideas |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |year2007 |isbn978-0-470-02552-9 |locationHoboken |page=143}}</ref>
Some right-libertarian scholars like Michael Huemer, who identify with the ideology, describe anarcho-capitalism as a "variety of anarchism".<ref name":4">{{Cite book |lastMichael Huemer |urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/right-anarchy-michael-huemer/e/10.4324/9781315185255-24 |titleThe Routledge Handbook of Anarchy and Anarchist Thought |publisherRoutledge |year2020 |isbn978-1-315-18525-5 |pages342–359 |chapterThe Right Anarchy |doi10.4324/9781315185255-24 |s2cid228838944 |quote(From abstract): There are two main varieties of anarchism: the socialist variety (aka "social anarchism" or "anarcho-socialism") and the capitalist variety ("anarcho-capitalism") |access-date4 January 2021 |archive-date8 February 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240208210848/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315185255-24/right-anarchy-michael-huemer |url-statuslive }}</ref> British author Andrew Heywood also believes that "individualist anarchism overlaps with libertarianism and is usually linked to a strong belief in the market as a self-regulating mechanism, most obviously manifest in the form of anarcho-capitalism".<ref name":5">{{Cite web |titlePolitical Ideologies: An introduction, fifth edition (Chapter summaries) |urlhttps://www.macmillanihe.com/companion/Heywood-Political-Ideologies/resources/Chapter-summaries/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190616142654/https://www.macmillanihe.com/companion/Heywood-Political-Ideologies/resources/Chapter-summaries/#Anarchism |archive-date16 June 2019 |publisherMacmillan International}}</ref> Frank H. Brooks, author of The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908), believes that "anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today".<ref name"brooks2">{{cite book |lastBrooks |firstFrank H. |titleThe Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty (1881–1908) |publisherTransaction Publishers |year1994 |isbn1-56000-132-1 |pagexi |quote=Usually considered to be an extreme left-wing ideology, anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism, from the hyperrationalism of Godwin, to the egoism of Stirner, to the libertarians and anarcho-capitalists of today}}.</ref>
While both anarchism and anarcho-capitalism are in opposition to the state, they nevertheless interpret state-rejection differently.<ref>McLaughlin, Paul (2007). Anarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism. Ashgate. [https://books.google.com/books?idkkj5i3CeGbQC pp. 28] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240208210722/https://books.google.com/books?idkkj5i3CeGbQC |date8 February 2024 }}–166. {{ISBN|978-0754661962}}. "Anarchists do reject the state, as we will see. But to claim that this central aspect of anarchism is definitive is to sell anarchism short. [...] [Opposition to the state] is (contrary to what many scholars believe) not definitive of anarchism."</ref><ref>Jun, Nathan (September 2009). "Anarchist Philosophy and Working Class Struggle: A Brief History and Commentary". WorkingUSA. 12 (3): 505–519. {{doi|10.1111/j.1743-4580.2009.00251.x}}. {{ISSN|1089-7011}}. "One common misconception, which has been rehearsed repeatedly by the few Anglo-American philosophers who have bothered to broach the topic [...] is that anarchism can be defined solely in terms of opposition to states and governments" (p. 507).</ref><ref>Franks, Benjamin (August 2013). Freeden, Michael; Stears, Marc (eds.). "Anarchism". The Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies. Oxford University Press: 385–404. {{doi|10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199585977.013.0001}}. "[M]any, questionably, regard anti-statism as the irremovable, universal principle at the core of anarchism. [...] The fact that [anarchists and anarcho-capitalists] share a core concept of 'anti-statism', which is often advanced as [...] a commonality between them [...], is insufficient to produce a shared identity [...] because [they interpret] the concept of state-rejection [...] differently despite the initial similarity in nomenclature" (pp. 386–388).</ref><ref name"prychytkodl">{{Cite book |authorDavid L. Prychytko |titleMarkets, Planning, and Democracy |publisherEdward Elgar Publishing, Incorporated |year2002 |isbn978-1-84376-738-1 |page124 |chapterChapter 10: Expanding the Anarchist Range: A Critical Reappraisal of Rothbard's Contribution to the Contemporary Theory of Anarchism |quoteWhile society without a state is necessary for full-fledged anarchy, it is nevertheless insufficient.}}</ref> Austrian school economist David Prychitko, in the context of anarcho-capitalism says that "while society without a state is necessary for full-fledged anarchy, it is nevertheless insufficient".<ref name"prychytkodl" /> According to Ruth Kinna, anarcho-capitalists are anti-statists who draw more on right-wing liberal theory and the Austrian School than anarchist traditions. Kinna writes that "[i]n order to highlight the clear distinction between the two positions", anarchists describe anarcho-capitalists as "propertarians".<ref name"Kinna 2012">Kinna, Ruth, ed. (2012). The Bloomsbury Companion to Anarchism. New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 330–331. {{ISBN|978-1441142702}}.</ref> Anarcho-capitalism is usually seen as part of the New Right.<ref name":0">{{Cite book |lastMeltzer |firstAlbert |urlhttps://archive.org/details/anarchism00albe |titleAnarchism: Arguments for and Against |publisherAK Press |year2000 |isbn978-1-873176-57-3 |locationLondon |page[https://archive.org/details/anarchism00albe/page/50 50] |quoteThe philosophy of 'anarcho-capitalism' dreamed up by the 'libertarian' New Right, has nothing to do with Anarchism as known by the Anarchist movement proper. |url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref name":13"/>
Some anarcho-capitalists understand anarchism to mean something other than "opposition to hierarchy" and therefore consider the two traditions to be philosophically distinct. Therefore, the anarchist critique that anarcho-capitalist societies would necessarily contain hierarchies is not concerning to these anarcho-capitalists.<ref name"marshallpitzer" /><ref>{{Cite book |lastMurphy |firstRyan H. |titleMarkets against Modernity: Ecological Irrationality, Public and Private |publisherRowman & Littlefield |year2019 |isbn978-1-4985-9118-8 |page84}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |lastHatlestad |firstLuc |date19 August 2018 |titleIs Anarchy the Solution to Our Political Problems? |urlhttps://www.5280.com/2016/08/is-anarchy-the-solution-to-our-political-problems/ |publisher5280 Denver's Mile High Magazine |access-date1 January 2021 |archive-date4 August 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210804214025/https://www.5280.com/2016/08/is-anarchy-the-solution-to-our-political-problems/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Additionally, Rothbard discusses the difference between "government" and "governance"<ref name"MurrayRothbard">{{cite book |year2016 |titleThe Rothbard Reader – Society Without a State |urlhttps://mises.org/library/rothbard-reader/html/c/406 |access-date28 November 2022 |publisherMises Institute |isbn978-1-61016-661-4 |lastRothbard |firstMurray N. |archive-date28 November 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221128055729/https://mises.org/library/rothbard-reader/html/c/406 |url-statuslive }}</ref> thus, proponents of anarcho-capitalism think the philosophy's common name is indeed consistent, as it promotes private governance, but is vehemently anti-government.<ref name"Stringham 2015"/><ref name"Stringham 60"/>
{{blockquote|"I define anarchist society as one where there is no legal possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual. Anarchists oppose the State because it has its very being in such aggression, namely, the expropriation of private property through taxation, the coercive exclusion of other providers of defense service from its territory, and all of the other depredations and coercions that are built upon these twin foci of invasions of individual rights." —Murray Rothbard in Society Without a State<ref name"MurrayRothbard" />}} Classical liberalism
{{Main|Classical liberalism}}
Historian and libertarian Ralph Raico argued that what liberal philosophers "had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism, or, as it would be called today, anarcho-capitalism or market anarchism".<ref name"raico2004">Raico, Ralph (2004). [https://www.mises.org/story/1787 Authentic German Liberalism of the 19th century] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090610035217/http://www.crea.polytechnique.fr/index.htm |date10 June 2009 }}. École Polytechnique, Centre de Recherche en Épistémologie Appliquée. Unité associée au CNRS.</ref> He also said that Gustave de Molinari was proposing a doctrine of the private production of security, a position which was later taken up by Murray Rothbard.<ref name"raico2004" /> Some anarcho-capitalists consider Molinari to be the first proponent of anarcho-capitalism.<ref name"Mises">Raico, Ralph (29 March 2011) [https://mises.org/daily/5088/Neither-the-Wars-Nor-the-Leaders-Were-Great "Neither the Wars Nor the Leaders Were Great"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140914021824/https://mises.org/daily/5088/Neither-the-Wars-Nor-the-Leaders-Were-Great |date14 September 2014 }}. Mises Institute.</ref> In the preface to the 1977 English translation by Murray Rothbard called The Production of Security the "first presentation anywhere in human history of what is now called anarcho-capitalism", although admitting that "Molinari did not use the terminology, and probably would have balked at the name".<ref>Molinari, Gustave; Ebeling, Richard M., ed. (1977). [https://mises.org/library/production-security-0 The Production of Security] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191128182908/https://mises.org/library/production-security-0 |date28 November 2019 }}. "Preface". Translated by McCulloch, J. Huston. Occasional Papers Series (2). New York: The Center for Libertarian Studies.</ref> Hans-Hermann Hoppe said that "the 1849 article 'The Production of Security' is probably the single most important contribution to the modern theory of anarcho-capitalism". According to Hans-Hermann Hoppe, one of the 19th century precursors of anarcho-capitalism were philosopher Herbert Spencer, classical liberal Auberon Herbert and liberal socialist Franz Oppenheimer.<ref name"Hoppe 2001" />
Ruth Kinna credits Murray Rothbard with coining the term anarcho-capitalism, which is – Kinna proposes – to describe "a commitment to unregulated private property and laissez-faire economics, prioritizing the liberty-rights of individuals, unfettered by government regulation, to accumulate, consume and determine the patterns of their lives as they see fit". According to Kinna, anarcho-capitalists "will sometimes label themselves market anarchists because they recognize the negative connotations of 'capitalism'. But the literature of anarcho-capitalism draws on classical liberal theory, particularly the Austrian School – Friedrich von Hayek and Ludwig von Mises – rather than recognizable anarchist traditions. Ayn Rand's laissez-faire, anti-government, corporate philosophy – Objectivism – is sometimes associated with anarcho-capitalism".<ref name"Kinna 2012" /> Other scholars similarly associate anarcho-capitalism with anti-state classical liberalism, neo-classical liberalism, radical neoliberalism and right-libertarianism.<ref name"Marshall 1992" /><ref name"Goodway 2006" /><ref name"Newman 2010" /><ref>Carlson, Jennifer D. (2012). "Libertarianism". In Miller, Wilburn R., ed. The Social History of Crime and Punishment in America. London: Sage Publications. pp. 1006–1007. {{ISBN|978-1412988766}}.</ref>
Paul Dragos Aligica writes that there is a "foundational difference between the classical liberal and the anarcho-capitalist positions". Classical liberalism, while accepting critical arguments against collectivism, acknowledges a certain level of public ownership and collective governance as necessary to provide practical solutions to political problems. In contrast anarcho-capitalism, according to Aligica, denies any requirement for any form of public administration, and allows no meaningful role for the public sphere, which is seen as sub-optimal and illegitimate.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastAligica |firstPaul Dragos |year2017 |titlePublic Administration and the Classical Liberal Perspective: Criticism, Clarifications, and Reconstruction |urlhttp://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0095399715581044 |journalAdministration & Society |languageen |volume49 |issue4 |pages530–551 |doi10.1177/0095399715581044 |s2cid144893289 |issn0095-3997 |access-date12 June 2022 |archive-date12 June 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220612110335/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0095399715581044 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Individualist anarchism
{{Main|Individualist anarchism}}
, an American individualist anarchist and mutualist, who is claimed to have influenced anarcho-capitalism]]
Murray Rothbard, a student of Ludwig von Mises, stated that he was influenced by the work of the 19th-century American individualist anarchists.<ref>De Leon, David (1978). The American as Anarchist: Reflections on Indigenous Radicalism. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 127. "[...] Only a few individuals like Murray Rothbard, in Power and Market, and some article writers were influenced by these men. Most had not evolved consciously from this tradition; they had been a rather automatic product of the American environment."</ref> In the winter of 1949, Rothbard decided to reject minimal state laissez-faire and embrace his interpretation of individualist anarchism.<ref>Gordon, David (2007). The Essential Rothbard. Mises Institute. pp. 12–13.</ref> In 1965, Rothbard wrote that "Lysander Spooner and Benjamin R. Tucker were unsurpassed as political philosophers and nothing is more needed today than a revival and development of the largely forgotten legacy they left to political philosophy".<ref name"Rothbard 2000">Rothbard, Murray (2000) [1965]. [https://cdn.mises.org/20_1_2.pdf "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201130135410/https://cdn.mises.org/20_1_2.pdf |date30 November 2020 }}. Journal of Libertarian Studies. 20 (1): 5–15.</ref> However, Rothbard thought that they had a faulty understanding of economics as the 19th-century individualist anarchists had a labor theory of value as influenced by the classical economists, while Rothbard was a student of Austrian School economics which does not agree with the labor theory of value.<ref name"Miller 1987" /> Rothbard sought to meld 19th-century American individualist anarchists' advocacy of economic individualism and free markets with the principles of Austrian School economics, arguing that "[t]here is, in the body of thought known as 'Austrian economics', a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market (and of the consequences of government intervention in that market) which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social Weltanschauung".<ref>Rothbard, Murray (2000) [1965]. [https://www.mises.org/journals/jls/20_1/20_1_2.pdf "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121102032649/http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/20_1/20_1_2.pdf |date2 November 2012 }}. Journal of Libertarian Studies. 20 (1): 7.</ref> Rothbard held that the economic consequences of the political system they advocate would not result in an economy with people being paid in proportion to labor amounts, nor would profit and interest disappear as they expected. Tucker thought that unregulated banking and money issuance would cause increases in the money supply so that interest rates would drop to zero or near to it.<ref name"Rothbard 2000" /> Peter Marshall states that "anarcho-capitalism overlooks the egalitarian implications of traditional individualist anarchists like Spooner and Tucker".<ref name"Marshall 1992" /> Stephanie Silberstein states that "While Spooner was no free-market capitalist, nor an anarcho-capitalist, he was not as opposed to capitalism as most socialists were."<ref name":12">{{Cite web |lastSilberstein |firstStephanie |titleWas Spooner Really an Anarcho-Socialist? |urlhttp://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bright/Spooner/debate.html |access-date29 June 2022 |publisherAnarchy Archives |archive-date25 April 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170425080122/http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/anarchist_archives/bright/Spooner/debate.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
In "The Spooner-Tucker Doctrine: An Economist's View", Rothbard explained his disagreements. Rothbard disagreed with Tucker that it would cause the money supply to increase because he believed that the money supply in a free market would be self-regulating. If it were not, then Rothbard argued inflation would occur so it is not necessarily desirable to increase the money supply in the first place. Rothbard claimed that Tucker was wrong to think that interest would disappear regardless because he believed people, in general, do not wish to lend their money to others without compensation, so there is no reason why this would change just because banking was unregulated.<ref name"Rothbard 2000" /> Tucker held a labor theory of value and thought that in a free market people would be paid in proportion to how much labor they exerted and that exploitation or usury was taking place if they were not. As Tucker explained in State Socialism and Anarchism, his theory was that unregulated banking would cause more money to be available and that this would allow the proliferation of new businesses which would, in turn, raise demand for labor.<ref>{{Cite book |lastTucker |firstBenjamin |urlhttps://archive.org/details/statesocialisman00tuck/page/n5 |titleState Socialism and Anarchism: How Far They Agree & Wherein They Differ |year1911 |publisherA. C. Fifield |edition6th |locationLondon}}</ref> This led Tucker to believe that the labor theory of value would be vindicated and equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay. As an Austrian School economist, Rothbard did not agree with the labor theory and believed that prices of goods and services are proportional to marginal utility rather than to labor amounts in the free market. As opposed to Tucker he did not think that there was anything exploitative about people receiving an income according to how much "buyers of their services value their labor" or what that labor produces.<ref name"Rothbard 2000" />
, another individualist anarchist, who identified as a socialist and his individualist anarchism as anarchistic socialism versus state socialism, said to have influenced anarcho-capitalism]]
Without the labor theory of value,<ref name"Avrich 1996" /> some argue that 19th-century individualist anarchists approximate the modern movement of anarcho-capitalism,<ref name"Miller 1987" /><ref name"Bottomore 1991" /><ref name"Outhwaite 2003" /> although this has been contested<ref name"Franks 2013" /> or rejected.<ref>Wieck, David (1978). [https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/david-wieck-anarchist-justice "Anarchist Justice"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200928054827/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/david-wieck-anarchist-justice |date28 September 2020 }}. In Chapman, John W.; Pennock, J. Roland Pennock, eds. Anarchism: Nomos XIX. New York: New York University Press. pp. 227–228. "Out of the history of anarchist thought and action Rothbard has pulled forth a single thread, the thread of individualism, and defines that individualism in a way alien even to the spirit of a Max Stirner or a Benjamin Tucker, whose heritage I presume he would claim – to say nothing of how alien is his way to the spirit of Godwin, Proudhon, Bakunin, Kropotkin, Malatesta, and the historically anonymous persons who through their thoughts and action have tried to give anarchism a living meaning. Out of this thread, Rothbard manufactures one more bourgeois ideology." Retrieved 7 April 2020.</ref><ref name"Peacott 1985">Peacott, Joe (18 April 1985). [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/mcelroy2.html "Reply to Wendy Mc Elroy"]. New Libertarian (14, June 1985. {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170207212416/http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/mcelroy2.html|date7 February 2017}}. Retrieved 4 September 2020. "In her article on individualist anarchism in October 1984, New Libertarian, Wendy McElroy mistakenly claims that modern-day individualist anarchism is identical with anarchist capitalism. She ignores the fact that there are still individualist anarchists who reject capitalism as well as communism, in the tradition of Warren, Spooner, Tucker, and others. [...] Benjamin Tucker, when he spoke of his ideal 'society of contract,' was certainly not speaking of anything remotely resembling contemporary capitalist society. [...] I do not quarrel with McElroy's definition of herself as an individualist anarchist. However, I dislike the fact that she tries to equate the term with anarchist capitalism. This is simply not true. I am an individualist anarchist and I am opposed to capitalist economic relations, voluntary or otherwise."</ref><ref>Baker, J. W. "Native American Anarchism". The Raven. 10 (1): 43‒62. Retrieved 4 September 2020. "It is time that anarchists recognise the valuable contributions of individualist anarchist theory and take advantage of its ideas. It would be both futile and criminal to leave it to the capitalist libertarians, whose claims on Tucker and the others can be made only by ignoring the violent opposition they had to capitalist exploitation and monopolistic 'free enterprise' supported by the state."</ref> As economic theory changed, the popularity of the labor theory of classical economics was superseded by the subjective theory of value of neoclassical economics and Rothbard combined Mises' Austrian School of economics with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist American anarchists of the 19th century such as Tucker and Spooner.<ref>Miller, David, ed. (1987). The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 290. {{ISBN|0-631-17944-5}}.</ref> In the mid-1950s, Rothbard wrote an unpublished article named "Are Libertarians 'Anarchists'?" under the pseudonym "Aubrey Herbert", concerned with differentiating himself from communist and socialistic economic views of anarchists, including the individualist anarchists of the 19th century, concluding that "we are not anarchists and that those who call us anarchists are not on firm etymological ground and are being completely unhistorical. On the other hand, it is clear that we are not archists either: we do not believe in establishing a tyrannical central authority that will coerce the noninvasive as well as the invasive. Perhaps, then, we could call ourselves by a new name: nonarchist."<ref name"Are Libertarians">Rothbard, Murray (1950s). [http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard167.html "Are Libertarians 'Anarchists'?"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170113130534/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard167.html |date13 January 2017 }} Lew Rockwell.com. Retrieved 4 September 2020.</ref> Joe Peacott, an American individualist anarchist in the mutualist tradition, criticizes anarcho-capitalists for trying to hegemonize the individualist anarchism label and make appear as if all individualist anarchists are in favor of capitalism.<ref name"Peacott 1985" /> Peacott states that "individualists, both past and present, agree with the communist anarchists that present-day capitalism is based on economic coercion, not on voluntary contract. Rent and interest are the mainstays of modern capitalism and are protected and enforced by the state. Without these two unjust institutions, capitalism could not exist".<ref>Peacott, Joe (18 April 1985). [http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/mcelroy2.html "Reply to Wendy Mc Elroy"]. New Libertarian (14, June 1985). {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170207212416/http://flag.blackened.net/daver/anarchism/mcelroy2.html|date7 February 2017}}. Retrieved 4 September 2020. "In her overview of anarchist history, McElroy criticizes the individualists of the past for their belief in the labor theory of value, because it fails to distinguish between profit and plunder. Some anarchist individualists still believe that profit is theft and that living off the labor of others is immoral. And some individualists, both past and present, agree with the communist anarchists that present-day capitalism is based on economic coercion, not on voluntary contract. Rent and interest are the mainstays of modern capitalism and are protected and enforced by the state. Without these two unjust institutions, capitalism could not exist. These two institutions, and the money monopoly of the state, effectively prevent most people from being economically independent and force them into wage labor. Saying that coercion does not exist i[n] capitalist economic relations because workers aren't forced to work by armed capitalists ignores the very real economic coercion caused by this alliance of capitalism and the state. People don't voluntarily work for wages or pay rent, except in the sense that most people 'voluntarily' pay taxes[.] Because one recognizes when she or he is up against superior force and chooses to compromise in order to survive, does not make these activities voluntary; at least, not in the way I envision voluntary relations in an anarchist society."</ref>
Anarchist activists and scholars do not consider anarcho-capitalism as a part of the anarchist movement, arguing that anarchism has historically been an anti-capitalist movement and see it as incompatible with capitalist forms.{{refn|<ref name"Marshall 1992" /><ref name"Goodway 2006" /><ref name"Newman 2010" /><ref>Sabatini, Peter (Fall/Winter 1994–1995). [http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200107105115/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy |date7 January 2020 }}. Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed (41). Retrieved 4 September 2020. "Within [capitalist] Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However, Rothbard's claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place, he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist vendors [...] so what remains is shrill anti-statism conjoined to a vacuous freedom in hackneyed defense of capitalism. In sum, the "anarchy" of Libertarianism reduces to a liberal fraud."</ref><ref name":0"/>}} Although some regard anarcho-capitalism as a form of individualist anarchism,<ref name"Miller 1987" /><ref name"Bottomore 1991" /><ref name"Outhwaite 2003" /> many others disagree or contest the existence of an individualist–socialist divide.<ref name"Franks 2013" /><ref>{{Cite book |titleAn Anarchist FAQ |publisherAK Press |year2012 |isbn978-1-84935-122-5 |editor-lastMcKay |editor-firstIain |volumeII |locationStirling}}</ref> In coming to terms that anarchists mostly identified with socialism, Rothbard wrote that individualist anarchism is different from anarcho-capitalism and other capitalist theories due to the individualist anarchists retaining the labor theory of value and socialist doctrines.<ref name"Are Libertarians"/> Similarly, many writers deny that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism or that capitalism is compatible with anarchism.{{refn|<ref name"Marshall 1992" /><ref name"Jennings 1993" /><ref name"Gay & Gay 1999, p. 15" /><ref name"Morriss 2008" /><ref name"Franks 2013" />}}
The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism writes that "[a]s Benjamin Franks rightly points out, individualisms that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms such as the economic-power relations of anarcho-capitalism are incompatible with practices of social anarchism based on developing immanent goods which contest such as inequalities". Laurence Davis cautiously asks "[I]s anarcho-capitalism really a form of anarchism or instead a wholly different ideological paradigm whose adherents have attempted to expropriate the language of anarchism for their own anti-anarchist ends?" Davis cites Iain McKay, "whom Franks cites as an authority to support his contention that 'academic analysis has followed activist currents in rejecting the view that anarcho-capitalism has anything to do with social anarchism{{'"}}, as arguing "quite emphatically on the very pages cited by Franks that anarcho-capitalism is by no means a type of anarchism". McKay writes that "[i]t is important to stress that anarchist opposition to the so-called capitalist 'anarchists' does not reflect some kind of debate within anarchism, as many of these types like to pretend, but a debate between anarchism and its old enemy capitalism. ... Equally, given that anarchists and 'anarcho'-capitalists have fundamentally different analyses and goals it is hardly 'sectarian' to point this out".<ref name="Davis 2019, p. 64" />
Davis writes that "Franks asserts without supporting evidence that most major forms of individualist anarchism have been largely anarcho-capitalist in content, and concludes from this premise that most forms of individualism are incompatible with anarchism". Davis argues that "the conclusion is unsustainable because the premise is false, depending as it does for any validity it might have on the further assumption that anarcho-capitalism is indeed a form of anarchism. If we reject this view, then we must also reject the individual anarchist versus the communal anarchist 'chasm' style of argument that follows from it".<ref name"Davis 2019, p. 64" /> Davis maintains that "the ideological core of anarchism is the belief that society can and should be organised without hierarchy and domination. Historically, anarchists have struggles against a wide range of regimes of domination, from capitalism, the state system, patriarchy, heterosexism, and the domination of nature to colonialism, the war system, slavery, fascism, white supremacy, and certain forms of organised religion". According to Davis, "[w]hile these visions range from the predominantly individualistic to the predominantly communitarian, features common to virtually all include an emphasis on self-management and self-regulatory methods of organisation, voluntary association, decentralised society, based on the principle of free association, in which people will manage and govern themselves".<ref name"Davis 2019, p. 64" /> Finally, Davis includes a footnote stating that "[i]ndividualist anarchism may plausibly be re regarded as a form of both socialism and anarchism. Whether the individualist anarchists were consistent anarchists (and socialists) is another question entirely. ... McKay comments as follows: 'any individualist anarchism which supports wage labour is inconsistent anarchism. It can easily be made consistent anarchism by applying its own principles consistently. In contrast 'anarcho'-capitalism rejects so many of the basic, underlying, principles of anarchism ... that it cannot be made consistent with the ideals of anarchism{{'"}}.<ref name"Davis 2019, p. 64" /> Historical precedents Several anarcho-capitalists and right-libertarians have discussed historical precedents of what they believe were examples of anarcho-capitalism.{{refn|<ref name"Rothbard" /><ref name"ANCAP FAQ" /><ref name"Friedman-79" /><ref name"Long-Vikings" /><ref name"tabarroki" />}}
Free cities of medieval Europe
Economist and libertarian scholar Bryan Caplan considers the free cities of medieval Europe as examples of "anarchist" or "nearly anarchistic" societies,<ref name"ANCAP FAQ">{{Cite web |titleAnarchist Theory FAQ Version 5.2 |urlhttp://econfaculty.gmu.edu/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm |access-date23 August 2020 |publisherGeorge Mason University |archive-date4 August 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190804000944/http://econfaculty.gmu.edu/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> further arguing:
{{blockquote|One case that has inspired both sorts of anarchists is that of the free cities of medieval Europe. The first weak link in the chain of feudalism, these free cities became Europe's centers of economic development, trade, art, and culture. They provided a haven for runaway serfs, who could often legally gain their freedom if they avoided re-capture for a year and a day. And they offer many examples of how people can form mutual-aid associations for protection, insurance, and community. Of course, left-anarchists and anarcho-capitalists take a somewhat different perspective on the free cities: the former emphasize the communitarian and egalitarian concerns of the free cities, while the latter point to the relatively unregulated nature of their markets and the wide range of services (often including defense, security, and legal services) which were provided privately or semi-privately.<ref name"ANCAP FAQ" />}} Medieval Iceland
in the Icelandic Commonwealth which authors such as David D. Friedman believe to have some features of anarcho-capitalist society]]
According to the libertarian theorist David D. Friedman, "[m]edieval Icelandic institutions have several peculiar and interesting characteristics; they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions".<ref name"Friedman-79">Friedman, David D. (1979). "[http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Iceland/Iceland.html Private Creation and Enforcement of Law: A Historical Case] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210418213059/http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/Iceland/Iceland.html |date18 April 2021 }}". Retrieved 12 August 2005.</ref> While not directly labeling it anarcho-capitalist, Friedman argues that the legal system of the Icelandic Commonwealth comes close to being a real-world anarcho-capitalist legal system.<ref>{{Cite book |lastFriedman |firstDavid D. |titleThe Machinery of Freedom |date28 February 2015 |isbn978-1-5077-8560-7 |edition3rd |pages203–204 |chapterPrivate Law Enforcement, Medieval Iceland, and Libertarianism|publisherCreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform}}</ref> Although noting that there was a single legal system, Friedman argues that enforcement of the law was entirely private and highly capitalist, providing some evidence of how such a society would function. Friedman further wrote that "[e]ven where the Icelandic legal system recognized an essentially 'public' offense, it dealt with it by giving some individual (in some cases chosen by lot from those affected) the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine, thus fitting it into an essentially private system".<ref name="Friedman-79" />
Friedman and Bruce L. Benson argued that the Icelandic Commonwealth saw significant economic and social progress in the absence of systems of criminal law, an executive, or bureaucracy. This commonwealth was led by chieftains, whose position could be bought and sold like that of private property. Being a member of the chieftainship was also completely voluntary.<ref name":8" /> American Old West According to Terry L. Anderson and P. J. Hill, the Old West in the United States in the period of 1830 to 1900 was similar to anarcho-capitalism in that "private agencies provided the necessary basis for an orderly society in which property was protected and conflicts were resolved" and that the common popular perception that the Old West was chaotic with little respect for property rights is incorrect.<ref>Anderson, Terry L. and Hill, P. J. "[http://invisiblemolotov.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/wild-west3.pdf An American Experiment in Anarcho-Capitalism: The Not So Wild, Wild West] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211017182618/https://invisiblemolotov.files.wordpress.com/2009/02/wild-west3.pdf |date=17 October 2021 }}", The Journal of Libertarian Studies</ref> Since squatters had no claim to western lands under federal law, extra-legal organizations formed to fill the void. Benson explains:
{{blockquote|The land clubs and claim associations each adopted their own written contract setting out the laws that provided the means for defining and protecting property rights in the land. They established procedures for registration of land claims, as well as for the protection of those claims against outsiders, and for adjudication of internal disputes that arose. The reciprocal arrangements for protection would be maintained only if a member complied with the association's rules and its court's rulings. Anyone who refused would be ostracized. A boycott by a land club meant that an individual had no protection against aggression other than what he could provide himself.<ref>{{Cite book |lastBenson |first Bruce L. |urlhttps://archive.org/details/toserveprotectpr00bens |titleTo Serve and Protect: Privatization and Community in Criminal Justice |publisherNew York University Press |year1998 |isbn978-0-8147-1327-3 |locationNew York |page[https://archive.org/details/toserveprotectpr00bens/page/n129 101] |chapterPrivate Justice in America |url-access=limited}}</ref>}}
According to Anderson, "[d]efining anarcho-capitalist to mean minimal government with property rights developed from the bottom up, the western frontier was anarcho-capitalistic. People on the frontier invented institutions that fit the resource constraints they faced".{{Citation needed|dateNovember 2023|reasonVerification failed for both the link and the mentioned work}}
Gaelic Ireland
in 900]]
In his work For a New Liberty, Murray Rothbard has claimed ancient Gaelic Ireland as an example of nearly anarcho-capitalist society.<ref name"Rothbard" /> In his depiction, citing the work of Professor Joseph Peden,<ref>Peden [https://peacerequiresanarchy.wordpress.com/2012/12/30/stateless-societies-ancient-ireland/ Stateless Societies: Ancient Ireland] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190805235244/https://peacerequiresanarchy.wordpress.com/2012/12/30/stateless-societies-ancient-ireland/ |date5 August 2019 }}</ref> the basic political unit of ancient Ireland was the tuath, which is portrayed as "a body of persons voluntarily united for socially beneficial purposes" with its territorial claim being limited to "the sum total of the landed properties of its members".<ref name"Rothbard" /> Civil disputes were settled by private arbiters called "brehons" and the compensation to be paid to the wronged party was insured through voluntary surety relationships. Commenting on the "kings" of tuaths,<ref name="Rothbard" /> Rothbard stated:
{{blockquote|The king was elected by the tuath from within a royal kin group (the derbfine), which carried the hereditary priestly function. Politically, however, the king had strictly limited functions: he was the military leader of the tuath, and he presided over the tuath assemblies. But he could only conduct war or peace negotiations as an agent of the assemblies, and he was in no sense sovereign and had no rights of administering justice over tuath members. He could not legislate, and when he himself was party to a lawsuit, he had to submit his case to an independent judicial arbiter.<ref name"Rothbard" />}} Law merchant, admiralty law, and early common law Some libertarians have cited law merchant, admiralty law and early common law as examples of anarcho-capitalism.<ref>Rothbard. "[http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/DefenseServicesFreeMarket.html Defense Services on the Free Market] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160314014824/http://ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/library/DefenseServicesFreeMarket.html |date14 March 2016 }}".</ref><ref>Benson. "[https://mises.org/library/enterprise-customary-law The Enterprise of Customary Law] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210419041444/https://mises.org/library/enterprise-customary-law |date19 April 2021 }}".</ref>{{failed verification|dateAugust 2019}}<ref>Hasnas. "[http://faculty.msb.edu/hasnasj/GTWebSite/Obvious.pdf The Obviousness of Anarchy] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160311103309/http://faculty.msb.edu/hasnasj/GTWebSite/Obvious.pdf |date11 March 2016 }}".</ref>
In his work Power and Market,<ref name="Rothbard-P&M" /> Rothbard stated:
{{blockquote|The law merchant, admiralty law, and much of the common law began to be developed by privately competitive judges, who were sought out by litigants for their expertise in understanding the legal areas involved. The fairs of Champagne and the great marts of international trade in the Middle Ages enjoyed freely competitive courts, and people could patronize those that they deemed most accurate and efficient.<ref name"Rothbard-P&M" />{{rp|1051}}}} Somalia from 1991 to 2012
{{main|History of Somalia (1991–2006)}}
Economist Alex Tabarrok argued that Somalia in its stateless period provided a "unique test of the theory of anarchy", in some aspects near of that espoused by anarcho-capitalists David D. Friedman and Murray Rothbard.<ref name"tabarroki">{{Cite web |lastTabarrok |firstAlex |author-linkAlex Tabarrok |date21 April 2004 |titleSomalia and the theory of anarchy |urlhttp://www.marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2004/04/somalia_and_the.html |access-date13 January 2008 |websiteMarginal Revolution |archive-date31 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211231183541/https://marginalrevolution.com/marginalrevolution/2004/04/somalia_and_the.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> Nonetheless, both anarchists and some anarcho-capitalists argue that Somalia was not an anarchist society.<ref name"knight">{{Cite web |lastKnight |firstAlex R. III |date7 October 2009 |titleThe Truth About Somalia And Anarchy |urlhttps://c4ss.org/content/1201 |access-date24 December 2016 |publisherCenter for a Stateless Society |archive-date15 December 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171215030144/https://c4ss.org/content/1201 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastBlock |firstWalter |year1999 |volume2 |issue3 (Fall)|titleReview Essay |urlhttp://mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae2_3_3.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae2_3_3.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |journalThe Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics |access-date28 January 2010 |quoteBut if we define anarchy as places without governments, and we define governments as the agencies with a legal right to impose violence on their subjects, then whatever else occurred in Haiti, Sudan, and Somalia, it wasn't anarchy. For there were well-organized gangs (e.g., governments) in each of these places, demanding tribute, and fighting others who made similar impositions. Absence of government means absence of government, whether well established ones, or fly-by-nights.}}</ref>
Analysis and criticism
State, justice and defense
{{see also-text|Corporatocracy}}
Anarchists such as Brian Morris argue that anarcho-capitalism does not in fact get rid of the state. He says that anarcho-capitalists "simply replaced the state with private security firms, and can hardly be described as anarchists as the term is normally understood".<ref>Brian Morris, "Global Anti-Capitalism", pp. 170–176, Anarchist Studies, vol. 14, no. 2, p. 175.</ref> In "Libertarianism: Bogus Anarchy", anarchist Peter Sabatini notes:
{{blockquote|Within Libertarianism, Rothbard represents a minority perspective that actually argues for the total elimination of the state. However, Rothbard's claim as an anarchist is quickly voided when it is shown that he only wants an end to the public state. In its place he allows countless private states, with each person supplying their own police force, army, and law, or else purchasing these services from capitalist vendors. ... Rothbard sees nothing at all wrong with the amassing of wealth, therefore those with more capital will inevitably have greater coercive force at their disposal, just as they do now.<ref>{{Cite web |authorPeter Sabatini |titleLibertarianism: Bogus Anarchy |urlhttps://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy |access-date28 June 2019 |archive-date30 August 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190830212211/http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/peter-sabatini-libertarianism-bogus-anarchy |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
Similarly, Bob Black argues that an anarcho-capitalist wants to "abolish the state to his own satisfaction by calling it something else". He states that they do not denounce what the state does, they just "object to who's doing it".<ref>Bob Black (1992), "The Libertarian As Conservative", The Abolition of Work and Other Essays, p. 144</ref>
Paul Birch argues that legal disputes involving several jurisdictions and different legal systems will be too complex and costly. He therefore argues that anarcho-capitalism is inherently unstable, and would evolve, entirely through the operation of free market forces, into either a single dominant private court with a natural monopoly of justice over the territory (a de facto state), a society of multiple city states, each with a territorial monopoly, or a 'pure anarchy' that would rapidly descend into chaos.<ref name"Libertarian Alliance">{{Cite journal |lastBirch |firstPaul |author-linkPaul Birch (writer) |year1998 |titleAnarcho-capitalism Dissolves into City States |urlhttp://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/legan/legan028.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/legan/legan028.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |journalLibertarian Alliance |seriesLegal Notes |volume28 |page4 |issn0267-7083 |access-date5 July 2010}}</ref>
Randall G. Holcombe argues that anarcho-capitalism turns justice into a commodity as private defense and court firms would favour those who pay more for their services.<ref name"holcombe">{{Cite journal |lastHolcombe |firstRandall G. |titleGovernment: Unnecessary but Inevitable |urlhttps://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_08_3_1_holcombe.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_08_3_1_holcombe.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |journalThe Independent Review}}</ref> He argues that defense agencies could form cartels and oppress people without fear of competition.<ref name"holcombe" /> Philosopher Albert Meltzer argued that since anarcho-capitalism promotes the idea of private armies, it actually supports a "limited State". He contends that it "is only possible to conceive of Anarchism which is free, communistic and offering no economic necessity for repression of countering it".<ref>{{Cite book |lastMeltzer |firstAlbert |urlhttps://archive.org/details/anarchism00albe/page/50 |titleAnarchism: Arguments For and Against |publisherAK Press |year2000 |isbn978-1-873176-57-3 |page[https://archive.org/details/anarchism00albe/page/50 50] |url-access=registration}}</ref>
Libertarian Robert Nozick argues that a competitive legal system would evolve toward a monopoly government{{snd}}even without violating individuals' rights in the process.<ref>Jeffrey Paul, Fred Dycus Miller (1993). Liberalism and the Economic Order. Cambridge University Press. p. 115.</ref> In Anarchy, State, and Utopia, Nozick defends minarchism and argues that an anarcho-capitalist society would inevitably transform into a minarchist state through the eventual emergence of a monopolistic private defense and judicial agency that no longer faces competition. He argues that anarcho-capitalism results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world. While anarcho-capitalists such as Roy Childs and Murray Rothbard have rejected Nozick's arguments,<ref>See Childs's incomplete essay, "Anarchist Illusions", Liberty against Power: Essays by Roy A. Childs, Jr., ed. Joan Kennedy Taylor (San Francisco: Fox 1994) 179–183.</ref> with Rothbard arguing that the process described by Nozick, with the dominant protection agency outlawing its competitors, in fact violates its own clients' rights,<ref>{{Citation |lastRothbard |firstMurray |titleRobert Nozick and the Immaculate Conception of the State |date5 July 2017 |workAnarchy And the Law |pages232–249 |publisherRoutledge |doi10.4324/9781315082349-12 |isbn978-1-315-08234-9 }}</ref> John Jefferson actually advocates Nozick's argument and states that such events would best operate in laissez-faire.<ref>Jeffrey Paul, Fred Dycus Miller (1993). Liberalism and the Economic Order. Cambridge University Press. p. 118.</ref> Robert Ellickson presented a Hayekian case against anarcho-capitalism, calling it a "pipe-dream" and stating that anarcho-capitalists "by imagining a stable system of competing private associations, ignore both the inevitability of territorial monopolists in governance, and the importance of institutions to constrain those monopolists' abuses".<ref>{{Cite journal |lastEllickson |firstRobert C. |date26 January 2017 |titleA Hayekian Case Against Anarcho-Capitalism: Of Street Grids, Lighthouses, and Aid to the Destitute |journalYale Law & Economics Research Paper No. 569 |ssrn=2906383}}</ref>
Some libertarians argue that anarcho-capitalism would result in different standards of justice and law due to relying too much on the market. Friedman responded to this criticism by arguing that it assumes the state is controlled by a majority group that has similar legal ideals. If the populace is diverse, different legal standards would therefore be appropriate.<ref name":8" /> Rights and freedom Negative and positive rights are rights that oblige either action (positive rights) or inaction (negative rights). Anarcho-capitalists believe that negative rights should be recognized as legitimate, but positive rights should be rejected as an intrusion. Some critics reject the distinction between positive and negative rights.<ref>Sterba, James P. (October 1994). "From Liberty to Welfare". Ethics. Cambridge: Blackwell). 105 (1): 237–241.</ref> Peter Marshall also states that the anarcho-capitalist definition of freedom is entirely negative and that it cannot guarantee the positive freedom of individual autonomy and independence.<ref name"Marshall 1992" />
About anarcho-capitalism, anarcho-syndicalist and anti-capitalist intellectual Noam Chomsky says:
{{blockquote|Anarcho-capitalism, in my opinion, is a doctrinal system that, if ever implemented, would lead to forms of tyranny and oppression that have few counterparts in human history. There isn't the slightest possibility that its (in my view, horrendous) ideas would be implemented because they would quickly destroy any society that made this colossal error. The idea of "free contract" between the potentate and his starving subject is a sick joke, perhaps worth some moments in an academic seminar exploring the consequences of (in my view, absurd) ideas, but nowhere else.<ref>{{Cite web |date23 December 1996 |titleOn Anarchism: Noam Chomsky interviewed by Tom Lane |urlhttps://chomsky.info/19961223/ |access-date9 January 2016 |websitechomsky.info |archive-date6 March 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170306035307/https://chomsky.info/19961223/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
Economics and property
Social anarchists argue that anarcho-capitalism allows individuals to accumulate significant power through free markets and private property.<ref name":2" /> Friedman responded by arguing that the Icelandic Commonwealth was able to prevent the wealthy from abusing the poor by requiring individuals who engaged in acts of violence to compensate their victims financially.<ref name":8" />
Anarchists argue that certain capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining the class structure of a capitalist society requires coercion which violates anarchist principles.<ref name"AFAQinfoshop">{{Cite web |authorIain McKay |display-authorsetal |date21 January 2010 |titleSection F – Are 'anarcho'-capitalists really anarchists? |urlhttps://libcom.org/files/Iain%20McKay%20-%20Anarchist%20FAQ.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://libcom.org/files/Iain%20McKay%20-%20Anarchist%20FAQ.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive |access-date21 August 2013 |publisherAn Anarchist FAQ |websiteInfoshop.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |authorAndrew Fiala |date3 October 2017 |titleAnarchism |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism/ |publisherStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date18 June 2020 |archive-date28 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200828210847/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/anarchism/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author1Anthony J. II Nocella |titleAnarchism and Animal Liberation: Essays on Complementary Elements of Total Liberation |author2Richard J. White |author3Erika Cudworth |publisherMcFarland & Co. |year2015 |isbn978-0-7864-9457-6 |quoteAnarchism is a socio-political theory which opposes all systems of domination and oppression such as racism, ableism, sexism, anti-LGBTTQIA, ageism, sizeism, government, competition, capitalism, colonialism, imperialism and punitive justice, and promotes direct democracy, collaboration, interdependence, mutual aid, diversity, peace, transformative justice and equity.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |authorPaul McLaughlin |titleAnarchism and Authority: A Philosophical Introduction to Classical Anarchism |publisherAshgate Publishing Ltd. |year2007 |isbn978-1-138-27614-7 |page48 |quoteThus, as David Miller puts it, capitalism is regarded by anarchists as 'both coercive [though this word may be too strong] {{sic}} and exploitative – it places workers in the power of their bosses, and fails to give them a just return for their contribution to production.'}}</ref> Anthropologist David Graeber noted his skepticism about anarcho-capitalism along the same lines, arguing:
{{blockquote|To be honest, I'm pretty skeptical about the idea of anarcho-capitalism. If a-caps imagine a world divided into property-holding employers and property-less wage laborers, but with no systematic coercive mechanisms[;] well, I just can't see how it would work. You always see a-caps saying "if I want to hire someone to pick my tomatoes, how are you going to stop me without using coercion?" Notice how you never see anyone say "if I want to hire myself out to pick someone else's tomatoes, how are you going to stop me?" Historically nobody ever did wage labor like that if they had pretty much [any] other option.<ref>{{Cite web |date28 January 2013 |titleI am David Graeber, an anthropologist, activist, anarchist and author of Debt. AMA. |urlhttps://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/17fi6l/i_am_david_graeber_an_anthropologist_activist/c850ma5?context3 |access-date21 August 2013 |publisherReddit |archive-date1 October 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181001010021/https://www.reddit.com/r/IAmA/comments/17fi6l/i_am_david_graeber_an_anthropologist_activist/c850ma5?context3 |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
Some critics argue that the anarcho-capitalist concept of voluntary choice ignores constraints due to both human and non-human factors such as the need for food and shelter as well as active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims.<ref name"marketfailure">{{Cite web |lastFriedman |firstDavid D. |author-linkDavid D. Friedman |titleMarket Failure: The Case for and Against Government |urlhttp://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/mps_iceland_talk/Iceland%20MP%20talk.htm |access-date14 July 2010 |publisherDo We Need a Government? |websitedaviddfriedman.com |archive-date15 April 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415071540/http://www.daviddfriedman.com/Academic/mps_iceland_talk/Iceland%20MP%20talk.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> If a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself, the employer-employee relationship could be considered involuntary. Another criticism is that employment is involuntary because the economic system that makes it necessary for some individuals to serve others is supported by the enforcement of coercive private property relations.<ref namemarketfailure/> Some philosophies view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate.<ref name"wendymcelroy">McElroy, Wendy (1995). "[http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/libhe/libhe014.htm Intellectual Property: The Late Nineteenth Century Libertarian Debate] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210102150720/http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/libhe/libhe014.htm |date2 January 2021}}". Libertarian Heritage No. 14 {{ISBN|1-85637-281-2}}. Retrieved 24 June 2005.</ref> Objectivist philosopher Harry Binswanger criticizes anarcho-capitalism by arguing that "capitalism requires government", questioning who or what would enforce treaties and contracts.<ref>{{Cite web |lastHarry Binswanger |titleSorry Libertarian Anarchists, Capitalism Requires Government |workForbes |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/harrybinswanger/2014/01/24/sorry-libertarian-anarchists-capitalism-requires-government-2 |access-date16 June 2020 |archive-date16 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200616152808/https://www.forbes.com/sites/harrybinswanger/2014/01/24/sorry-libertarian-anarchists-capitalism-requires-government-2/ }}</ref>
Some right-libertarian critics of anarcho-capitalism who support the full privatization of capital such as geolibertarians argue that land and the raw materials of nature remain a distinct factor of production and cannot be justly converted to private property because they are not products of human labor. Some socialists, including market anarchists and mutualists, adamantly oppose absentee ownership. Anarcho-capitalists have strong abandonment criteria, namely that one maintains ownership until one agrees to trade or gift it. Anti-state critics of this view posit comparatively weak abandonment criteria, arguing that one loses ownership when one stops personally occupying and using it as well as the idea of perpetually binding original appropriation is anathema to traditional schools of anarchism.<ref name"Libertarian Alliance" /> Propertarianism
{{main|Propertarianism}}
Critics charge that the Propertarianist perspective prevents freedom from making sense as an independent value in anarcho-capitalist theory:<ref>McKay, Iain. (2008/2012). An Anarchist FAQ-Appendix: Anarchism and "Anarcho"-capitalism. UK: AK Press. 2 What do “anarcho”-capitalists mean by “freedom”? https://anarchism.pageabode.com/book/2-what-do-anarcho-capitalists-mean-by-freedom/</ref>
{{Quote|textLooking at Rothbard’s definition of "liberty" quoted above, we can see that freedom is actually no longer considered to be a fundamental, independent concept. Instead, freedom is a derivative of something more fundamental, namely the "legitimate rights" of an individual, which are identified as property rights. In other words, given that "anarcho"-capitalists and right libertarians in general consider the right to property as "absolute," it follows that freedom and property become one and the same. This suggests an alternative name for the right Libertarian, namely "Propertarian." And, needless to say, if we do not accept the right-libertarians’ view of what constitutes "legitimate" "rights," then their claim to be defenders of liberty is weak.|authorIain Mckay.(2008/2012)|title|source}}
Literature
The following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarcho-capitalism.
* Bruce L. Benson, The Enterprise of Law: Justice Without The State
** To Serve and Protect: Privatization and Community in Criminal Justice
* David D. Friedman, The Machinery of Freedom
* Edward P. Stringham, Anarchy and the Law: The Political Economy of Choice
* George H. Smith, "Justice Entrepreneurship in a Free Market"
* Gerard Casey, Libertarian Anarchy: Against the State
* Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Anarcho-Capitalism: An Annotated Bibliography
** A Theory of Socialism and Capitalism
** Democracy: The God That Failed
** The Economics and Ethics of Private Property
* Linda and Morris Tannehill, The Market for Liberty
* Michael Huemer, The Problem of Political Authority
* Murray Rothbard, founder of anarcho-capitalism:
** For a New Liberty
** Man, Economy, and State
** Power and Market
** The Ethics of Liberty
See also
{{cols|colwidth=32em}}
* Agorism
* Consequentialist libertarianism
* Counter-economics
* Creative disruption
* Crypto-anarchism
* Definition of anarchism and libertarianism
* Left-wing market anarchism
* Neo-feudalism
* Natural-rights libertarianism
* Privatization in criminal justice
* Voluntaryism
* Anarchist communism{{colend}}
References
{{reflist|30em}}
Further reading
* Brown, Susan Love (1997). [https://books.google.com/books?id=b8XHahfS0VsC "The Free Market as Salvation from Government: The Anarcho-Capitalist View"]. In Carrier, James G., ed. Meanings of the Market: The Free Market in Western Culture (illustrated ed.). Oxford: Berg Publishers. p.&nbsp;99. {{ISBN|978-1859731499}}.
* {{Cite book |lastDoherty |firstBrian |titleRadicals for Capitalism: A Freewheeling History of the Modern American Libertarian Movement |title-linkRadicals for Capitalism |publisherHachette UK |year2009 |isbn978-0-7867-3188-6 |locationLondon |author-linkBrian Doherty (journalist)}} External links {{Sister project links|nno|vno|sno|voy=no}}
* [https://econfaculty.gmu.edu/bcaplan/anarfaq.htm Anarchist Theory FAQ] – FAQ discussing anarchism by economist Bryan Caplan
* [http://www.ozarkia.net/bill/anarchism/faq.html Anarcho-capitalist FAQ]
* [https://jarick.works/freeblr/ Freeblr] – online textbook about Anarcho-Capitalism by Daniel Jarick, also known as JarickWorks
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150618044952/http://archive.lewrockwell.com/ LewRockwell.com] – website run by Lew Rockwell
* [https://www.mises.org/ Mises Institute] – research and educational center of classical liberalism, including anarcho-capitalism, Austrian School of economics and American libertarian political theory
* [https://propertyandfreedom.org/ Property and Freedom Society] – international anarcho-capitalist society
{{anarcho-capitalism}}
{{libertarianism}}
{{Murray Rothbard}}
Category:Austrian School
Category:Capitalist systems
Category:Economic ideologies
Anarcho-capitalism
Category:Ideologies of capitalism
Category:Classical liberalism
Category:Libertarianism by form
Category:Political ideologies
Category:Right-libertarianism
Category:Syncretic political movements
Category:Murray Rothbard | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.733836 |
1027 | August 9 | {{pp-pc1}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*48 BC &ndash; Caesar's Civil War: Battle of Pharsalus: Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus and Pompey flees to Egypt.<ref>{{cite book|authorDavid Eggenberger|titleAn Encyclopedia of Battles: Accounts of Over 1,560 Battles from 1479 B.C. to the Present|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideSEnw1HuWUoC&pgPA331|date 1985|publisherCourier Corporation|isbn978-0-486-24913-1|page=331}}</ref>
* 378 &ndash; Gothic War: Battle of Adrianople: A large Roman army led by Emperor Valens is defeated by the Visigoths. Valens is killed along with over half of his army.<ref>{{cite wikisource |last1Brodribb |first1William Jackson |last2Besant |first2Walter |titleConstantinople: A Sketch of its History from its Foundation to its Conquest by the Turks in 1453 |date1879 |publisherSeeley, Jackson & Halliday |pages50–51 |wslink=Constantinople: A Sketch of its History from its Foundation to its Conquest by the Turks in 1453/Chapter 3}}</ref>
*1173 &ndash; Construction of the campanile of the Cathedral of Pisa (now known as the Leaning Tower of Pisa) begins; it will take two centuries to complete.
*1329 &ndash; Quilon, the first Indian Christian Diocese, is erected by Pope John XXII; the French-born Jordanus is appointed the first Bishop.
*1428 &ndash; Sources cite biggest caravan trade between Podvisoki and Republic of Ragusa. Vlachs committed to Ragusan lord Tomo Bunić, that they will with 600 horses deliver 1,500 modius of salt. Delivery was meant for Dobrašin Veseoković, and Vlachs price was half of delivered salt.<ref>"Crainich Miochouich et Stiepanus Glegieuich ad meliustenendem super se et omnia eorum bona se obligando promiserunt ser Thome de Bona presenti et acceptanti conducere et salauum dare in Souisochi in Bosna Dobrassino Veselcouich nomine dicti ser Thome modia salis mille quingenta super equis siue salmis sexcentis. Et dicto sale conducto et presentato suprascripto Dobrassino in Souisochi medietatem illius salis dare et mensuratum consignare dicto Dobrassino. Et aliam medietatem pro eorum mercede conducenda dictum salem pro ipsius conductoribus retinere et habere. Promittentes vicissim omnia et singularia suprascripta firma et rata habere et tenere ut supra sub obligatione omnium suorum bonorum. Renuntiando" (9 August 1428), State archive, Ragusa Republic, Series: Diversa Cancellariae, no. XLV, p. 31 verso.</ref>
*1500 &ndash; Ottoman–Venetian War (1499–1503): The Ottomans capture Methoni, Messenia.
1601–1900
*1610 &ndash; The First Anglo-Powhatan War begins in colonial Virginia.
*1810 &ndash; Napoleon annexes Westphalia as part of the First French Empire.
*1814 &ndash; American Indian Wars: The Creek sign the Treaty of Fort Jackson, giving up huge parts of Alabama and Georgia.
*1830 &ndash; Louis Philippe becomes the king of the French following abdication of Charles X.
*1842 &ndash; The Webster–Ashburton Treaty is signed, establishing the United States–Canada border east of the Rocky Mountains.
*1854 &ndash; American Transcendentalist philosopher Henry David Thoreau publishes his memoir Walden.<ref>{{cite web |last1Witherell |first1Elizabeth |last2Dubrulle |first2Elizabeth |titleReflections on Walden |urlhttps://thoreau.library.ucsb.edu/thoreau_walden.html |websiteThe Writings of Henry D. Thoreau |access-date9 August 2022}}</ref>
*1855 &ndash; Åland War: The Battle of Suomenlinna begins.<ref>{{cite book |last1Nolan |first1Edward Henry |titleThe History of the War Against Russia, Volume 7 |pages397–399 |date1855 |publisherVirtue |locationLondon |urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofwaragai07nola/page/397/mode/1up |access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref>
*1862 &ndash; American Civil War: Battle of Cedar Mountain: At Cedar Mountain, Virginia, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson narrowly defeats Union forces under General John Pope.
*1877 &ndash; American Indian Wars: Battle of the Big Hole: A small band of Nez Percé Indians clash with the United States Army.
*1892 &ndash; Thomas Edison receives a patent for a two-way telegraph.
*1897 &ndash; The first International Congress of Mathematicians is held in Zürich, Switzerland.<ref>{{Cite journal|date1897-08-01|titleThe International Congress of Mathematicians|journalNature|languageen|volume56|issue1452|pages395|doi10.1038/056395a0|bibcode1897Natur..56Q.395. |s2cid3967488 |issn1476-4687|doi-accessfree}}</ref>
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Edward VII and Alexandra of Denmark are crowned King and Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.<ref>{{cite web |titleEdward VII |urlhttps://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/royals/edward-vii |websiteWestminster Abbey |access-date7 October 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
*1907 &ndash; The first Boy Scout encampment concludes at Brownsea Island in southern England.
*1925 &ndash; A train robbery takes place in Kakori, near Lucknow, India, by the Indian independence revolutionaries, against the British government.
*1936 &ndash; Summer Olympics: Jesse Owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games.
*1942 &ndash; World War II: Battle of Savo Island: Allied naval forces protecting their amphibious forces during the initial stages of the Battle of Guadalcanal are surprised and defeated by an Imperial Japanese Navy cruiser force.
* 1942 &ndash; Dmitri Shostakovich's 7th symphony premiers in a besieged Leningrad.<ref>{{cite book |lastJones |firstMichael |titleLeningrad: State of Siege |publisherBasic Books |year2008 |isbn978-0-465-01153-7 |page=261}}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; The United States Forest Service and the Wartime Advertising Council release posters featuring Smokey Bear for the first time.
* 1944 &ndash; World War II: Continuation War: The Vyborg–Petrozavodsk Offensive, the largest offensive launched by Soviet Union against Finland during the Second World War, ends to a strategic stalemate. Both Finnish and Soviet troops at the Finnish front dug to defensive positions, and the front remains stable until the end of the war.
*1945 &ndash; World War II: Nagasaki is devastated when an atomic bomb, Fat Man, is dropped by the United States B-29 Bockscar. Thirty-five thousand people are killed outright, including 23,200–28,200 Japanese war workers, 2,000 Korean forced workers, and 150 Japanese soldiers.
* 1945 &ndash; The Red Army invades Japanese-occupied Manchuria.
*1960 &ndash; South Kasai secedes from the Congo.
*1965 &ndash; Singapore is expelled from Malaysia and becomes the only country to date to gain independence unwillingly.
*1969 &ndash; Tate–LaBianca murders: Followers of Charles Manson murder pregnant actress Sharon Tate (wife of Roman Polanski), coffee heiress Abigail Folger, Polish actor Wojciech Frykowski, men's hairstylist Jay Sebring and recent high-school graduate Steven Parent.
*1970 &ndash; LANSA Flight 502 crashes after takeoff from Alejandro Velasco Astete International Airport in Cusco, Peru, killing 99 of the 100 people on board, as well as two people on the ground.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19700809-0|titleASN Aircraft accident Lockheed L-188A Electra OB-R-939 Cuzco Airport (CUZ)|lastRanter|firstHarro|websiteaviation-safety.net|access-date=2019-08-22}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; The Troubles: In Northern Ireland, the British authorities launch Operation Demetrius. The operation involves the mass arrest and internment without trial of individuals suspected of being affiliated with the Irish Republican Army (PIRA). Mass riots follow, and thousands of people flee or are forced out of their homes.<ref>Coogan, Tim Pat. ''The Troubles: Ireland's ordeal 1966–1996 and the search for peace''. London: Hutchinson. p. 126 [http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/events/intern/sum.htm Internment – Summary of Main Events]</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Mars 7 is launched from the USSR.
*1974 &ndash; As a direct result of the Watergate scandal, Richard Nixon becomes the first President of the United States to resign from office. Vice President Gerald Ford becomes president.
*1991 &ndash; The Italian prosecuting magistrate Antonino Scopelliti is murdered by the 'Ndrangheta on behalf of the Sicilian Mafia while preparing the government's case in the final appeal of the Maxi Trial.
*1993 &ndash; The Liberal Democratic Party of Japan loses a 38-year hold on national leadership.
*1995 &ndash; Aviateca Flight 901 crashes into the San Vicente volcano in El Salvador, killing all 65 people on board.<ref name":0">{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |date |titleASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-2H6 N125GU San Salvador |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19950809-1 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060304040937/http://aviation-safety.net:80/database/record.php?id19950809-1 |archive-date4 March 2006 |access-date2020-01-22 |websiteaviation-safety.net |publisherAviation Safety Network}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Russian President Boris Yeltsin fires his Prime Minister, Sergei Stepashin, and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet.
*2006 &ndash; At least 21 suspected terrorists are arrested in the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot that happened in the United Kingdom. The arrests are made in London, Birmingham, and High Wycombe in an overnight operation.
*2007 &ndash; Air Moorea Flight 1121 crashes after takeoff from Moorea Airport in French Polynesia, killing all 20 people on board.<ref name":1">{{Cite web |lastRanter |firstHarro |titleASN Aircraft accident de Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter 300 F-OIQI Moorea-Temae Airport (MOZ) |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id20070809-0 |access-date2022-08-07 |websiteaviation-safety.net}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; Shannon Eastin becomes the first woman to officiate an NFL game.<ref>{{Cite web |date2012-08-09 |titleShannon Eastin breaks barrier|urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/trainingcamp12/story/_/id/8253836/shannon-eastin-officially-becomes-first-female-referee-nfl-game|archive-date2022-09-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220911024410/https://www.espn.com/nfl/trainingcamp12/story/_/id/8253836/shannon-eastin-officially-becomes-first-female-referee-nfl-game}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Gunmen open fire at a Sunni mosque in the city of Quetta killing at least ten people and injuring 30.
*2014 &ndash; Michael Brown, an 18-year-old African American male in Ferguson, Missouri, is shot and killed by a Ferguson police officer after reportedly assaulting the officer and attempting to steal his weapon, sparking protests and unrest in the city.
*2021 &ndash; The Tampere light rail officially starts operating.<ref>{{Cite web |date2021-08-09 |titleLiikenne {{!}} Tampereen ratikka aloittaa liikennöinnin – Näin hanke pysyi jatkuvasti jopa aikataulua edellä ja alitti budjetin |trans-titleTraffic {{!}} The Tampere streetcar starts operating – This way, the project was constantly even ahead of schedule and under budget |urlhttps://www.hs.fi/talous/art-2000008166608.html |access-date2022-08-07 |websiteHelsingin Sanomat |language=fi}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Voepass Linhas Aéreas Flight 2283 crashes near Vinhedo, São Paulo, killing all 62 people on board.<ref>{{cite news |date9 August 2024 |titleAvião com 62 pessoas a bordo cai em Vinhedo e não há sobreviventes |trans-titlePlane with 62 people on board crashes in Vinhedo and there are no survivors |urlhttps://g1.globo.com/sp/campinas-regiao/noticia/2024/08/09/acidente-aviao-vinhedo.ghtml |access-date9 August 2024 |publisherg1 globo |languagept}}</ref>BirthsPre-1600
*1201 &ndash; Arnold Fitz Thedmar, English historian and merchant (d. 1274)
*1537 &ndash; Francesco Barozzi, Italian mathematician and astronomer (d. 1604)<ref>{{cite book|authorΚωνσταντίνος Στάικος|titleΒιβλιοθήκες από την αρχαιότητα έως την αναγέννηση και σημαντικές ουμανιστικές και μοναστηριακές βιβλιοθήκες (3000 π. Χ. – 1600 μ. Χ.): Μουσείον Αλεξάνδρου Σούτζου, κατάλογος έκθεσης 10 Οκτωβρίου 1997 – 5 Ιανουαρίου 1998|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHtYLAQAAMAAJ|year1997|publisherAristide D. Caratzas|isbn=978-960-90253-2-4}}</ref>
*1544 &ndash; Bogislaw XIII, Duke of Pomerania (d. 1606)
*1590 &ndash; John Webster, colonial settler and governor of Connecticut (d. 1661)
1601–1900
*1603 &ndash; Johannes Cocceius, German-Dutch theologian and academic (d. 1669)
*1611 &ndash; Henry of Nassau-Siegen, German count, officer in the Dutch Army, diplomat for the Dutch Republic (b. 1611)<ref>{{aut|Menk, Friedhelm}} (2004). "Die Fürstengruft zu Siegen und die darin von 1669 bis 1781 erfolgten Beisetzungen". In: {{aut|Burwitz, Ludwig}} u.a. (Redaktion), Siegener Beiträge. Jahrbuch für regionale Geschichte (in German). Vol.&nbsp;9. Siegen: Geschichtswerkstatt Siegen – Arbeitskreis für Regionalgeschichte e.V. p.&nbsp;191; {{cite book |last1Huberty |first1Michel |last2Giraud |first2Alain |last3Magdelaine |first3F.&nbsp;&&nbsp;B. |titlel'Allemagne Dynastique |languagefr |locationLe Perreux |publisherAlain Giraud |date1981 |volumeTome&nbsp;III: Brunswick-Nassau-Schwarzbourg |pages=254 }}</ref>
*1648 &ndash; Johann Michael Bach, German composer (d. 1694)<ref>{{cite book|author1Malcolm Boyd|author2John Butt|titleJ.S. Bach|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN6sCAQAAMAAJ|year1999|publisherOxford University Press|isbn978-0-19-866208-2|page=36}}</ref>
*1653 &ndash; John Oldham, English poet and translator (d. 1683)
*1696 &ndash; Joseph Wenzel I, Prince of Liechtenstein (d. 1772)
*1722 &ndash; Prince Augustus William of Prussia (d. 1758)<ref>{{cite book|author1Sophie Marie Voss (Gräfin von)|author2Emily Stephenson|titleSixty-nine Years at the Court of Prussia: From the Recollections of the Mistress of the Household|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idB45FAAAAIAAJ&pgPA15|year1876|publisherR. Bentley & Son|pages=15}}</ref>
*1726 &ndash; Francesco Cetti, Italian priest, zoologist, and mathematician (d. 1778)
*1748 &ndash; Bernhard Schott, German music publisher (d. 1809)<ref>{{NDB |23|486|487|Schott, Peter Bernhard|Brück, Marion|118610546}}</ref>
*1757 &ndash; Elizabeth Schuyler Hamilton, American humanitarian; wife of Alexander Hamilton (d. 1854)
* 1757 &ndash; Thomas Telford, Scottish architect and engineer, designed the Menai Suspension Bridge (d. 1834)
*1776 &ndash; Amedeo Avogadro, Italian physicist and chemist (d. 1856)
*1783 &ndash; Grand Duchess Alexandra Pavlovna of Russia (d. 1801)
*1788 &ndash; Adoniram Judson, American missionary and lexicographer (d. 1850)
*1797 &ndash; Charles Robert Malden, English lieutenant and surveyor (d. 1855)
*1805 &ndash; Joseph Locke, English engineer and politician (d. 1860)
*1845 &ndash; André Bessette, Canadian saint (d. 1937)
*1847 &ndash; Maria Vittoria dal Pozzo, French-Italian wife of Amadeo I of Spain (d. 1876)
*1848 &ndash; Alfred David Benjamin, Australian-born businessman and philanthropist. (d. 1900)
*1861 &ndash; Dorothea Klumpke, American astronomer and academic (d. 1942)
*1867 &ndash; Evelina Haverfield, Scottish nurse and activist (d. 1920)
*1872 &ndash; Archduke Joseph August of Austria (d. 1962)
*1874 &ndash; Reynaldo Hahn, Venezuelan composer and conductor (d. 1947)
*1875 &ndash; Albert Ketèlbey, English pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1959)
*1878 &ndash; Eileen Gray, Irish architect and furniture designer (d. 1976)
*1879 &ndash; John Willcock, Australian politician, 15th Premier of Western Australia, (d. 1956)
*1881 &ndash; Prince Antônio Gastão of Orléans-Braganza, Brazilian prince (d. 1918)
*1890 &ndash; Eino Kaila, Finnish philosopher and psychologist, attendant of the Vienna circle (d. 1958)
*1896 &ndash; Erich Hückel, German physicist and chemist (d. 1980)
* 1896 &ndash; Jean Piaget, Swiss psychologist and philosopher (d. 1980)
*1899 &ndash; P. L. Travers, Australian-English author and actress (d. 1996)
*1900 &ndash; Charles Farrell, American actor and singer (d. 1990)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Zino Francescatti, French violinist (d. 1991)
* 1902 &ndash; Panteleimon Ponomarenko, Russian general and politician (d. 1984)
*1905 &ndash; Leo Genn, British actor and barrister (d. 1978)
*1909 &ndash; Vinayaka Krishna Gokak, Indian scholar, author, and academic (d. 1992)
* 1909 &ndash; Willa Beatrice Player, American educator, first Black woman college president (d. 2003)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://crdl.usg.edu/people/p/player_willa_b/?Welcome|titlePlayer, Willa B.|websitecrdl.usg.edu|access-date2019-10-04}}</ref>
* 1909 &ndash; Adam von Trott zu Solz, German lawyer and diplomat (d. 1944)
*1911 &ndash; William Alfred Fowler, American astronomer and astrophysicist, Nobel Laureate (d. 1996)
* 1911 &ndash; Eddie Futch, American boxer and trainer (d. 2001)
* 1911 &ndash; John McQuade, Northern Irish soldier, boxer, and politician (d. 1984)
*1913 &ndash; Wilbur Norman Christiansen, Australian astronomer and engineer (d. 2007)
*1914 &ndash; Ferenc Fricsay, Hungarian-Austrian conductor and director (d. 1963)
* 1914 &ndash; Tove Jansson, Finnish author and illustrator (d. 2001)
* 1914 &ndash; Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (d. 1990)
*1915 &ndash; Mareta West, American astronomer and geologist (d. 1998)
*1918 &ndash; Kermit Beahan, American colonel (d. 1989)
* 1918 &ndash; Giles Cooper, Irish soldier and playwright (d. 1966)
* 1918 &ndash; Albert Seedman, American police officer (d. 2013)
*1919 &ndash; Joop den Uyl, Dutch journalist, economist, and politician, Prime Minister of the Netherlands (d. 1987)
* 1919 &ndash; Ralph Houk, American baseball player and manager (d. 2010)
*1920 &ndash; Enzo Biagi, Italian journalist and author (d. 2007)
*1921 &ndash; Ernest Angley, American evangelist and author (d. 2021)
* 1921 &ndash; J. James Exon, American soldier and politician, 33rd Governor of Nebraska (d. 2005)
*1922 &ndash; Philip Larkin, English poet and novelist (d. 1985)
*1924 &ndash; Mathews Mar Barnabas, Indian metropolitan (d. 2012)
* 1924 &ndash; Frank Martínez, American soldier and painter (d. 2013)
*1925 &ndash; David A. Huffman, American computer scientist, developed Huffman coding (d. 1999)
*1926 &ndash; Denis Atkinson, Barbadian cricketer (d. 2001)
*1927 &ndash; Daniel Keyes, American short story writer and novelist (d. 2014)
* 1927 &ndash; Robert Shaw, English actor and screenwriter (d. 1978)
*1928 &ndash; Bob Cousy, American basketball player and coach<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1928 &ndash; Camilla Wicks, American violinist and educator (d. 2020)
* 1928 &ndash; Dolores Wilson, American soprano and actress (d. 2010)
*1929 &ndash; Abdi İpekçi, Turkish journalist and activist (d. 1979)
*1930 &ndash; Milt Bolling, American baseball player and scout (d. 2013)
* 1930 &ndash; Jacques Parizeau, Canadian economist and politician, 26th Premier of Quebec (d. 2015)
*1931 &ndash; Chuck Essegian, American baseball player and lawyer
* 1931 &ndash; James Freeman Gilbert, American geophysicist and academic (d. 2014)
* 1931 &ndash; Paula Kent Meehan, American businesswoman, co-founded Redken (d. 2014)
* 1931 &ndash; Mário Zagallo, Brazilian footballer and coach (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite web |last1Fonseca |first1Pedro | last2Downie | first2Andrew |titleMario Zagallo, Brazil soccer legend, dies at 92|urlhttps://www.reuters.com/sports/soccer/mario-zagallo-brazil-soccer-legend-dies-92-2024-01-06/ |websiteReuters |access-dateJanuary 6, 2024 |languageen |dateJanuary 5, 2023}}</ref>
*1932 &ndash; Tam Dalyell, Scottish academic and politician (d. 2017)
* 1932 &ndash; John Gomery, Canadian lawyer and jurist (d. 2021)
*1933 &ndash; Tetsuko Kuroyanagi, Japanese actress, talk show host, and author
*1935 &ndash; Beverlee McKinsey, American actress (d. 2008)
*1936 &ndash; Julián Javier, Dominican-American baseball player
* 1936 &ndash; Patrick Tse, Chinese-Hong Kong actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1938 &ndash; Leonid Kuchma, Ukrainian engineer and politician, 2nd President of Ukraine
* 1938 &ndash; Rod Laver, Australian tennis player and coach
* 1938 &ndash; Otto Rehhagel, German footballer, coach, and manager
*1939 &ndash; Hércules Brito Ruas, Brazilian footballer
* 1939 &ndash; Vincent Hanna, Northern Irish journalist (d. 1997)
* 1939 &ndash; The Mighty Hannibal, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2014)
* 1939 &ndash; Billy Henderson, American singer (d. 2007)
* 1939 &ndash; Bulle Ogier, French actress and screenwriter
* 1939 &ndash; Romano Prodi, Italian academic and politician, 52nd Prime Minister of Italy
* 1939 &ndash; Butch Warren, American bassist (d. 2013)
*1940 &ndash; Linda Keen, American mathematician and academic
*1942 &ndash; David Steinberg, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter
*1943 &ndash; Ken Norton, American boxer and actor (d. 2013)<ref>{{cite book|author1Ken Norton|author2Marshall Terrill|author3Mike Fitzgerald|titleGoing the Distance|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJ_dlbrAHB4cC&pgPA6|year2000|publisherSports Publishing LLC|isbn978-1-58261-225-6|pages=6}}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; George Armstrong, English footballer (d. 2000)
* 1944 &ndash; Patrick Depailler, French racing driver (d. 1980)<ref>{{cite book|titleRoad & Track|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjBxQAAAAYAAJ|year1974|publisherBond Publishing Company|page14}}</ref>
* 1944 &ndash; Sam Elliott, American actor and producer<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://movies.nytimes.com/person/21648/Sam-Elliott/biography|titleMovies & TV: Sam Elliott Biography|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111127172928/https://movies.nytimes.com/person/21648/Sam-Elliott/biography|departmentMovies & TV Dept.|workThe New York Times|authorHal Erickson|author-linkHal Erickson (author)|date2011|archive-dateNovember 27, 2011}}</ref>
* 1944 &ndash; Patricia McKissack, American soldier, engineer, and author (d. 2017)
*1945 &ndash; Barbara Delinsky, American author
* 1945 &ndash; Aleksandr Gorelik, Russian figure skater and sportscaster (d. 2012)
* 1945 &ndash; Posy Simmonds, English author and illustrator
*1946 &ndash; Rinus Gerritsen, Dutch rock bass player
*1947 &ndash; Roy Hodgson, English footballer and manager
* 1947 &ndash; Barbara Mason, American R&B/soul singer-songwriter
* 1947 &ndash; John Varley, American author
*1948 &ndash; Bill Campbell, American baseball player and coach (d. 2023)
*1949 &ndash; Jonathan Kellerman, American psychologist and author
* 1949 &ndash; Ted Simmons, American baseball player and coach
*1951 &ndash; James Naughtie, Scottish journalist and radio host
* 1951 &ndash; Steve Swisher, American baseball player and manager
*1952 &ndash; Prateep Ungsongtham Hata, Thai activist and politician
*1953 &ndash; Kay Stenshjemmet, Norwegian speed skater
* 1953 &ndash; Jean Tirole, French economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
*1954 &ndash; Ray Jennings, South African cricketer and coach
* 1954 &ndash; Pete Thomas, English drummer
*1955 &ndash; John E. Sweeney, American lawyer and politician
*1956 &ndash; Gordon Singleton, Canadian Olympic cyclist (d. 2024)
*1957 &ndash; Melanie Griffith, American actress and producer<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1958 &ndash; Amanda Bearse, American actress, comedian and director
* 1958 &ndash; Calie Pistorius, South African engineer and academic
*1959 &ndash; Kurtis Blow, American rapper, producer, and actor
* 1959 &ndash; Michael Kors, American fashion designer<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1961 &ndash; Brad Gilbert, American tennis player and sportscaster
* 1961 &ndash; John Key, New Zealand businessman and politician, 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand<ref>{{cite news |titleJohn Key celebrates birthday |urlhttps://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id1&objectid10664823 |access-date5 August 2020 |workThe New Zealand Herald |date9 August 2010 |languageen-NZ}}</ref>
*1962 &ndash; Louis Lipps, American football player and radio host
* 1962 &ndash; Kevin Mack, American football player
* 1962 &ndash; John "Hot Rod" Williams, American basketball player (d. 2015)
*1963 &ndash; Whitney Houston, American singer-songwriter, producer, and actress (d. 2012)<ref>{{cite web |last1Sullivan |first1Caroline |titleWhitney Houston obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/feb/12/whitney-houston-obituary |websiteThe Guardian |access-date2 April 2020 |date=12 February 2012}}</ref>
* 1963 &ndash; Jay Leggett, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2013)
* 1963 &ndash; Barton Lynch, Australian surfer
*1964 &ndash; Brett Hull, Canadian-American ice hockey player and manager
* 1964 &ndash; Hoda Kotb, American journalist and television personality<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1965 &ndash; Nitin Chandrakant Desai, Indian art director, production designer, and film and television producer (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Sharma |first1Devesh |titleRemembering Nitin Chandrakant Desai |magazineFilmfare |dateAugust 2023 |page108 |volume72 |issn0971-7277}}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Vinny Del Negro, American basketball player and coach
* 1966 &ndash; Linn Ullmann, Norwegian journalist and author
*1967 &ndash; Deion Sanders, American football and baseball player<ref name="UPI"></ref>
*1968 &ndash; Gillian Anderson, American-British actress, activist and writer<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1968 &ndash; Eric Bana, Australian actor, comedian, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1968 &ndash; Sam Fogarino, American drummer
* 1968 &ndash; McG, American director and producer
*1969 &ndash; Troy Percival, American baseball player and coach
*1970 &ndash; Rod Brind'Amour, Canadian ice hockey player and coach
* 1970 &ndash; Chris Cuomo, American lawyer and journalist
* 1970 &ndash; Thomas Lennon, American actor and comedian<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://madison.com/birthday-thomas-lennon/image_ce105a72-792e-11e7-958f-6fcee614db9d.html|title Birthday: Thomas Lennon| date=4 August 2017 }}</ref>
*1972 &ndash; Juanes, Colombian singer and songwriter<ref name"Allmusic">{{cite web|urlhttps://allmusic.com/artist/juanes-p451494/biography|titleJuanes Biography|lastBirchmeier|firstJason|workAllMusic}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Filippo Inzaghi, Italian footballer and manager
* 1973 &ndash; Kevin McKidd, Scottish actor and director<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1973 &ndash; Gene Luen Yang, American author and illustrator
*1974 &ndash; Derek Fisher, American basketball player and coach
* 1974 &ndash; Stephen Fung, Hong Kong actor, singer, director, and screenwriter
* 1974 &ndash; Lesley McKenna, Scottish snowboarder<ref>{{cite web |titleLesley McKenna |urlhttps://www.teamgb.com/athlete/lesley-mckenna/O3LvE8rqIaerBZ2jj92wx |websiteteamgb.com |access-date28 August 2020 |language=en-gb}}</ref>
* 1974 &ndash; Matt Morris, American baseball player
* 1974 &ndash; Kirill Reznik, American lawyer and politician
* 1974 &ndash; Raphaël Poirée, French biathlete
*1975 &ndash; Mahesh Babu, Indian actor and producer
* 1975 &ndash; Valentin Kovalenko, Uzbek football referee
* 1975 &ndash; Mike Lamb, American baseball player
* 1975 &ndash; Robbie Middleby, Australian soccer player
*1976 &ndash; Rhona Mitra, English actress and singer
* 1976 &ndash; Audrey Tautou, French model and actress
* 1976 &ndash; Jessica Capshaw, American actress
*1977 &ndash; Jason Frasor, American baseball player
* 1977 &ndash; Chamique Holdsclaw, American basketball player
* 1977 &ndash; Ravshan Irmatov, Uzbek football referee
* 1977 &ndash; Adewale Ogunleye, American football player
* 1977 &ndash; Ime Udoka, American basketball player and coach
* 1977 &ndash; Mikaël Silvestre, French footballer
*1978 &ndash; Dorin Chirtoacă, Moldavian lawyer and politician, Mayor of Chișinău
* 1978 &ndash; Ana Serradilla, Mexican actress and producer
* 1978 &ndash; Wesley Sonck, Belgian footballer
*1979 &ndash; Michael Kingma, Australian basketball player
* 1979 &ndash; Kliff Kingsbury, American football coach<ref>{{cite web |titleKliff Kingsbury Record, Statistics, and Category Ranks |urlhttps://www.pro-football-reference.com/coaches/KingKl0.htm |websitePro-Football-Reference.com |access-dateAugust 7, 2024}}</ref>
* 1979 &ndash; Lisa Nandy, British politician
* 1979 &ndash; Tony Stewart, American football player
*1981 &ndash; Jarvis Hayes, American basketball player
* 1981 &ndash; Li Jiawei, Singaporean table tennis player
*1982 &ndash; Joel Anthony, American basketball player
* 1982 &ndash; Tyson Gay, American sprinter<ref>{{cite book|authorJessie Carney Smith|titleEncyclopedia of African American Popular Culture &#91;4 volumes&#93;|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id10rEGSIItjgC&pgPA578|year 2010|publisherABC-CLIO|isbn978-0-313-35797-8|page=578}}</ref>
* 1982 &ndash; Yekaterina Samutsevich, Russian singer and activist
* 1982 &ndash; Kanstantsin Sivtsov, Belarusian cyclist
*1983 &ndash; Dan Levy, Canadian actor and comedian<ref>{{cite web |last1Shatto |first1Rachel |titleDan Levy's Birthday Inspired Fans to Raise $50K for a Great Cause |urlhttps://www.advocate.com/arts-entertainment/2021/8/10/dan-levys-birthday-inspired-fans-raise-50k-great-cause |websiteThe Advocate |access-date30 July 2022 |date=10 August 2021}}</ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Hamilton Masakadza, Zimbabwean cricketer<ref>{{Cite web|titleHamilton Masakadza|urlhttps://www.espncricinfo.com/zimbabwe/content/player/55608.html|access-date2020-08-09|publisherESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
* 1983 &ndash; Shane O'Brien, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1983 &ndash; Alicja Smietana, Polish-English violinist
*1984 &ndash; Paul Gallagher, Scottish footballer
*1985 &ndash; Luca Filippi, Italian racing driver
* 1985 &ndash; Filipe Luís, Brazilian footballer
* 1985 &ndash; Anna Kendrick, American actress and singer<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1985 &ndash; Hayley Peirsol, American swimmer
* 1985 &ndash; Vivek Ramaswamy, American entrepreneur<ref>{{Cite magazine |lastKolhatkar |firstSheelah |dateDecember 12, 2022 |titleThe C.E.O. of Anti-Woke, Inc. |urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/12/19/vivek-ramaswamy-the-ceo-of-anti-woke-inc |magazineThe New Yorker |languageen-US |issn0028-792X |access-dateJune 22, 2023 |archive-dateOctober 4, 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231004112346/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2022/12/19/vivek-ramaswamy-the-ceo-of-anti-woke-inc |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* 1985 &ndash; JaMarcus Russell, American football player
* 1985 &ndash; Chandler Williams, American football player (d. 2013)
*1986 &ndash; Michael Lerchl, German footballer
* 1986 &ndash; Daniel Preussner, German rugby player
* 1986 &ndash; Tyler Smith, American singer-songwriter and bass player
*1987 &ndash; Marek Niit, Estonian sprinter
*1988 &ndash; Anthony Castonzo, American football player
* 1988 &ndash; Willian, Brazilian footballer
* 1988 &ndash; Vasilios Koutsianikoulis, Greek footballer
*1989 &ndash; Jason Heyward, American baseball player
* 1989 &ndash; Stefano Okaka, Italian footballer
* 1989 &ndash; Kento Ono, Japanese actor and model
*1990 &ndash; İshak Doğan, Turkish footballer
* 1990 &ndash; Sarah McBride, American LGBT activist
* 1990 &ndash; Stuart McInally, Scottish rugby player
* 1990 &ndash; Brice Roger, French skier
* 1990 &ndash; D'Arcy Short, Australian cricketer <ref>{{Cite web|titleD'Arcy Short|urlhttps://www.espncricinfo.com/australia/content/player/308798.html|access-date2020-08-09|publisherESPNcricinfo}}</ref>
* 1990 &ndash; Bill Skarsgård, Swedish actor<ref name"UPI">{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for Aug. 9: Bill Skarsgard, Eric Bana |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2020/08/09/Famous-birthdays-for-Aug-9-Bill-Skarsgard-Eric-Bana/2921596809701/ |publisherUPI |access-date7 August 2023 |date9 August 2020}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Alice Barlow, English actress
* 1991 &ndash; Alexa Bliss, American bodybuilder and wrestler
* 1991 &ndash; Hansika Motwani, Indian actress <ref>{{Cite web|titleHappy Birthday Hansika Motwani: These pictures of the star prove she has exceptional sense of style & elegance |urlhttps://www.pinkvilla.com/entertainment/south/happy-birthday-hansika-motwani-these-pictures-star-prove-she-has-exceptional-sense-style-elegance-466739|access-date2020-08-09|websitewww.pinkvilla.com|date=9 August 2019}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Farahnaz Forotan, Afghan journalist<ref>{{cite web|last1Omid|first1Jawid|titleTale of an Afghan female journalist|urlhttp://english.sina.com/world/2015/0126/777227.html|accessdateMarch 27, 2015|websiteenglish.sina.com|publisher=English Sina}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Jun.Q, South Korean singer and actor
* 1993 &ndash; Dipa Karmakar, Indian gymnast<ref>{{Cite web|titleHappy Birthday Dipa Karmakar: Check out rare photos of India's first woman gymnast to qualify for the Olympics|urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/galleries/sport/2019/aug/09/happy-birthday-dipa-karmakar-check-out-rare-photos-of-indias-first-woman-gymnast-to-qualify-for-th-102462.html|access-date2020-08-09|websiteThe New Indian Express|date=9 August 2019 }}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Kelli Hubly, American soccer player
* 1994 &ndash; King Von, American rapper (d. 2020)<ref>{{cite web |last1Corrine |first1Amber |titleKing Von's Estate Drops 'Get It Done' Video For His 28th Birthday |urlhttps://www.vibe.com/music/videos/king-vons-posthumous-get-it-done-video-1234685304/ |publisherVibe |access-date7 August 2023 |date=14 August 2022}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; Eli Apple, American football player
* 1995 &ndash; Justice Smith, American actor<ref name="UPI"></ref>
* 1995 &ndash; Hwang Min-hyun, South Korean singer and actor<ref>{{cite web|title'UNVEIL' 황민현, 참으로 빛나는도다 [Oh!쎈 레터]|urlhttps://www.chosun.com/entertainments/music/2023/08/07/NQX4VGTJSQIM3IX7EIEGV3YYOI/|workOsen|date7 August 2023|access-date26 February 2025|languageko}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Sanya Lopez, Filipino actress and model
*1999 &ndash; Deniss Vasiļjevs, Latvian figure skater
*2000 &ndash; Aidan Hutchinson, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleAidan Hutchinson Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Draft, ... |urlhttps://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/H/HutcAi00.htm |websitePro-Football-Reference.com |access-dateAugust 7, 2024}}</ref>
* 2000 &ndash; Arlo Parks, British singer-songwriter<ref>{{Cite web|titleAnais Oluwatoyin Estelle MARINHO (born August 2000)|urlhttps://beta.companieshouse.gov.uk/officers/2ug9XJYgNulNpBDz7pNwqbPRP0w/appointments|access-date5 June 2020|websiteCompanies House|language=en}}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; Victoria Jiménez Kasintseva, Andorran tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleVictoria Jimenez Kasintseva {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/330352/victoria-jimenez-kasintseva |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
<!--Do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles or fictional characters to this list. Do not trust "this day in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 378 &ndash; Traianus, Roman general
* 378 &ndash; Valens, Roman emperor (b. 328)
* 803 &ndash; Irene of Athens, Byzantine ruler (b. 752)<ref>{{cite web |titleIrene {{!}} Byzantine empress [752-803] |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Irene-Byzantine-empress-752-803 |websiteEncyclopædia Britannica |access-date28 August 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 833 &ndash; Al-Ma'mun, Iraqi caliph (b. 786)
*1048 &ndash; Pope Damasus II<ref>{{cite web |titleDamasus II {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Damasus-II |websiteEncyclopædia Britannica |access-date14 April 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1107 &ndash; Emperor Horikawa of Japan (b. 1079)
*1173 &ndash; Najm ad-Din Ayyub, Kurdish soldier and politician
*1211 &ndash; William de Braose, 4th Lord of Bramber, exiled Anglo-Norman baron (b. 1144/53)
*1260 &ndash; Walter of Kirkham, Bishop of Durham
*1296 &ndash; Hugh, Count of Brienne, French crusader
*1341 &ndash; Eleanor of Anjou, queen consort of Sicily (b. 1289)
*1354 &ndash; Stephen, Duke of Slavonia, Hungarian prince (b. 1332)
*1420 &ndash; Pierre d'Ailly, French theologian and cardinal (b. 1351)
*1516 &ndash; Hieronymus Bosch, Early Netherlandish painter (b. circa 1450)
*1534 &ndash; Thomas Cajetan, Italian cardinal and philosopher (b. 1470)
*1580 &ndash; Metrophanes III of Constantinople (b. 1520)
1601–1900
*1601 &ndash; Michael the Brave, Romanian prince (b. 1558)
*1634 &ndash; William Noy, English lawyer and judge (b. 1577)
*1720 &ndash; Simon Ockley, English orientalist and academic (b. 1678)
*1744 &ndash; James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos, English academic and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Radnorshire (b. 1673)
*1816 &ndash; Johann August Apel, German jurist and author (b. 1771)
*1861 &ndash; Vincent Novello, English composer and publisher (b. 1781)
*1886 &ndash; Samuel Ferguson, Irish lawyer and poet (b. 1810)
1901–present
*1910 &ndash; Huo Yuanjia, Chinese martial artist, co-founded the Chin Woo Athletic Association (b. 1868)
*1919 &ndash; Ruggero Leoncavallo, Italian composer and educator (b. 1857)
*1920 &ndash; Samuel Griffith, Welsh-Australian politician, 9th Premier of Queensland (b. 1845)
*1932 &ndash; John Charles Fields, Canadian mathematician, founder of the Fields Medal (b. 1863)
*1941 &ndash; Richard Goss, Executed Irish Republican (b. 1915)<ref>{{cite news |lastMacDonncha |firstMicheal |date13 August 2020 |titleSeán Russell and the IRA of the 1940s |urlhttps://www.anphoblacht.com/contents/27898 |workAn Phoblacht |location|access-date20 April 2022}}</ref>
*1942 &ndash; Edith Stein, German nun and saint (b. 1891)
*1943 &ndash; Chaïm Soutine, Belarusian-French painter and educator (b. 1893)
*1945 &ndash; Robert Hampton Gray, Canadian lieutenant and pilot, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1917)
* 1945 &ndash; Harry Hillman, American runner and coach (b. 1881)
*1946 &ndash; Bert Vogler, South African cricketer (b. 1876)
*1948 &ndash; Hugo Boss, German fashion designer, founded Hugo Boss (b. 1885)
*1949 &ndash; Edward Thorndike, American psychologist and academic (b. 1874)
*1957 &ndash; Carl Clauberg, German Nazi physician (b. 1898)
*1962 &ndash; Hermann Hesse, German-born Swiss poet, novelist, and painter, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877)
*1963 &ndash; Patrick Bouvier Kennedy, American son of John F. Kennedy (b. 1963)
*1967 &ndash; Joe Orton, English author and playwright (b. 1933)
*1969 &ndash; Wojciech Frykowski, Polish-American actor and author (b. 1936)
* 1969 &ndash; Sharon Tate, American model and actress (b. 1943)
* 1969 &ndash; C. F. Powell, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1903)
*1970 &ndash; Jimmy Steele (Irish republican), lifelong militant and editor (b. 1907)<ref>Coogan, Tim, (1981),The IRA, William Collins & Sons Ltd, Glasgow, UK, pg 208.</ref>
*1972 &ndash; Sıddık Sami Onar, Turkish lawyer and academic (b. 1897)
*1974 &ndash; Bill Chase, American trumpet player and bandleader (b. 1934)
*1975 &ndash; Dmitri Shostakovich, Russian pianist and composer (b. 1906)
*1978 &ndash; James Gould Cozzens, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1903)
*1979 &ndash; Walter O'Malley, American businessman (b. 1903)
* 1979 &ndash; Raymond Washington, American gang leader, founded the Crips (b. 1953)
*1980 &ndash; Jacqueline Cochran, American pilot (b. 1906)
* 1980 &ndash; Ruby Hurley, American civil rights activist (b. 1909)<ref>{{cite book |last1Ware |first1Susan |titleNotable American Women: A Biographical Dictionary Completing the Twentieth Century |date2004 |publisherHarvard University Press |isbn978-0-674-01488-6 |page318 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWSaMu4F06AQC&pgPA318 |language=en}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Max Hoffman, Austrian-born car importer and businessman (b. 1904)
*1985 &ndash; Clive Churchill, Australian rugby league player and coach (b. 1927)
*1986 &ndash; Eoin McNamee (Irish republican), Chief of Staff of the Irish Republican Army (b. 1914)<ref name"IrishCentral">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.irishcentral.com/roots/history/eoin-mcnamee-ira |titleThe IRA Chief of Staff who was 'unbought, unconquered, and unpurchasable to the last' |lastHegarty-Thorne |firstKathleen |date25 July 2019 |websiteIrishCentral.com |access-date17 April 2024 }}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; M. Carl Holman, American author, educator, poet, and playwright (b. 1919)<ref>[https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/1988/08/11/m-carl-holman-dies-at-69/d7fb8c4a-f816-4df4-af1c-fe9aafa5a1df/ "M. Carl Holman Dies at 69"], The Washington Post</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Giacinto Scelsi, Italian composer (b. 1905)<ref>{{BrahmsOnline|2871|titleGiacinto Scelsi|quoteItalian composer and poet born 8 January 1905 in La Spezia; died 9 August 1988 in Rome|access-date=9 August 2022}}</ref>
*1990 &ndash; Joe Mercer, English footballer and manager (b. 1914)
*1992 &ndash; Fereydoun Farrokhzad, Iranian singer and actor (b. 1938)
*1995 &ndash; Jerry Garcia, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1942)
*1996 &ndash; Frank Whittle, English soldier and engineer, invented the jet engine (b. 1907)
*1999 &ndash; Helen Rollason, English sports journalist and sportscaster (b. 1956)<ref>{{cite web |titleObituary: Helen Rollason |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-helen-rollason-1111811.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220818/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/obituary-helen-rollason-1111811.html |archive-date2022-08-18 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive |websiteThe Independent |access-date14 October 2020 |languageen |date10 August 1999}}</ref>
* 1999 &ndash; Fouad Serageddin, Egyptian journalist and politician (b. 1910)
*2000 &ndash; John Harsanyi, Hungarian-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1920)
* 2000 &ndash; Nicholas Markowitz, American murder victim (b. 1984)
*2002 &ndash; Paul Samson, English guitarist (b. 1953)
*2003 &ndash; Jacques Deray, French director and screenwriter (b. 1929)
* 2003 &ndash; Ray Harford, English footballer and manager (b. 1945)
* 2003 &ndash; Gregory Hines, American actor, dancer, and choreographer (b. 1946)
* 2003 &ndash; R. Sivagurunathan, Sri Lankan lawyer, journalist, and academic (b. 1931)
*2004 &ndash; Robert Lecourt, French lawyer and politician, Lord Chancellor of France (b. 1908)
* 2004 &ndash; Tony Mottola, American guitarist and composer (b. 1918)
* 2004 &ndash; David Raksin, American composer and educator (b. 1912)
*2005 &ndash; Judith Rossner, American author (b. 1935)
*2006 &ndash; Philip E. High, English author (b. 1914)
* 2006 &ndash; James Van Allen, American physicist and academic (b. 1914)
*2007 &ndash; Joe O'Donnell, American photographer and journalist (b. 1922)
*2008 &ndash; Bernie Mac, American comedian, actor, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1957)
* 2008 &ndash; Mahmoud Darwish, Palestinian author and poet (b. 1941)
*2010 &ndash; Calvin "Fuzz" Jones, American singer and bass player (b. 1926)
* 2010 &ndash; Ted Stevens, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1923)
*2012 &ndash; Carl Davis, American record producer (b. 1934)
* 2012 &ndash; Gene F. Franklin, American engineer, theorist, and academic (b. 1927)
* 2012 &ndash; Al Freeman, Jr., American actor, director, and educator (b. 1934)
* 2012 &ndash; David Rakoff, Canadian-American actor and journalist (b. 1964)
* 2012 &ndash; Carmen Belen Richardson, Puerto Rican-American actress (b. 1930)
* 2012 &ndash; Mel Stuart, American director and producer (b. 1928)
*2013 &ndash; Harry Elliott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1923)
* 2013 &ndash; Eduardo Falú, Argentinian guitarist and composer (b. 1923)
* 2013 &ndash; William Lynch, Jr., American lawyer and politician (b. 1947)
*2014 &ndash; J. F. Ade Ajayi, Nigerian historian and academic (b. 1929)
* 2014 &ndash; Andriy Bal, Ukrainian footballer and coach (b. 1958)
* 2014 &ndash; Arthur G. Cohen, American businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Arlen Realty and Development Corporation (b. 1930)
* 2014 &ndash; Ed Nelson, American actor (b. 1928)<ref>{{cite web |titleEd Nelson: Veteran of Roger Corman's low-budget horror movies who |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/edwin-stafford-nelson-veteran-of-roger-corman-s-lowbudget-horror-movies-who-later-appeared-in-every-episode-of-peyton-place-9692163.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220818/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/edwin-stafford-nelson-veteran-of-roger-corman-s-lowbudget-horror-movies-who-later-appeared-in-every-episode-of-peyton-place-9692163.html |archive-date2022-08-18 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive |websiteThe Independent |access-date8 August 2022 |languageen |date28 August 2014}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; Frank Gifford, American football player, sportscaster, and actor (b. 1930)
* 2015 &ndash; John Henry Holland, American computer scientist and academic (b. 1929)
* 2015 &ndash; Walter Nahún López, Honduran footballer (b. 1977)
* 2015 &ndash; David Nobbs, English author and screenwriter (b. 1935)
* 2015 &ndash; Kayyar Kinhanna Rai, Indian journalist, author, and poet (b. 1915)
* 2015 &ndash; Fikret Otyam, Turkish painter and journalist (b. 1926)
*2016 &ndash; Gerald Grosvenor, 6th Duke of Westminster, third-richest British citizen (b. 1951)<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-37029915 Duke of Westminster, Gerald Cavendish Grosvenor, dies aged 64][https://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/16/world/europe/gerald-grosvenor-british-duke-and-billionaire-dies-at-64.html]</ref>
*2021 &ndash; Pat Hitchcock, English actress and producer (b. 1928)<ref>{{Cite web|lastTapp|firstTom|date2021-08-11|titlePat Hitchcock Dies: Daughter Of Alfred Hitchcock And Actress In 'Strangers On A Train,' 'Psycho,' Was 93|urlhttps://deadline.com/2021/08/pat-hitchcock-dead-daughter-alfred-hitchcock-strangers-on-a-train-psycho-1234812667/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210812092645/https://deadline.com/2021/08/pat-hitchcock-dead-daughter-alfred-hitchcock-strangers-on-a-train-psycho-1234812667/|archive-date2021-08-12|access-date2021-08-14|websiteDeadline|language=en-US}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; Killer Kau, South African rapper, dancer and record producer (b. 1998)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.iol.co.za/entertainment/music/local/mzansi-still-shaken-over-passing-of-amapiano-stars-mpura-and-killer-kau-bd5113f6-9d5d-4d7c-9585-67a56dafbac3 |titleMzansi still shaken over passing of amapiano stars Mpura and Killer Kau |websiteiol.co.za |access-date10 August 2021}}</ref>
* 2021 &ndash; Zairaini Sarbini, Malaysian voice actress (b. 1972)<ref>[https://www.hmetro.com.my/mutakhir/2021/08/740712/detektif-conan-derita-kanser-meninggal-dunia 'Detektif Conan' derita kanser meninggal dunia] {{in lang|ms}}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Robbie Robertson, Canadian singer-songwriter, guitarist, producer, and actor (b. 1943)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://variety.com/2023/music/news/robbie-robertson-dead-the-band-1235692172/|titleRobbie Robertson, Leader of The Band, Dies at 80|lastMorris|firstChris|websiteVariety|dateAugust 9, 2023}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Susan Wojcicki, Polish-American technology executive (b. 1968)<ref>{{Cite web |lastSpangler |firstTodd |date2024-08-10 |titleSusan Wojcicki, Former YouTube CEO and Influential Google Exec, Dies at 56 |urlhttps://variety.com/2024/digital/news/susan-wojcicki-dead-youtube-ceo-google-exec-1236102629/ |access-date2024-08-10 |websiteVariety |languageen-US}}</ref>
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Holidays and observances
*Battle of Gangut Day (Russia)
*Christian feast day:
**Candida Maria of Jesus
**Edith Stein (St Teresa Benedicta of the Cross)
**Firmus and Rusticus
**Herman of Alaska (Russian Orthodox Church and related congregations; Episcopal Church (USA))
**John Vianney (1950s – currently August 4)
**Mary Sumner (Church of England)
**Nath Í of Achonry
**Romanus Ostiarius
**Secundian, Marcellian and Verian
**August 9 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*International Day of the World's Indigenous Peoples (United Nations)<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Days |urlhttps://www.un.org/en/sections/observances/international-days/ |websitewww.un.org |access-date2 January 2021 |languageen |date6 January 2015}}</ref>
*Meyboom (Brussels and Leuven, Belgium)
*National Day, celebrates the independence of Singapore from Malaysia in 1965.
*National Peacekeepers' Day, celebrated on Sunday closest to the day (Canada)
*National Women's Day (South Africa)
*Day of the Finnish art, also birthday of Tove Jansson (Finland)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://finlandiafoundation.org/event/tove-jansson-day-finnish-art-day/|titleTove Jansson Day/Finnish Art Day – August 9|publisherFinlandia Foundation|access-date9 August 2024}}</ref>
References
{{reflist}}
External links
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* {{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/9 |titleOn This Day |publisher=BBC}}
* {{NYT On this day|month08|day09}}
* {{cite web |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/9 |titleHistorical Events on August 9 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:August 09}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_9 | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.777232 |
1028 | Aristophanes | {{Short description|Classical Athenian comic playwright (c. 446 – c. 386 BC)}}
{{Other uses}}
{{For|the Guadelopean comics artist|Aristophane}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Aristophanes
| native_name | native_name_lang
| image = Bust of Aristophanes.jpg
| image_size | caption Bust with the inscription "Aristophanes, son of Philippides, the Athenian",{{efn|Some Roman-era inscriptions erroneously make Aristophanes son of Philippides, which itself means "the son of Philippos".{{sfn|Slater|2016|p8, note: 21}}}} 1st century AD{{efn|Although many artists' renderings of Aristophanes portray him with flowing curly hair, several jests in his plays indicate that he may have been prematurely bald.<ref name"Barrett1964p9">{{harvnb|Barrett|1964|p=9}}</ref>}}
| birth_name | birth_date {{circa|446 BC}}
| birth_place = Athens, Greece
| death_date = {{circa|386 BC}} (aged c. 60)
| death_place | nationality
| occupation = Playwright (comedy)
| years_active = 427 BC – 386 BC
| known_for = Playwright and director of Old Comedy
| notable_works = {{plainlist|
* The Knights <small>(424 BC)</small>
* The Clouds <small>(423 BC)</small>
* The Wasps <small>(422 BC)</small>
* The Birds <small>(414 BC)</small>
* Lysistrata <small>(411 BC)</small>
* Women at the Thesmophoria <small>(411 BC)</small>
* The Frogs <small>(405 BC)</small>
* Assemblywomen <small>(392 BC)</small>}}|
}}
Aristophanes ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|ær|ɪ|ˈ|s|t|ɒ|f|ə|n|iː|z}};<ref>{{cite book|author1Jones, Daniel|author2Roach, Peter|editor1James Hartman|editor2Jane Setter|titleCambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary|edition17th|publisherCambridge UP|year2006}}.</ref> {{langx|grc|Ἀριστοφάνης}} {{IPA|el|aristopʰánɛːs|}}; {{circa|446|386 BC}}) was an Ancient Greek comic playwright from Athens. He wrote in total forty plays, of which eleven survive virtually complete today.<ref>{{harvnb|Thorburn|2005|pp66-67}}; {{harvnb|Roman|Roman|2010|p82}}</ref> The majority of his surviving plays belong to the genre of comic drama known as Old Comedy and are considered its most valuable examples.{{sfn|Dover|1970|px}}{{efn|The first nine of Aristophanes' extant plays belong to Old Comedy, while his last two are seen as examples of Middle Comedy, see {{harvnb|Thorburn|2005|p67}}, marking the shift towards what would become known as New Comedy, see {{harvnb|Roman|Roman|2010|p83}}}} Aristophanes' plays were performed at the religious festivals of Athens, mostly the City Dionysia and the Lenaia, and several of them won the first prize in their respective competitions.{{sfn|Thorburn|2005|p67}}
Also known as "The Father of Comedy"<ref>{{cite book|titleAristophanes in Performance 421 BC – AD 2007: Peace, Birds and Frogs|author1Edith Hall |author1-linkEdith Hall |author2Amanda Wrigley|publisherLegenda|locationOxford|year2007|page1}}</ref> and "the Prince of Ancient Comedy",<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://manybooks.net/titles/brewere1143111431-8.html|titleCharacter Sketches of Romance, Fiction and the Drama, Vol. 1|authorEbenezer Cobham Brewer|websitemanybooks.net}}</ref> Aristophanes wrote plays that often dealt with real-life figures, including Euripides and Alcibiades, and contemporary events, such as the Peloponnesian War.{{sfn|Thorburn|2005|p67}} He has been said to recreate the life of ancient Athens more convincingly than any other author.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|2003|p26}}</ref> His plays are characterized by preposterous premises, explicit language, wordplays, and political satire.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|pp82-83}} His powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries; Plato singled out Aristophanes' play The Clouds as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of Socrates,{{sfn|Thorburn|2005|p67}}<ref>Plato, The Apology of Socrates (in Greek), edited by John Burnet; section 19c</ref> although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher.<ref>{{cite book|editor-lastSommerstein|editor-firstAlan|titleLysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds|publisherPenguin Books|year1973|page16}}</ref>
Aristophanes' second play, The Babylonians (now lost), was denounced by Cleon as a slander against the Athenian polis. It is possible that the case was argued in court, but details of the trial are not recorded and Aristophanes caricatured Cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays, especially The Knights, the first of many plays that he directed himself. "In my opinion," he says through that play's Chorus, "the author-director of comedies has the hardest job of all."<ref>{{langx|grc|"κωμῳδοδιδασκαλίαν εἶναι χαλεπώτατον ἔργον ἁπάντων}}." {{cite book|titleAristophanis Comoediae, Tomus 1|editor1F. W. Hall|editor2W. M. Geldart|publisherOxford Classical Texts}} "Knights" line 516</ref>
Biography
, Athens&nbsp;– in Aristophanes' time, the audience probably sat on wooden benches with earth foundations.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|1964|p=21}}</ref>]]
An Athenian citizen, Aristophanes came from the deme of Kydathenaion, which was part of the Attic tribe (phyle) of Pandionis. His father was Philippus<ref>{{harvnb|Sidwell|2009|p111}}; {{harvnb|Fontaine|Scafuro|2014|p132}}</ref> and his mother was Zenodora.<ref>{{harvnb|Marianetti|1997|p1}}; {{harvnb|Thorburn |2005|p66}}</ref> In antiquity, his family was assumed to have connections with the island of Aegina.{{sfn|Sidwell|2009|pp111-112}} Little is known about Aristophanes' life, his plays being the main source of biographical information. It was conventional in Old Comedy for the chorus to speak on behalf of the author during an address called the parabasis, where some biographical facts can usually be found. These facts, however, relate almost entirely to his career as a dramatist and the plays contain few clear and unambiguous clues about his personal beliefs or his private life. He was a comic poet in an age when it was conventional for the playwright to also serve as the play's director (didaskalos). The term literally means "teacher," referring primarily to his role in training the chorus in rehearsal, but perhaps also covered his relationship with the audience as a commentator on significant issues.{{sfn|Dover|1970|pxiv}}
Aristophanes claimed to be writing for a clever and discerning audience,<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Clouds, pp. 520–525</ref> yet he also declared that "other times" would judge the audience according to its reception of his plays.<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Clouds, pp. 560–562</ref> He sometimes boasts of his originality as a dramatist<ref>Wasps 1536–1537 [http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%86%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82 ] Wikisource (original Greek), Clouds, pp. 545–548, Peace, pp. 739–758</ref> yet his plays consistently espouse opposition to radical new influences in Athenian society. He caricatured leading figures in the arts (notably Euripides, whose influence on his own work however he once grudgingly acknowledged),<ref name"Barrett 2003 p.9">{{harvnb|Barrett|2003|p9}}</ref> in politics (especially the populist Cleon), and in philosophy/religion (where Socrates was the most obvious target). Such caricatures seem to imply that Aristophanes was an old-fashioned conservative, yet that view of him leads to contradictions.<ref>Andrewes, Antony. Greek Society. Pelican Books, 1981, pp. 247–248</ref>
It has been argued that Aristophanes produced plays mainly to entertain the audience and to win prestigious competitions.<ref>Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. H. Sommerstein (ed), Penguin Books 1975, p. 9 footnote</ref> His plays were written for production at the great dramatic festivals of Athens, the Lenaia and City Dionysia, where they were judged and awarded prizes in competition with the works of other comic dramatists. An elaborate series of lotteries, designed to prevent prejudice and corruption, reduced the voting judges at the City Dionysia to just five. These judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|1964|p26}}</ref> yet there is much uncertainty about the composition of those audiences.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|1964|p25}}</ref> The theatres were certainly huge, with seating for at least 10,000 at the Theatre of Dionysus. The day's program at the City Dionysia for example was crowded, with three tragedies and a satyr play ahead of a comedy, but it is possible that many of the poorer citizens (typically the main supporters of demagogues like Cleon) occupied the festival holiday with other pursuits. The conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of the dominant group in an unrepresentative audience.{{cn|date=January 2025}}
The production process might also have influenced the views expressed in the plays. Throughout most of Aristophanes' career, the Chorus was essential to a play's success and it was recruited and funded by a choregus, a wealthy citizen appointed to the task by one of the archons. A choregus could regard his personal expenditure on the Chorus as a civic duty and a public honour, but Aristophanes showed in The Knights that wealthy citizens might regard civic responsibilities as punishment imposed on them by demagogues and populists like Cleon.<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, The Knights lines 911–925</ref> Thus the political conservatism of the plays may reflect the views of the wealthiest section of Athenian society, on whose generosity all dramatists depended for putting on their plays.<ref>Rennie, W. The Acharnians of Aristophanes, Edward Arnold (London, 1909), p. 7 (reproduced by Bibliolife)</ref>
When Aristophanes' first play The Banqueters was produced, Athens was an ambitious, imperial power and the Peloponnesian War was only in its fourth year. His plays often express pride in the achievement of the older generation (the victors at Marathon)<ref>Wasps 1075–1101 [http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%86%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82 ] Wikisource (original Greek), Knights 565–576</ref><ref>Acharnians [http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%87%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%82 Wikisource (Greek Text)] 692–700</ref> yet they are not jingoistic, and they are staunchly opposed to the war with Sparta. The plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war profiteers, among whom populists such as Cleon figure prominently. By the time his last play was produced (around 386 BC) Athens had been defeated in war, its empire had been dismantled and it had undergone a transformation from being the political to the intellectual centre of Greece.<ref>Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. H. Sommerstein (ed), Penguin Books 1975, pp. 13–14</ref> Aristophanes was part of this transformation and he shared in the intellectual fashions of the period—the structure of his plays evolves from Old Comedy until, in his last surviving play, Wealth II, it more closely resembles New Comedy. However it is uncertain whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|1964|p=12}}</ref>
Aristophanes won second prize at the City Dionysia in 427 BC with his first play The Banqueters (now lost). He won first prize there with his next play, The Babylonians (also now lost). It was usual for foreign dignitaries to attend the City Dionysia, and The Babylonians caused some embarrassment for the Athenian authorities since it depicted the cities of the Delian League as slaves grinding at a mill.<ref>"Greek Drama" P. Levi in The Oxford History of the Classical World J. Boardman, J. Griffin, O. Murray (eds), Oxford University Press 1986, p. 177</ref> Some influential citizens, notably Cleon, reviled the play as slander against the polis and possibly took legal action against the author. The details of the trial are unrecorded but, speaking through the hero of his third play The Acharnians (staged at the Lenaia, where there were few or no foreign dignitaries), the poet carefully distinguishes between the polis and the real targets of his acerbic wit:
{{Verse translation|italicsoff=y
|{{lang|grc|ἡμῶν γὰρ ἄνδρες, κοὐχὶ τὴν πόλιν λέγω,
μέμνησθε τοῦθ᾽ ὅτι οὐχὶ τὴν πόλιν λέγω,
ἀλλ᾽ ἀνδράρια μοχθηρά, παρακεκομμένα...}}<ref>The Acharnians, Wikisource [http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%87%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%82 ] lines 515–517</ref>
|People among us, and I don't mean the polis,
Remember this&nbsp;– I don't mean the polis –
But wicked little men of a counterfeit kind....}}
Aristophanes repeatedly savages Cleon in his later plays. But these satirical diatribes appear to have had no effect on Cleon's political career—a few weeks after the performance of The Knights—a play full of anti-Cleon jokes—Cleon was elected to the prestigious board of ten generals.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|2003|p=34}}</ref> Cleon also seems to have had no real power to limit or control Aristophanes: the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death.
In the absence of clear biographical facts about Aristophanes, scholars make educated guesses based on interpretation of the language in the plays. Inscriptions and summaries or comments by Hellenistic and Byzantine scholars can also provide useful clues. We know from a combination of these sources,<ref>D. Welsh, ''IG ii<sup>2</sup> 2343, Philonides and Aristophanes' Banqueters, Classical Quarterly 33 (1983)</ref> and especially from comments in The Knights<ref>Knights 512–514</ref> and The Clouds,<ref>Clouds'' 530–533</ref> that Aristophanes' first three plays were not directed by him; they were instead directed by Callistratus and Philoneides,<ref>Ian Storey, General Introduction, in Clouds, Wasps, Birds By Aristophanes, Peter Meineck (translator), Hackett Publishing 1998, p. xiii</ref> an arrangement that seemed to suit Aristophanes since he appears to have used these same directors in many later plays as well (Philoneides for example later directed The Frogs and he was also credited, perhaps wrongly, with directing The Wasps).<ref>MacDowell (1971), p. 124</ref> Aristophanes's use of directors complicates our reliance on the plays as sources of biographical information, because apparent self-references might have been made with reference to his directors instead. Thus, for example, a statement by the chorus in The Acharnians<ref>The Acharnians [http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%87%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%82 ] Wikisource (original Greek) lines 652–654</ref> seems to indicate that the "poet" had a close, personal association with the island of Aegina. Similarly, the hero in The Acharnians complains about Cleon "dragging me into court" over "last year's play."<ref>The Acharnians [http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%87%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%82 ] Wikisource (original Greek) lines 377–382</ref>
Comments made by the Chorus referring to Aristophanes in The Clouds<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, The Clouds lines 528–32</ref> have been interpreted as evidence that he can hardly have been more than 18 years old when his first play The Banqueters was produced.<ref>Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds Alan Sommerstein (ed), Penguin Classics 1975, p. 9</ref> The second parabasis in Wasps<ref>Wasps [http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%86%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82 ] Wikisource (original Greek) lines 1265–1291</ref> appears to indicate that he reached some kind of temporary accommodation with Cleon following either the controversy over The Babylonians or a subsequent controversy over The Knights.<ref>MacDowell (1978), p. 299</ref> It has been inferred<ref name="Barrett1964p9"/> from statements in The Clouds and Peace that Aristophanes was prematurely bald.<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Clouds 540–545, Peace 767–774</ref>
Aristophanes was probably victorious at least once at the City Dionysia, with Babylonians in 427,<ref>IG II<sup>2</sup> [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/main?urloi%3Fikey%3D4561%26bookid%3D5%26region%3D1] 2325. 58</ref> and at least three times at the Lenaia, with The Acharnians in 425, Knights in 424, and Frogs in 405. Frogs in fact won the unique distinction of a repeat performance at a subsequent festival. A son of Aristophanes, Araros, was also a comic poet and he could have been heavily involved in the production of his father's play Wealth II in 388.<ref>Aristophanes, testimonium 1, lines 54–56, in Kassel-Austin, Poetae Comici Graeci vol. III.2 (Berlin 1984), p. 4.</ref> Araros is also thought to have been responsible for the posthumous performances of the now lost plays Aeolosicon II and Cocalus,<ref>Aristophanes, Κώκαλος, testimonium iii, in Kassel-Austin, Poetae Comici Graeci vol. III.2 (Berlin 1984), p. 201.</ref> and it is possible that the last of these won the prize at the City Dionysia in 387.<ref>IG II<sup>2</sup> [http://epigraphy.packhum.org/inscriptions/main?urloi%3Fikey%3D4558%26bookid%3D5%26region%3D1] 2318. 196</ref> It appears that a second son, Philippus, was twice victorious at the Lenaia<ref>IG II<sup>2</sup> 2325. 140</ref> and he could have directed some of Eubulus' comedies.<ref>Eubulus, testimonium 4, in Kassel-Austin, Poetae Comici Graeci vol. V (Berlin 1986), p. 188.</ref> A third son was called either Nicostratus or Philetaerus,<ref>Clouds Peter Meineck (translator) and Ian Storey (Introduction), Hackett Publishing 2000, p. xviii</ref> and a man by the latter name appears in the catalogue of Lenaia victors with two victories, the first probably in the late 370s.<ref>IG II<sup>2</sup> 2325. 143 (just after Anaxandrides and just before Eubulus)</ref>
Aristophanes survived The Peloponnesian War, two oligarchic revolutions and two democratic restorations; this has been interpreted as evidence that he was not actively involved in politics, despite his highly political plays.{{sfn|Dover|1970|pix}} He was probably appointed to the Council of Five Hundred for a year at the beginning of the fourth century, but such appointments were very common in democratic Athens.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|2003|p7}}</ref>
Plato's Symposion
Plato's The Symposium appears to be a useful source of biographical information about Aristophanes, but its reliability is open to doubt.{{sfn|Dover|1970|pix, note 1}} It purports to be a record of conversations at a dinner party at which both Aristophanes and Socrates are guests, held some seven years after the performance of The Clouds, the play in which Socrates was cruelly caricatured. One of the guests, Alcibiades, even quotes from the play when teasing Socrates over his appearance<ref>Symposium 221B; Plato Vol.3, Loeb Classical Library (1975), p. 236</ref> and yet there is no indication of any ill-feeling between Socrates and Aristophanes. Plato's Aristophanes is in fact a genial character and this has been interpreted as evidence of Plato's own friendship with him<ref>Sommerstein, Alan (ed). Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds. Penguin Books, 1973, p. 10</ref> (their friendship appears to be corroborated by an epitaph for Aristophanes, reputedly written by Plato, in which the playwright's soul is compared to an eternal shrine for the Graces).<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|2003|p10}}</ref> Plato was only a boy when the events in The Symposium are supposed to have occurred and it is possible that his Aristophanes is in fact based on a reading of the plays. For example, conversation among the guests turns to the subject of Love and Aristophanes explains his notion of it in terms of an amusing allegory, a device he often uses in his plays. He is represented as suffering an attack of hiccups and this might be a humorous reference to the crude physical jokes in his plays. He tells the other guests that he is quite happy to be thought amusing but he is wary of appearing ridiculous.<ref>The Symposium original Greek text:[http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%85%CE%BC%CF%80%CF%8C%CF%83%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%BD section 189b]</ref><ref>The Symposium (English translation) [http://classics.mit.edu/Plato/symposium.html Benjamin Jowett] (scroll half way down).</ref> This fear of being ridiculed is consistent with his declaration in The Knights that he embarked on the career of comic playwright warily after witnessing the public contempt and ridicule that other dramatists had incurred.<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Knights lines 507–550</ref>
Use of language
The language of Aristophanes' plays, and in Old Comedy generally, was valued by ancient commentators as a model of the Attic dialect. The orator Quintilian believed that the charm and grandeur of the Attic dialect made Old Comedy an example for orators to study and follow, and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of Homer.<ref name"orators">''The Orator's Training'' Quintilian 10.1.65–66, cited in {{harvnb|Barrett|2003|p15}}</ref><ref>Quintilian 10.1.65–66 [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Quintilian/Institutio_Oratoria/10A*.html#1.61 10.1.61]</ref> A revival of interest in the Attic dialect may have been responsible for the recovery and circulation of Aristophanes' plays during the fourth and fifth centuries AD, resulting in their survival today.<ref name="orators" /> In Aristophanes' plays, the Attic dialect is couched in verse and his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities.
For Aristophanes' contemporaries the works of Homer and Hesiod formed the cornerstones of Hellenic history and culture. Thus poetry had a moral and social significance that made it an inevitable topic of comic satire.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|1964|pp151–152}}</ref> Aristophanes was very conscious of literary fashions and traditions and his plays feature numerous references to other poets. These include not only rival comic dramatists such as Eupolis and Hermippus<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Clouds lines 553–554</ref> and predecessors such as Magnes, Crates and Cratinus,<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Knights lines 519–540</ref> but also tragedians, notably Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, all three of whom are mentioned in e.g. The Frogs. Aristophanes was the equal of these great tragedians in his subtle use of lyrics.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|1964|p30}}</ref> He appears to have modelled his approach to language on that of Euripides in particular, so much so that the comic dramatist Cratinus labelled him a 'Euripidaristophanist' addicted to hair-splitting niceties.<ref name="Barrett 2003 p.9"/>
A full appreciation of Aristophanes' plays requires an understanding of the poetic forms he employed with virtuoso skill, and of their different rhythms and associations.<ref>MacDowell (1978), p. 21</ref> There were three broad poetic forms: iambic dialogue, tetrameter verses and lyrics:<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|2003|pp=7–8}}</ref>
* Iambic dialogue: Aristophanes achieves an effect resembling natural speech through the use of the iambic trimeter (corresponding to the effects achieved by English poets such as Shakespeare using iambic pentameters). His realistic use of the meter<ref name"Other Plays' 2003, page 27"/><ref>{{harvnb|MacDowell|1978|p16}}</ref> makes it ideal for both dialogue and soliloquy, as for instance in the prologue, before the arrival of the Chorus, when the audience is introduced to the main issues in the plot. The Acharnians opens with these three lines by the hero, Dikaiopolis (rendered here in English as iambic pentameters):
::How many are the things that vex my heart!
::Pleasures are few, so very few&nbsp;– just four –
::But stressful things are manysandthousandsandheaps!<ref>The Acharnians[http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%87%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%82 ] Wikisource (original Greek) lines 1–3</ref>
:Here Aristophanes employs a frequent device, arranging the syntax so that the final word in a line comes as a comic climax.<ref name="MacDowell 1978 p.17">MacDowell (1978), p. 17</ref> The hero's pleasures are so few he can number them ({{lang|grc|τέτταρα}}, four) but his causes for complaint are so many they beggar numerical description and he must invent his own word for them ({{lang|grc|ψαμμακοσιογάργαρα}}, literally "sandhundredheaps", here paraphrased "manysandthousandsandheaps"). The use of invented compound words is another comic device frequently found in the plays.<ref>MacDowell (1978), p. 13</ref><ref>Sommerstein, Alan (ed). Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds. Penguin Classics 1973, p. 37</ref>
* Tetrameter catalectic verses: These are long lines of anapests, trochees or iambs (where each line is ideally measured in four dipodes or pairs of feet), used in various situations within each play such as:
** formal debates or agons between characters (typically in anapestic rhythm);
** excited dialogue or heated argument (typically trochaic rhythm, the same as in early tragedy);
** long speeches declaimed by the Chorus in parabases (in either anapestic or trochaic rhythms);
** informal debates barely above the level of ordinary dialogue (typically iambic).
:Anapestic rhythms are naturally jaunty (as in many limericks) and trochaic meter is suited to rapid delivery (the word "trochee" is in fact derived from trechein, "to run", as demonstrated for example by choruses who enter at speed, often in aggressive mood)<ref>L. P. E. Parker, The Songs of Aristophanes, Oxford, 1997, p. 36</ref> However, even though both these rhythms can seem to "bowl along"<ref name"Other Plays' 2003, page 27">{{harvnb|Barrett|2003|p27}}</ref> Aristophanes often varies them through use of complex syntax and substituted meters, adapting the rhythms to the requirements of serious argument. In an anapestic passage in The Frogs, for instance, the character Aeschylus presents a view of poetry that is supposed to be serious but which leads to a comic interruption by the god, Dionysus:
::AES.:It was Orpheus singing who taught us religion and how wrong people are when they kill,
::And we learned from Musaeus medicinal cures and the science of divination.
::If it's farming you want, Hesiod knows it all, when to plant, when to harvest. How godlike
::Homer got to be famous, I'll tell if you ask: he taught us what all good men should know,
::Discipline, fortitude, battle-readiness. DIO.: But no-one taught Pantocles&nbsp;– yesterday
::He was marching his men up and down on parade when the crest of his helmet fell off!<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 2, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Frogs lines 1032–1038</ref>
The rhythm begins at a typical anapestic gallop, slows down to consider the revered poets Hesiod and Homer, then gallops off again to its comic conclusion at the expense of the unfortunate Pantocles. Such subtle variations in rhythm are common in the plays, allowing for serious points to be made while still whetting the audience's appetite for the next joke.
* Lyrics: Almost nothing is known about the music that accompanied Greek lyrics, and the meter is often so varied and complex that it is difficult for modern readers or audiences to get a feel for the intended effects, yet Aristophanes still impresses with the charm and simplicity of his lyrics.<ref name"Other Plays' 2003, page 27"/> Some of the most memorable and haunting lyrics are dignified hymns set free of the comic action.<ref>Greek Drama, Peter Levi, in The Oxford History of the Classical World edited by J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray, Oxford University Press 1986, p. 175</ref> In the example below, taken from The Wasps, the lyric is merely a comic interlude and the rhythm is steadily trochaic. The syntax in the original Greek is natural and unforced and it was probably accompanied by brisk and cheerful music, gliding to a concluding pun at the expense of Amynias, who is thought to have lost his fortune gambling.<ref name"MacDowell1978p27">MacDowell (1978) p. 27</ref>
<poem style="margin-left:2em">
Though to myself I often seem
:A bright chap and not awkward,
None comes close to Amynias,
:Son of Sellos of the Bigwig
Clan, a man I once saw
:Dine with rich Leogorus.
Now as poor as Antiphon,
:He lives on apples and pomegranates
Yet he got himself appointed
:Ambassador to Pharsalus,
Way up there in Thessaly,
:Home of the poor Penestes:
Happy to be where everyone
:Is as penniless as he is!<ref>MacDowell (1978), Wikisource: [http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%86%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82 ] lines 1265–1274</ref></poem>
:The pun here in English translation (Penestes–penniless) is a weak version of the Greek pun {{lang|grc|Πενέσταισι-πενέστης}}, Penéstaisi-penéstĕs, "destitute". Many of the puns in the plays are based on words that are similar rather than identical, and it has been observed that there could be more of them than scholars have yet been able to identify.<ref>{{harvnb|Barrett|2003|p=21}}</ref> Others are based on double meanings. Sometimes entire scenes are constructed on puns, as in The Acharnians with the Megarian farmer and his pigs:<ref>The Acharnians [http://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%87%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%82 ] Wikisource (original Greek) lines 729–835</ref> the Megarian farmer defies the Athenian embargo against Megarian trade, and tries to trade his daughters disguised as pigs, except "pig" was ancient slang for "vagina". Since the embargo against Megara was the pretext for the Peloponnesian War, Aristophanes naturally concludes that this whole mess happened because of "three cunts".
It can be argued that the most important feature of the language of the plays is imagery, particularly the use of similes, metaphors and pictorial expressions.<ref name"MacDowell 1978 p.17"/> In The Knights, for example, the ears of a character with selective hearing are represented as parasols that open and close.<ref>Aristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1, F. W. Hall and W. M. Geldart (eds), Oxford Classical Texts, Knights lines 1347–1348;</ref> In The Frogs, Aeschylus is said to compose verses in the manner of a horse rolling in a sandpit.<ref>The Frogs lines 902–904</ref> Some plays feature revelations of human perfectibility that are poetic rather than religious in character, such as the marriage of the hero Pisthetairos to Zeus's paramour in The Birds and the "recreation" of old Athens, crowned with roses, at the end of The Knights.Aristophanes and Old Comedy
, muse of comedy, gazing upon a comic mask (detail from ''Muses' Sarcophagus)]]
{{see also|Old Comedy}}
The plays of Aristophanes are the only full-length examples of the genre of Old Comedy to have survived from antiquity. This makes them centrally important to modern understandings of the genre. The themes of Old Comedy included:
* Inclusive comedy: Old Comedy provided a variety of entertainments for a diverse audience. It accommodated a serious purpose, light entertainment, hauntingly beautiful lyrics, the buffoonery of puns and invented words, obscenities, disciplined verse, wildly absurd plots and a formal, dramatic structure.
* Fantasy and absurdity: Fantasy in Old Comedy is unrestricted and impossibilities are ignored.{{sfn|Dover|1970|p=xiii}} Situations are developed logically to absurd conclusions, an approach to humour that is echoed for instance in the works of Lewis Carroll and Eugène Ionesco (the Theatre of the Absurd).<ref>Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas MacDowell, Oxford University Press 1978, p. 12</ref> The crazy costume worn by Dionysus in The Frogs'' is typical of an absurd result obtained on logical grounds—he wears a woman's saffron-coloured tunic because effeminacy is an aspect of his divinity, buskin boots because he is interested in reviving the art of tragedy, and a lion skin cape because, like Heracles, his mission leads him into Hades. Absurdities develop logically from initial premises in a plot. In The Knights for instance, Cleon's corrupt service to the people of Athens is originally depicted as a household relationship in which the slave dupes his master. The introduction of a rival, who is not a member of the household, leads to an absurd shift in the metaphor, so that Cleon and his rival become erastai competing for the affections of an eromenos, hawkers of oracles competing for the attention of a credulous public, athletes in a race for approval and orators competing for the popular vote.
* The resourceful hero: In Aristophanic comedy, the hero is an independent-minded and self-reliant individual. He has something of the ingenuity of Homer's Odysseus and much of the shrewdness of the farmer idealized in Hesiod's Works and Days, subjected to corrupt leaders and unreliable neighbours. Typically he devises a complicated and highly fanciful escape from an intolerable situation.<ref>Clouds Peter Meineck (translator) and Ian Storey (Introduction), Hackett Publishing 2000, p. viii</ref> Thus Dikaiopolis in The Acharnians contrives a private peace treaty with the Spartans; Bdelucleon in The Wasps turns his own house into a private law court in order to keep his jury-addicted father safely at home; Trygaeus in Peace flies to Olympus on a giant dung beetle to obtain an end to the Peloponnesian War; Pisthetairus in Birds sets off to establish his own colony and becomes instead the ruler of the bird kingdom and a rival to the gods.
* The resourceful cast: The numerous surprising developments in an Aristophanic plot, the changes in scene, and the farcical comings and goings of minor characters towards the end of a play, were managed according to theatrical convention with only three principal actors (a fourth actor, often the leader of the chorus, was permitted to deliver short speeches).<ref>{{harvid|Barrett|1964|p=17}}</ref> Songs and addresses to the audience by the Chorus gave the actors hardly enough time off-stage to draw breath and to prepare for changes in scene.
* Complex structure: The action of an Aristophanic play obeyed a crazy logic of its own and yet it always unfolded within a formal, dramatic structure that was repeated with minor variations from one play to another. The different, structural elements are associated with different poetic meters, which are generally lost in English translations.
Dramatic structure of Aristophanes' plots
The structural elements of a typical Aristophanic plot can be summarized as follows:
* prologue – an introductory scene with a dialogue and/or soliloquy addressed to the audience, expressed in iambic trimeter and explaining the situation that is to be resolved in the play;
* parodos – the arrival of the chorus, dancing and singing, sometimes followed by a choreographed skirmish with one or more actors, often expressed in long lines of tetrameters;
* symmetrical scenes – passages featuring songs and declaimed verses in long lines of tetrameters, arranged symmetrically in two sections such that each half resembles the other in meter and line length; the agon and parabasis can be considered specific instances of symmetrical scenes:
** parabasis – verses through which the Chorus addresses the audience directly, firstly in the middle of the play and again near the end (see the section below, Parabasis);
** agon – a formal debate that decides the outcome of the play, typically in anapestic tetrameter, though iambs are sometimes used to delineate inferior arguments;<ref>Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed.), Oxford University Press 1971, p. 207 note 546–630</ref>
* episodes – sections of dialogue in iambic trimeter, often in a succession of scenes featuring minor characters towards the end of a play;
* songs ('strophes'/'antistrophes' or 'odes'/'antodes') – often in symmetrical pairs where each half has the same meter and number of lines as the other, used as transitions between other structural elements, or between scenes while actors change costume, and often commenting on the action;
* exodus – the departure of the Chorus and the actors, in song and dance celebrating the hero's victory and sometimes celebrating a symbolic marriage.
The rules of competition did not prevent a playwright arranging and adjusting these elements to suit his particular needs.<ref>Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1975, p. 27</ref> In The Acharnians and Peace, for example, there is no formal agon whereas in The Clouds there are two agons.
Parabasis
The parabasis is an address to the audience by the chorus or chorus leader while the actors leave or have left the stage. In this role, the chorus is sometimes out of character, as the author's voice, and sometimes in character, although these capacities are often difficult to distinguish. Generally the parabasis occurs somewhere in the middle of a play and often there is a second parabasis towards the end. The elements of a parabasis have been defined and named by scholars but it is probable that Aristophanes' own understanding was less formal.<ref>Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas MacDowell, Oxford University Press 1978, p. 261</ref> The selection of elements can vary from play to play and it varies considerably within plays between first and second parabasis. The early plays (The Acharnians to The Birds) are fairly uniform in their approach however and the following elements of a parabasis can be found within them.
* kommation: This is a brief prelude, comprising short lines and often including a valediction to the departing actors, such as {{lang|grc|ἴτε χαίροντες}} (Go rejoicing!).
* parabasis proper: This is usually a defense of the author's work and it includes criticism of the audience's attitude. It is declaimed in long lines of 'anapestic tetrameters'. Aristophanes himself refers to the parabasis proper only as 'anapests'.
* pnigos: Sometimes known as 'a choker', it comprises a few short lines appended to the parabasis proper as a kind of rapid patter (it has been suggested that some of the effects achieved in a pnigos can be heard in "The Lord Chancellor's Nightmare Song", in act 2 of Gilbert and Sullivan's Iolanthe).<ref name="Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas MacDowell 1978, page 27">Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, p. 27</ref>
* epirrhematic syzygies: These are symmetrical scenes that mirror each other in meter and number of lines. They form part of the first parabasis and they often comprise the entire second parabasis. They are characterized by the following elements:
** strophe or ode: These are lyrics in a variety of meters, sung by the Chorus in the first parabasis as an invocation to the gods and as a comic interlude in the second parabasis.
** epirrhema: These are usually long lines of trochaic tetrameters. Broadly political in their significance, they were probably spoken by the leader of the Chorus in character.{{sfn|Dover|1970|p=126}}
** antistrophe or antode: These are songs that mirror the strophe/ode in meter, length and function.
** antepirrhema. This is another declaimed passage and it mirrors the epirrhema in meter, length and function.
The Wasps is thought to offer the best example of a conventional approach<ref>Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas M. MacDowell, Oxford University Press 1978, note 1283 p. 298</ref> and the elements of a parabasis can be identified and located in that play as follows.
::{| class"wikitable" style"margin: 1em auto 1em auto; background-color: #ffffff"
! Elements in The Wasps
! 1st parabasis
! 2nd parabasis
|-
| kommation
| lines 1009–1014<ref name"auto">{{Cite web|urlhttps://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%A3%CF%86%CE%AE%CE%BA%CE%B5%CF%82|titleΣφήκες – Βικιθήκη|websiteel.wikisource.org}}</ref>
| ---
|-
| parabasis proper
| lines 1015–1050
| ---
|-
| pnigos
| lines 1051–1059
| ---
|-
| strophe
| lines 1060–1070
| lines 1265–1274<ref name="auto"/>
|-
| epirrhema
| lines 1071–1090
| lines 1275–1283
|-
| antistrophe
| lines 1091–1101
| missing
|-
| antepirrhema
| lines 1102–1121
| lines 1284–1291
|}
Textual corruption is probably the reason for the absence of the antistrophe in the second parabasis.<ref>Aristophanes: Wasps Douglas MacDowell (ed), Oxford University Press 1978, pp. 298–299</ref>
However, there are several variations from the ideal even within the early plays. For example, the parabasis proper in The Clouds (lines 518–562) is composed in eupolidean meter rather than in anapests{{sfn|Dover|1970|p119, note 518–562}} and the second parabasis includes a kommation but it lacks strophe, antistrophe and antepirrhema (The Clouds lines 1113–1130). The second parabasis in The Acharnians lines 971–999<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://el.wikisource.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%87%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%AF%CF%82|titleΑχαρνείς – Βικιθήκη|websiteel.wikisource.org}}</ref> can be considered a hybrid parabasis/song (i.e. the declaimed sections are merely continuations of the strophe and antistrophe)<ref>Comedy E. Handley in 'The Cambridge History of Classical Literature I', P. Easterling, R. MacGregor Walker Knox, E. Kenney (eds), p. 360</ref> and, unlike the typical parabasis, it seems to comment on actions that occur on stage during the address. An understanding of Old Comedy conventions such as the parabasis is necessary for a proper understanding of Aristophanes' plays; on the other hand, a sensitive appreciation of the plays is necessary for a proper understanding of the conventions.
Influence and legacy
, and Menander, the master of New Comedy.]]
The tragic dramatists Sophocles and Euripides died near the end of the Peloponnesian War, and the art of tragedy thereafter ceased to develop, yet comedy continued to evolve after the defeat of Athens, and it is possible that it did so because, in Aristophanes, it had a master craftsman who lived long enough to help usher it into a new age.<ref>"Greek Drama" Peter Levi, in The Oxford History of the Classical World J. Boardman, J. Griffin and O. Murray (eds), Oxford University Press 1986, p. 176</ref> Indeed, according to one ancient source (Platonius, {{circa}} 9th century AD), one of Aristophanes's last plays, Aioliskon, had neither a parabasis nor any choral lyrics (making it a type of Middle Comedy), while Kolakos anticipated all the elements of New Comedy, including a rape and a recognition scene.<ref>E. W. Handley, 'Comedy' in The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature, P. E. Easterling and Bernard Knox (eds), Cambridge University Press (1985), p. 400</ref> Aristophanes seems to have had some appreciation of his formative role in the development of comedy, as indicated by his comment in Clouds that his audience would be judged by other times according to its reception of his plays.<ref>Clouds lines 560–562</ref> Clouds was awarded third (i.e. last) place after its original performance and the text that has come down to the modern age was a subsequent draft that Aristophanes intended to be read rather than acted.{{sfn|Dover|1970|ppxxix–xxx}} The circulation of his plays in manuscript extended their influence beyond the original audience, over whom in fact they seem to have had little or no practical influence: they did not affect the career of Cleon, they failed to persuade the Athenians to pursue an honourable peace with Sparta and it is not clear that they were instrumental in the trial and execution of Socrates, whose death probably resulted from public animosity towards the philosopher's disgraced associates (such as Alcibiades),{{sfn|Dover|1970|ppxiv–xv}} exacerbated of course by his own intransigence during the trial.<ref>Plato's Apology, Benjamin Jowett (trans), Wikisource copy: s:Apology (Plato)#33 (section 33)</ref> The plays, in manuscript form, have been put to some surprising uses—as indicated earlier, they were used in the study of rhetoric on the recommendation of Quintilian and by students of the Attic dialect in the Fourth and Fifth Centuries AD. It is possible that Plato sent copies of the plays to Dionysius of Syracuse so that he might learn about Athenian life and government.<ref>{{cite book|titleClouds|authorAristophanes|translatorPeter Meineck |othersIan Storey (Introduction)|publisherHackett Publishing|year2000|page=x}}</ref>
Latin translations of the plays by Andreas Divus (Venice 1528) were circulated widely throughout Europe in the Renaissance and these were soon followed by translations and adaptations in modern languages. Racine, for example, drew Les Plaideurs (1668) from The Wasps. Goethe (who turned to Aristophanes for a warmer and more vivid form of comedy than he could derive from readings of Terence and Plautus) adapted a short play Die Vögel from The Birds for performance in Weimar. Aristophanes has appealed to both conservatives and radicals in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries—Anatoly Lunacharsky, first Commissar of Enlightenment for the USSR in 1917, declared that the ancient dramatist would have a permanent place in proletarian theatre and yet conservative, Prussian intellectuals interpreted Aristophanes as a satirical opponent of social reform.<ref>{{cite book|titleAristophanes in Performance 421 BC – AD 2007: Peace, Birds and Frogs|authorEdith Hall and Amanda Wrigley|publisherLegenda|locationOxford|year2007|pages9–12}}</ref> The avant-gardist stage-director Karolos Koun directed a version of The Birds under the Acropolis in 1959 that established a trend in modern Greek history of breaking taboos through the voice of Aristophanes.<ref>Politics and Aristophanes: watchword Caution! by Gonda Van Steen in 'The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Theatre' Marianne McDonald and J. Michael Walton (eds), Cambridge University Press 2007, p. 109</ref>
The plays have a significance that goes beyond their artistic function, as historical documents that open the window on life and politics in classical Athens, in which respect they are perhaps as important as the writings of Thucydides. The artistic influence of the plays is immeasurable. They have contributed to the history of European theatre and that history in turn shapes our understanding of the plays. Thus for example the operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan can give us insights into Aristophanes' plays<ref>e.g. Aristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds A. Sommerstein, Penguin Classics 1975, p. 37</ref> and similarly the plays can give us insights into the operettas.<ref>"W. S. Gilbert: A Mid-Victorian Aristophanes" in W. S. Gilbert: A Century of Scholarship and Commentary, John Bush Jones (ed), New York University Press 1970</ref> The plays are a source of famous sayings, such as "By words the mind is winged."<ref>Birds, l.1447–1448; quotation as translated in Macmillan Dictionary of Political Quotations</ref>
Listed below are some of the many works influenced (more or less) by Aristophanes.
Literature
* The romantic poet, Percy Shelley, wrote a comic, lyrical drama (Swellfoot the Tyrant) in imitation of Aristophanes' play The Frogs after he was reminded of the Chorus in that play by a herd of pigs passing to market under the window of his lodgings in San Giuliano, Italy.<ref>Note on Oedipus Tyrannus by Mrs Shelley, quoted in Shelley: Poetical Works Thomas Hutchinson (ed), Oxford University Press 1970, p. 410</ref>
* Aristophanes (particularly in reference to The Clouds) is mentioned frequently by the character Menedemos in the Hellenic Traders series of novels by H. N. Turteltaub.
* A liberal version of the comedies have been published in comic book format, initially by "Agrotikes Ekdoseis" during the 1980s and republished over the years by other companies. The plot was written by Tasos Apostolidis and the sketches were of George Akokalidis. The stories feature either Aristophanes narrating them, directing the play, or even as a character inside one of his stories.
Radio shows
* Acropolis Now is a comedy radio show for the BBC set in Ancient Greece. It features Aristophanes, Socrates and many other famous Greeks. (Not to be confused with the Australian sitcom of the same name.) Aristophanes is characterised as a celebrity playwright, and most of his plays have the title formula: One of Our [e.g] Slaves has an Enormous Knob (a reference to the exaggerated appendages worn by Greek comic actors)
* Aristophanes Against the World was a radio play by Martyn Wade and broadcast on BBC Radio 4. Loosely based on several of his plays, it featured Clive Merrison as Aristophanes.
* The Wasps, radio play adapted by David Pountney, music by Vaughan Williams, recorded 26–28 July 2005, Albert Halls, Bolton, in association with BBC, under Halle label
Music
* Platée is a French comic opera by Jean-Philippe Rameau influenced by The Frogs.<ref>GREEN, ROBERT A. “Aristophanes, Rameau and ‘Platée.’” Cambridge Opera Journal, vol. 23, no. 1/2, 2011, pp. 1–26. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41494572. Accessed 6 Oct. 2024.</ref>
* Satiric Dances for a Comedy by Aristophanes is a three-movement piece for concert band composed by Norman Dello Joio. It was commissioned in commemoration of the Bicentennial of 19 April 1775 (the start of the American Revolutionary War) by the Concord (Massachusetts) Band. The commission was funded by the Town of Concord and assistance was given by the Eastern National Park and Monument Association in cooperation with the National Park Service.
* Ralph Vaughan Williams wrote The Wasps for a 1909 Cambridge University production of the play.<ref>{{cite web|titlePlays, Radio and Film; Ralph Vaughan Williams List of Works|urlhttp://www.rvwsociety.com/worksfilm.html|websiteRVWSociety.com|publisherThe Ralph Vaughan Williams Society|access-date7 September 2014|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140409053434/http://www.rvwsociety.com/worksfilm.html|archive-date9 April 2014}}</ref>
Translation of Aristophanes
Alan H. Sommerstein believes that although there are good translations of Aristophanes' comedies, none could be flawless, "for there is much truth in the paradox that the only really perfect translation is the original."<ref>On Translating Aristophanes: Ends and Means, Alan H. Sommerstein, Greece & Rome, Oct. 1973, Vol. 20, No. 2 (Oct. 1973), pp. 140–154 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association.</ref> Nevertheless, there are competent, respectable translations in many languages. Despite the fact that translations of Aristophanes may not be perfect, "the reception of Aristophanes has gained extraordinary momentum as a topic of academic interest in the last few years."<ref>Transposing Aristophanes: The Theory and Practice of Translating Aristophanic Lyric, James Robson, Second Series, Vol. 59, No. 2 (October 2012), pp. 214–244 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association.</ref>
Works
Surviving plays
and Lysistrata]]
Most of these are traditionally referred to by abbreviations of their Latin titles; Latin remains a customary language of scholarship in classical studies.
* The Acharnians ({{lang|grc|Ἀχαρνεῖς}} Akharneis; Attic {{lang|grc|Ἀχαρνῆς}}; {{lang|la|Acharnenses}}), 425 BC
* The Knights ({{lang|grc|Ἱππεῖς}} Hippeis; Attic {{lang|grc|Ἱππῆς}}; Latin: {{lang|la|Equites}}), 424 BC
* The Clouds ({{lang|grc|Νεφέλαι}} Nephelai; Latin: {{lang|la|Nubes}}), original 423 BC, incomplete revised version from 419 to 416 BC survives
* The Wasps ({{lang|grc|Σφῆκες}} Sphekes; Latin: {{lang|la|Vespae}}), 422 BC
* Peace ({{lang|grc|Εἰρήνη}} Eirene; Latin: {{lang|la|Pax}}), first version, 421 BC
* The Birds ({{lang|grc|Ὄρνιθες}} Ornithes; Latin: {{lang|la|Aves}}), 414 BC
* Lysistrata ({{lang|grc|Λυσιστράτη}} Lysistrate), 411 BC
* Thesmophoriazusae or The Women Celebrating the Thesmophoria ({{lang|grc|Θεσμοφοριάζουσαι}} Thesmophoriazousai), first version {{circa|411 BC}}
* The Frogs ({{lang|grc|Βάτραχοι}} Batrakhoi; Latin: {{lang|la|Ranae}}), 405 BC
* Ecclesiazusae or The Assemblywomen; ({{lang|grc|Ἐκκλησιάζουσαι}} Ekklesiazousai), {{circa|392 BC}}
* Wealth ({{lang|grc|Πλοῦτος}} Ploutos; Latin Plutus'') second version, 388 BC
Datable non-surviving (lost) plays
The standard modern edition of the fragments is Rudolf Kassel and Colin François Lloyd Austin's, Poetae Comici Graeci III.2.
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Banqueters (Δαιταλεῖς Daitaleis, 427 BC)
* Babylonians (Βαβυλώνιοι Babylonioi, 426 BC)
* Farmers (Γεωργοί Georgoi, 424 BC)
* Merchant Ships (Ὁλκάδες Holkades, 423 BC)
* Clouds (first version, 423 BC)
* Proagon (Προάγων, 422 BC)
* Amphiaraus (Ἀμφιάραος, 414 BC)
* Plutus (Wealth, first version, 408 BC)
* Gerytades (Γηρυτάδης, uncertain, probably 407 BC)
* Cocalus (Κώκαλος, 387 BC)
* Aiolosicon (Αἰολοσίκων, second version, 386 BC)
{{div col end}}
Undated non-surviving (lost) plays
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Aiolosicon (first version)
* Anagyrus (Ἀνάγυρος)
* Frying-Pan Men (Ταγηνισταί Tagenistai)
* Daedalus (Δαίδαλος)
* Danaids (Δαναΐδες Danaides)
* Centaur (Κένταυρος Kentauros)
* Heroes (Ἥρωες)
* Lemnian Women (Λήμνιαι Lemniai)
* Old Age (Γῆρας Geras)
* Peace (second version)
* Phoenician Women (Φοίνισσαι Phoinissai)
* Polyidus (Πολύιδος)
* Seasons (Ὧραι Horai)
* Storks (Πελαργοί Pelargoi)
* Telmessians (Τελμησσεῖς Telmesseis)
* Triphales (Τριφάλης)
* Thesmophoriazusae (Women at the Thesmophoria Festival, second version)
* Women in Tents (Σκηνὰς Καταλαμβάνουσαι Skenas Katalambanousai)
{{div col end}}
Attributed (doubtful, possibly by Archippus)
{{see also|Archippus (poet)}}
{|
|
* Dionysus Shipwrecked (Διόνυσος Ναυαγός Dionysos Nauagos)
* Islands (Νῆσοι Nesoi)
|
* Niobos (Νίοβος)
* Poetry (Ποίησις Poiesis)
|
|}
See also
* Agathon
* Ancient Greek comedy
* Asteroid 2934 Aristophanes, named after the dramatist
* Greek literature
* Onomasti komodein, the witty personal attack made with total freedom against the most notable individuals
* Hubert Parry wrote music for The Birds
* Theatre of ancient Greece
* Codex Ravennas 429
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{reflist}}
Sources
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{citation|lastAndrewes|firstAntony|titleGreek Society|publisherPelican Books|year=1981}}
* {{citation|lastAristophanes|editor1Hall FW|editor2Geldart WM|titleAristophanis Comoediae Tomus 1|publisherOxford University Press|year1906 }}
* {{cite book|lastBarrett|firstDavid|year1964|titleThe Frogs and Other Plays|publisher=Penguin Books}}
* {{cite book|editor1-lastBarrett|editor1-firstDavid|editor2-lastSommerstein|editor2-firstAlan|year2003|titleThe Birds and Other Plays|publisherPenguin Classics |ref{{harvid|Barrett|2003}}}}
*{{cite book |last1Dover |first1K. J. |titleAristophanic Comedy |date1970a |publisherUniversity of California Press |isbn9780520022119}}
* {{cite book|lastDover|firstK. J.|titleAristophanes, The Clouds|publisherOxford University Press|year1970b|ref{{harvid|Dover|1970}}}}
* {{Cite book |last1Fontaine |first1Michael |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLVDSAQAAQBAJ |titleThe Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Comedy |last2Scafuro |first2Adele C. |publisherOxford University Press |year2014 |isbn978-0-19-974354-4}}
* {{cite book|last1Hall|first1Edith|last2Wrigley|first2Amanda|name-list-styleamp|titleAristophanes in Performance 421 BC – AD 2007: Peace, Birds and Frogs|publisherLegenda (Oxford)|year2007}}
* {{citation|lastHandley|firstE.|titleThe Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Greek Literature|veditorsEasterling P, Knox B |publisherCambridge University Press|year1985 |chapter=Comedy}}
* {{cite book|titleSocrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance|lastIrvine|firstAndrew David|year2008|publisherUniversity of Toronto Press|locationToronto|title-link=Socrates on Trial (play)}}
* {{citation|last1Kassel|first1Rudolf|last2Austin|first2Colin|name-list-styleamp|titlePoetae Comici Graeci|volumeIII.2|publisherDe Gruyter (Berlin)|year=1984}}
* {{citation|lastKonstan|firstDavid|titleGreek Comedy and Ideology|publisherOxford university Press US|year=1995}}
* {{citation|lastLamb|firstW. R. M.|titlePlato|volume3|publisherLoeb Classical Library|year1975}}
* {{citation|lastLevi|firstP.|titleThe Oxford History of the Classical World|veditorsBoardman J, Griffin J, Murray O |publisherOxford University Press|year1986|chapter=Greek Drama}}
* {{cite book |last1MacDowell |first1Douglas M. |author-linkDouglas MacDowell |titleWasps |date1978 |orig-date1971 |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford |isbn9780198141822 |editionFirst Edition, Second Impression}}
* {{Cite book |lastMarianetti |firstMarie C. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFj74LCv8unUC |titleThe Clouds: An Annotated Translation |date1997 |publisherUniversity Press of America |isbn978-0-7618-0588-5}}
* {{citation|lastParker|firstL. P. E.|titleThe Songs of Aristophanes|publisherOxford University Press|year=1997}}
* {{citation|lastReckford|firstKenneth J.|titleAristophanes' Old-and-new Comedy|publisherUNC Press|year=1987}}
* {{citation|lastRennie|firstW.|titleThe Acharnians of Aristophanes|publisherEdward Arnold (reproduced by Bibliolife)|year=1909}}
* {{citation|lastRosen|firstRalph|titleAristophanes|volume3|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press (Penn Greek Drama Series)|year1999|chapter=Introduction}}
* {{Cite book|last1Roman |first1Luke |titleEncyclopedia of Greek and Roman Mythology |last2Roman |first2Monica |date2010 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtOgWfjNIxoMC&qEncyclopedia+of+Greek+and+roman+mythology+cite&pgPP1|publisherInfobase Publishing|isbn978-1438126395}}
* * {{cite book |lastSlater |firstNiall |editor-lastWalsh |editor-firstPhilip |titleBrill’s Companion to the Reception of Aristophanes |chapterAristophanes in antiquity: Reputation and reception |year2016 |publisherBrill |isbn=9789004324657}}
* {{citation|lastSilk|firstM. S.|titleAristophanes and the Definition of Comedy|publisherOxford University Press|year=2002}}
* {{Cite book |lastSidwell |firstKeith |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYbS2y0B934QC |titleAristophanes the Democrat: The Politics of Satirical Comedy During the Peloponnesian War |publisherCambridge University Press |year2009 |isbn978-0-521-51998-4}}
* {{citation|lastSomerstein|firstAlan|titleAristophanes: Lysistrata, The Acharnians, The Clouds|publisherPenguin Books|year=1973}}
* {{citation|lastStorey|firstIan|titleClouds, Wasps, Birds By Aristophanes|otherstranslation by Peter Meineck|publisherHackett Publishing|year1998|chapter=Introduction}}
* {{Cite book |lastThorburn |firstJohn E. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idk3NnUyqzRNYC |titleThe Facts on File Companion to Classical Drama |date2005 |publisherInfobase Publishing |isbn978-0-8160-7498-3}}
* {{citation|lastVan Steen|firstGonda|author-linkGonda Van Steen|titleThe Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Theatre|veditorsMcDonald M, Walton JM |publisherCambridge University Press|year2007|chapterPolitics and Aristophanes: watchword Caution!}}
* {{citation|lastWelsh|firstD.|titleClassical Quarterly|volume33|year1983|chapterIG ii2 2343, Philonides and Aristophanes' Banqueters}}
* {{cite book|lastDavid|firstEphraim|titleAristophanes and Athenian Society of the Early Fourth Century B.C.|locationLeiden, Netherlands|publisherBrill|year1984}}
* {{cite journal |firstAnthony T. |lastEdwards |year1991 |jstor284450 |titleAristophanes' comic poetics |journalTransactions of the American Philological Association |volume121 |pages157–179 |doi=10.2307/284450 }}
* {{cite book| author Jeffrey Henderson, Professor of Classics at University of Southern California| title The Maculate Muse: Obscene Language in Attic Comedy|url https://books.google.com/books?idaBsR2BEuAq0C|year 1991|publisher Oxford University Press|isbn = 978-0-19-536199-5 }}
** [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1087300 reviewed] by W. J. Slater, Phoenix, Vol. 30, No. 3 (Autumn, 1976), pp.&nbsp;291–293 {{doi|10.2307/1087300}}
* Lee, Jae Num. "Scatology in Continental Satirical Writings from Aristophanes to Rabelais" and "English Scatological Writings from Skelton to Pope." Swift and Scatological Satire. Albuquerque: U of New Mexico P, 1971. 7–22; 23–53.
* {{cite book| last Loscalzo| first Donato| title Aristofane e la coscienza felice| year 2010| publisher Edizioni dell'Orso| isbn 978-88-6274-245-0 }}
* [https://www.jstor.org/stable/292986 Aristophanes and the Comic Hero] by Cedric H. Whitman Author(s) of Review: H. Lloyd Stow The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 87, No. 1 (Jan. 1966), pp.&nbsp;111–113
* {{cite book|lastMacDowell|firstDouglas M.|titleAristophanes and Athens: An Introduction to the Plays|locationOxford and New York|publisherOxford University Press|year1995|isbn=978-0198721598}}
* {{cite book|lastMurray|firstGilbert|titleAristophanes: A Study|locationOxford and New York|publisherOxford University Press|year1933}}
* {{cite book| last Platter| first Charles|title Aristophanes and the Carnival of Genres| year 2006| publisher JHUP|isbn 978-0-8018-8527-3 }}
* G. M. Sifakis [https://www.jstor.org/stable/632156 The Structure of Aristophanic Comedy] The Journal of Hellenic Studies, Vol. 112, 1992 (1992), pp.&nbsp;123–142 {{doi|10.2307/632156}}
* {{cite book|lastTaaffe|firstL. K.|titleAristophanes and Women|locationLondon and New York|publisherRoutledge|year1993}}
* {{cite book|lastUssher|firstRobert Glenn|titleAristophanes|locationOxford|publisherClarendon Press|year1979}}
* Van Steen, Gonda. 2000 [http://press.princeton.edu/titles/6874.html Venom in Verse: Aristophanes in Modern Greece.] Princeton University Press.
* [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1561948 Jstor.org], The American Journal of Philology, 1996.
* [http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=1091777 Life, death and Aristophanes' concept of Eros in Saul Bellow's "Ravelstein".]
{{refend}}
Further reading
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061007212611/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristophanes/ The Eleven Comedies (in translation)] at the University of Adelaide Library
* {{cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/comoediaequaesup01aris |titleComoediae quae supersunt cum perditarum fragmentis |languagela |authorAristophanes |last2Holden |first2Hubert Ashton |publisherCantabrigia |year1868}}
* {{cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/ScholiaGraecaInAristophanem |titleScholia graeca in Aristophanem |editor-lastDübner |editor-firstFriedrich |publisherParisiis Editore |year1883 |orig-date1855}}External links{{Library resources box |byyes |onlinebooksyes |othersyes |aboutyes |labelAristophanes
|viaf|lccn |lcheading|wikititle }}
* {{Wikisource author-inline}}
* {{Wikiquote-inline}}
* {{Commons-inline}}
* {{Internet Archive author}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id965 | nameAristophanes}}
* {{FadedPage|idAristophanes|nameAristophanes|author=yes}}
* {{Librivox author |id=1594}}
* {{IMDb name}}
{{Aristophanes Plays}}
{{Lysistrata}}
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Aristophanes}}
Category:440s BC births
Category:Year of birth unknown
Category:380s BC deaths
Category:Year of death unknown
Category:4th-century BC Athenians
Category:4th-century BC writers
Category:5th-century BC Athenians
Category:5th-century BC writers
Category:Ancient Athenians
Category:Ancient Athenian dramatists and playwrights
Category:Ancient Greek satirists
Category:Old Comic poets
Category:Writers of lost works | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.814351 |
1029 | Albert Schweitzer | {{Short description|German-French theologian and philosopher (1875–1965)}}
{{For-multi|the film|Albert Schweitzer (film){{!}}Albert Schweitzer (film)|the American artist|Albert Schweitzer (artist)|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{use British English|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox scientist
| honorific_prefix = The Reverend
| name = Albert Schweitzer
| honorific_suffix {{post-nominals|countryGBR|OM|size=100%}}
| image = Bundesarchiv Bild 183-D0116-0041-019, Albert Schweitzer.jpg
| caption = Schweitzer in 1955
| birth_date {{birth date|dfyes|1875|01|14}}
| birth_place = Kaysersberg, Alsace–Lorraine, German&nbsp;Empire
| death_date {{death date and age|dfyes|1965|9|4|1875|1|14}}
| death_place = Lambaréné, Gabon
| citizenship = {{unbulleted list | Germany (until 1919) | France (from 1919)}}
| doctoral_advisor {{unbulleted list | Theobald Ziegler | Heinrich Julius Holtzmann | {{Interlanguage link|Robert Wollenberg|de|3Robert Wollenberg|ltRobert Wollenberg|vib}}}}
| doctoral_students | known_for {{unbulleted list | Quest for the historical Jesus | Reverence for Life | Consistent "thorough-going" eschatology (posthumously)}}
| spouse {{marriage|Helene Bresslau|June 1912|1957|endd}}
| field = {{hlist | Medicine | musicology | philosophy | theology}}
| work_institutions | alma_mater University of Strasbourg
| prizes = {{Plainlist|
* Goethe Prize (1928)
* Nobel Peace Prize (1952)
* James Cook Medal (1959)
}}
}}
Ludwig Philipp Albert Schweitzer {{post-nominals|country=GBR|OM}} ({{IPA|de|ˈalbɛʁt ˈʃvaɪtsɐ|lang|De-Albert Schweitzer.ogg}}; 14 January 1875&nbsp;– 4 September 1965) was a German and French polymath from Alsace. He was a theologian, organist, musicologist, writer, humanitarian, philosopher, and physician. As a Lutheran minister, Schweitzer challenged both the secular view of the historical Jesus as depicted by the historical-critical method current at this time, as well as the traditional Christian view. His contributions to the interpretation of Pauline Christianity concern the role of Paul's mysticism of "being in Christ" as primary and the doctrine of justification by faith as secondary.
He received the 1952 Nobel Peace Prize for his philosophy of "Reverence for Life",<ref>{{Citation | contribution-url http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1952/press.html | contribution Award Ceremony Speech | title The Nobel Peace Prize 1952 | first Albert | last Schweitzer | publisher The Nobel prize | date 10 December 1953 }}.</ref> becoming the eighth Frenchman to be awarded that prize. His philosophy was expressed in many ways, but most famously in founding and sustaining the Hôpital Albert Schweitzer in Lambaréné, French Equatorial Africa (now Gabon). As a music scholar and organist, he studied the music of German composer Johann Sebastian Bach and influenced the Organ Reform Movement (Orgelbewegung).Early years
, now in Alsace in France]]
(Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art)]]
Schweitzer was born on 14 January 1875 in Kaysersberg in Alsace, in what had less than four years previously become the Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine in the German Empire; he later became a citizen of France after World War I, when Alsace became French territory again. He was the son of Adèle (née Schillinger) and Louis Théophile Schweitzer.{{sfn|Oermann|2016|p43}}{{sfn|Free|1988|p74}} He spent his childhood in Gunsbach, also in Alsace, where his father, the local Lutheran-Evangelical pastor of the EPCAAL, taught him how to play music.<ref>{{Citation | archive-date 26 April 2006 | url http://schweitzer.org/dutch/asstamm.htm | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20060426004850/http://schweitzer.org/dutch/asstamm.htm | title Stammbaum – Genealogic tree Arbre généalogique de la famille Schweitze | publisher Schweitzer}}.</ref> The tiny village would become home to the Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer (AIAS).<ref>{{Citation | url http://www.schweitzer.org/ | title Association Internationale Albert Schweitzer | access-date 1 August 2012 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20101209001311/http://www.schweitzer.org/ | archive-date 9 December 2010 | url-status dead }}.</ref> The medieval parish church of Gunsbach was shared by the Protestant and Catholic congregations, which held their prayers in different areas at different times on Sundays. This compromise arose after the Protestant Reformation and the Thirty Years' War. Schweitzer, the pastor's son, grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance, and developed the belief that true Christianity should always work towards a unity of faith and purpose.{{sfn|Seaver|1951|p3–9}}
Schweitzer's first language was the Alsatian dialect of German. At the Mulhouse gymnasium he received his "Abitur" (the certificate at the end of secondary education) in 1893. He studied organ in Mulhouse from 1885 to 1893 with Eugène Munch, organist at the Protestant cathedral, who inspired Schweitzer with his enthusiasm for the music of German composer Richard Wagner.<ref>A. Schweitzer, Eugene Munch (J. Brinkmann, Mulhouse 1898).</ref> In 1893, he played for the French organist Charles-Marie Widor (at Saint-Sulpice, Paris), for whom Johann Sebastian Bach's organ music contained a mystic sense of the eternal. Widor, deeply impressed, agreed to teach Schweitzer without fee, and a great and influential friendship thus began.{{sfn|Joy|1953|p=23–24}}
From 1893 Schweitzer studied Protestant theology at the Kaiser Wilhelm University in Strasbourg. There he also received instruction in piano and counterpoint from professor Gustav Jacobsthal, and associated closely with Ernest Munch, the brother of his former teacher, organist of St William church, who was also a passionate admirer of J. S. Bach's music.{{sfn|Joy|1953|p24}} Schweitzer served his one-year compulsory military service in 1894. Schweitzer saw many operas of Richard Wagner in Strasbourg (under Otto Lohse) and in 1896 he managed to afford a visit to the Bayreuth Festival to see Wagner's {{lang|de|Der Ring des Nibelungen}} and Parsifal, both of which impressed him. In 1898, he returned to Paris to write a PhD dissertation on The Religious Philosophy of Kant at the Sorbonne, and to study in earnest with Widor. Here he often met with the elderly Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He also studied piano at that time with Marie Jaëll.<ref>George N. Marshall, David Poling, [https://books.google.com/books?idUC5sXn1CwT4C&pgPA24 Schweitzer], JHU Press, 2000, {{ISBN|0-8018-6455-0}}</ref> In 1899, Schweitzer spent the summer semester at the University of Berlin and eventually obtained his theology degree at the University of Strasbourg.<ref name":1">{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idw9nDF2hsN1oC&qAlbert+Schweitzer+university+of+berlin&pgPA243|titleAlbert Schweitzer's Ethical Vision A Sourcebook|lastCicovacki|firstPredrag|date2 February 2009|publisherOxford University Press|isbn9780199703326|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfLRADgok_a0C&qAlbert+Schweitzer+berlin&pgPR20|titleAlbert Schweitzer-helene Bresslau: the Years Prior to Lambarene|last1Schweitzer|first1Albert|last2Bresslau|first2Helene|last3Stewart|first3Nancy|date2003|publisherSyracuse University Press|isbn9780815629948|languageen}}</ref>{{sfn|Brabazon|2000|p84}}<ref name":2">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1952/schweitzer-bio.html|titleAlbert Schweitzer – Biographical|websitenobelprize.org|access-date10 March 2018}}</ref> He published his PhD thesis at the University of Tübingen in 1899.{{sfn|Joy|1953|p=24–25}}
In 1905, Schweitzer began his study of medicine at the University of Strasbourg, culminating in the degree of M.D. in 1913.<ref name":1" /><ref name":2" />
Music
Schweitzer rapidly gained prominence as a musical scholar and organist, dedicated also to the rescue, restoration and study of historic pipe organs. With theological insight, he interpreted the use of pictorial and symbolical representation in J. S. Bach's religious music. In 1899, he astonished Widor by explaining figures and motifs in Bach's Chorale Preludes as painter-like tonal and rhythmic imagery illustrating themes from the words of the hymns on which they were based. They were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas, conceived visually. Widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old Lutheran hymns.{{sfn|Seaver|1951|p=20}}
The exposition of these ideas, encouraged by Widor and Munch, became Schweitzer's last task, and appeared in the masterly study J. S. Bach: Le Musicien-Poète, written in French and published in 1905. There was great demand for a German edition, but, instead of translating it, he decided to rewrite it.<ref>Schweitzer, My Life and Thought, pp. 80–81; cf. {{harvnb|Seaver|1951|pp231–232}}</ref> The result was two volumes (J. S. Bach), which were published in 1908 and translated into English by Ernest Newman in 1911.{{sfn|Joy|1953|p58–62}} Ernst Cassirer, a contemporaneous German philosopher, called it "one of the best interpretations" of Bach.<ref>{{cite book|last1Cassirer|first1Ernst|editor1-lastVerene|editor1-firstDonald Phillip|titleSymbol, Myth, and Culture: Essays and Lectures of Ernst Cassirer 1935–1945|urlhttps://archive.org/details/symbolmythcultur0000cass|url-accessregistration|date1979|publisherYale University Press|locationNew Haven, Conn.|isbn978-0-300-02666-5|page[https://archive.org/details/symbolmythcultur0000cass/page/230 230]}}</ref> During its preparation Schweitzer became a friend of Cosima Wagner, then resident in Strasbourg, with whom he had many theological and musical conversations, exploring his view of Bach's descriptive music, and playing the major Chorale Preludes for her at the Temple Neuf.<ref>Schweitzer, in {{harvnb|Joy|1953|pp53–57}}</ref> Schweitzer's interpretative approach greatly influenced the modern understanding of Bach's music. He became a welcome guest at the Wagners' home, Wahnfried.<ref>{{harvnb|Joy|1953|pp53–57}}, quoting from and translating A. Schweitzer, 'Mes Souvenirs sur Cosima Wagner', in ''L'Alsace Française, XXXV no. 7 (12 February 1933), p. 124ff.</ref> He also corresponded with composer Clara Faisst, who became a good friend.<ref>{{citation |titleAutobiographien von Frauen: ein Lexikon|authorWedel, Gudrun|date=2010}}</ref>
, designed in 1905 on principles defined by Schweitzer]]
His pamphlet "The Art of Organ Building and Organ Playing in Germany and France" (1906,<ref>Reproduced in {{harvnb|Joy|1953|pp127–129, 129–165}}: cf. also {{harvnb|Seaver|1951|pp29–36}}</ref> republished with an appendix on the state of the organ-building industry in 1927) effectively launched the 20th-century Orgelbewegung, which turned away from romantic extremes and rediscovered baroque principles—although this sweeping reform movement in organ building eventually went further than Schweitzer had intended. In 1909, he addressed the Third Congress of the International Society of Music at Vienna on the subject. Having circulated a questionnaire among players and organ-builders in several European countries, he produced a very considered report.<ref>{{harvnb|Joy|1953|pp=165–166}}: Text of 1909 Questionnaire and Report, pp. 235–269.</ref> This provided the basis for the International Regulations for Organ Building''. He envisaged instruments in which the French late-romantic full-organ sound should work integrally with the English and German romantic reed pipes, and with the classical Alsace Silbermann organ resources and baroque flue pipes, all in registers regulated (by stops) to access distinct voices in fugue or counterpoint capable of combination without loss of distinctness: different voices singing the same music together.
Schweitzer also studied piano under Isidor Philipp, head of the piano department at the Paris Conservatory.
In 1905, Widor and Schweitzer were among the six musicians who founded the Paris Bach Society, a choir dedicated to performing J. S. Bach's music, for whose concerts Schweitzer took the organ part regularly until 1913. He was also appointed organist for the Bach Concerts of the Orféo Català at Barcelona, Spain, and often travelled there for that purpose.{{sfn|Seaver|1951|p20}} He and Widor collaborated on a new edition of Bach's organ works, with detailed analysis of each work in three languages (English, French, German). Schweitzer, who insisted that the score should show Bach's notation with no additional markings, wrote the commentaries for the Preludes and Fugues, and Widor those for the Sonatas and Concertos: six volumes were published in 1912–14. Three more, to contain the Chorale Preludes with Schweitzer's analyses, were to be worked on in Africa, but these were never completed, perhaps because for him they were inseparable from his evolving theological thought.{{sfn|Seaver|1951|p44}}
On departure for Lambaréné in 1913, he was presented with a pedal piano, a piano with pedal attachments to operate like an organ pedal-keyboard.<ref>Given by the Paris Bach Society, {{harvnb|Seaver|1951|p63}}; but {{harvnb|Joy|1953|p177}}, says it was given by the Paris Missionary Society.</ref> Built especially for the tropics, it was delivered by river in a huge dug-out canoe to Lambaréné, packed in a zinc-lined case. At first, he regarded his new life as a renunciation of his art, and fell out of practice, but after some time he resolved to study and learn by heart the works of Bach, Mendelssohn, Widor, César Franck, and Max Reger systematically.{{sfn|Seaver|1951|p=63–64}} It became his custom to play during the lunch hour and on Sunday afternoons. Schweitzer's pedal piano was still in use at Lambaréné in 1946.<ref>{{harvnb|Joy|1953}} plate facing p. 177.</ref> According to a visitor, Dr. Gaine Cannon, of Balsam Grove, N.C., the old, dilapidated piano-organ was still being played by Dr. Schweitzer in 1962, and stories told that "his fingers were still lively" on the old instrument at 88 years of age.
Sir Donald Tovey dedicated his conjectural completion of Bach's The Art of Fugue to Schweitzer.{{fact|date=August 2024}}
Schweitzer's recordings of organ music, and his innovative recording technique, are described below.
One of his pupils was conductor and composer Hans Münch.{{fact|dateAugust 2024}}Theology
, Strasbourg]]
In 1899, Schweitzer became a deacon at the church of Saint Nicholas in Strasbourg. In 1900, with the completion of his licentiate in theology, he was ordained as curate, and that year he witnessed the Oberammergau Passion Play. In the following year, he became provisional Principal of the Theological College of Saint Thomas, from which he had just graduated, and in 1903 his appointment was made permanent.{{NoteTag | He officiated at the wedding of Theodor Heuss (later the first President of West Germany) in 1908.{{sfn|Oermann|2016|p101-102}}{{sfn|Brabazon|2000|p422}}{{sfn|Pierhal|1956|p63}}{{sfn|Pierhal|1957|p63f}}<ref>{{cite journal |titleThe Bulletin |journalBulletin des Presse- und Informationsamtes der Bundesregierung &#91;...&#93; &#91;Englische Ausgabe&#93; the Bulletin |locationBonn, West Germany |publisherPress and Information Office | issn0032-7794 |volume9–10 |year1962|page [https://books.google.com/books?ido03jAAAAMAAJ&q=schweitzer+wedding 36]}}</ref>}}
In 1906, he published Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung [History of Life-of-Jesus research]. This book, which established his reputation, was first published in English in 1910 as The Quest of the Historical Jesus. Under this title the book became famous in the English-speaking world. A second German edition was published in 1913, containing theologically significant revisions and expansions: this revised edition did not appear in English until 2001. In 1931, he published Mystik des Apostels Paulus (The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle);<ref>{{cite journal|authorAvey, Albert E.|author-linkAlbert Edwin Avey|titleReview of The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle|journalThe Philosophical Review|volume43|issue1|year1934|pages84–86|doi10.2307/2179960 |jstor2179960 |urlhttps://www.pdcnet.org/phr/content/phr_1934_0043_0001_0084_0086}}</ref> a second edition was published in 1953.The Quest of the Historical Jesus (1906)
{{Main|The Quest of the Historical Jesus}}
In The Quest, Schweitzer criticised the liberal view put forward by liberal and romantic scholars during the first quest for the historical Jesus. Schweitzer maintained that the life of Jesus must be interpreted in the light of Jesus' own convictions, which reflected late Jewish eschatology and apocalypticism. Schweitzer writes:
{{blockquote|The Jesus of Nazareth who came forward publicly as the Messiah, who preached the ethic of the kingdom of God, who founded the kingdom of heaven upon earth and died to give his work its final consecration never existed. He is a figure designed by rationalism, endowed with life by liberalism, and clothed by modern theology in a historical garb. This image has not been destroyed from outside; it has fallen to pieces...<ref>{{cite book | last Schweitzer | first Albert | author-link Albert Schweitzer |titleThe Quest of the Historical Jesus |url https://books.google.com/books?iduzRXxvPsylkC&pgPA478 |year2001 |publisherFortress Press |page 478 |isbn = 9781451403541 }}</ref>}}
Instead of these liberal and romantic views, Schweitzer wrote that Jesus and his followers expected the imminent end of the world.<ref>{{cite book|lastEhrman|firstBart D.|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhf5Rj8EtsPkC&pgPT11|titleDid Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth|date20 March 2012|publisherHarperCollins|isbn978-0-06-208994-6|pages11–|quoteI agree with Schweitzer's overarching view, that Jesus is best understood as a Jewish prophet who anticipated a cataclysmic break in history in the very near future, when God would destroy the forces of evil to bring in his own kingdom here on earth.|authorlinkBart D. Ehrman}}</ref>
Schweitzer cross-referenced the many New Testament verses declaring imminent fulfilment of the promise of the World's ending within the lifetime of Jesus's original followers.<ref>{{cite web | publisher Pcisys | url http://home.pcisys.net/~jnf/schauth/rq2.html | title Review of "The Mystery of the Kingdom of God" }}</ref> {{Failed verification|dateOctober 2019}} He wrote that in his view, in the Gospel of Mark, Jesus speaks of a "tribulation", with his "coming in the clouds with great power and glory." In Mark 13:30
Jesus says "This generation will not pass away until all these things have taken place." In Matthew 16:28 Jesus says “Truly I tell you, some who are standing here will not taste death before they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom.” Obviously, Jesus and his followers truly believed that he would return within the disciples lifetime and specifically states the timeframe that it will happen, but it has not! "This generation shall not pass, till all these things be fulfilled" (Matthew, 24:34) or, "have taken place" (Luke 21:32). Similarly, in 1st Peter 1:20, "Christ, who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world but was manifest in these last times for you", as well as "But the end of all things is at hand" (1 Peter 4:7) and "Surely, I come quickly." (Revelation 22:20). Either Jesus, his disciples and/or the noted chapter authors were and remain seriously mistaken; the promised second return timeframe has long ago passed.
Schweitzer concluded his treatment of Jesus with what has been called the most famous words of twentieth-century theology:
{{quote|"He comes to us as One unknown, without a name, as of old, by the lake-side, He came to those men who knew him not. He speaks to us the same word: 'Follow thou me' and sets us to the task which He has to fulfill for our time. He commands. And to those who obey Him, whether they be wise or simple, He will reveal Himself in the toils, the conflicts, the sufferings which they shall pass through in His fellowship, and as an ineffable mystery, they shall learn in their own experience Who He is."<ref>The Quest of the Historical Jesus. Macmillan. 1910. p. 403.</ref>}}
The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle (1931)
In The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, Schweitzer first distinguishes between two categories of mysticism: primitive and developed.{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p 1}} Primitive mysticism "has not yet risen to a conception of the universal, and is still confined to naive views of earthly and super-earthly, temporal and eternal". Additionally, he argues that this view of a "union with the divinity, brought about by efficacious ceremonies, is found even in quite primitive religions".{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p 1}}
On the other hand, a more developed form of mysticism can be found in the Greek mystery-cults that were popular in first-century A.D. society. These included the cults of Attis, Osiris, and Mithras. A developed form of mysticism is attained when the "conception of the universal is reached and a man reflects upon his relation to the totality of being and to Being in itself". Schweitzer claims that this form of mysticism is more intellectual and can be found "among the Brahmans and in the Buddha, in Platonism, in Stoicism, in Spinoza, Schopenhauer, and Hegel".{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p = 2}}
Next, Schweitzer poses the question: "Of what precise kind then is the mysticism of Paul?" He locates Paul between the two extremes of primitive mysticism and developed mysticism. Paul stands high above primitive mysticism, due to his intellectual writings, but never speaks of being one with God or being in God. Instead, he conceives of sonship to God as "mediated and effected by means of the mystical union with Christ".{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p = 3 }} He summarizes Pauline mysticism as "being in Christ" rather than "being in God".
Paul's imminent eschatology (from his background in Jewish eschatology) causes him to believe that the kingdom of God has not yet come and that Christians are now living in the time of Christ. Christ-mysticism holds the field until God-mysticism becomes possible, which is in the near future.{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p 13}} Therefore, Schweitzer argues that Paul is the only theologian who does not claim that Christians can have an experience of "being-in-God". Rather, Paul uses the phrase "being-in-Christ" to illustrate how Jesus is a mediator between the Christian community and God. Additionally, Schweitzer explains how the experience of "being-in-Christ" is not a "static partaking in the spiritual being of Christ, but as the real co-experiencing of His dying and rising again". The "realistic" partaking in the mystery of Jesus is only possible within the solidarity of the Christian community.{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p 13 }}
One of Schweitzer's major arguments in The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle is that Paul's mysticism, marked by his phrase "being in Christ", gives the clue to the whole of Pauline theology. Rather than reading justification by faith as the main topic of Pauline thought, which has been the most popular argument set forward by Martin Luther, Schweitzer argues that Paul's emphasis was on the mystical union with God by "being in Christ". Jaroslav Pelikan, in his foreword to The Mysticism of Paul the Apostle, points out that:
{{blockquote|the relation between the two doctrines was quite the other way around: 'The doctrine of the redemption, which is mentally appropriated through faith, is only a fragment from the more comprehensive mystical redemption-doctrine, which Paul has broken off and polished to give him the particular refraction which he requires.{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p xvi}}}}Paul's "realism" versus Hellenistic "symbolism"Schweitzer contrasts Paul's "realistic" dying and rising with Christ to the "symbolism" of Hellenism. Although Paul is widely influenced by Hellenistic thought, he is not controlled by it. Schweitzer explains that Paul focused on the idea of fellowship with the divine being through the "realistic" dying and rising with Christ rather than the "symbolic" Hellenistic act of becoming like Christ through deification.{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p 16}} After baptism, Christians are continually renewed throughout their lifetimes due to participation in the dying and rising with Christ (most notably through the Sacraments). On the other hand, the Hellenist "lives on the store of experience which he acquired in the initiation" and is not continually affected by a shared communal experience.{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p = 17}}
Another major difference between Paul's "realism" and Hellenistic "symbolism" is the exclusive nature of the former and the inclusive nature of the latter. Schweitzer unabashedly emphasizes the fact that "Paul's thought follows predestinarian lines".{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p 103 }} He explains, "only the man who is elected thereto can enter into relation with God".{{Sfn | Schweitzer | 1931 | p 9 }} Although every human being is invited to become a Christian, only those who have undergone the initiation into the Christian community through baptism can share in the "realistic" dying and rising with Christ.
Medicine
At the age of 30, in 1905, Schweitzer answered the call of The Society of the Evangelist Missions of Paris, which was looking for a physician. The committee of this missionary society was not ready to accept his offer, considering his Lutheran theology to be "incorrect".<!-- Wouldn't the fact that Schweitzer wasn't a physician be an equally likely reason? -->{{sfn|Seaver|1951|p=40}} He could easily have obtained a place in a German evangelical mission, but wished to follow the original call despite the doctrinal difficulties. Amid a hail of protests from his friends, family and colleagues, he resigned from his post and re-entered the university as a student in a three-year course towards the degree of Doctorate in Medicine, a subject in which he had little knowledge or previous aptitude. He planned to spread the Gospel by the example of his Christian labour of healing, rather than through the verbal process of preaching, and believed that this service should be acceptable within any branch of Christian teaching.
Even in his study of medicine, and through his clinical course, Schweitzer pursued the ideal of the philosopher-scientist. By extreme application and hard work, he completed his studies successfully at the end of 1911. His medical degree dissertation was another work on the historical Jesus, Die psychiatrische Beurteilung Jesu. Darstellung und Kritik<ref>{{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleDie psychiatrische Beurteilung Jesu: Darstellung und Kritik |publisherJ.C.B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck) |locationTübingen |year1913 |languagede |lccn13021072 |oclc5903262 |olOL20952265W |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/diepsychiatrisch0000schw }}</ref> [The psychiatric evaluation of Jesus. Description and criticism] (published in English in 1948 as The Psychiatric Study of Jesus. Exposition and Criticism<ref>{{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |translator-lastJoy |translator-firstCharles R. |titleThe Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism |publisherBeacon Press |locationBoston |year1948 |lccn48006488 |oclc614572512 |olOL6030284M |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/psychiatricstudy00schw}}</ref>). He defended Jesus' mental health in it.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastSeidel |firstMichael |titleAlbert Schweitzer's MD thesis on Criticism of the medical pathographies on Jesus |journalWürzburger medizinhistorische Mitteilungen |publisherKönigshausen & Neumann |volume28 |issue1 |dateJanuary 2009 |pages276–300 |issn0177-5227 |pmid20509445}}</ref> In June 1912, he married Helene Bresslau, municipal inspector for orphans and daughter of the Jewish pan-Germanist historian Harry Bresslau.<ref name = "Marxsen">Marxsen, Patti M. Helene Schweitzer: A Life of Her Own. First edition. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 2015.</ref>
In 1912, now armed with a medical degree, Schweitzer made a definite proposal to go as a physician to work at his own expense in the Paris Missionary Society's mission at Lambaréné on the Ogooué river, in what is now Gabon, in Africa (then a French colony). He refused to attend a committee to inquire into his doctrine, but met each committee member personally and was at last accepted. Through concerts and other fund-raising, he was ready to equip a small hospital.<ref>From the Primeval Forest, Chapter 1.</ref> In early 1913, he and his wife set off to establish a hospital (the Hôpital Albert Schweitzer) near an existing mission post. The site was nearly 200 miles (14 days by raft<ref>From the Primeval Forest, Chapter 6.</ref>) upstream from the mouth of the Ogooué at Port Gentil (Cape Lopez) (and so accessible to external communications), but downstream of most tributaries, so that internal communications within Gabon converged towards Lambaréné.
occupies most of Gabon. Lambaréné is marked centre left.]]
In the first nine months, he and his wife had about 2,000 patients to examine, some travelling many days and hundreds of kilometres to reach him. In addition to injuries, he was often treating severe sandflea and crawcraw infections, yaws, tropical eating sores, heart disease, tropical dysentery, tropical malaria, sleeping sickness, leprosy, fevers, strangulated hernias, necrosis, abdominal tumours and chronic constipation and nicotine poisoning, while also attempting to deal with deliberate poisonings, fetishism and fear of cannibalism among the Mbahouin.
Schweitzer's wife, Helene Schweitzer, served as an anaesthetist for surgical operations. After briefly occupying a shed formerly used as a chicken hut, in late 1913 they built their first hospital of corrugated iron, with a consulting room and operating theatre and with a dispensary and sterilising room. The waiting room and dormitory were built, like native huts, of unhewn logs along a path leading to the boat landing. The Schweitzers had their own bungalow and employed as their assistant Joseph, a French-speaking Mpongwe, who first came to Lambaréné as a patient.<ref>{{cite news|last1Monfried|first1Walter|titleAdmirers Call Dr. Schweitzer "Greatest Man in the World"|date10 February 1947|locationMilwaukee, Wisconsin|pages1, 3}}</ref><ref>From the Primeval Forest, Chapters 3–5.</ref>
After World War I broke out in July 1914, Schweitzer and his wife, German citizens in a French colony when the countries were at war, were put under supervision by the French military at Lambaréné, where Schweitzer continued his work.<ref>[http://www.schweitzer.org/german/as/asdbio.htm Albert Schweitzer 1875–1965] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071214021148/http://www.schweitzer.org/german/as/asdbio.htm |date14 December 2007 }}. schweitzer.org (in German)</ref> In 1917, exhausted by over four years' work and by tropical anaemia, they were taken to Bordeaux and interned first in Garaison and then from March 1918 in Saint-Rémy-de-Provence. In July 1918, after being transferred to his home in Alsace, he was a free man again. At this time Schweitzer, born a German citizen, had his parents' former (pre-1871) French citizenship reinstated and became a French citizen. Then, working as a medical assistant and assistant-pastor in Strasbourg, he advanced his project on the philosophy of civilization, which had occupied his mind since 1900. By 1920, his health recovering, he was giving organ recitals and doing other fund-raising work to repay borrowings and raise funds for returning to Gabon. In 1922, he delivered the Dale Memorial Lectures in the University of Oxford, and from these in the following year appeared Volumes I and II of his great work, The Decay and Restoration of Civilization and Civilization and Ethics. The two remaining volumes, on The World-View of Reverence for Life and a fourth on the Civilized State, were never completed.
In 1924, Schweitzer returned to Africa without his wife, but with an Oxford undergraduate, Noel Gillespie, as his assistant. Everything was heavily decayed, and building and doctoring progressed together for months. He now had salvarsan for treating syphilitic ulcers and framboesia. Additional medical staff, nurse (Miss) Kottmann and Dr. Victor Nessmann,<ref>Nessmann worked with the French Resistance during the Second World War, was captured and executed by the Gestapo in Limoges in 1944. cf Guy Penaud, Dictionnaire Biographique de Périgord, p. 713. {{ISBN|978-2-86577-214-8}}</ref> joined him in 1924, and Dr. Mark Lauterberg in 1925; the growing hospital was staffed by native orderlies. Later Dr. Trensz replaced Nessmann, and Martha Lauterberg and Hans Muggenstorm joined them. Joseph also returned. In 1925–6, new hospital buildings were constructed, and also a ward for white patients, so that the site became like a village. The onset of famine{{when?|dateFebruary 2025}}{{why?|dateFebruary 2025}} and a dysentery epidemic created fresh problems.{{citation needed|date=February 2025}} Much of the building work was carried out with the help of local people and patients. Drug advances for sleeping sickness included Germanin and {{interlanguage link|tryparsamide|de||fi||it}}. Trensz conducted experiments showing that the non-amoebic strain of dysentery was caused by a paracholera vibrion (facultative anaerobic bacteria). With the new hospital built and the medical team established, Schweitzer returned to Europe in 1927, this time leaving a functioning hospital at work.
He was there again from 1929 to 1932. Gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged, not only in Europe, but worldwide. There was a further period of work in 1935. In January 1937, he returned again to Lambaréné and continued working there throughout World War II.
Hospital conditions
The journalist James Cameron visited Lambaréné in 1953 (when Schweitzer was 78) and found significant flaws in the practices and attitudes of Schweitzer and his staff. The hospital suffered from squalor and was without modern amenities, and Schweitzer had little contact with the local people.<ref>{{cite book|lastCameron|firstJames|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWM89AAAAIAAJ&pgPA154|titlePoint of Departure|publisherLaw Book Co of Australasia|year1966|isbn9780853621751|pages154–174|orig-year=1978}}</ref> Cameron did not make public what he had seen at the time: according to a BBC dramatisation, he made the unusual journalistic decision to withhold the story, and resisted the expressed wish of his employers to publish an exposé.<ref>On Monday 7 April 2008 ([http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b009przg "The Walrus and the Terrier"]&nbsp;– programme outline) BBC Radio 4 broadcast an Afternoon Play "The Walrus and the Terrier" by Christopher Ralling concerning Cameron's visit.</ref>
The poor conditions of the hospital in Lambaréné were also famously criticized by Nigerian professor and novelist Chinua Achebe in his essay on Joseph Conrad's novel Heart of Darkness: "In a comment which has often been quoted Schweitzer says: 'The African is indeed my brother but my junior brother.' And so he proceeded to build a hospital appropriate to the needs of junior brothers with standards of hygiene reminiscent of medical practice in the days before the germ theory of disease came into being."<ref name=":0" />
Schweitzer's biographer Edgar Berman, who was a volunteer surgeon at Lambarene for several months and had extended conversations with Schweitzer, has a different perspective.<ref>{{Cite book |lastBerman |firstEdgar |titleIn Africa with Schweitzer |publisherNew Horizon Press |year1986 |isbn0-88282-025-7 |locationFar Hills, New Jersey, U.S.}}</ref> Schweitzer felt that patients were better off, and the hospital functioned better given the severe lack of funding, if patients' families lived on the hospital grounds during treatment. Surgical survival rates were, Berman asserts, as high as in many fully-equipped western hospitals. The volume of patients needing care, the difficulty of obtaining materials and supplies, and the scarcity of trained medical staff willing to work long hours in the remote setting for almost no pay all argued for a spartan setting with an emphasis on high medical standards nevertheless.Schweitzer's viewsColonialism
Schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in Africa to be his response to Jesus' call to become "fishers of men".
{{blockquote|Who can describe the injustice and cruelties that in the course of centuries they [the coloured peoples] have suffered at the hands of Europeans?... If a record could be compiled of all that has happened between the white and the coloured races, it would make a book containing numbers of pages which the reader would have to turn over unread because their contents would be too horrible.}}
Schweitzer was one of colonialism's harshest critics. In a sermon that he preached on 6 January 1905, before he had told anyone of his plans to dedicate the rest of his life to work as a physician in Africa, he said:{{sfn|Schweitzer|2005|p=76–80}}
{{blockquote|Our culture divides people into two classes: civilized men, a title bestowed on the persons who do the classifying; and others, who have only the human form, who may perish or go to the dogs for all the 'civilized men' care.
Oh, this 'noble' culture of ours! It speaks so piously of human dignity and human rights and then disregards this dignity and these rights of countless millions and treads them underfoot, only because they live overseas or because their skins are of different colour or because they cannot help themselves. This culture does not know how hollow and miserable and full of glib talk it is, how common it looks to those who follow it across the seas and see what it has done there, and this culture has no right to speak of personal dignity and human rights...
I will not enumerate all the crimes that have been committed under the pretext of justice. People robbed native inhabitants of their land, made slaves of them, let loose the scum of mankind upon them. Think of the atrocities that were perpetrated upon people made subservient to us, how systematically we have ruined them with our alcoholic 'gifts', and everything else we have done... We decimate them, and then, by the stroke of a pen, we take their land so they have nothing left at all...
If all this oppression and all this sin and shame are perpetrated under the eye of the German God, or the American God, or the British God, and if our states do not feel obliged first to lay aside their claim to be 'Christian'—then the name of Jesus is blasphemed and made a mockery. And the Christianity of our states is blasphemed and made a mockery before those poor people. The name of Jesus has become a curse, and our Christianity—yours and mine—has become a falsehood and a disgrace, if the crimes are not atoned for in the very place where they were instigated. For every person who committed an atrocity in Jesus' name, someone must step in to help in Jesus' name; for every person who robbed, someone must bring a replacement; for everyone who cursed, someone must bless.
And now, when you speak about missions, let this be your message: We must make atonement for all the terrible crimes we read of in the newspapers. We must make atonement for the still worse ones, which we do not read about in the papers, crimes that are shrouded in the silence of the jungle night{{nbsp}}...}}
Paternalism
Schweitzer was nonetheless still sometimes accused of being paternalistic in his attitude towards Africans.{{sfn|Brabazon|2000|p253-256}} For instance, he thought that Gabonese independence came too early, without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances. Edgar Berman quotes Schweitzer as having said in 1960, "No society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow."<ref>{{Citation | last Berman | first Edgar | title In Africa With Schweitzer | place Far Hills, New Jersey| publisher New Horizon Press | year 1986 | page [https://archive.org/details/inafricawithschw0000berm/page/139 139] | isbn 978-0-88282-025-5 | url https://archive.org/details/inafricawithschw0000berm/page/139 }}.</ref> Schweitzer believed dignity and respect must be extended to blacks, while also sometimes characterizing them as children.<ref name"forest" /> He summarized his views on European-African relations by saying "With regard to the negroes, then, I have coined the formula: 'I am your brother, it is true, but your elder brother.'"<ref name"forest">{{harvnb|Schweitzer|1924|p[https://archive.org/stream/ontheedgeofthepr007259mbp#page/n163/mode/2up 130]}}</ref> Chinua Achebe has criticized him for this characterization, though Achebe acknowledges that Schweitzer's use of the word "brother" at all was, for a European of the early 20th century, an unusual expression of human solidarity between Europeans and Africans.<ref name":0">Chinua Achebe. [http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/wyrick/debclass/achcon.htm "An Image of Africa: Racism in Conrad's Heart of Darkness"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060118110823/http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/wyrick/debclass/achcon.htm |date18 January 2006 }}&nbsp;– the Massachusetts Review. 1977. (c/o North Carolina State University)</ref> Schweitzer eventually emended and complicated this notion with his later statement that "The time for speaking of older and younger brothers has passed".<ref>Quoted by {{cite book |lastForrow |firstLachlan |chapterForeword | editor-lastRussell | editor-firstC.E.B. | titleAfrican Notebook | publisherSyracuse University Press | seriesAlbert Schweitzer library | year2002 | isbn978-0-8156-0743-4 | chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqa-TVXEkY3sC&pgPR13|pagexiii}}</ref>
American journalist John Gunther visited Lambaréné in the 1950s and reported Schweitzer's patronizing attitude towards Africans. He also noted the lack of Africans trained to be skilled workers.<ref>{{cite book | title Inside Africa | url https://archive.org/details/insideafrica00gunt | url-access registration | publisherHarper | location New York | year 1955}}</ref> By comparison, his English contemporary Albert Ruskin Cook in Uganda had been training nurses and midwives since the 1910s, and had published a manual of midwifery in the local language of Luganda.<ref>{{cite book | title Amagezi Agokuzalisa | publisherSheldon Press | location London}}</ref> After three decades in Africa, Schweitzer still depended on Europe for nurses.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastPaget|firstJames Carleton|date2012|titleAlbert Schweitzer and Africa|journalJournal of Religion in Africa|volume24|issue3|pages277–316|doi10.1163/15700666-12341230|jstor41725476}}</ref>Reverence for life
{{Main|Reverence for Life}}
The keynote of Schweitzer's personal philosophy (which he considered to be his greatest contribution to mankind) was the idea of Reverence for Life ({{lang|de|Ehrfurcht vor dem Leben}}). He thought that Western civilization was decaying because it had abandoned affirmation of life as its ethical foundation.
In the Preface to Civilization and Ethics (1923) he argued that Western philosophy from Descartes to Kant had set out to explain the objective world expecting that humanity would be found to have a special meaning within it. But no such meaning was found, and the rational, life-affirming optimism of the Age of Enlightenment began to evaporate. A rift opened between this world-view, as material knowledge, and the life-view, understood as Will, expressed in the pessimist philosophies from Schopenhauer onward. Scientific materialism (advanced by Herbert Spencer and Charles Darwin) portrayed an objective world process devoid of ethics, entirely an expression of the will-to-live.
Schweitzer wrote, "True philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness, and this may be formulated as follows: 'I am life which wills to live, and I exist in the midst of life which wills to live.{{'"}}<ref>Civilization and Ethics, Chapter 21, p. 253: reprinted as A. Schweitzer, The Philosophy of Civilization (Prometheus Books, Buffalo 1987), Chapter 26.</ref> In nature one form of life must always prey upon another. However, human consciousness holds an awareness of, and sympathy for, the will of other beings to live. An ethical human strives to escape from this contradiction so far as possible.
Though we cannot perfect the endeavour we should strive for it: the will-to-live constantly renews itself, for it is both an evolutionary necessity and a spiritual phenomenon. Life and love are rooted in this same principle, in a personal spiritual relationship to the universe. Ethics themselves proceed from the need to respect the wish of other beings to exist as one does towards oneself. Even so, Schweitzer found many instances in world religions and philosophies in which the principle was denied, not least in the European Middle Ages, and in the Indian Brahminic philosophy.
For Schweitzer, mankind had to accept that objective reality is ethically neutral. It could then affirm a new Enlightenment through spiritual rationalism, by giving priority to volition or ethical will as the primary meaning of life. Mankind had to choose to create the moral structures of civilization: the worldview must derive from the life-view, not vice versa. Respect for life, overcoming coarser impulses and hollow doctrines, leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature. In contemplation of the will-to-life, respect for the life of others becomes the highest principle and the defining purpose of humanity.<ref>Civilization and Ethics, Preface and Chapter II, "The Problem of the Optimistic World-View".</ref>
Such was the theory which Schweitzer sought to put into practice in his own life. According to some authors, Schweitzer's thought, and specifically his development of reverence for life, was influenced by Indian religious thought and in particular the Jain principle of ahimsa, or non-violence.<ref>Ara Paul Barsam (2002) "Albert Schweitzer, Jainism and reverence for life", in: Reverence for life: the ethics of Albert Schweitzer for the twenty-first century, Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-8156-2977-1}} pp.&nbsp;207–208</ref> Albert Schweitzer noted the contribution of Indian influence in his book Indian Thought and Its Development:<ref>Albert Schweitzer and Charles Rhind Joy (1947) Albert Schweitzer: an anthology Beacon Press</ref>
{{blockquote|The laying down of the commandment to not kill and to not damage is one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of mankind. Starting from its principle, founded on world and life denial, of abstention from action, ancient Indian thought&nbsp;– and this is a period when in other respects ethics have not progressed very far&nbsp;– reaches the tremendous discovery that ethics know no bounds. So far as we know, this is for the first time clearly expressed by Jainism.}}
Further on ahimsa and the reverence for life in the same book, he elaborates on the ancient Indian didactic work of the Tirukkural, which he observed that, like the Buddha and the Bhagavad Gita, "stands for the commandment not to kill and not to damage".<ref name"Maharajan_2017"/><ref name"Schweitzer2013"/> Translating several couplets from the work, he remarked that the Kural insists on the idea that "good must be done for its own sake" and said, "There hardly exists in the literature of the world a collection of maxims in which we find so much lofty wisdom."<ref name"Maharajan_2017">{{cite book |author S. Maharajan |titleTiruvalluvar |year 2017 |edition 2 | publisherSahitya Akademi |locationNew Delhi | isbn978-81-260-5321-6|pages100–102}}</ref><ref name"Schweitzer2013">{{cite book |firstAlbert |lastSchweitzer |titleIndian Thoughts and Its Development |year 2013 |edition | publisherRead Books |locationVancouver, British Columbia, Canada | isbn978-14-7338-900-7|pages=200–205}}</ref>
Dr. Schweitzer had a great love of cats. "There are two means of refuge from the miseries of life: music and cats" he stated.{{Citation needed|reasonwith Schweitzer source|dateMay 2024}}
Later life
in the Black Forest]]
After the birth of their daughter (Rhena Schweitzer Miller), Albert's wife, Helene Schweitzer was no longer able to live in Lambaréné due to her health. In 1923, the family moved to Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, Baden-Württemberg, where he was building a house for the family. This house is now maintained as a Schweitzer museum.<ref>[http://www.albertschweitzer-haus.de Schweitzer museum]</ref>
, now a museum and archive]]
(1984)]]
From 1939 to 1948, he stayed in Lambaréné, unable to return to Europe because of the war. Three years after the end of World War II, in 1948, he returned for the first time to Europe and kept travelling back and forth (and once to the US) as long as he was able. During his return visits to his home village of Gunsbach, Schweitzer continued to use the family house, which after his death became an archive and museum of his life and work. His life was portrayed in the 1952 movie Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, starring Pierre Fresnay as Albert Schweitzer and Jeanne Moreau as his nurse Marie. Schweitzer inspired actor Hugh O'Brian when O'Brian visited in Africa. O'Brian returned to the United States and founded the Hugh O'Brian Youth Leadership Foundation (HOBY).
, Australia]]
Schweitzer was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize of 1952,<ref>{{cite web | titleThe Nobel Peace Prize 1952 | websiteThe Nobel Foundation | date21 May 2014 | urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1952/ | access-date18 August 2017}}</ref> accepting the prize with the speech, "The Problem of Peace".{{sfn|Schweitzer|1954}} With the $33,000 prize money, he started the leprosarium at Lambaréné.<ref name":2" /> From 1952 until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with Albert Einstein, Otto Hahn and Bertrand Russell. In 1957 and 1958, he broadcast four speeches over Radio Oslo, which were published in Peace or Atomic War. In 1957, Schweitzer was one of the founders of The Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy. On 23 April 1957, Schweitzer made his "Declaration of Conscience" speech; it was broadcast to the world over Radio Oslo, pleading for the abolition of nuclear weapons. His speech ended, "The end of further experiments with atom bombs would be like the early sunrays of hope which suffering humanity is longing for."<ref>[http://tennesseeplayers.org/declaration.html Declaration of Conscience speech] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071016064238/http://tennesseeplayers.org/declaration.html |date16 October 2007 }}&nbsp;– at Tennessee Players</ref>
Weeks prior to his death, an American film crew was allowed to visit Schweitzer and Drs. Muntz and Friedman, both Holocaust survivors, to record his work and daily life at the hospital. The film The Legacy of Albert Schweitzer, narrated by Henry Fonda, was produced by Warner Brothers and aired once. It resides in their vault today in deteriorating condition. Although several attempts{{what?|dateFebruary 2025}} have been made to restore and re-air the film, all access has been denied{{by whom?|dateFebruary 2025}}{{why?|dateFebruary 2025}}.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://culturedarm.com/albert-schweitzer-henry-fonda-lost-special/|titleAlbert Schweitzer and Henry Fonda's Lost Special|date20 January 2015|websiteCulturedarm|languageen-US}}</ref>
In 1955, he was made an honorary member of the Order of Merit (OM) by Queen Elizabeth II.<ref>
{{cite web |urlhttp://www.royal.gov.uk/output/Page1747.asp |titleList of Members of the Order of Merit, past and present |publisherBritish Monarchy |access-date2 December 2008}}</ref> He was also a chevalier of the Military and Hospitaller Order of Saint Lazarus of Jerusalem.
Schweitzer died on 4 September 1965 at his beloved hospital in Lambaréné, now in independent Gabon. His grave, on the banks of the Ogooué River, is marked by a cross he made himself.
His cousin Anne-Marie Schweitzer Sartre was the mother of Jean-Paul Sartre. Her father, Charles Schweitzer, was the older brother of Albert Schweitzer's father, Louis Théophile.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://roglo.eu/roglo?langen&mNG&nLouis+Th%C3%A9ophile+Schweitzer&tPN |titleLouis Théophile Schweitzer |publisherRoglo.eu |access-date18 October 2011}}{{Self-published source|dateMay 2019}}</ref>{{Better source needed|dateMay 2019}}
Schweitzer is often cited in vegetarian literature as being an advocate of vegetarianism in his later years.<ref>Barkas, Janet L. (1975). The Vegetable Passion. Scribner. p. 131. {{ISBN|9780684139258}}</ref><ref>Gregerson, Jon. (1994). Vegetarianism: A History. Jain Publishing Company. p. 104. {{ISBN|9780875730301}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ivu.org/history/europe20a/schweitzer.html |titleHistory of Vegetarianism&nbsp;– Dr Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965) |publisherIvu.org |date4 September 1965 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110521101835/http://ivu.org/history/europe20a/schweitzer.html| archive-date 21 May 2011 | url-statuslive}}</ref> Schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his earlier life. For example, in 1950, biographer Magnus C. Ratter commented that Schweitzer never "commit[ted] himself to the anti-vivisection, vegetarian, or pacifist positions, though his thought leads in this direction".<ref>Ratter, Magnus C. (1950). Albert Schweitzer: Life and Message. Beacon Press. p. 179</ref> Biographer James Bentley has written that Schweitzer became a vegetarian after his wife's death in 1957 and he was "living almost entirely on lentil soup".<ref>Brentley, James. (1992). Albert Schweitzer: The Enigma. HarperCollins. p. 200. {{ISBN|9780060163648}}</ref> In contrast to this, historian David N. Stamos has written that Schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his personal life nor imposed it on his missionary hospital but he did help animals and was opposed to hunting.<ref name"Stamos 2008">Stamos, David N. (2008). Evolution and the Big Questions: Sex, Race, Religion, and Other Matters. Wiley. p. 175. {{ISBN|9781405149020}}</ref> Stamos noted that Schweitzer held the view that evolution ingrained humans with an instinct for meat so it was useless in trying to deny it.<ref name="Stamos 2008"/>
The Albert Schweitzer Fellowship was founded in 1940 by Schweitzer to unite US supporters in filling the gap in support for his Hospital when his European supply lines were cut off by war, and continues to support the Lambaréné Hospital today. Schweitzer considered his ethic of Reverence for Life, not his hospital, his most important legacy, saying that his Lambaréné Hospital was just "my own improvisation on the theme of Reverence for Life. Everyone can have their own Lambaréné". Today ASF helps large numbers of young Americans in health-related professional fields find or create "their own Lambaréné" in the US or internationally. ASF selects and supports nearly 250 new US and Africa Schweitzer Fellows each year from over 100 of the leading US schools of medicine, nursing, public health, and every other field with some relation to health (including music, law, and divinity). The peer-supporting lifelong network of "Schweitzer Fellows for Life" numbered over 2,000 members in 2008, and is growing by nearly 1,000 every four years. Nearly 150 of these Schweitzer Fellows have served at the Hospital in Lambaréné, for three-month periods during their last year of medical school.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.Schweitzerfellowship.org |titleThe Albert Schweitzer Fellowship |publisherSchweitzerfellowship.org |date23 June 2011 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110716093859/http://www.schweitzerfellowship.org/| archive-date 16 July 2011 | url-status= live}}</ref>
;Schweitzer eponyms
Schweitzer's writings and life are often quoted,<ref name=Byers>See [https://www.goodreads.com/author/quotes/47146.Albert_Schweitzer quotations].
Byers, J.Q., 1996. Brothers in Spirit: the Correspondence of Albert Schweitzer and William Larimer Mellon, Jr. (New York, Syracuse University Press).</ref> resulting in a number of eponyms, such as the 'Schweitzer technique' (discussed below), and the 'Schweitzer effect'. The 'Schweitzer effect' refers to his statement that 'Example is not the main thing in influencing others; it is the only thing'.<ref nameByers/> This eponym is used in medical education to highlight the relationship between lived experience/example and medical students' opinions on professional behaviours.<ref>{{cite journal | doi10.1080/0142159X.2023.2284660 | titleThe Schweitzer effect: The fundamental relationship between experience and medical students' opinions on professional behaviours | date2023 | last1McGurgan | first1Paul | last2Calvert | first2Katrina | last3Celenza | first3Antonio | last4Nathan | first4Elizabeth A. | last5Jorm | first5Christine | journalMedical Teacher | volume46 | issue6 | pages782–791 | doi-accessfree | pmid38048408 }}</ref>
International Albert Schweitzer Prize
The prize was first awarded on 29 May 2011 to Eugen Drewermann and the physician couple Rolf and Raphaela Maibach in Königsfeld im Schwarzwald, where Schweitzer's former residence now houses the Albert Schweitzer Museum.<ref>{{cite web|author<!-- vh2010-02-28 Foto:--><!-- rs2009-10-27 5810938 --> |urlhttp://www.suedkurier.de/region/schwarzwald-baar-heuberg/koenigsfeld/Koenigsfeld-feiert-bdquo-Schweitzer-Erben-ldquo-;art372523,4916774 |titleKönigsfeld feiert ?Schweitzer-Erben? &#124; Südkurier Online |workSüdkurier |date30 May 2011 }}</ref>Sound recordingsRecordings of Schweitzer playing the music of Bach are available on CD. During 1934 and 1935 he resided in Britain, delivering the Gifford Lectures at Edinburgh University, and those on Religion in Modern Civilization at Oxford and London. He had originally conducted trials for recordings for His Master's Voice on the organ of the old Queen's Hall in London. These records did not satisfy him, the instrument being too harsh. In mid-December 1935 he began to record for Columbia Records on the organ of All Hallows, Barking-by-the-Tower, London.<ref>This 1909 Harrison and Harrison organ was destroyed in the war (cf W. Kent, The Lost Treasures of London (Phoenix House 1947), 94–95) and rebuilt in 1957, see {{cite web |urlhttp://www.harrison-organs.co.uk/london.html |titleHarrison & Harrison organ catalogue by name London |access-date6 May 2008 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080705030431/http://www.harrison-organs.co.uk/london.html |archive-date5 July 2008}}.</ref> Then at his suggestion the sessions were transferred to the church of Ste Aurélie in Strasbourg, on a mid-18th-century organ by Johann Andreas Silbermann (brother of Gottfried), an organ-builder greatly revered by Bach, which had been restored by the Lorraine organ-builder Frédéric Härpfer shortly before the First World War. These recordings were made in the course of a fortnight in October 1936.{{sfn|Seaver|1951|p139–152}}
Schweitzer Technique
{{Unreferenced section|date=January 2010}}
Schweitzer developed a technique for recording the performances of Bach's music. Known as the "Schweitzer Technique", it is a slight improvement on what is commonly known as mid-side. The mid-side sees a figure-8 microphone pointed off-axis, perpendicular to the sound source. Then a single cardioid microphone is placed on axis, bisecting the figure-8 pattern. The signal from the figure-8 is muted, panned hard left and right, one of the signals being flipped out of polarity. In the Schweitzer method, the figure-8 is replaced by two small diaphragm condenser microphones pointed directly away from each other. The information that each capsule collects is unique, unlike the identical out-of-polarity information generated from the figure-8 in a regular mid-side. The on-axis microphone is often a large diaphragm condenser. The technique has since been used to record many modern instruments.
Columbia recordings
Altogether his early Columbia discs included 25 records of Bach and eight of César Franck. The Bach titles were mainly distributed as follows:
* '''Queen's Hall''': Organ Prelude and Fugue in E minor (Edition Peters{{NoteTag|Schweitzer's Bach recordings are usually identified with reference to the Peters Edition of the Organ-works in 9 volumes, edited by Friedrich Konrad Griepenkerl and Ferdinand August Roitzsch, in the form revised by Hermann Keller.}} Vol 3, 10); {{lang|de|Herzlich thut mich verlangen}} (BWV 727); {{lang|de|Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein}} (Vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)).<ref>(78&nbsp;rpm HMV C 1532 and C 1543), cf. R.D. Darrell, The Gramophone Shop Encyclopedia of Recorded Music (New York 1936).</ref>
* All Hallows: Prelude and Fugue in C major; Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (the Great); Prelude and Fugue in G major; Prelude and Fugue in F minor; Little Fugue in G minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor.<ref>(78&nbsp;rpm Columbia ROX 146–152), cf. Darrell 1936.</ref>
* Ste Aurélie: Prelude and Fugue in C minor; Prelude and Fugue in E minor; Toccata and Fugue in D minor. Chorale Preludes: {{lang|de|Schmücke dich, O liebe Seele}} (Peters Vol 7, 49 (Leipzig 4)); {{lang|de|O Mensch, bewein dein Sünde groß}} (Vol 5, 45); {{lang|de|O Lamm Gottes, unschuldig}} (Vol 7, 48 (Leipzig 6)); {{lang|de|Christus, der uns selig macht}} (Vol 5, 8); {{lang|de|Da Jesus an dem Kreuze stand}} (Vol 5, 9); {{lang|de|An Wasserflüssen Babylon}} (Vol 6, 12b); {{lang|de|Christum wir wollen loben schon}} (Vol 5, 6); {{lang|de|Liebster Jesu, wir sind hier}} (Vol 5, app 5); {{lang|de|Mit Fried und Freud ich fahr dahin}} (Vol 5, 4); {{lang|de|Sei gegrüßet, Jesu gütig}} (Var 11, Vol 5, app. 3); {{lang|de|Jesus Christus, unser Heiland}} (Vol 6, 31 (Leipzig 15)); Christ lag in Todesbanden (Vol 5, 5); Erschienen ist der herrlich Tag (Vol 5, 15).<ref>{{harvnb|Joy|1953|pp=226–230}}. The 78s were issued in albums, with a specially designed record label (Columbia ROX 8020–8023, 8032–8035, etc.). Ste Aurélie recordings appeared also on LP as Columbia 33CX1249</ref><ref>E.M.I., A Complete List of EMI, Columbia, Parlophone and MGM Long Playing Records issued up to and including June 1955 (London 1955) for this and discographical details following.</ref>
Later recordings were made at Parish church, Günsbach: These recordings were made by C. Robert Fine during the time Dr. Schweitzer was being filmed in Günsbach for the documentary "Albert Schweitzer". Fine originally self-released the recordings but later licensed the masters to Columbia.
* Fugue in A minor (Peters, Vol 2, 8); Fantasia and Fugue in G minor (Great) (Vol 2, 4); Toccata, Adagio and Fugue in C major (Vol 3, 8).<ref>Columbia LP 33CX1074</ref>
* Prelude in C major (Vol 4, 1); Prelude in D major (Vol 4, 3); Canzona in D minor (Vol 4, 10) (with Mendelssohn, Sonata in D minor op 65.6).<ref>Columbia LP 33CX1084</ref>
* Chorale-Preludes: {{lang|de|O Mensch, bewein dein Sünde groß}} (1st and 2nd versions, Peters Vol 5, 45); {{lang|de|Wenn wir in höchsten Nöten sein (Vor deinen Thron tret ich hiermit)}} (vol 7, 58 (Leipzig 18)); {{lang|de|Ich ruf zu dir, Herr Jesu Christ}} (Vol 5, 30); {{lang|de|Gelobet seist du, Jesu Christ}} (Vol 5, 17); {{lang|de|Herzlich tut mich verlangen}} (Vol 5, 27); {{lang|de|Nun komm, der Heiden Heiland}} (vol 7, 45 (BWV 659a)).<ref>Columbia LP 33CX1081</ref>
The above were released in the United States as Columbia Masterworks boxed set SL-175.
Philips recordings
* J. S. Bach: Prelude and Fugue in A major, BWV 536; Prelude and Fugue in F minor, BWV 534; Prelude and Fugue in B minor, BWV 544; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 538.<ref>E.M.G., The Art of Record Buying (London 1960), pp. 12–13. Philips ABL 3092, issued March 1956.</ref>
* J. S. Bach: Passacaglia in C minor, BWV 582; Prelude and Fugue in E minor, BWV 533; Prelude and Fugue in A minor, BWV 543; Prelude and Fugue in G major, BWV 541; Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565.<ref>E.M.G., op. cit., Philips ABL 3134, issued September 1956. Other selections are on Philips GBL 5509.</ref>
* César Franck: Organ Chorales, no. 1 in E major; no. 2 in B minor; no. 3 in A minor.<ref>Philips ABL 3221.</ref>
Portrayals and dedication
Dramatisations of Schweitzer's life include:
* The 1952 biographical film Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, with Pierre Fresnay as Schweitzer.
* The 1957 biographical film Albert Schweitzer in which Schweitzer appears as himself and Phillip Eckert portrays him.
* The 1962 TV remake of Il est minuit, Docteur Schweitzer, with Jean-Pierre Marielle as Schweitzer.
* The 1990 biographical film The Light in the Jungle, with Malcolm McDowell as Schweitzer.
* Two 1992 episodes of the television series The Young Indiana Jones Chronicles ("German East Africa, December 1916" and "Congo, January 1917"), with Friedrich von Thun as Schweitzer. The episodes were later combined to create Oganga, Giver and Taker of Life.
* The 1995 biographical film Le Grand blanc de Lambaréné, with André Wilms as Schweitzer.
* The 2006 TV biographical film Albert Schweitzer: Called to Africa, with Jeff McCarthy as Schweitzer.
* The 2009 biographical film {{Ill|Albert Schweitzer (2009 film)|de|3Albert Schweitzer – Ein Leben für Afrika|ltAlbert Schweitzer}}, with Jeroen Krabbé as Schweitzer.
The Greek author Nikos Kazantzakis dedicated his novel The Poor Man of Assisi to him.
Bibliography
* {{Citation |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleThe Quest of the Historical Jesus; A Critical Study of Its Progress From Reimarus To Wrede |orig-yearGerman, 1906. English edition, A. & C. Black, London 1910, 1911 |translator-linkWilliam Montgomery (cryptographer) |translator-firstWilliam |translator-lastMontgomery |publisherAugsburg Fortress Publishers |year2001 |isbn978-0-8006-3288-5 |author-mask1|title-linkThe Quest of the Historical Jesus|ref=none}}
* {{Citation |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleJ. S. Bach, Le Musicien-Poète |trans-titleJS Bach, the Poet Musician |othersintroduction by C. M. Widor |publisherBreitkopf & Härtel with P. Costellot |placeLeipzig |year1905 |languagefr |author-mask1|urlhttps://archive.org/details/jsbachlemusicien00schw|refnone}}
* {{Citation |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleJ. S. Bach |editionenlarged |languagede |publisherBreitkopf & Härtel |placeLeipzig |year1908 |author-mask1|refnone}}. English translation by Ernest Newman, with author's alterations and additions, London 1911. Fulltext scans (English): [https://archive.org/details/jsbachsc01schwuoft Vol. 1], [https://archive.org/details/jsbachsc02schwuoft Vol. 2].
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleDeutsche und französische Orgelbaukunst und Orgelkunst |urlhttps://archive.org/details/deutscheundfranz00schw |trans-titleGerman and French organbuilding and organ art |publisherBreitkopf & Härtel |locationLeipzig |year1906 |languagede |author-mask1|ref=none}} (first printed in Musik, vols 13 and 14 (5th year)).
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleThe Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism |orig-year1911 |locationGloucester, Massachusetts |publisherPeter Smith Publisher |year1948 |isbn978-0-8446-2894-3 |author-mask1|refnone}}
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titlePaul and His Interpreters, A Critical History |urlhttps://archive.org/details/paulhisinterpret00schwuoft |translator-firstW. |translator-lastMontgomery |year1912 |locationLondon |publisherAdam & Charles Black |author-mask1|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleThe Mystery of the Kingdom of God: The Secret of Jesus' Messiahship and Passion |orig-year1914 |publisherPrometheus Books |year1985 |isbn978-0-87975-294-1 |author-mask1|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleOn the Edge of the Primeval Forest|translator-firstCh. Th. |translator-lastCampion |publisherA. & C. Black |locationLondon |year1924|orig-year1922|editionreprint|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/ontheedgeofthepr007259mbp#page/n9/mode/2up/|author-mask1|ref=none}} (translation of Zwischen Wasser und Urwald, 1921)
*The Decay and the Restoration of Civilization and Civilization and Ethics (The Philosophy of Civilization, Vols I & II of the projected but not completed four-volume work), A. & C. Black, London 1923. Material from these volumes is rearranged in a modern compilation, The Philosophy of Civilization (Prometheus Books, 1987), {{ISBN |0-87975-403-6}}
* {{Citation |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleThe Mysticism of Paul the Apostle |orig-year1930, 1931 |publisherJohns Hopkins University Press |year1998 |isbn978-0-8018-6098-0 |author-mask1|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleAus Meinem Leben und Denken |publisherFelix Meiner Verlag |locationLeipzig |year1931 |author-mask1|refnone}} translated as {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleOut of My Life and Thought: An Autobiography |publisherHenry Holt and Company |year1933 |author-mask1 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/outofmylifethoug00schw_0/mode/2up|refnone}}; {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleOut of My Life and Thought: An Autobiography |publisherJohns Hopkins University Press |year1998 |isbn978-0-8018-6097-3 |author-mask1 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/outofmylifethoug0000schw|refnone}}
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleIndian Thought and Its Development |locationBoston, Massachusetts |publisherBeacon Press |year1935 |oclc8003381 |author-mask1|ref=none}}
*Afrikanische Geschichten (Felix Meiner, Leipzig and Hamburg 1938): tr. Mrs C. E. B. Russell as From My African Notebook (George Allen and Unwin, London 1938/Henry Holt, New York 1939). Modern edition with foreword by L. Forrow (Syracuse University Press, 2002).
* {{cite web |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |date4 November 1954 |titleThe Problem of Peace |websiteThe Nobel Foundation |urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1952/schweitzer-lecture.html |author-mask=1 }}
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titlePeace or Atomic War? |locationNew York |publisherHenry Holt |year1958 |isbn978-0-8046-1551-8 |author-mask1 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/peaceoratomicwar00schw|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1Schweitzer |first1Albert |titleThe Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity |urlhttps://archive.org/details/kingdomofgodprim00schw |url-accessregistration |editor-firstUlrich|editor-lastNeuenschwander|editor-link:de:Ulrich Neuenschwander|locationNew York |publisherSeabury Press |year1968 |oclc321874 |author-mask1|refnone}}
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |editor-firstJames |editor-lastBrabazon |titleAlbert Schweitzer: Essential Writings |placeMaryknoll, New York|publisherOrbis Books |year2005 |isbn978-1-57075-602-3 |author-mask1}}
See also
*List of peace activists
*Cultural depictions of Albert Schweitzer
*Helene Bresslau Schweitzer
*{{ill|Albert Schweitzer Organ Festival Hartford |qidQ125975928|ltAlbert Schweitzer Organ Festival}}
Notes
{{NoteFoot}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist|25em}}
Sources
{{div col|colwidth=45em}}
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |titleOn the Edge of the Primeval Forest |translator-firstCh. Th. |translator-lastCampion |publisherA. & C. Black |locationLondon |year1924 |orig-year1922 |editionreprint |url=https://archive.org/stream/ontheedgeofthepr007259mbp#page/n9/mode/2up/}} (translation of Zwischen Wasser und Urwald, 1921)
* {{cite book |lastSchweitzer |firstAlbert |author-linkAlbert Schweitzer |titleThe Mysticism of Paul the Apostle |year1931 |publisherJohns Hopkins University Press}}
* {{cite book |lastBrabazon |firstJ. |author-linkJames Brabazon |titleAlbert Schweitzer: A Biography |publisherSyracuse University Press |seriesAlbert Schweitzer library |year2000 |isbn978-0-8156-0675-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzOm0iqkRsYEC |page[https://books.google.com/books?idzOm0iqkRsYEC&pg=PA84 84]}}
* {{cite book |lastFree |firstA.C. |titleAnimals, Nature and Albert Schweitzer |publisherFlying Fox Press |year1988 |isbn978-0-9617225-4-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnkTObUVhYBAC |access-date=2 July 2017}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastJoy |editor-firstCharles R. |titleMusic in the Life of Albert Schweitzer |locationLondon |publisherA. & C. Black |year1953}}
* {{cite book |lastOermann |firstN. O. |titleAlbert Schweitzer: A Biography |publisherOxford University Press |year2016 |isbn978-0-19-108704-2 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idegiDDQAAQBAJ&pgPT110 |access-date2 July 2017}}
* {{cite book |lastPierhal |firstJ. |titleAlbert Schweitzer: The Life of a Great Man |publisherLutterworth |year1956 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCyq1AAAAIAAJ |access-date2 July 2017}}
* {{cite book |lastPierhal |firstJ. |titleAlbert Schweitzer: the story of his life |publisherPhilosophical Library |year1957 |isbn9780802219756 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOflHAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |lastSeaver |firstG. |titleAlbert Schweitzer: The Man and His Mind |locationLondon |publisherA. & C. Black |year1951}}
{{div col end}}
Further reading
* {{cite book |last1Anderson |first1Erica |last2Exman |first2Eugene |author-link2Eugene Exman |titleThe World of Albert Schweitzer |urlhttps://archive.org/details/worldofalbertsch00ande |url-accessregistration |publisherHarper & Brothers |locationNew York |year1955|refnone}}
* {{cite book |lastAnderson |firstErica |year1965 |titleThe Schweitzer Album |author-linkErica Anderson |urlhttps://archive.org/details/schweitzeralbump00ande |url-accessregistration |publisherHarper & Row |placeNew York |refnone}}
* Bartolf, Christian; Gericke, Marion; Miething, Dominique (2020): [https://refubium.fu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/fub188/27820/Exhibition%20Catalogue%20(A5)%20-%20(Online)%2016.7.2020.pdf Dr. Albert Schweitzer: "My Address to the People" – Commitment against Nuclear War]. Berlin: Freie Universität Berlin, Gandhi-Informations-Zentrum. {{doi|10.17169/refubium-27573}} {{ISBN|978-3-96110-357-7}}.
* {{cite book | lastBrabazon | firstJ. | author-linkJames Brabazon | date1975 | titleAlbert Schweitzer: A Biography | locationNew York | publisherG. P. Putnam's Sons | isbn978-0-399-11421-2 | url-accessregistration | urlhttps://archive.org/details/albertschweitzer0000brab|ref=none}}
*{{cite book |lastCousins |firstNorman |titleAlbert Schweitzer's Mission Healing and Peace |publisherW. W. Norton|year1985|refnone}}
* {{cite book |lastRud |firstA. G. |titleAlbert Schweitzer's Legacy for Education: Reverence for Life |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |year2011 |pages173ff|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |authorSmiley, Xan |dateFebruary 2023 |titleAhead of his time, behind ours |journalCommonweal |volume150 |issue2 |pages26–33 |urlhttps://www.commonwealmagazine.org/albert-schweitzer-racism-africa-medicine-Lambarene |url-accesslimited <!--|access-date2023-06-12-->}}<ref group=lower-alpha>Online version is titled "The legacy of Albert Schweitzer : can we still admire him?".</ref>
———————
;Notes
{{reflist|40em|grouplower-alpha}}External links{{sister project links|dQ49325|bno|vno|voyno|wiktno|mno|mwno|cCategory:Albert Schweitzer|sAuthor:Albert Schweitzer|n=no}}
* [https://vimeo.com/26478396 Award-winning documentary about him]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180117180506/http://www.albertschweitzer.info/ Albert Schweitzer info] at Internet Archive
* {{Gutenberg author |id42712 |nameAlbert Schweitzer}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Albert Schweitzer}}
* {{Librivox author}}
* [http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/s/schweitzer_a.htm Albert Schweitzer Papers] at Syracuse University
* [http://nwda.orbiscascade.org/ark:/80444/xv38287 John D. Regester Collection on Albert Schweitzer]
* The [http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:DIV.LIB:div00535 Helfferich Collection], collected by Reginald H. Helfferich on Albert Schweitzer, is at the Harvard Divinity School Library at Harvard Divinity School in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
* [http://www.worldhistorysite.com/Jesusbook.html What Jesus was thinking] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200629150020/http://www.worldhistorysite.com/Jesusbook.html |date29 June 2020 }} An interpretation and restatement of Schweitzer's last book, The Kingdom of God and Primitive Christianity
* {{PM20}}
* {{Nobelprize}}
{{1952 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Nobel Peace Prize Laureates 1951–1975}}
{{Anti-nuclear movement}}
{{Tirukkural}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Schweitzer, Albert}}
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Category:Christian writers about animal rights and welfare | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Schweitzer | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.872568 |
1030 | Austrian school of economics | {{short description|School of economic thought}}
{{distinguish|Economy of Austria}}
{{Redirect|Austrian school|the education system in Austria|Education in Austria}}
{{austrian School sidebar|all}}
{{Economics sidebar}}
The Austrian school is a heterodox<ref name"Boettke and Leeson">{{Cite book |last1Boettke |first1Peter J. |titleA Companion to the History of Economic Thought |last2Leeson |first2Peter T. |publisherBlackwell Publishing |year2003 |isbn978-0-631-22573-7 |editorSamuels |editor-firstWarren |editor-linkWarren Samuels |pages446–452 |chapter28A: The Austrian School of Economics 1950–2000 |author2-linkPeter T. Leeson |editor2Biddle |editor-first2Jeff E. |editor3Davis |editor-first3John B. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3H8gBQv5MysC&pgPA445}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | urlhttps://www.economist.com/node/21542174 | titleHeterodox economics: Marginal revolutionaries | newspaperThe Economist | dateDecember 31, 2011 | access-dateFebruary 22, 2012 | url-statuslive | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120222004727/http://www.economist.com/node/21542174 | archive-dateFebruary 22, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Denis |first1Andy |titleDialectics and the Austrian School: A Surprising Commonality in the Methodology of Heterodox Economics? |journalThe Journal of Philosophical Economics |date2008 |volume1 |issue2 |pages151–173 |urlhttps://openaccess.city.ac.uk/id/eprint/3961/ |access-date19 May 2022 |languageen}}</ref> school of economic thought that advocates strict adherence to methodological individualism, the concept that social phenomena result primarily from the motivations and actions of individuals along with their self interest. Austrian-school theorists hold that economic theory should be exclusively derived from basic principles of human action.<ref>{{cite book |last1Menger |first1Carl |urlhttps://cdn.mises.org/principles_of_economics.pdf |titlePrinciples of Economics |publisherLudwig von Mises Institute |year2007 |locationAuburn, Alabama |languageen-us |translator-last1Dingwall |translator-first1James |orig-date1871 |translator-last2Hoselitz |translator-first2Bert F.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2015/entries/methodological-individualism/|titleThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|firstJoseph|lastHeath|editor-firstEdward N.|editor-lastZalta|date1 May 2018|publisherMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date1 May 2018|viaStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref><ref name="Mises_Action">Ludwig von Mises. Human Action, p. 11, "Purposeful Action and Animal Reaction". Referenced 2011-11-23.</ref>
The Austrian school originated in 1871<ref>{{Cite web |titleAustrian School of Economics |urlhttps://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/AustrianSchoolofEconomics.html#:~:textBy%20Peter%20J.,Boettke&textThe%20Austrian%20school%20of,marginalist%20revolution%20in%20economic%20analysis. |access-date2024-12-19 |websiteEconlib |languageen-US}}</ref> in Vienna with the work of Carl Menger, Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk, Friedrich von Wieser, and others.<ref>Joseph A. Schumpeter, History of economic analysis, Oxford University Press 1996, {{ISBN|978-0195105599}}.</ref> It was methodologically opposed to the Historical school, in a dispute known as Methodenstreit, or methodology quarrel. Current-day economists working in this tradition are located in many countries, but their work is still referred to as Austrian economics. Among the theoretical contributions of the early years of the Austrian school are the subjective theory of value, marginalism in price theory and the formulation of the economic calculation problem.<ref>{{cite book|last1Birner|first1Jack|first2Rudy|last2van Zijp|titleHayek, Co-ordination and Evolution: His Legacy in Philosophy, Politics, Economics and the History of Ideas|locationLondon, New York|publisherRoutledge|year1994|page[https://archive.org/details/hayekcoordinatio0000unse/page/94 94]|isbn978-0-415-09397-2|urlhttps://archive.org/details/hayekcoordinatio0000unse}}</ref>
In the 1970s, the Austrian school attracted some renewed interest after Friedrich August von Hayek shared the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences with Gunnar Myrdal.<ref name"GMeijer">{{cite book |lastMeijer |firstG. |titleNew Perspectives on Austrian Economics |publisherRoutledge |locationNew York |year1995 |isbn978-0-415-12283-2 }}</ref>
History
. The French liberal school of political economy is an intellectual ancestor of Austrian school of economics.]]
Etymology
The Austrian school owes its name to members of the German historical school of economics, who argued against the Austrians during the late 19th-century Methodenstreit ("methodology struggle"), in which the Austrians defended the role of theory in economics as distinct from the study or compilation of historical circumstance. In 1883, Menger published Investigations into the Method of the Social Sciences with Special Reference to Economics, which attacked the methods of the historical school. Gustav von Schmoller, a leader of the historical school, responded with an unfavorable review, coining the term "Austrian school" in an attempt to characterize the school as outcast and provincial.<ref>"Menger's approach – haughtily dismissed by the leader of the German Historical School, Gustav Schmoller, as merely 'Austrian', the origin of that label – led to a renaissance of theoretical economics in Europe and, later, in the United States." Peter G. Klein, in "Forward" to {{cite book |last1Menger |first1Carl |urlhttps://cdn.mises.org/principles_of_economics.pdf |titlePrinciples of Economics |publisherLudwig von Mises Institute |year2007 |isbn978-1-933550-12-1 |locationAuburn, Alabama |languageen-us |translator-last1Dingwall |translator-first1James |orig-date1871 |translator-last2Hoselitz |translator-first2Bert F.}}</ref> The label endured and was adopted by the adherents themselves.<ref>{{cite book|lastvon Mises|firstLudwig|titleThe Historical Setting of the Austrian School of Economics|year1984|orig-year1969|publisherLudwig von Mises Institute.|urlhttps://mises.org/etexts/histsetting.pdf|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140624182138/http://www.mises.org/etexts/histsetting.pdf|archive-date2014-06-24}}</ref>
School of Salamanca
The Salamanca School of economic thought, emerging in 16th-century Spain, is often regarded as an early precursor to the Austrian School of Economics due to its development of the subjective theory of value and its advocacy for free-market principles. Scholars from the University of Salamanca, such as Francisco de Vitoria and Luis de Molina, argued that the value of goods was determined by individual preferences rather than intrinsic factors, foreshadowing later Austrian ideas. They also emphasized the importance of supply and demand in setting prices and maintaining sound money, laying the groundwork for modern economic concepts that the Austrian School would later refine and expand upon.<ref>{{Cite book |lastGrice-Hutchinson |firstMarjorie |urlhttps://cdn.mises.org/The%20School%20of%20Salamanca_3.pdf |titleThe School of Salamanca |publisherOxford at the Clarendon Press |year1952}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2006-11-10 |titleNew Light on the Prehistory of the Austrian School {{!}} Mises Institute |urlhttps://mises.org/mises-daily/new-light-prehistory-austrian-school |access-date2024-09-02 |websitemises.org |languageen}}</ref>
First wave
]]
The school originated in Vienna in Austria-Hungary. Carl Menger's 1871 book Principles of Economics is generally considered the founding of the Austrian school. The book was one of the first modern treatises to advance the theory of marginal utility. The Austrian school was one of three founding currents of the marginalist revolution of the 1870s, with its major contribution being the introduction of the subjectivist approach in economics.<ref name"keizer">{{cite book |lastKeizer |firstWillem |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCJ5sFtfZy8AC&qsubjectivist |titleAustrian Economics in Debate |publisherRoutledge |year1997 |isbn978-0-415-14054-6 |locationNew York |pages1}}</ref>
Despite such claim, John Stuart Mill had used value in use in this sense in 1848 in Principles of Political Economy,<ref>Ahiakpor, J. C. W. (2003): Classical Macroeconomics. Some Modern Variations and Distortions, Routledge, p. 21.</ref> where he wrote: "Value in use, or as Mr. De Quincey calls it, teleologic value, is the extreme limit of value in exchange. The exchange value of a thing may fall short, to any amount, of its value in use; but that it can ever exceed the value in use, implies a contradiction; it supposes that persons will give, to possess a thing, more than the utmost value which they themselves put upon it as a means of gratifying their inclinations."<ref>Mill, J. S. (1848). Principles of Political Economy.</ref>
While marginalism was generally influential, there was also a more specific school that began to coalesce around Menger's work, which came to be known as the "psychological school", "Vienna school", or "Austrian school".<ref>{{cite journal |last1Kirzner |first1Israel M. |year1987 |titleAustrian School of Economics |journalThe New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics |volume1 |pages145–151}}</ref> Menger's contributions to economic theory were closely followed by those of Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk and Friedrich von Wieser. These three economists became what is known as the "first wave" of the Austrian school. Böhm-Bawerk wrote extensive critiques of Karl Marx in the 1880s and 1890s and was part of the Austrians' participation in the late 19th-century {{lang|de|Methodenstreit}}, during which they attacked the Hegelian doctrines of the historical school. Early 20th century Frank Albert Fetter (1863–1949) was a leader in the United States of Austrian thought. He obtained his PhD in 1894 from the University of Halle and then was made Professor of Political Economy and Finance at Cornell University in 1901. Several important Austrian economists trained at the University of Vienna in the 1920s and later participated in private seminars held by Ludwig von Mises. These included Gottfried Haberler,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://mises.org/page/1452/Biography-of-Gottfried-Haberler-19011995 |titleBiography of Gottfried Haberler (1901–1995) |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140914003239/https://mises.org/page/1452/Biography-of-Gottfried-Haberler-19011995 |archive-date2014-09-14 |work Mises Institute|last Salerno|first Joseph T.|date 1 August 2007}}</ref> Friedrich Hayek, Fritz Machlup,<ref>{{cite web|titleBiography of Fritz Machlup|urlhttps://mises.org/page/1457/Biography-of-Fritz-Machlup-19021983|access-date16 June 2013|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130705121450/http://mises.org/page/1457/Biography-of-Fritz-Machlup-19021983|archive-date5 July 2013}}</ref> Karl Menger (son of Carl Menger),<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.iit.edu/csl/am/about/menger/about.shtml|titleAbout Karl Menger – Department of Applied Mathematics – IIT College of Science – Illinois Institute of Technology|websitewww.iit.edu|access-date1 May 2018|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131029202644/http://www.iit.edu/csl/am/about/menger/about.shtml|archive-date29 October 2013}}</ref> Oskar Morgenstern,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/findingaids/morgenst/ |titleGuide to the Oskar Morgenstern Papers, 1866–1992 and undated |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121017075648/http://library.duke.edu/rubenstein/findingaids/morgenst/ |archive-date2012-10-17 |website Rubenstein Library|publisher Duke University }}</ref> Paul Rosenstein-Rodan,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://archives.lse.ac.uk/Record.aspx?srcCalmView.Catalog&idCOLL+MISC+0324 |titleRodan; Paul Rosenstein (1902–1985); political economist|publisherArchive at London School of Economics}}</ref> Abraham Wald,<ref>{{cite journal |authorMorgenstern |firstOskar |dateOctober 1951 |titleAbraham Wald, 1902–1950 |journalEconometrica |publisherThe Econometric Society |volume19 |pages361–367 |doi10.2307/1907462 |jstor1907462 |number4}}</ref> and Michael A. Heilperin,<ref>{{Cite web | urlhttps://mises.org/library/studies-economic-nationalism | titleStudies in Economic Nationalism| date=18 August 2014}}</ref> among others, as well as the sociologist Alfred Schütz.<ref>{{multiref
|1{{cite journal |author-linkPeter Kurrild-Klitgaard |lastKurrild-Klitgaard |firstPeter |titleThe Viennese Connection: Alfred Schutz and the Austrian School |journalQuarterly Journal of Austrian Economics |volume6 |issue2 |dateSummer 2003 |pages35–67 |doi10.1007/s12113-003-1018-y |s2cid154202208 |urlhttp://mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae6_2_2.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae6_2_2.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date=2022-08-19}}
|2{{cite journal |author-linkPeter Kurrild-Klitgaard |lastKurrild-Klitgaard |firstPeter |doi10.1023/A:1011199831428 |titleOn Rationality, Ideal Types and Economics: Alfred Schütz and the Austrian School |journalThe Review of Austrian Economics |volume14 |pages119–143 |date2001|issue2/3 |s2cid33060092 }}
}}</ref>
Later 20th century
, in Auburn, Alabama]]
By the mid-1930s, most economists had embraced what they considered the important contributions of the early Austrians.<ref name"Boettke and Leeson" /> Fritz Machlup quoted Hayek's statement that "the greatest success of a school is that it stops existing because its fundamental teachings have become parts of the general body of commonly accepted thought".<ref>{{cite web |date15 December 2004 |titleLudwig von Mises: A Scholar Who Would Not Compromise |urlhttps://mises.org/daily/1700/Ludwig-von-Mises-A-Scholar-Who-Would-Not-Compromise |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140914002324/https://mises.org/daily/1700/Ludwig-von-Mises-A-Scholar-Who-Would-Not-Compromise |archive-date2014-09-14 |access-date2014-09-13}} Homage to Mises by Fritz Machlup 1981.</ref> Sometime during the middle of the 20th century, Austrian economics became disregarded or derided by mainstream economists because it rejected model building and mathematical and statistical methods in the study of economics.<ref name"Backhouse">{{cite journal| lastBackhouse| firstRoger E| titleAustrian economics and the mainstream: View from the boundary| journalThe Quarterly Journal of Austrian Economics| volume3| issue2| pages31–43| urlhttps://mises.org/library/austrian-economics-and-mainstream-view-boundary| dateJanuary 2000| access-date2017-01-24| quote"Hayek did not fall out of favor because he was not Keynesian (neither are Friedman or Lucas) but because he was perceived to be doing neither rigorous theory nor empirical work"| doi10.1007/s12113-000-1002-8| s2cid154604886| url-statuslive| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170210110045/https://mises.org/library/austrian-economics-and-mainstream-view-boundary| archive-date2017-02-10}}</ref> Mises' student Israel Kirzner recalled that in 1954, when Kirzner was pursuing his PhD, there was no separate Austrian school as such. When Kirzner was deciding which graduate school to attend, Mises had advised him to accept an offer of admission at Johns Hopkins because it was a prestigious university and Fritz Machlup taught there.<ref>{{cite web|lastKirzner|firstIsrael|titleInterview of Israel Kirzner|urlhttps://www.mises.org/journals/aen/aen17_1_1.asp|publisherLudwig von Mises Institute|access-date17 June 2013|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130909160322/http://mises.org/journals/aen/aen17_1_1.asp|archive-date9 September 2013}}</ref>
After the 1940s, Austrian economics can be divided into two schools of economic thought and the school split to some degree in the late 20th century. One camp of Austrians, exemplified by Mises, regards neoclassical methodology to be irredeemably flawed; the other camp, exemplified by Friedrich Hayek, accepts a large part of neoclassical methodology and is more accepting of government intervention in the economy.<ref>{{cite web |lastKanopiadmin |date30 July 2014 |titleThe Hayek and Mises Controversy: Bridging Differences – Odd J. Stalebrink |urlhttps://mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae7_1_3.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121114044020/http://mises.org/journals/qjae/pdf/qjae7_1_3.pdf |archive-date14 November 2012 |access-date1 May 2018 |websitemises.org}}</ref> Henry Hazlitt wrote economics columns and editorials for a number of publications and wrote many books on the topic of Austrian economics from the 1930s to the 1980s. Hazlitt's thinking was influenced by Mises.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/remembering-henry-hazlitt/ |titleRemembering Henry Hazlitt |publisherThe Freeman |access-date2013-03-11 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130113132434/http://www.thefreemanonline.org/featured/remembering-henry-hazlitt/ |archive-date2013-01-13 }}</ref> His book Economics in One Lesson (1946) sold over a million copies and he is also known for The Failure of the "New Economics" (1959), a line-by-line critique of John Maynard Keynes's General Theory.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://mises.org/about/3233 |titleBiography of Henry Hazlitt |publisherLudwig von Mises Institute |access-date2013-03-11 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120128182613/https://www.mises.org/about/3233 |archive-date=2012-01-28 }}</ref>
The reputation of the Austrian school rose in the late 20th century due in part to the work of Israel Kirzner and Ludwig Lachmann at New York University and to renewed public awareness of the work of Hayek after he won the 1974 Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences.<ref name"Meijer 1995">{{cite book |editorMeijer, Gerrit |titleNew Perspectives on Austrian Economics |publisherRoutledge |locationNew York |year1995 |isbn978-0-415-12283-2 |oclc 70769328 }}</ref> Hayek's work was influential in the revival of laissez-faire thought in the 20th century.<ref name"raico">{{cite web |urlhttps://mises.org/etexts/austrianliberalism.asp |titleAustrian Economics and Classical Liberalism |firstRalph |lastRaico |workmises.org |publisherLudwig von Mises Institute |year2011 |quotedespite the particular policy views of its founders ... Austrianism was perceived as the economics of the free market |access-date27 July 2011 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110519183648/http://mises.org/etexts/austrianliberalism.asp |archive-date19 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastKasper |firstSherryl Davis |titleThe Revival of Laissez-faire in American Macroeconomic Theory |publisherEdward Elgar Publishing |year2002 |isbn978-1-84064-606-1 |page66}}</ref>
Split among contemporary Austrians
Economist Leland Yeager discussed the late 20th-century rift and referred to a discussion written by Murray Rothbard, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Joseph Salerno and others in which they attack and disparage Hayek. Yeager stated: "To try to drive a wedge between Mises and Hayek on [the role of knowledge in economic calculation], especially to the disparagement of Hayek, is unfair to these two great men, unfaithful to the history of economic thought". He went on to call the rift subversive to economic analysis and the historical understanding of the fall of Eastern European communism.<ref>{{cite book|lastYaeger|firstLeland|titleIs the Market a Test of Truth and Beauty?: Essays in Political Economy|pages93 ff|year2011|publisherLudwig von Mises Institute}}</ref>
In a 1999 book published by the Ludwig von Mises Institute,<ref>{{cite book|lastHoppe|firstHans-Hermann|title15 Great Austrian Economists – Murray Rothbard|year1999|publisherLudwig von Mises Institute|locationAlabama|pages223 ff|urlhttps://mises.org/books/15great.pdf|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141007115806/http://mises.org/books/15great.pdf|archive-date2014-10-07}}</ref> Hoppe asserted that Rothbard was the leader of the "mainstream within Austrian Economics" and contrasted Rothbard with Nobel Laureate Friedrich Hayek, whom he identified as a British empiricist and an opponent of the thought of Mises and Rothbard. Hoppe acknowledged that Hayek was the most prominent Austrian economist within academia, but stated that Hayek was an opponent of the Austrian tradition which led from Carl Menger and Böhm-Bawerk through Mises to Rothbard. Austrian economist Walter Block says that the Austrian school can be distinguished from other schools of economic thought through two categories—economic theory and political theory. According to Block, while Hayek can be considered an Austrian economist, his views on political theory clash with the libertarian political theory which Block sees as an integral part of the Austrian school.<ref>{{cite web|titleDr. Walter Block: Austrian vs Chicago Schools|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vLiX7dzyHkK4|publisherMises Canada: Rothbard School 2014|access-date3 December 2014|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150518134054/https://www.youtube.com/watch?vLiX7dzyHkK4|archive-date18 May 2015}}</ref>
Both criticism from Hoppe and Block to Hayek apply to Carl Menger, the founder of the Austrian school. Hoppe emphasizes that Hayek, which for him is from the English empirical tradition, is an opponent of the supposed rationalist tradition of the Austrian school; Menger made strong critiques to rationalism in his works in similar vein as Hayek's.<ref name":0">{{cite book|urlhttps://mises.org/system/tdf/Investigations%20into%20the%20Method%20of%20the%20Social%20Sciences_5.pdf?file1&typedocument|titleInvestigations into the Methods of the Social Sciences|lastMenger|firstCarl|pages173–175|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170211155554/https://mises.org/system/tdf/Investigations%20into%20the%20Method%20of%20the%20Social%20Sciences_5.pdf?file1&typedocument|archive-date2017-02-11}}</ref> He emphasized the idea that there are several institutions which were not deliberately created, have a kind of "superior wisdom" and serve important functions to society.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://mises.org/system/tdf/Investigations%20into%20the%20Method%20of%20the%20Social%20Sciences_5.pdf?file1&typedocument|titleInvestigations into the Methods of the Social Sciences|lastMenger|firstCarl|pages146–147|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170211155554/https://mises.org/system/tdf/Investigations%20into%20the%20Method%20of%20the%20Social%20Sciences_5.pdf?file1&typedocument|archive-date2017-02-11}}</ref><ref name":0" /><ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://mises.org/system/tdf/Investigations%20into%20the%20Method%20of%20the%20Social%20Sciences_5.pdf?file1&typedocument|titleInvestigations into the Methods of the Social Sciences|lastMenger|firstCarl|pages91|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170211155554/https://mises.org/system/tdf/Investigations%20into%20the%20Method%20of%20the%20Social%20Sciences_5.pdf?file1&typedocument|archive-date2017-02-11}}</ref> He also talked about Edmund Burke and the English tradition to sustain these positions.<ref name=":0" />
When saying that the libertarian political theory is an integral part of the Austrian school and supposing Hayek is not a libertarian, Block excludes Menger from the Austrian school, too, since Menger seems to defend broader state activity than Hayek—for example, progressive taxation and extensive labour legislation.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://www.hetsa.org.au/hetsa2009/conference_papers/7.%20Yukihiro%20Ikeda%20Carl%20Menger's%20Liberalism%20Revisited.pdf|titleCarl Menger's Liberalism Revisited|lastIkeda|firstYukihiro|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170216010338/http://hetsa.org.au/hetsa2009/conference_papers/7.%20Yukihiro%20Ikeda%20Carl%20Menger's%20Liberalism%20Revisited.pdf|archive-date=2017-02-16}}</ref>
Economists of the Hayekian view are affiliated with the Cato Institute, George Mason University (GMU) and New York University, among other institutions. They include Peter Boettke, Roger Garrison, Steven Horwitz, Peter Leeson and George Reisman. Economists of the Mises–Rothbard view include Walter Block, Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Jesús Huerta de Soto and Robert P. Murphy, each of whom is associated with the Mises Institute<ref name"faculty">{{cite web |urlhttps://mises.org/Faculty |titleSenior Fellows, Faculty Members, and Staff |publisherMises.org |access-dateJuly 21, 2013 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130728094916/http://mises.org/Faculty |archive-dateJuly 28, 2013 }}</ref> and some of them also with academic institutions.<ref name"faculty" /> According to Murphy, a "truce between (for lack of better terms) the GMU Austro-libertarians and the Auburn Austro-libertarians" was signed around 2011.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://consultingbyrpm.com/blog/2011/12/in-defense-of-the-mises-institute.html|titleIn Defense of the Mises Institute|websiteconsultingbyrpm.com|access-date1 May 2018|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170826112157/http://consultingbyrpm.com/blog/2011/12/in-defense-of-the-mises-institute.html|archive-date26 August 2017}}</ref><ref name"Yaeger Truth and Beauty">{{cite book|lastYeager|firstLeland|titleIs the Market a Test of Truth and Beauty?|year2011|publisherLudwig von Mises Institute|page103|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-z7Q4rsgdhAC|isbn9781610164214}}</ref>
Influence
Many theories developed by "first wave" Austrian economists have long been absorbed into mainstream economics.<ref>It has also influenced related disciplines such as Law and Economics, see. K. Grechenig, M. Litschka, "Law by Human Intent or Evolution? Some Remarks on the Austrian School of Economics' Role in the Development of Law and Economics", European Journal of Law and Economics 2010, vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 57–79.</ref> These include Carl Menger's theories on marginal utility, Friedrich von Wieser's theories on opportunity cost and Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk's theories on time preference, as well as Menger and Böhm-Bawerk's criticisms of Marxian economics.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://mises.org/library/austrian-schools-critique-marxism|titleThe Austrian School's Critique of Marxism|lastkanopiadmin|date2011-03-14|websiteMises Institute|languageen|access-date=2019-02-02}}</ref>
Former American Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan said that the founders of the Austrian school "reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and, in my judgment, probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country".<ref>Greenspan, Alan. "Hearings before the U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on Financial Services". U.S. House of Representatives' Committee on Financial Services. Washington, D.C.. 25 July 2000.</ref> In 1987, Nobel Laureate James M. Buchanan told an interviewer: "I have no objections to being called an Austrian. Hayek and Mises might consider me an Austrian but, surely some of the others would not".<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttps://mises.org/journals/aen/aen9_1_1.asp |access-date2022-08-19 |url-statuslive |titleAn Interview with Laureate James Buchanan |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140914022018/https://mises.org/journals/aen/aen9_1_1.asp |archive-date2014-09-14 |journalAustrian Economics Newsletter |volume9 |issue1 |dateFall 1987}}</ref>
Currently, universities with a significant Austrian presence are George Mason University,<ref name"fee">{{Cite book|titleThe Oxford handbook of Austrian economics|year2015|isbn9780199811762|publisherOxford University Press|pages500|oclc905518129|last1Boettke|first1Peter J.|last2Coyne|first2Christopher J.}}</ref> New York University, Grove City College, Loyola University New Orleans, Monmouth College, and Auburn University in the United States; King Juan Carlos University in Spain;<ref>{{cite journal |firstCristóbal |lastMatarán López |titleThe Austrian school of Madrid |journalThe Review of Austrian Economics |date2021-01-26 |volume36 |pages61–79 |doi10.1007/s11138-021-00541-0 |s2cid234027221 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> and Universidad Francisco Marroquín in Guatemala.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://ecaef.org/austrian-school-of-economics/generations-of-the-austrian-school/ |titleGenerations of the Austrian School |publisherEuropean Center of Austrian Economics Foundation}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://mises.org/library/gabriel-calzada-free-market-education-latin-america |titleGabriel Calzada on Free-Market Education in Latin America |firstJeff |lastDeist |date2017-11-24 |publisherMises Institute}}</ref> Austrian economic ideas are also promoted by privately funded organizations such as the Mises Institute<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://mises.org/page/1448/About-The-Mises-Institute |titleAbout the Mises Institute |publisherMises.org |access-dateJuly 21, 2013 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130728042035/http://mises.org/page/1448/About-The-Mises-Institute |archive-dateJuly 28, 2013 }}</ref> and the Cato Institute.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.cato.org/books/austrian-economics| title Austrian Economics {{!}} Cato Institute}}</ref> Theory
{{capitalism sidebar|theories}}
The Austrian school theorizes that the subjective choices of individuals including individual knowledge, time, expectation and other subjective factors cause all economic phenomena. Austrians seek to understand the economy by examining the social ramifications of individual choice, an approach called methodological individualism. It differs from other schools of economic thought, which have focused on aggregate variables, equilibrium analysis, and societal groups rather than individuals.<ref name"White Methodology">{{cite book|lastWhite|firstLawrence H.|titleThe Methodology of the Austrian School Economists|year2003|editionrevised|publisherLudwig von Mises Institute|urlhttps://mises.org/mofase.asp|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140223214514/https://mises.org/mofase.asp|archive-date=2014-02-23}}</ref>
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In the 20th and 21st centuries, economists with a methodological lineage to the early Austrian school developed many diverse approaches and theoretical orientations. Ludwig von Mises organized his version of the subjectivist approach, which he called "praxeology", in a book published in English as Human Action in 1949.<ref name"Ludwigvon">Ludwig von Mises, Nationalökonomie (Geneva, Switzerland: Union, 1940); Human Action (Auburn, Alabama: Ludwig von Mises Institute, [1949] 1998).</ref>{{rp|3}} In it, Mises stated that praxeology could be used to deduce a priori theoretical economic truths and that deductive economic thought experiments could yield conclusions which follow irrefutably from the underlying assumptions. He wrote that conclusions could not be inferred from empirical observation or statistical analysis and argued against the use of probabilities in economic models.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://mises.org/books/ufofes/ |titleThe Ultimate Foundation of Economic Science by Ludwig von Mises |date20 July 1962 |publisherMises.org |access-date2012-08-13 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121029234432/http://www.mises.org/books/ufofes/ |archive-date=2012-10-29 }}</ref>
Since Mises' time, some Austrian thinkers have accepted his praxeological approach while others have adopted alternative methodologies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Caldwell |first1Bruce J. |year1984 |titlePraxeology and its Critics: an Appraisal |urlhttp://public.econ.duke.edu/~bjc18/docs/Praxeology%20and%20Its%20Critics.pdf |journalHistory of Political Economy |volume16 |issue3 |pages363–379 |doi10.1215/00182702-16-3-363}}</ref> For example, Fritz Machlup, Friedrich Hayek and others did not take Mises' strong a priori approach to economics.<ref>{{cite journal |firstRichard N. |last Langlois |titleFrom the Knowledge of Economics to the Economics of Knowledge: Fritz Machlup on Methodology and on the "Knowledge Society" |journal Research in the History of Economic Thought and Methodology |volume3 |url http://web.uconn.edu/ciom/Machlup%20Knowledge%20(1985).pdf |url-statusdead |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131005013809/http://web.uconn.edu/ciom/Machlup%20Knowledge%20(1985).pdf |archive-date2013-10-05 |date 1985 |pages225–235 |access-date 2012-12-06 }}</ref> Ludwig Lachmann, a radical subjectivist, also largely rejected Mises' formulation of Praxeology in favor of the verstehende Methode ("interpretive method") articulated by Max Weber.<ref name"White Methodology"/><ref nameLudwig>{{cite book|lastLachmann|firstLudwig|titleMacroeconomic Thinking and the Market Economy|year1973|publisherInstitute of Economic Affairs|urlhttp://library.freecapitalists.org/books/Ludwig%20M%20Lachmann/Macro-economic%20thinking%20and%20the%20Market%20Economy.pdf|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141216191641/http://library.freecapitalists.org/books/Ludwig%20M%20Lachmann/Macro-economic%20thinking%20and%20the%20Market%20Economy.pdf|archive-date2014-12-16|access-date2014-12-16}}</ref>
In the 20th century, various Austrians incorporated models and mathematics into their analysis. Austrian economist Steven Horwitz argued in 2000 that Austrian methodology is consistent with macroeconomics and that Austrian macroeconomics can be expressed in terms of microeconomic foundations.<ref name"Horwitz, Steven 2000">Horwitz, Steven: Microfoundations and Macroeconomics: An Austrian Perspective (2000). Routledge.</ref> Austrian economist Roger Garrison writes that Austrian macroeconomic theory can be correctly expressed in terms of diagrammatic models.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://library.freecapitalists.org/books/Roger%20W%20Garrison/Austrian%20Macroeconomics%20A%20Diagrammatical%20Exposition.pdf|lastGarrison|firstRoger|titleAustrian Macroeconomics: A Diagrammatical Exposition|year1978|publisherInstitute for Humane Studies|access-date5 October 2015|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141216183224/http://library.freecapitalists.org/books/Roger%20W%20Garrison/Austrian%20Macroeconomics%20A%20Diagrammatical%20Exposition.pdf|archive-date16 December 2014}}</ref> In 1944, Austrian economist Oskar Morgenstern presented a rigorous schematization of an ordinal utility function (the Von Neumann–Morgenstern utility theorem) in Theory of Games and Economic Behavior.<ref>Von Neumann, John and Morgenstern, Oskar (1944). Theory of Games and Economic Behavior. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.</ref> Fundamental tenets In 1981, Fritz Machlup listed the typical views of Austrian economic thinking as such:<ref name"Machlup Mises">{{cite web |lastMachlup |firstFritz |author-linkFritz Machlup |titleHomage to Mises |urlhttps://www.mises.org/daily/1700 |publisherHillsdale College |access-date8 August 2013 |pages19–27 |year1981 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131030222126/http://mises.org/daily/1700/ |archive-date30 October 2013 }}</ref>
* Methodological individualism: in the explanation of economic phenomena, we have to go back to the actions (or inaction) of individuals; groups or "collectives" cannot act except through the actions of individual members. Groups do not think; people think.
* Methodological subjectivism: the judgments and choices made by individuals on the basis of whatever knowledge they have or believe to have, and whatever expectations they have regarding external developments and the consequences of their actions.
* Tastes and preferences: subjective valuations of goods and services determine the demand for them so that their prices are influenced by consumers.
* Opportunity costs: the costs of the alternative opportunities that must be foregone; as productive services are employed for one purpose, all alternative uses have to be sacrificed.
* Marginalism: in all economic designs, the values, costs, revenues, productivity and so on are determined by the significance of the last unit added to or subtracted from the total.
* Time structure of production and consumption: decisions to save reflect "time preferences" regarding consumption in the immediate, distant, or indefinite future and investments are made in view of larger outputs expected to be obtained if more time-taking production processes are undertaken.
He included two additional tenets held by the Mises branch of Austrian economics:
* Consumer sovereignty: the influence consumers have on the effective demand for goods and services and through the prices which result in free competitive markets, on the production plans of producers and investors, is not merely a hard fact but also an important objective, attainable only by complete avoidance of governmental interference with the markets and of restrictions on the freedom of sellers and buyers to follow their own judgment regarding quantities, qualities and prices of products and services.
* Political individualism: only when individuals are given full economic freedom will it be possible to secure political and moral freedom. Restrictions on economic freedom lead, sooner or later, to an extension of the coercive activities of the state into the political domain, undermining and eventually destroying the essential individual liberties which the capitalistic societies were able to attain in the 19th century.
Contributions to economic thought
Opportunity cost
{{main|Opportunity cost}}
]]
The opportunity cost doctrine was first explicitly formulated by the Austrian economist Friedrich von Wieser in the late 19th century.<ref>{{Cite book |titleSubjectivism, intelligibility and economic understanding: essays in honor of Ludwig M. Lachmann on his eightieth birthday |last1Kirzner |first1Israel M. |last2Lachman |first2Ludwig M. |publisherMacmillan |year1986 |editionIllustrated |isbn978-0-333-41788-1}}</ref> Opportunity cost is the cost of any activity measured in terms of the value of the next best alternative foregone (that is not chosen). It is the sacrifice related to the second best choice available to someone, or group, who has picked among several mutually exclusive choices.<ref name"investopedia">{{cite web |workInvestopedia |titleOpportunity Cost |urlhttp://www.investopedia.com/terms/o/opportunitycost.asp |access-date2010-09-18| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100914214221/http://www.investopedia.com/terms/o/opportunitycost.asp| archive-date 14 September 2010 | url-statuslive}}</ref> Although a more ephemeral scarcity, expectations of the future must also be considered. Quantified as time preference, opportunity cost must also be valued with respect to one's preference for present versus future investments.<ref>{{Cite book |titleThe Fiat Standard: The Debt Slavery Alternative to Human Civilization |last1Ammous |first1Saifedean |publisherSaif House |year2021 |editionPrinted |isbn978-1544526478}}</ref>
Opportunity cost is a key concept in mainstream economics and has been described as expressing "the basic relationship between scarcity and choice".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year2008 |titleOpportunity cost |encyclopediaThe New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics Online |urlhttp://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/search_results?qopportunity+cost&editioncurrent&button_searchGO |access-date2010-09-18 |lastBuchanan |firstJames M. |author-linkJames M. Buchanan |editionSecond |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120118213136/http://www.dictionaryofeconomics.com/search_results?qopportunity+cost&editioncurrent&button_searchGO |archive-date2012-01-18 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that resources are used efficiently.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.economist.com/research/Economics/alphabetic.cfm?letterO#opportunitycost |titleOpportunity Cost |workEconomics A–Z |publisherThe Economist |access-date2010-09-18 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101009122334/http://www.economist.com/research/Economics/alphabetic.cfm?letterO| archive-date9 October 2010 | url-status live}}</ref>
Capital and interest
{{see also|Capital and Interest|Marginalism|Neutrality of money|Time preference}}
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The Austrian theory of capital and interest was first developed by Eugen von Böhm-Bawerk. He stated that interest rates and profits are determined by two factors, namely supply and demand in the market for final goods and time preference.<ref name="BohmBawerkEugen">Böhm-Bawerk, Eugen Ritter von; Kapital Und Kapitalizns. Zweite Abteilung: Positive Theorie des Kapitales (1889). Translated as Capital and Interest. II: Positive Theory of Capital with appendices rendered as Further Essays on Capital and Interest.</ref>
Böhm-Bawerk's theory equates capital intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes. Böhm-Bawerk also argued that the law of marginal utility necessarily implies the classical law of costs. However, many Austrian economists such as Ludwig von Mises,<ref>Mises (1949)</ref> Israel Kirzner,<ref>Kirzner (1996)</ref> Ludwig Lachmann,<ref>Lachmann (1976)</ref> and Jesús Huerta de Soto<ref>Huerta De Soto (2006)</ref> entirely reject a productivity explanation for interest rates, viewing the average period of production as an unfortunate remnant of damaged classical economic thought on Böhm-Bawerk.
Inflation
{{see also|Monetary inflation}}
In Mises's definition, inflation is an increase in the supply of money:<ref>{{cite book |firstLudwig |lastvon Mises |chapterEconomic Freedom and Interventionism |editor1-firstBettina B. |editor1-lastGreaves |titleEconomics of Mobilization |publisherThe Commercial and Financial Chronicle |locationSulphur Springs, West Virginia |year1980 |chapter-urlhttps://mises.org/efandi/ch20.asp|quote"Inflation, as this term was always used everywhere and especially in this country, means increasing the quantity of money and bank notes in circulation and the quantity of bank deposits subject to check. But people today use the term "inflation" to refer to the phenomenon that is an inevitable consequence of inflation, that is the tendency of all prices and wage rates to rise. The result of this deplorable confusion is that there is no term left to signify the cause of this rise in prices and wages. There is no longer any word available to signify the phenomenon that has been, up to now, called inflation [...] As you cannot talk about something that has no name, you cannot fight it. Those who pretend to fight inflation are in fact only fighting what is the inevitable consequence of inflation, rising prices. Their ventures are doomed to failure because they do not attack the root of the evil. They try to keep prices low while firmly committed to a policy of increasing the quantity of money that must necessarily make them soar. As long as this terminological confusion is not entirely wiped out, there cannot be any question of stopping inflation." |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140914001611/https://mises.org/efandi/ch20.asp |archive-date2014-09-14 }}</ref> {{blockquote|In theoretical investigation there is only one meaning that can rationally be attached to the expression Inflation: an increase in the quantity of money (in the broader sense of the term, so as to include fiduciary media as well), that is not offset by a corresponding increase in the need for money (again in the broader sense of the term), so that a fall in the objective exchange-value of money must occur.<ref name="TheTheory">The Theory of Money and Credit, Mises (1912, [1981], p. 272)</ref>}}
Hayek claimed that inflationary stimulation exploits the lag between an increase in money supply and the consequent increase in the prices of goods and services: {{blockquote|And since any inflation, however modest at first, can help employment only so long as it accelerates, adopted as a means of reducing unemployment, it will do so for any length of time only while it accelerates. "Mild" steady inflation cannot help—it can lead only to outright inflation. That inflation at a constant rate soon ceases to have any stimulating effect, and in the end merely leaves us with a backlog of delayed adaptations, is the conclusive argument against the "mild" inflation represented as beneficial even in standard economics textbooks.<ref>{{cite book |lastHayek |firstFriedrich August |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idzZu3AAAAIAAJ&q%22only+while+it+accelerates%22 |title1980s Unemployment and the Unions: Essays on the Impotent Price Structure of Britain and Monopoly in the Labour Market |publisherInstitute of Economic Affairs |date1984|isbn=9780255361736 }}</ref>}}
Even prominent Austrian economists have been confused since Austrians define inflation as 'increase in money supply' while most people including most economists define inflation as 'rising prices'.<ref>[https://www.cnbc.com/2012/11/29/krugman-isnt-quite-right-about-austrian-economics.html Krugman Isn’t (Quite) Right About Austrian Economics]</ref>
Economic calculation problem
{{main|Economic calculation problem}}
]]
]]
The economic calculation problem refers to a criticism of planned economies which was first stated by Max Weber in 1920. Mises subsequently discussed Weber's idea with his student Friedrich Hayek, who developed it in various works including The Road to Serfdom.<ref nameautogenerated5>{{cite book |titleEconomic calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth |access-date2008-09-08 |lastVon Mises |firstLudwig |author-linkLudwig von Mises |year1990|publisherLudwig von Mises Institute |urlhttps://mises.org/pdf/econcalc.pdf |isbn0-945466-07-2 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080923191714/https://mises.org/pdf/econcalc.pdf| archive-date 23 September 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref><ref>F. A. Hayek (1935), "The Nature and History of the Problem" and "The Present State of the Debate," om in F. A. Hayek, ed. Collectivist Economic Planning, pp. 1–40, 201–243.</ref> What the calculation problem essentially states is that without price signals, the factors of production cannot be allocated in the most efficient way possible, rendering planned economies inefficacious.
Austrian theory emphasizes the organizing power of markets. Hayek stated that market prices reflect information, the totality of which is not known to any single individual, which determines the allocation of resources in an economy. Because socialist systems lack the individual incentives and price discovery processes by which individuals act on their personal information, Hayek argued that socialist economic planners lack all of the knowledge required to make optimal decisions. Those who agree with this criticism view it as a refutation of socialism, showing that socialism is not a viable or sustainable form of economic organization. The debate rose to prominence in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by historians of economic thought as the socialist calculation debate.<ref name"School">{{Cite web|urlhttp://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/paretian/social.htm|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090218142504/http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/essays/paretian/social.htm|url-statusdead|titleThe socialist calculation debate|archive-dateFebruary 18, 2009|access-date=May 20, 2020}}</ref>
Mises argued in a 1920 essay "Economic Calculation in the Socialist Commonwealth" that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if the government owned the means of production, then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not "objects of exchange", unlike final goods. Therefore, they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently.<ref name"School" /> This led him to write "that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth".<ref name"Mises">{{Cite web |authorvon Mises |firstLudwig |titleThe Principle of Methodological Individualism |urlhttps://mises.org/humanaction/chap2sec4.asp |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090422004804/https://mises.org/humanaction/chap2sec4.asp |archive-date22 April 2009 |access-date2009-04-24 |workHuman Action |publisherLudwig von Mises Institute}}</ref>
Business cycles
{{Macroeconomics sidebar}}
{{main|Austrian business cycle theory}}
The Austrian theory of the business cycle (ABCT) focuses on banks' issuance of credit as the cause of economic fluctuations.<ref name"ReferenceA">Murray Rothbard, ''America's Great Depression.''</ref> Although later elaborated by Hayek and others, the theory was first set forth by Mises, who posited that fractional reserve banks extend credit at artificially low interest rates, causing businesses to invest in relatively roundabout production processes which leads to an artificial "boom". Mises stated that this artificial "boom" then led to a misallocation of resources which he called "malinvestment" – which eventually must end in a "bust".<ref name"ReferenceA"/>
Mises surmised that government manipulation of money and credit in the banking system throws savings and investment out of balance, resulting in misdirected investment projects that are eventually found to be unsustainable, at which point the economy has to rebalance itself through a period of corrective recession.<ref name":1">{{Cite book |lastEbeling |firstRichard |titleAustrian Economics and Public Policy: Restoring Freedom and Prosperity |publisherThe Future of Freedom Foundation |year2016 |locationFairfax, Virginia |pages217}}</ref> Austrian economist Fritz Machlup summarized the Austrian view by stating, "monetary factors cause the cycle but real phenomena constitute it."<ref name":2">{{Cite journal|lastHughes|firstArthur Middleton|dateMarch 1997|titleThe recession of 1990: An Austrian explanation|journalThe Review of Austrian Economics|languageen|volume10|issue1|pages107–123|doi10.1007/BF02538145|s2cid154412906|issn0889-3047}}</ref> This may be unrealistic since successful entrepreneurs will realise that interest rates are artificially low and will adjust their investment decisions based on projected long term interest rates.<ref name"Caplan">[https://econfaculty.gmu.edu/bcaplan/whyaust.htm Why I Am Not an Austrian Economist]</ref>
For Austrians, the only prudent strategy for government is to leave money and the financial system to the free market's competitive forces to eradicate the business cycle's inflationary booms and recessionary busts, allowing markets to keep people's saving and investment decisions in place for well-coordinated economic stability and growth.<ref name=":1" />
A Keynesian would suggest government intervention during a recession to inject spending into the economy when people will not. However, the heart of Austrian macroeconomic theory assumes the government "fine tuning" through expansions and contractions in the money supply orchestrated by the government are actually the cause of business cycles because of the differing impact of the resulting interest rate changes on different stages in the structure of production.<ref name":2" /> Austrian economist Thomas Woods further supports this view by arguing it is not consumption, but rather production that should be emphasized. A country cannot become rich by consuming, and therefore, by using up all their resources. Instead, production is what enables consumption as a possibility in the first place, since a producer would be working for nothing, if not for the desire to consume.<ref>{{Cite book |lastWoods |firstThomas |titleMeltdown: The Classic Free-Market Analysis of the 2008 Financial Crisis |publisherRegnery Publishing, Incorporated |year2018 |locationWashington, D.C.}}</ref>Central banksAccording to Ludwig von Mises, central banks enable the commercial banks to fund loans at artificially low interest rates, thereby inducing an unsustainable expansion of bank credit and impeding any subsequent contraction and argued for a gold standard to constrain growth in fiduciary media.<ref name"ReferenceA"/> Friedrich Hayek took a different perspective not focusing on gold but focusing on regulation of the banking sector via strong central banking.<ref>{{cite journal|lastWhite|firstLawrence H.|titleWhy Didn't Hayek Favor Laissez Faire in Banking?|journalHistory of Political Economy|year1999|volume31|issue4|urlhttp://cameroneconomics.com/white-hayek-hope.pdf|access-date11 April 2013|doi10.1215/00182702-31-4-753|pages753–769|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttp://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20130412141059/http://cameroneconomics.com/white-hayek-hope.pdf|archive-date12 April 2013}}</ref>
Some economists argue money is endogenous, and argue that this refutes the Austrian Business Cycle Theory. However, this would simply shift the brunt of the blame from central banks to private banks when it comes to credit expansion; the fundamental underlying issue would be the same, and a free-market full-reserve system would still be the fix.
See also
{{cols|colwidth=14em}}
* Carl Menger
* Chicago school of economics
* Criticism of the Federal Reserve<ref name"Paul2009">{{cite book|authorRon Paul|titleEnd the Fed|urlhttps://archive.org/details/endfed00paul|url-accessregistration|date2009|publisher=Grand Central Publishing}}</ref>
* Hard money (policy)
* Kraków School of Economics
* List of Austrian intellectual traditions
* List of Austrian-school economists
* New institutional economics
* Perspectives on capitalism by school of thought
{{colend}}
Notes and references
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* {{cite journal|last1Agafonow|first1Alejandro|year2012|titleThe Austrian Dehomogenization Debate, or the Possibility of a Hayekian Planner|urlhttps://ideas.repec.org/a/taf/revpoe/v24y2012i2p273-287.html|journalReview of Political Economy|volume24|issue2|pages273–287|doi10.1080/09538259.2012.664337|s2cid154692301|refnone}}
* Boettke, Peter J.; Coyne, Christopher J. (2023). "[https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4366284 New Thinking in Austrian Economics]". Annual Review of Economics 15 (1).
* {{cite journal |last1Campagnolo |first1Gilles |first2Christel |last2Vivel |titleThe foundations of the theory of entrepreneurship in austrian economics – Menger and Böhm-Bawerk on the entrepreneur |journalRevue de philosophie économique |volume15 |issue1 |date2014 |pages49–97 |isbn9782711652105 |doi10.3917/rpec.151.0049|doi-accessfree }} [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?outputinstlink&qinfo:1jn_vDiNpwIJ:scholar.google.com/&hlen&as_sdt5,27&sciodt1,27&scillfp7051946006347519767&oille PDF] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210223041750/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?outputinstlink&qinfo%3A1jn_vDiNpwIJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F&hlen&as_sdt5%2C27&sciodt1%2C27&scillfp7051946006347519767&oille |date=2021-02-23 }} {{in lang|en}}.
* {{cite book |editor-last1Hagemann |editor-first1Harald |editor-first2Tamotsu |editor-last2Nishizawa |editor-first3Yukihiro |editor-last3Ikeda |titleAustrian Economics in Transition: From Carl Menger to Friedrich Hayek |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |date=2010}} <!--339 pp.--> <!-- https://www.jstor.org/stable/23723546 book review -->
* {{cite book |lastHolcombe |firstRandall |titleThe Great Austrian Economists |date1999 |publisherLudwig von Mises Institute |isbn0945466048}} <!--273pp.-->
* {{cite book |editor-last1Littlechild |editor-first1Stephen |date1990 |titleAustrian economics <!--in 3 volumes--> |publisherEdward Elgar |isbn978-1-85278-120-0}} <!--[https://web.archive.org/web/20110722004721/http://www.e-elgar.co.uk/bookentry_mainUS.lasso?id682 Contents & Description]--> <!-- Vol. 1 per earlier cite preview no longer available: https://books.google.com/books?idXoZXUkYGj-oC&printsecfrontcover&cad0#v=onepage -->
* {{cite book |lastPapaioannou |firstTheo |titleReading Hayek in the 21st Century: a critical inquiry into his political thought |publisherSpringer |date=2012}}
* {{cite book|last1Schulak|first1Eugen-Maria|last2Unterköfler|first2Herbert|titleThe Austrian School of Economics: A History of Its Ideas, Ambassadors, and Institutions|publisherLudwig von Mises Institute|year2011|urlhttps://mises.org/library/austrian-school-economics-history-its-ideas-ambassadors-and-institutions|isbn9781610161343|refnone}}
* {{cite book |lastWasserman |firstJanek |titleThe Marginal Revolutionaries: How Austrian Economists Fought the War of Ideas |date2019}} [https://www.amazon.com/Marginal-Revolutionaries-Austrian-Economists-Fought/dp/0300228228/ (Excerpt via Amazon)].
External links
{{Commons category|Austrian School}}
*[https://mises.org/library/understanding-austrian-economics Understanding Austrian Economics] by Henry Hazlitt
{{Austrian School economists|state=expanded}}
{{Schools of economic thought}}
{{Portal bar|Business|Austria|Libertarianism}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Schools of economic thought
Category:Libertarian theory | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian_school_of_economics | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.903600 |
1032 | Abscess | {{short description|Localized collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body}}
{{About|the medical condition|the death metal band|Abscess (band)}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Abscess
| synonyms = {{Langx|la|Abscessus}}
| image = Five day old Abscess Extra Low Contrast B.jpg
| alt | caption Five-day-old inflamed epidermal inclusion cyst. The black spot is a keratin plug which connects with the underlying cyst.
| field = General surgery, infectious disease, dermatology
| symptoms Redness, pain, swelling<ref nameNEJM2014/>
| duration | causes Bacterial infection (often MRSA)<ref name=NEJM2014/>
| risks Intravenous drug use<ref nameLangrod2007/>
| diagnosis Ultrasound, CT scan<ref nameNEJM2014/><ref name=Rosen2014Chp137/>
| differential Cellulitis, sebaceous cyst, necrotising fasciitis<ref nameRosen2014Chp137/>
| treatment Incision and drainage, Antibiotics<ref name"ACEPfive"/>
| medication | frequency ~1% per year (United States)<ref name=Taira2009/>
| onset = Rapid
| deaths =
}}
An abscess is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body, usually caused by bacterial infection.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAbscess |urlhttps://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/22876-abscess |access-date2025-01-02 |websiteCleveland Clinic |quoteAn abscess is a buildup of a pus that can affect any part of your body.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastBush |firstLarry M. |dateJul 2024 |titleAbscesses |urlhttps://www.msdmanuals.com/professional/infectious-diseases/biology-of-infectious-disease/abscesses |access-date2025-01-02 |websiteMSD Manual |quoteAbscesses are collections of pus in confined tissue spaces, usually caused by bacterial infection.}}</ref> Signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness, pain, warmth, and swelling.<ref nameNEJM2014/> The swelling may feel fluid-filled when pressed.<ref nameNEJM2014/> The area of redness often extends beyond the swelling.<ref nameEl2009>{{cite book| vauthors Elston DM |titleInfectious Diseases of the Skin.|date2009|publisherManson Pub. |locationLondon |isbn978-1-84076-514-4 |page12 |url https://books.google.com/books?idesPkuOxZajYC&pgPA12|url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170906120647/https://books.google.com/books?idesPkuOxZajYC&pgPA12|archive-date2017-09-06}}</ref> Carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that often involve hair follicles, with carbuncles being larger.<ref nameRosen2014Chp120>{{cite book| vauthors Marx JA |titleRosen's emergency medicine : concepts and clinical practice|date2014|publisherElsevier/Saunders|locationPhiladelphia, PA|isbn978-1-900151-96-2 |pagesChapter 120|edition8th |chapter=Dermatologic Presentations}}</ref> A cyst is related to an abscess, but it contains a material other than pus, and a cyst has a clearly defined wall. Abscesses can also form internally on internal organs and after surgery.
They are usually caused by a bacterial infection.<ref nameCox2007>{{cite book| vauthors Cox C, Turkington JS, Birck D |titleThe encyclopedia of skin and skin disorders |date2007 |publisherFacts on File|locationNew York, NY |isbn978-0-8160-7509-6 |page1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGKVPHoIs8uIC&pgPA1 |edition3rd|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170906120647/https://books.google.com/books?idGKVPHoIs8uIC&pgPA1|archive-date2017-09-06}}</ref> Often many different types of bacteria are involved in a single infection.<ref nameEl2009/> In many areas of the world, the most common bacteria present is methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus.<ref nameNEJM2014/> Rarely, parasites can cause abscesses; this is more common in the developing world.<ref nameRosen2014Chp137/> Diagnosis of a skin abscess is usually made based on what it looks like and is confirmed by cutting it open.<ref nameNEJM2014/> Ultrasound imaging may be useful in cases in which the diagnosis is not clear.<ref nameNEJM2014/> In abscesses around the anus, computer tomography (CT) may be important to look for deeper infection.<ref nameRosen2014Chp137>{{cite book| vauthors Marx JA |titleRosen's emergency medicine : concepts and clinical practice|date2014|publisherElsevier/Saunders|locationPhiladelphia, PA|isbn978-1-4557-0605-1 |pagesChapter 137|edition8th |chapterSkin and Soft Tissue Infections}}</ref>
Standard treatment for most skin or soft tissue abscesses is cutting it open and drainage.<ref name"ACEPfive">{{Citation |author1 American College of Emergency Physicians |author1-link American College of Emergency Physicians |title Five Things Physicians and Patients Should Question |publisher American College of Emergency Physicians |work Choosing Wisely: an initiative of the ABIM Foundation |url http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-college-of-emergency-physicians/ |access-date January 24, 2014 |url-status live |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140307012443/http://www.choosingwisely.org/doctor-patient-lists/american-college-of-emergency-physicians/ |archive-date March 7, 2014 }}</ref> There appears to be some benefit from also using antibiotics.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Vermandere M, Aertgeerts B, Agoritsas T, Liu C, Burgers J, Merglen A, Okwen PM, Lytvyn L, Chua S, Vandvik PO, Guyatt GH, Beltran-Arroyave C, Lavergne V, Speeckaert R, Steen FE, Arteaga V, Sender R, McLeod S, Sun X, Wang W, Siemieniuk RA | display-authors 6 | title Antibiotics after incision and drainage for uncomplicated skin abscesses: a clinical practice guideline | journal BMJ | volume 360 | pages k243 | date February 2018 | pmid 29437651 | pmc 5799894 | doi 10.1136/bmj.k243 }}</ref> A small amount of evidence supports not packing the cavity that remains with gauze after drainage.<ref nameNEJM2014>{{cite journal | vauthors Singer AJ, Talan DA | title Management of skin abscesses in the era of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus | journal The New England Journal of Medicine | volume 370 | issue 11 | pages 1039–1047 | date March 2014 | pmid 24620867 | doi 10.1056/NEJMra1212788 | url http://enotes.us/SkinAbscess2014.pdf | url-status dead | access-date 2014-09-24 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20141030065311/http://enotes.us/SkinAbscess2014.pdf | archive-date 2014-10-30 }}</ref> Closing this cavity right after draining it rather than leaving it open may speed healing without increasing the risk of the abscess returning.<ref nameSinger2011>{{cite journal | vauthors Singer AJ, Thode HC, Chale S, Taira BR, Lee C | title Primary closure of cutaneous abscesses: a systematic review | journal The American Journal of Emergency Medicine | volume 29 | issue 4 | pages 361–366 | date May 2011 | pmid 20825801 | doi 10.1016/j.ajem.2009.10.004 | url http://www.emottawa.ca/assets_secure/journal_club/Sept%2011_2_Singer%202011%20Am%20J%20of%20Emerg%20Med%20Primary%20closure%20of%20cutaneous%20abscesses.pdf | url-status dead | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20150722040008/http://www.emottawa.ca/assets_secure/journal_club/Sept%2011_2_Singer%202011%20Am%20J%20of%20Emerg%20Med%20Primary%20closure%20of%20cutaneous%20abscesses.pdf | archive-date 2015-07-22 }}</ref> Sucking out the pus with a needle is often not sufficient.<ref name=NEJM2014/>
Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years.<ref nameNEJM2014/> Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users.<ref nameLangrod2007>{{cite book| vauthors Ruiz P, Strain EC, Langrod J |titleThe substance abuse handbook|date2007|publisherWolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|locationPhiladelphia|isbn978-0-7817-6045-4 |page373|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6LkNShsAw78C&pgPA373|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170906120647/https://books.google.com/books?id6LkNShsAw78C&pgPA373|archive-date2017-09-06}}</ref> In 2005, 3.2 million people went to American emergency departments for abscesses.<ref nameTaira2009>{{cite journal | vauthors Taira BR, Singer AJ, Thode HC, Lee CC | title National epidemiology of cutaneous abscesses: 1996 to 2005 | journal The American Journal of Emergency Medicine | volume 27 | issue 3 | pages 289–292 | date March 2009 | pmid 19328372 | doi 10.1016/j.ajem.2008.02.027 }}</ref> In Australia, around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 with the condition.<ref nameVas2012>{{cite journal | vauthors Vaska VL, Nimmo GR, Jones M, Grimwood K, Paterson DL | title Increases in Australian cutaneous abscess hospitalisations: 1999-2008 | journal European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases | volume 31 | issue 1 | pages 93–96 | date January 2012 | pmid 21553298 | doi 10.1007/s10096-011-1281-3 | s2cid 20376537 }}</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}
Signs and symptoms
Abscesses may occur in any kind of tissue but most frequently within the skin surface (where they may be superficial pustules known as boils or deep skin abscesses), in the lungs, brain, teeth, kidneys, and tonsils. Major complications may include spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues, and extensive regional tissue death (gangrene).<ref>{{Cite web |titleSkin abscess: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia |urlhttps://medlineplus.gov/ency/article/000863.htm |access-date2023-07-19 |websitemedlineplus.gov |language=en}}</ref>
The main symptoms and signs of a skin abscess are redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. There may also be high temperature (fever) and chills.<ref name"NHS_abscess"/> If superficial, abscesses may be fluctuant when palpated; this wave-like motion is caused by movement of the pus inside the abscess.<ref>{{cite book|titleChurchill Livingstone medical dictionary.|year2008|publisherChurchill Livingstone|locationEdinburgh|isbn978-0-08-098245-8 |edition=16th}}</ref>
An internal abscess is more difficult to identify and depend on the location of the abscess and the type of infection. General signs include pain in the affected area, a high temperature, and generally feeling unwell.<ref name=":1" />
Internal abscesses rarely heal themselves, so prompt medical attention is indicated if such an abscess is suspected. An abscess can potentially be fatal depending on where it is located.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors Ferri FF |titleFerri's Clinical Advisor 2015 E-Book: 5 Books in 1|date2014|publisherElsevier Health Sciences|isbn978-0-323-08430-7 |page20|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idicTsAwAAQBAJ&pgPA20|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite book| vauthors Fischer JE, Bland KI, Callery MP |titleMastery of Surgery|date2006|publisherLippincott Williams & Wilkins|isbn978-0-7817-7165-8 |page1033|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPgUFJg_-f4YC&pgPA1033|languageen}}</ref>
Causes
Risk factors for abscess formation include intravenous drug use.<ref nameKha2008>{{cite journal | vauthors Khalil PN, Huber-Wagner S, Altheim S, Bürklein D, Siebeck M, Hallfeldt K, Mutschler W, Kanz GG | display-authors 6 | title Diagnostic and treatment options for skin and soft tissue abscesses in injecting drug users with consideration of the natural history and concomitant risk factors | journal European Journal of Medical Research | volume 13 | issue 9 | pages 415–424 | date September 2008 | pmid 18948233 }}</ref> Another possible risk factor is a prior history of disc herniation or other spinal abnormality,<ref nameKraeutler2014>{{cite journal | vauthors Kraeutler MJ, Bozzay JD, Walker MP, John K | title Spinal subdural abscess following epidural steroid injection | journal Journal of Neurosurgery. Spine | volume 22 | issue 1 | pages 90–93 | date January 2015 | pmid 25343407 | doi 10.3171/2014.9.SPINE14159 | doi-access = free }}</ref> though this has not been proven.
Abscesses are caused by bacterial infection, parasites, or foreign substances.
Bacterial infection is the most common cause, particularly Staphylococcus aureus. The more invasive methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) may also be a source of infection, though is much rarer.<ref name"Gale1999">{{cite book| vauthors Oldendorf D |titleThe Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine |date1999 |publisherGale Research |locationDetroit, MI |isbn978-0-7876-1868-1 }}</ref> Among spinal subdural abscesses, methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus is the most common organism involved.<ref nameKraeutler2014/>
Rarely parasites can cause abscesses and this is more common in the developing world.<ref nameRosen2014Chp137/> Specific parasites known to do this include dracunculiasis and myiasis.<ref nameRosen2014Chp137/>
Anorectal abscess
{{main|Anorectal abscess}}
Anorectal abscesses can be caused by non-specific obstruction and ensuing infection of the glandular crypts inside of the anus or rectum. Other causes include cancer, trauma, or inflammatory bowel diseases.<ref name"h230">{{cite web | lastSigmon | firstDavid F. | last2Emmanuel | first2Bishoy | last3Tuma | first3Faiz | titlePerianal Abscess | publisherStatPearls Publishing | date2023-06-12 | pmid29083652 | urlhttps://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459167/ | access-date=2024-07-28}}</ref>
{{Anchor|Incisional abscess}}
Incisional abscess
An incisional abscess is one that develops as a complication secondary to a surgical incision. It presents as redness and warmth at the margins of the incision with purulent drainage from it.<ref name"Duff2009">{{cite journal| vauthors Duff P |titleDiagnosis and Management of Postoperative Infection|journalThe Global Library of Women's Medicine|year2009|issn1756-2228|doi10.3843/GLOWM.10032|urlhttp://www.glowm.com/section_view/heading/Diagnosis%20and%20Management%20of%20Postoperative%20Infection/item/32|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714154331/http://www.glowm.com/section_view/heading/Diagnosis%20and%20Management%20of%20Postoperative%20Infection/item/32|archive-date2014-07-14}}</ref> If the diagnosis is uncertain, the wound should be aspirated with a needle, with aspiration of pus confirming the diagnosis and availing for Gram stain and bacterial culture.<ref name"Duff2009"/>
Internal abscess
Abscesses can form inside the body. The cause can be from trauma, surgery, an infection, or a pre-existing condition.<ref name":1">{{Cite web |titleIntra-Abdominal Abscesses - Intra-Abdominal Abscesses |urlhttps://www.merckmanuals.com/en-ca/professional/gastrointestinal-disorders/acute-abdomen-and-surgical-gastroenterology/intra-abdominal-abscesses |access-date2024-11-22 |websiteMerck Manual Professional Edition |languageen-CA}}</ref>
Pathophysiology
An abscess is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body.<ref>{{Cite web |titleabscess |urlhttps://www.vetneuro.com/index.php/resources/reference/glossary/63-abscess |access-date2023-07-12 |websitewww.vetneuro.com}}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite journal |titleA Brief Study on Abscess: A Review |urlhttps://www.easpublisher.com/journal-details/easjpp/57/434 |journalEAS Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology |volume3 |issue5}}</ref>
Organisms or foreign materials destroy the local cells, which results in the release of cytokines. The cytokines trigger an inflammatory response, which draws large numbers of white blood cells to the area and increases the regional blood flow.<ref name=":0" />
The final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall, or capsule, that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to keep the pus from infecting neighboring structures. However, such encapsulation tends to prevent immune cells from attacking bacteria in the pus, or from reaching the causative organism or foreign object.<ref name=":0" />
<gallery mode"packed" heights"180">
File:Blausen 0007 Abscess.png|A diagram of an abscess
file:Pyemic abscesses of kidney.jpg|Pyemic abscesses of a kidney
</gallery>
Diagnosis
An abscess is a localized collection of pus (purulent inflammatory tissue) caused by suppuration buried in a tissue, an organ, or a confined space, lined by the pyogenic membrane.<ref>Robins/8th/68</ref> Ultrasound imaging can help in a diagnosis.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Barbic D, Chenkin J, Cho DD, Jelic T, Scheuermeyer FX | title In patients presenting to the emergency department with skin and soft tissue infections what is the diagnostic accuracy of point-of-care ultrasonography for the diagnosis of abscess compared to the current standard of care? A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal BMJ Open | volume 7 | issue 1 | pages e013688 | date January 2017 | pmid 28073795 | pmc 5253602 | doi 10.1136/bmjopen-2016-013688 }}</ref>
Classification
Abscesses may be classified as either skin abscesses or internal abscesses. Skin abscesses are common; internal abscesses tend to be harder to diagnose, and more serious.<ref name"NHS_abscess">{{cite web | publisher United Kingdom National Health Service | url http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Abscess/Pages/Introduction.aspx | title Abscess | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20141030070952/http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Abscess/Pages/Introduction.aspx | archive-date2014-10-30 }}</ref> Skin abscesses are also called cutaneous or subcutaneous abscesses.<ref name"Medline_abscess">{{cite web | website Medline Plus | url https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001353.htm | title Abscess | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160407011259/https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001353.htm |archive-date2016-04-07 }}</ref>
IV drug use
For those with a history of intravenous drug use, an X-ray is recommended before treatment to verify that no needle fragments are present.<ref nameKha2008/> If there is also a fever present in this population, infectious endocarditis should be considered.<ref nameKha2008/>
Differential
Abscesses should be differentiated from empyemas, which are accumulations of pus in a preexisting, rather than a newly formed, anatomical cavity.<ref>{{Cite web |lastGaillard |firstFrank |titleAbscess {{!}} Radiology Reference Article {{!}} Radiopaedia.org |urlhttps://radiopaedia.org/articles/abscess?langus |access-date2024-06-20 |websiteRadiopaedia |languageen-US |doi=10.53347/rid-6723}}</ref>
Other conditions that can cause similar symptoms include: cellulitis, a sebaceous cyst, and necrotising fasciitis.<ref nameRosen2014Chp137/> Cellulitis typically also has an erythematous reaction, but does not confer any purulent drainage.<ref name"Duff2009"/>
Treatment
The standard treatment for an uncomplicated skin or soft tissue abscess is the act of opening and draining.<ref name"ACEPfive"/> There does not appear to be any benefit from also using antibiotics in most cases.<ref nameNEJM2014/> A small amount of evidence did not find a benefit from packing the abscess with gauze.<ref nameNEJM2014/>Incision and drainage
{{Main|Incision and drainage}}
]]
The abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause, which may require their removal. If foreign objects are not the cause, incising and draining the abscess is standard treatment.<ref name"ACEPfive"/><ref>{{cite book |titleSurgery: Facts and Figures | vauthors Green J, Wajed S |year2000 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn 978-1-900151-96-2}}</ref>
Antibiotics
Most people who have an uncomplicated skin abscess should not use antibiotics.<ref name"ACEPfive"/> Antibiotics in addition to standard incision and drainage is recommended in persons with severe abscesses, many sites of infection, rapid disease progression, the presence of cellulitis, symptoms indicating bacterial illness throughout the body, or a health condition causing immunosuppression.<ref nameNEJM2014/> People who are very young or very old may also need antibiotics.<ref nameNEJM2014/> If the abscess does not heal only with incision and drainage, or if the abscess is in a place that is difficult to drain such as the face, hands, or genitals, then antibiotics may be indicated.<ref nameNEJM2014/>
In those cases of abscess which do require antibiotic treatment, Staphylococcus aureus bacteria is a common cause and an anti-staphylococcus antibiotic such as flucloxacillin or dicloxacillin is used. The Infectious Diseases Society of America advises that the draining of an abscess is not enough to address community-acquired methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and in those cases, traditional antibiotics may be ineffective.<ref nameNEJM2014/> Alternative antibiotics effective against community-acquired MRSA often include clindamycin, doxycycline, minocycline, and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.<ref nameNEJM2014/> The American College of Emergency Physicians advises that typical cases of abscess from MRSA get no benefit from having antibiotic treatment in addition to the standard treatment.<ref name="ACEPfive"/>
Culturing the wound is not needed if standard follow-up care can be provided after the incision and drainage.<ref name"ACEPfive"/> Performing a wound culture is unnecessary because it rarely gives information which can be used to guide treatment.<ref name"ACEPfive"/>
Packing
In North America, after drainage, an abscess cavity is usually packed, often with special iodoform-treated cloth. This is done to absorb and neutralize any remaining exudate as well as to promote draining and prevent premature closure. Prolonged draining is thought to promote healing. The hypothesis is that though the heart's pumping action can deliver immune and regenerative cells to the edge of an injury, an abscess is by definition a void in which no blood vessels are present. Packing is thought to provide a wicking action that continuously draws beneficial factors and cells from the body into the void that must be healed. Discharge is then absorbed by cutaneous bandages and further wicking promoted by changing these bandages regularly. However, evidence from emergency medicine literature reports that packing wounds after draining, especially smaller wounds, causes pain to the person and does not decrease the rate of recurrence, nor bring faster healing, or fewer physician visits.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Bergstrom KG | title News, views, and reviews. Less may be more for MRSA: the latest on antibiotics, the utility of packing an abscess, and decolonization strategies | journal Journal of Drugs in Dermatology | volume 13 | issue 1 | pages 89–92 | date January 2014 | pmid 24385125 }}</ref>
Loop drainage
More recently, several North American hospitals have opted for less-invasive loop drainage over standard drainage and wound packing. In one study of 143 pediatric outcomes, a failure rate of 1.4% was reported in the loop group versus 10.5% in the packing group (P<.030),<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Ladde JG, Baker S, Rodgers CN, Papa L | title The LOOP technique: a novel incision and drainage technique in the treatment of skin abscesses in a pediatric ED | journal The American Journal of Emergency Medicine | volume 33 | issue 2 | pages 271–276 | date February 2015 | pmid 25435407 | doi 10.1016/j.ajem.2014.10.014 }}</ref> while a separate study reported a 5.5% failure rate among the loop group.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Tsoraides SS, Pearl RH, Stanfill AB, Wallace LJ, Vegunta RK | title Incision and loop drainage: a minimally invasive technique for subcutaneous abscess management in children | journal Journal of Pediatric Surgery | volume 45 | issue 3 | pages 606–609 | date March 2010 | pmid 20223328 | doi 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2009.06.013 }}</ref>
Primary closure
Closing an abscess immediately after draining it appears to speed healing without increasing the risk of recurrence.<ref nameSinger2011/> This may not apply to anorectal abscesses as while they may heal faster, there may be a higher rate of recurrence than those left open.<ref name"pmid6397949">{{cite journal | vauthors Kronborg O, Olsen H | title Incision and drainage v. incision, curettage and suture under antibiotic cover in anorectal abscess. A randomized study with 3-year follow-up | journal Acta Chirurgica Scandinavica | volume 150 | issue 8 | pages 689–692 | year 1984 | pmid 6397949 }}</ref>
Appendiceal abscess
Appendiceal abscess are complications of appendicitis where there is an infected mass on the appendix. This condition is estimated to occur in 2–10% of appendicitis cases and is usually treated by surgical removal of the appendix (appendicectomy).<ref>{{Cite journal |lastCheng |firstYao |last2Xiong |first2Xianze |last3Lu |first3Jiong |last4Wu |first4Sijia |last5Zhou |first5Rongxing |last6Cheng |first6Nansheng |date2017-06-02 |titleEarly versus delayed appendicectomy for appendiceal phlegmon or abscess |urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28574593 |journalThe Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |volume6 |issue6 |pagesCD011670 |doi10.1002/14651858.CD011670.pub2 |issn1469-493X |pmc6481778 |pmid28574593}}</ref>PrognosisEven without treatment, skin abscesses rarely result in death, as they will naturally break through the skin.<ref nameRosen2014Chp137/> Other types of abscess are more dangerous. Brain abscesses may be fatal if untreated. When treated, the mortality rate reduces to 5–10%, but is higher if the abscess ruptures.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors Bokhari MR, Mesfin FB | chapter Brain Abscess|date2019| chapter-urlhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK441841/ | title StatPearls|publisherStatPearls Publishing|pmid28722871|access-date2019-07-28}}</ref>
Epidemiology
Skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years.<ref nameNEJM2014/> Risk factors include intravenous drug use, with rates reported as high as 65% among users.<ref nameLangrod2007/> In 2005, in the United States 3.2 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess.<ref nameTaira2009/> In Australia around 13,000 people were hospitalized in 2008 for the disease.<ref nameVas2012/>
Society and culture
The Latin medical aphorism "ubi pus, ibi evacua" expresses "where there is pus, there evacuate it" and is classical advice in the culture of Western medicine.<ref>{{Citation |lastMourits |firstMaarten P. |titleOrbital Cellulitis |date2023 |workSurgery in and around the Orbit: CrossRoads |pages309–315 |editor-lastGooris |editor-firstPeter J.J. |placeCham |publisherSpringer International Publishing |languageen |doi10.1007/978-3-031-40697-3_19 |isbn978-3-031-40697-3 |editor2-lastMourits |editor2-firstMaarten P. |editor3-lastBergsma |editor3-firstJ.Eelco|doi-accessfree }}</ref>
Needle exchange programmes often administer or provide referrals for abscess treatment to injection drug users as part of a harm reduction public health strategy.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Tomolillo CM, Crothers LJ, Aberson CL | title The damage done: a study of injection drug use, injection related abscesses and needle exchange regulation | journal Substance Use & Misuse | volume 42 | issue 10 | pages 1603–1611 | date 2007 | pmid 17918030 | doi 10.1080/10826080701204763 | s2cid 20795955 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors Fink DS, Lindsay SP, Slymen DJ, Kral AH, Bluthenthal RN | title Abscess and self-treatment among injection drug users at four California syringe exchanges and their surrounding communities | journal Substance Use & Misuse | volume 48 | issue 7 | pages 523–531 | date May 2013 | pmid 23581506 | pmc 4334130 | doi 10.3109/10826084.2013.787094 }}</ref>
Etymology
An abscess is so called "abscess" because there is an abscessus (a going away or departure) of portions of the animal tissue from each other to make room for the suppurated matter lodged between them.<ref>Collier's New Encyclopedia, 'Abscess'.</ref>
The word carbuncle is believed to have originated from the Latin: carbunculus, originally a small coal; diminutive of carbon-, carbo: charcoal or ember, but also a carbuncle stone, "precious stones of a red or fiery colour", usually garnets.<ref>OED, "Carbuncle": 1 stone, 3 medical</ref>
Other types
The following types of abscess are listed in the medical dictionary:<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.theodora.com/medical_dictionary/a_adaxial.html#abscess |titleAbscess |workMedical Dictionary – Dictionary of Medicine and Human Biology |access-date2013-01-24 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130205032049/http://www.theodora.com/medical_dictionary/a_adaxial.html#abscess |archive-date=2013-02-05 }}</ref>
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* acute abscess
* alveolar abscess
* amebic abscess
* apical abscess
* appendiceal abscess
* Bartholin abscess
* Bezold abscess
* bicameral abscess
* bone abscess
* brain abscess
* Brodie abscess
* bursal abscess
* caseous abscess
* caseous lymphadenitis
* cheesy abscess
* cholangitic abscess
* chronic abscess
* collar stud abscess
* cold abscess
* crypt abscesses
* dental abscess
** periapical abscess
** periodontal abscess
*** apical periodontal abscess
*** lateral periodontal abscess
*** root abscess
** gingival abscess
** lateral alveolar abscess
** pericoronal abscess
** combined periodontic-endodontic abscess
* diffuse abscess
* Douglas abscess
* dry abscess
* Dubois abscesses
* embolic abscess
* fecal abscess
* follicular abscess
* gas abscess
* gravitation abscess
* gummatous abscess
* hidradenitis suppurativa
* hematogenous abscess
* hot abscess
* hypostatic abscess
* ischiorectal abscess
* mastoid abscess
* metastatic abscess
* migrating abscess
* miliary abscess
* Munro abscess
* orbital abscess
* otitic abscess
* palatal abscess
* pancreatic abscess
* parafrenal abscess
* parametric abscess
* paranephric abscess
* parapharyngeal abscess
* parotid
* Pautrier
* Pelvic abscess
* perforating
* periappendiceal
* periarticular
* pericemental
* perinephric
* perirectal
* peritonsillar abscess
* periureteral abscess
* phlegmonous abscess
* Pott abscess
* premammary abscess (including subareolar abscess)
* psoas abscess
* pulp abscess
* pyemic abscess
* radicular abscess
* residual abscess
* retrobulbar abscess
* retrocecal abscess
* retropharyngeal abscess
* ring abscess
* satellite abscess
* septicemic abscess
* stellate abscess
* stercoral abscess
* sterile abscess
* stitch abscess
* subdiaphragmatic abscess
* subepidermal abscess
* subhepatic abscess
* subperiosteal abscess
* subphrenic abscess
* subungual abscess
* sudoriferous abscess
* suture abscess
* thymic abscesses
* Tornwaldt abscess
* tropical abscess
* tubo-ovarian abscess
* verminous abscess
* wandering abscess
* worm abscess
}}
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{wiktionary}}
{{Commons category}}
* {{MedlinePlusEncyclopedia|001353|Abscess}}
* {{MedlinePlusEncyclopedia|000863|Skin Abscess}}
* {{Cite Collier's|wstitleAbscess |shortx}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitleAbscess |shortx}}
* {{cite web | url https://medlineplus.gov/abscess.html | publisher U.S. National Library of Medicine | work MedlinePlus | title Abscess }}
{{Medical condition classification and resources
| DiseasesDB | ICD11 {{ICD11|1B75}}
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|L02}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|682.9}}, {{ICD9|324.1}}
| ICDO | OMIM
| MedlinePlus = 001353
| eMedicineSubj | eMedicineTopic
| MeshID = D000038
}}
{{Diseases of the skin and appendages by morphology}}
{{Bacterial cutaneous infections}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:General surgery
Category:Cutaneous lesion
Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
Category:Wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abscess | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.921849 |
1036 | Aalborg Municipality | {{Short description|Municipality in Nordjylland region of Denmark}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Aalborg Municipality
| native_name = {{native name|da|Aalborg Kommune}}
| other_name | settlement_type Municipality
| short_description = Municipality in North Jutland region of Denmark
<!-- images, nickname, motto -->
| image_skyline = Aalborg 2010 - 100 ubt.JPG
| image_caption | image_flag
| image_shield = Coat of arms of Aalborg.svg
| motto | nickname
| etymology =
<!-- location -->
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = {{flag|Denmark}}
| subdivision_type1 | subdivision_name1
| subdivision_type2 = Region
| subdivision_name2 = Region Nordjylland
| subdivision_type3 | subdivision_name3
| subdivision_type4 | subdivision_name4
<!-- maps and coordinates -->
| image_map = Map DK Ålborg.PNG
| map_caption = Location of Aalborg Municipality
| coordinates {{Coord|formatdms|region:DK-81|display=title,inline}}
| coordinates_footnotes =
<!-- government type, leaders -->
| leader_title1 = Mayor
| leader_name1 = Lasse Frimand Jensen
<!-- seat -->
| seat = Aalborg City Hall
| seat_type = Seat
<!-- established -->
| established_title = Municipal council
| established_date = 2007
<!-- area -->
| area_footnotes | area_total_km2 1140
| area_total_sq_mi | area_land_sq_mi
| area_water_sq_mi =
<!-- elevation -->
| elevation_footnotes | elevation_m
| elevation_ft =
<!-- population -->
| population_as_of = 1 January 2024
| population_footnotes <ref name"BY2">[https://m.statbank.dk/TableInfo/BY2?lang=en BY2: Population 1. January by municipalities] The Mobile Statbank from Statistics Denmark</ref>
| population_total = 223174
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_density_sq_mi| population_demonym aalborgenser
<!-- time zone(s) -->
| timezone1 = CET
| utc_offset1 = +1
| timezone1_DST = CEST
| utc_offset1_DST = +2
<!-- postal codes, area code -->
| postal_code_type | postal_code
| area_code_type | area_code
| geocode | iso_code
<!-- website, footnotes -->
| website = {{Official URL}}
| footnotes <ref name"FOLK1: Population 1 January">[http://www.statistikbanken.dk/FOLK1 FOLK1: Population 1 January] database from Statistics Denmark</ref><ref>[http://www.aalborgkommune.dk/Om_kommunen/fakta-om-kommunen/Aalborg-i-tal/Sider/Aalborg-i-tal.aspx Aalborg in figures] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100323215949/http://www.aalborgkommune.dk/Om_kommunen/fakta-om-kommunen/Aalborg-i-tal/Sider/Aalborg-i-tal.aspx |date23 March 2010 }} statistics from Aalborg Municipality</ref>
}}
Ålborg Municipality ({{langx|da|Ålborg Kommune}}) is a municipality in North Jutland Region on the Jutland peninsula in northern Denmark.<ref nameCVDE>Bridgwater, W. & Beatrice Aldrich. (1966) The Columbia-Viking Desk Encyclopedia. Columbia University. p. 11.</ref> The municipality straddles the Limfjord, the waterway which connects the North Sea and the Kattegat east-to-west, and which separates the main body of the Jutland peninsula from the island of Vendsyssel-Thy north-to-south. It has a land area of {{Convert|1,143.99|km2|sqmi|abbron|spus}} and a population of 223,174 (1. January 2024).<ref name"BY2"/>
It is also the name of the municipality's main city Aalborg and the site of its municipal council, as well as the name of a seaport.
The municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as Aalborg, although the new spelling Ålborg is used in other contexts, such as Ålborg Bight (Ålborg Bugt), the body of water which lies to the east of the Jutland peninsula.
Municipal reform of 2007
As of 1 January 2007 Aalborg municipality joined with the municipalities of Hals, Nibe, and Sejlflod to form a new Aalborg municipality. The former Aalborg municipality, including the island of Egholm, covered an area of {{convert|560|km2|abbron}}, with a total population of 192,353 (2005). Its last mayor was Henning G. Jensen, a member of the Social Democrats ({{Lang|da|Socialdemokraterne}}) political party. The former municipality was bordered by Sejlflod and Hals to the east, Dronninglund and Brønderslev to the north, Aabybro and Nibe to the west, and Støvring and Skørping to the south. It belonged to North Jutland County.GeographySurroundings
The waters in the Limfjord splitting the municipality are called Langerak to the east and Gjøl Bredning to the west. The island of Egholm is located in Gjøl Bredning, and is connected by ferry to the city of Aalborg at its southern shore.
The area is typical for the north of Jutland. To the west, the Limfjord broadens into an irregular lake (salt water), with low, marshy shores and many islands. Northwest is Store Vildmose ("Greater Wild bog"), a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer. Southeast lies the similar Lille Vildmose ("Lesser Wild bog"). Store Vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century, and Lille Vildmose is now the largest moor in Denmark.<ref>{{Cite web |titleStore Vildmose |urlhttps://www.fredninger.dk/fredning/store-vildmose/ |access-date2024-12-05 |websiteFredninger |languageda-DK}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2017-10-11 |titleReintroducing moose to Lille Vildmose |urlhttps://rewildingeurope.com/rew-project/reintroducing-moose-to-lille-vildmose/ |access-date2024-12-05 |websiteRewilding Europe |languageen-GB}}</ref>Urban areas in Aalborg MunicipalityAalborg City has a total population of 123,432. The metropolitan area is a conurbation of the Aalborg urban area in Himmerland (102,312) and the {{Lang|da|Nørresundby|italicno}} urban area in {{Lang|da|Vendsyssel|italic=no}} (21,120).
{| class="wikitable"
|+ The largest urban areas in Aalborg Municipality<ref>{{Cite web |titlePopulation 1. January by urban, rural areas (DISCONTINUED) - StatBank Denmark - data and statistics |urlhttps://www.statistikbanken.dk/statbank5a/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?MaintableBEF44&PLanguage1 |access-date2022-11-25 |websitewww.statistikbanken.dk}}</ref>
|-
! Nr !! Urban area !! Population (2011)
|-
| 1 || Aalborg || 103,545
|-
| 2 || {{Lang|da|Nørresundby|italic=no}}|| 21,376
|-
| 3 || Svenstrup || 6,751
|-
| 4 || Nibe || 4,987
|-
| 5 || Vodskov || 4,399
|-
| 6 || Klarup || 4,182
|-
| 7 || Gistrup || 3,573
|-
| 8 || Storvorde || 3,243
|-
| 9 || Vestbjerg || 2,677
|-
| 10 || Frejlev || 2,579
|}
Economy
North Flying has its head office on the property of Aalborg Airport in {{Lang|da|Nørresundby|italicno}}, Aalborg Municipality.<ref>"[http://www.northflying.com/script/site/pagefd1d.html?cat_id28 Contact Us] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111229055543/http://www.northflying.com/script/site/pagefd1d.html?cat_id28 |date29 December 2011 }}." North Flying. Retrieved 15 December 2011. "North Flying's headquarters are located in Aalborg Airport." and "North Flying A/S North Flying Terminal Aalborg Airport DK - 9400 Nørresundby Denmark"</ref>PoliticsMunicipal council
Aalborg's municipal council consists of 31 members, elected every four years.
Below are the municipal councils elected since the Municipal Reform of 2007.
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="2"| Election
! colspan="8"| Party
! rowspan="2"| Total<br/>seats
! rowspan="2"| Turnout
! rowspan="2"| Elected<br/>mayor
|-
|style="background:#B5211D;"|{{font color|white|A}}
|style="background:#843A93;"|{{font color|white|B}}
|style="background:#89A920;"|{{font color|white|C}}
|style="background:#C9096C;"|{{font color|white|F}}
|style="background:#1CB1B7;"|{{font color|white|I}}
|style="background:#F4D44D;"|{{font color|white|O}}
|style="background:#254C85;"|{{font color|white|V}}
|style="background:#FF0000;"|{{font color|white|Ø}}
|-
|2005<ref>{{Cite web |titleKMD-Valg |urlhttps://www.kmdvalg.dk/kv/2005/adk.htm |access-date2022-11-25 |websitewww.kmdvalg.dk}}</ref>
|15
|2
|3
|2
|style"background:#CDC9C9;" rowspan"2"|
|1
|8
|style"background:#CDC9C9;" rowspan"2"|
|rowspan="4"|31
|64.6%
|rowspan="2"|Henning G. Jensen (A)
|-
|2009<ref>{{Cite web |titleKMD-Valg |urlhttps://www.kmdvalg.dk/kv/2009/adk.htm |access-date2022-11-25 |websitewww.kmdvalg.dk}}</ref>
|12
|1
|2
|5
|2
|9
|60.3%
|-
|2013<ref>{{Cite web |titleKMDValg |urlhttps://www.kmdvalg.dk/kv/2013/Default.htm |access-date2022-11-25 |websitewww.kmdvalg.dk}}</ref>
|12
|2
|1
|1
|1
|2
|9
|3
|68.4%
|rowspan="2"|Thomas Kastrup-Larsen (A)
|-
|2017<ref>{{Cite web |titleKMDValg |urlhttps://www.kmdvalg.dk/kv/2017/KMDValgKV.html |access-date2022-11-25 |websitewww.kmdvalg.dk}}</ref>
|17
|1
|1
|style="background:#CDC9C9;"|
|style="background:#CDC9C9;"|
|2
|8
|2
|67.7%
|-
|colspan="14"|
|}
Twin towns – sister cities
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Denmark}}
Aalborg is twinned with 34 cities,<ref>{{cite web |titleVenskabsbyer|urlhttps://www.aalborgevents.dk/venskabsbyer/|websiteaalborgevents.dk|publisherAalborg Events|languageda|accessdate2021-04-02}}</ref> more than any other city in Denmark.<ref nameevents/> Every four years, Aalborg gathers young people from most of its twin towns for a week of sports, known as Ungdomslegene (Youth Games).<ref nameevents>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aalborgevents.dk/forside/events-2015/ungdomslegene.aspx|titleUngdomslegene|publisherAalborg Kommune|access-date22 August 2013|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130823000840/http://www.aalborgevents.dk/forside/events-2015/ungdomslegene.aspx|archive-date=23 August 2013}}</ref>
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*{{flagicon|NED}} {{Lang|da|Almere|italic=no}}, Netherlands
*{{flagicon|FRA}} Antibes, France
*{{flagicon|GER}} Büdelsdorf, Germany
*{{flagicon|SCO}} Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
*{{flagicon|NOR}} {{Lang|no|Fredrikstad|italic=no}}, Norway
*{{flagicon|FRO}} Fuglafjørður, Faroe Islands
*{{flagicon|IRL}} Galway, Ireland
*{{flagicon|POL}} Gdynia, Poland
*{{flagicon|ISR}} Haifa, Israel
*{{flagicon|CHN}} Hefei, China
*{{flagicon|AUT}} {{Lang|de|Innsbruck|italic=no}}, Austria
*{{Flagicon|Greenland}}{{Lang|kl-tunumiit|Ittoqqortoormiit|italic=no}}, Greenland
*{{flagicon|SWE}} Karlskoga, Sweden
*{{flagicon|ENG}} Lancaster, England
*{{flagicon|SWE}} Lerum, Sweden
*{{flagicon|FIN}} Liperi, Finland
*{{flagicon|ISL}} {{lang|is|Norðurþing|italic=no}}, Iceland
*{{flagicon|SWE}} Orsa, Sweden
*{{flagicon|SWE}} Orust, Sweden
*{{flagicon|POL}} Ośno Lubuskie, Poland
*{{flagicon|RUS}} {{Lang|ru-latn|Pushkin|italic=no}}, Russia
*{{flagicon|USA}} Racine, United States
*{{flagicon|SUI}} Rapperswil-Jona, Switzerland
*{{flagicon|NOR}} Rendalen, Norway
*{{flagicon|GER}} Rendsburg, Germany
*{{flagicon|LVA}} Riga, Latvia
*{{flagicon|FIN}} Riihimäki, Finland
*{{flagicon|GRL}} {{Lang|kl|Sermersooq|italic=no}}, Greenland
*{{flagicon|USA}} Solvang, United States
*{{flagicon|ROU}} {{Lang|ro|Tulcea|italic=no}}, Romania
*{{flagicon|BUL}} {{Lang|bug-latn|Varna|italic=no}}, Bulgaria
*{{flagicon|LTU}} Vilnius, Lithuania
*{{flagicon|GER}} {{Lang|de|Wismar|italic=no}}, Germany
{{div col end}}
References
{{Reflist}}
* Municipal statistics: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070812152043/http://www2.netborger.dk/Kommunefakta/ NetBorger Kommunefakta], delivered from [http://www.kmd.dk/ KMD] a.k.a. Kommunedata (Municipal Data)
* Municipal mergers and neighbors: [https://web.archive.org/web/20071011050224/http://kommune.eniro.dk/danmarkskort/ Eniro map with named municipalities]
* Aalborg in figures 2008, a publication from Aalborg Municipality.
External links
{{Commons category}}
{{Portal|Denmark}}
*{{in lang|en}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20090410131316/http://www.aalborg.dk/Engelsk/ About Aalborg from Nordjyske Medier]
*{{in lang|en}}[https://web.archive.org/web/20080108194726/http://www.aalborgkommune.dk/Borgerportal/Engelsk/ Aalborg Municipality's official website]
*{{in lang|en}}[http://www.visitaalborg.com/ VisitAalborg (Aalborg Tourist Office)]
{{Geographic location
| Centre = Aalborg
| N = Brønderslev
| E = Aalborg Bay (Kattegat)
| S = Rebild, Mariagerfjord
| SW = Vesthimmerland
| W = Jammerbugt
}}
{{Municipalities of Denmark}}
{{Populated places of Aalborg Municipality}}
{{Authority control}}
Municipality
Category:Municipalities of Denmark
Category:Municipalities of the North Jutland Region
Category:Populated places established in 2007 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalborg_Municipality | 2025-04-05T18:25:28.938379 |
1038 | Aarhus | {{short description|City in Central Denmark Region, Denmark}}
{{about|the city in Denmark|the convention on public participation|Aarhus Convention|the meteorite|Aarhus (meteorite)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{good article}}
{{EngvarB|date=October 2017}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Aarhus
| settlement_type = City
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| border = infobox
| perrow = 1/2/2/1
| total_width = 290
| align = center
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Drone_photo_of_Dokk1_in_Aarhus,_Denmark.jpg
| caption1 = Dokk1 and Aarhus skyline
| image2 = Aarhus Den Gamle By 16.JPG
| caption2 = Den Gamle By
| image3 = Park alle tidlig morgen.jpg
| caption3 = Park Allé
| image4 = Aarhus_Cathedral_-_April_2022.jpg
| caption4 = Aarhus Cathedral
| image5 = Mejlgade,_skumring.jpg
| caption5 = Mejlgade
| image6 = Aarhus_Ø,_Kampanilen_og_AARhus_in_Aarhus.jpg
| caption6 = Aarhus Docklands
}}
| imagesize | image_caption
| image_map | mapsize
| map_caption | pushpin_map Denmark#Scandinavia#Europe
| pushpin_relief = 1
| pushpin_map_caption = Location within Denmark##Location within Scandinavia##Location within Europe
| image_shield = Coat of arms of Aarhus.svg
| shield_alt = Aarhus coat of arms
| image_seal = Aarhus city seal, stylized.png
| seal_alt = Aarhus city seal from 1421
| nickname = {{nowrap|Smilets by (City of smiles)}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = Denmark
| subdivision_type1 = Region
| subdivision_name1 = Central Denmark Region (Midtjylland)
| image_map1 = Aarhus Denmark Street Map vector svg free.svg
| mapsize1 = 250px
| map_caption1 = Aarhus Denmark Street Map
| subdivision_type2 = Municipality
| subdivision_name2 = Aarhus
| government_footnotes | government_type Magistrate
| leader_title = Mayor
| leader_name = Jacob Bundsgaard (S)
| established_title = Established
| established_date = 8th century
| established_title2 = City Status
| established_date2 = 15th century
| named_for = Aarhus River mouth
| unit_pref = Metric
| area_urban_km2 = 99.4
| area_blank1_title = Municipal
| area_blank1_km2 = 468
| area_footnotes <ref name"DSArea">{{cite web |titleArea by municipality / region |urlhttp://www.statistikbanken.dk/ARE207 |publisherStatistics Denmark |date8 April 2016 |access-date8 April 2016 |languageda}}</ref>
| population_as_of = 1 January 2024
| population_urban = 295688
| population_density_urban_km2 = 2975
| population_blank1_title = Municipal
| population_blank1 = 367095
| population_density_blank1_km2 = 784
| population_footnotes <ref name"DSPopulation">{{cite web |titlePopulation by urban areas, age and sex |urlhttp://www.statbank.dk/BY1 |publisherStatistics Denmark |date26 June 2016 |access-date26 June 2016 |languageda}}</ref>
| population_rank = Denmark: 2nd
| population_demonym = Aarhusianer
| timezone = CET
| utc_offset = +1
| timezone_DST = CEST
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| coordinates {{coord|56|09|N|10|13|E|region:DK|displayinline}}
| elevation_footnotes = Highest point in the ity is Hasle Hills, Jelshøj is the highest in the municipality
| elevation_min_m = 0
| elevation_max_m = 105
| postal_code_type = Postal code
| postal_code = 8000, 8200, 8210, 8220, 8230
| area_code = (+45) 8
| website = {{official website|http://www.aarhus.dk/english}}
}}
Aarhus ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɔːr|h|uː|s}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|ˈ|ɑːr|-}},<ref>{{cite American Heritage Dictionary|Århus|access-date16 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleÅrhus |urlhttps://www.collinsdictionary.com/amp/english/arhus |workCollins English Dictionary |publisherHarperCollins |access-date16 April 2019}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190416051857/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/Aarhus "Aarhus"] (US) and {{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://www.lexico.com/definition/Aarhus |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200724205615/https://www.lexico.com/definition/aarhus |url-statusdead |archive-date24 July 2020 |titleAarhus |dictionaryLexico UK English Dictionary |publisherOxford University Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|Århus|access-date16 April 2019}}</ref> {{IPA|da|ˈɒːˌhuˀs|lang|Århus.ogg}}; officially spelled Århus from 1948 until 1 January 2011)<ref name=spelling />{{notetag|See {{slink||Spelling}}.}} is the second-largest city in Denmark and the seat of Aarhus Municipality. It is located on the eastern shore of Jutland in the Kattegat sea and approximately {{convert|187|km}} northwest of Copenhagen.
Dating back to the late 8th century, Aarhus was founded as a harbour settlement at the mouth of the Aarhus River and quickly became a trade hub. The first Christian church was built here around the year 900 and later in the Viking Age the town was fortified with defensive ramparts. The bishopric of Aarhus grew steadily stronger and more prosperous, building several religious institutions in the town during the early Middle Ages. Trade continued to improve, although it was not until 1441 that Aarhus was granted market town privileges, and the population of Aarhus remained relatively stable until the 19th century. The city began to grow significantly as trade prospered in the mid-18th century, but not until the mid-19th century did the Industrial Revolution bring real growth in population. The first railway line in Jutland was built here in 1862. In 1928, the first university in Jutland was founded in Aarhus and today it is a university city and the largest centre for trade, services, industry, and tourism in Jutland.
Aarhus Cathedral is the longest cathedral in Denmark with a total length of {{convert|93|m|abbron}}. The Church of our Lady (Vor Frue Kirke) was originally built in 1060, making it the oldest stone church in Scandinavia. The City Hall, designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller, was completed in 1941 in a modern Functionalist style. Aarhus Theatre, the largest provincial theatre in Denmark, opposite the cathedral on Bispetorvet, was built by Hack Kampmann in the Art Nouveau style and completed in 1916. Musikhuset Aarhus (concert hall) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium (Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg) are also of note, as are its museums including the open-air museum Den Gamle By, the art museum ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the Moesgård Museum and the women's museum Kvindemuseet. The city's major cultural institutions include Den Gamle By, ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the Moesgård Museum, Gender Museum Denmark, Musikhuset Aarhus and Aarhus Theatre. Known as {{lang|da|Smilets By}} (lit. City of Smiles) it is the Danish city with the youngest demographics and home to Scandinavia's largest university, Aarhus University.<ref name"DSPopulation"/><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.statistikbanken.dk/02|titleStatistikbanken|websitewww.statistikbanken.dk}}</ref> Commercially, the city is the principal container port in the country, and major Danish companies such as Vestas, Arla Foods, Salling Group, and Jysk have their headquarters there.EtymologyAarhus is a compound of the two Old Norse words; {{lang|non|ár}}, genitive of {{wikt-lang|non|á}} ("river", Modern Danish {{lang|da|å}}), and {{lang|non|oss}} ("mouth") referencing the city's location at the mouth of {{lang|da|Aarhus Å|italicno}} (Aarhus River).<ref name"The Aarhus River">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.dk/east-jutland/history/aarhus-aa |publisherVisit Aarhus |titleThe Aarhus River |access-date26 June 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160509202942/http://www.visitaarhus.dk/east-jutland/history/aarhus-aa |archive-date9 May 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/denmark/vikings/history-of-aarhus |publisherVisit Aarhus |titleHistory of Aarhus |access-date27 June 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160423120100/http://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/denmark/vikings/history-of-aarhus |archive-date23 April 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref namedsd>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_geografi/Jylland/Jylland_-_byer/%C3%85rhus |titleAarhus |publisherGyldendal |access-date16 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref>
Spelling
In Valdemar's Census Book (1231) the city was called Arus, and in Icelandic it was known as {{lang|is|Aros}}, later written as Aars.<ref nameSalmonsen>{{cite web |urlhttps://runeberg.org/salmonsen/2/1/0067.html |titleSalmonsens konversationsleksikon / Anden Udgave |page53 |publisherSalmonsen |access-date16 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> The spelling "Aarhus" is first found in 1406 and gradually became the norm in the 17th&nbsp;century.<ref nameSalmonsen/> With the Danish spelling reform of 1948, "Aa" was changed to "Å". Some Danish cities resisted the change but Aarhus city council opted to change the name.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aarhusportalen.dk/default.asp?Id1881&AjrDcmntId30979 |titleDet omstridte bolle-å |publisherAarhus portalen |access-date16 July 2014 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140808213323/http://www.aarhusportalen.dk/default.asp?Id1881&AjrDcmntId30979 |archive-date8 August 2014 |url-statusdead}}</ref> In 2010, the city council voted to change the name back from {{lang|da|Århus}} to {{lang|da|Aarhus}} again with effect from 1 January 2011.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://dsn.dk/nyheder-og-arrangementer/aarhus-eller-aarhus/|titleÅrhus eller Aarhus?|websitedsn.dk|access-date23 January 2023|language=da}}</ref>
It is still grammatically correct to write geographical names with the letter Å and local councils are allowed to use the Aa spelling as an alternative and most newspapers and public institutions will accept either. Some official authorities such as the Danish Language Committee, publisher of the Danish Orthographic Dictionary, still retain {{lang|da|Århus}} as the main name, providing {{lang|da|Aarhus}} as a second option, in brackets<ref namespelling>{{cite web |urlhttp://dsn.dk/nyt/nyheder/2011/aarhus-eller-aarhus |titleÅrhus eller Aarhus? |year2011 |publisherDanish Language Committee |languageda}}</ref> and some institutions are still using {{lang|da|Århus}} explicitly in their official name, such as the local newspaper {{lang|da|Århus Stiftstidende|italicno}} and the schools {{lang|da|Århus Kunstakademi|italicno}} and {{lang|da|Århus Statsgymnasium|italicno}}. "Aa" was used by some major institutions between 1948 and 2011 as well, such as Aarhus University or the largest local sports club, {{lang|da|Aarhus Gymnastikforening|italicno}} (AGF), which has never used the "Å" spelling.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://politiken.dk/kultur/art5488680/Borgmesters-attentat-p%C3%A5-bolle-%C3%A5-g%C3%A5r-verden-rundt |titleBorgmesters attentat på bolle-å går verden rundt |authorAnne-Bech Danielsen |newspaperPolitiken |languageda |date20 March 2010| access-date21 October 2017}}</ref> Certain geographically affiliated names have been updated to reflect the name of the city, such as the Aarhus River, changed from {{lang|da|Århus Å}} to {{lang|da|Aarhus Å}}.<ref name"The Aarhus River"/>
History
{{see also|Timeline of Aarhus}}
Early history
Founded in the early Viking Age, Aarhus is one of the oldest cities in Denmark, along with Ribe and Hedeby.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/|titleByhistoriske hovedtræk – Byens grundlæggelse|languageda|publisherAarhus Municipality|access-date15 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130914192312/http://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/|archive-date14 September 2013|url-statusdead}}</ref> The original Aros settlement was situated on the northern shores of a fjord by the mouth of the Aarhus River, right where the city center is today. It quickly became a hub for sea-going trade due to its position on intersecting trade routes in the Danish straits and the fertile countryside. The trade, however, was not nearly as prominent as that in Ribe and Hedeby during the Viking Age, and it was primarily linked to Norway as evidenced by archaeological finds. A shipbuilding yard from the Viking Age was uncovered upriver in 2002 by archaeologists. It was located at a place formerly known as Snekkeeng, or Snekke Meadow in English ('Snekke' is a type of longship), east of the Brabrand Lake close to Viby, and it was in use for more than 400 years from the late 700s till around the mid-1200s.<ref nameUBAS>{{cite journal|urlhttps://bora.uib.no/bora-xmlui/handle/1956/11335|titleDet ældste Århus – ca. 770–1200|publisherBergen University|authorHans Skov|languageDanish|journalUBAS Nordisk|volume5|year2008|pages215–226|access-date=2 April 2021}}</ref>
Archaeological evidence indicates that Aarhus was a town as early as the last quarter of the 8th&nbsp;century.<ref name"Kristeligt">{{cite news |lastGrymer |firstClaus |titleVikingernes Aros mellem land og hav |urlhttp://www.kristeligt-dagblad.dk/historie/vikingernes-aros-mellem-land-og-hav |newspaperKristeligt Dagblad |date1 June 2005 |access-date16 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleDet Tidligste Århus |trans-titleThe earliest Århus |urlhttp://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/tidligaros.htm |url-statuslive |publisherThe Viking Museum |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170421083828/http://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/tidligaros.htm |archive-date21 April 2017 |access-date15 August 2014 |languageda}}</ref> Discoveries after a 2003 archaeological dig included half-buried longhouses, firepits, glass pearls and a road dated to the late 700s.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/norrevold.htm|titleExcavations – Nørrevold|languageda|publisherThe Viking Museum (Moesgård Museum)|access-date15 August 2014|archive-date19 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140819090828/http://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/norrevold.htm|url-statusdead}}</ref> Several excavations in the inner city since the 1960s have revealed wells, streets, homes and workshops, and inside the buildings and adjoining archaeological layers, everyday utensils like combs, jewellery and basic multi-purpose tools from approximately the year 900 have been unearthed.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/udgravninger.htm |titleExcavations |languageda |publisherThe Viking Museum (Moesgård Museum) |access-date15 August 2014 |archive-date14 August 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140814094749/http://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/udgravninger.htm |url-statusdead}}</ref> The early town was fortified with defensive earthen ramparts in the first part of the 900s, possibly in the year 934 on order from king Gorm the Old. The fortifications were later improved and expanded by his son Harald Bluetooth, encircling the settlement much like the defence structures found at Viking ring fortresses elsewhere.<ref name"Kristeligt" /> Together with the town's geographical placement, this suggests that Aros became an important military centre in the Viking Age. There are also strong indications of a former royal residence from the same period in Viby, a few kilometres south of the Aarhus city centre.<ref>{{cite web |titleTilbage til vikingetiden |trans-titleBack to the Viking Age |urlhttps://www.vikingemuseet.dk/om-udstillingen-vikingernes-aros/ |publisherVikingemuseet (MOMU) |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |lastKaiser |firstJens |titleVikingernes Viby |urlhttps://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/ECE4433725/Vikingernes-Viby/ |publisherJyllands-Posten Aarhus |date12 June 2005 |language=da}}</ref>
The centre of Aarhus was originally a pagan burial site until Aarhus's first Christian church, Holy Trinity Church, a timber structure, was built upon it during the reign of Frode, King of Jutland, around 900.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://danmarkskirker.natmus.dk/uploads/tx_tcchurchsearch/Aarhus_0045-0059.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://danmarkskirker.natmus.dk/uploads/tx_tcchurchsearch/Aarhus_0045-0059.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|titleKirkerne i Århus|publisherDanmarks Kirker: Nationalmuseet|page52|access-date16 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> The bishopric of Aarhus dates back to at least 948 when Adam of Bremen reported that the missionary bishop Reginbrand of Aros attended the synod of Ingelheim in Germany,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/aarhus-domkirke/?tx_historyview_pi1%5Blang%5D1&cHasha83dfe233ede9644167a9b5ea9aa35a4|publisherAarhus University|titleAarhus Cathedral|date2 July 2012|access-date26 June 2016|archive-date25 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160325000841/http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/aarhus-domkirke/?chasha83dfe233ede9644167a9b5ea9aa35a4&tx_historyview_pi1&#91;lang&#93;1|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_Oldtid/Yngre_Jernalder/Et_samfund_vendt_imod_havet_800-1050_e.Kr/By_efter_by|titleBy efter by|date31 March 2014 |publisherGyldendal|access-date16 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> but the late Viking Age during the christianisation of Scandinavia was a turbulent and violent time with several naval attacks on the town, such as Harald Hardrada's assault around 1050, when the Holy Trinity Church was burned to the ground.<ref name"Kristeligt"/><ref name"year">{{cite web|urlhttp://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/svend-estridsen-ca-1019-107476/|publisherAarhus University|titleSvend Estridsen, ca. 1019–1074/76|access-date27 June 2016|languageda}}</ref> Despite the conflicts, Aarhus continued to prosper from the trade and the finding of six runestones in and around Aarhus indicates the city had some significance around the year 1000, as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/runesten.htm |titleVikingernes Aros |publisherThe Viking Museum (Moesgård Museum) |access-date16 July 2014 |languageda |archive-date11 August 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140811222222/http://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/runesten.htm |url-statusdead}}</ref> The bishopric diocese was obliterated for almost a hundred years after Reginbrand in 988, but in 1060 a new bishop Christian was ordained and he founded a new church in Aarhus, Sankt Nicolai Domkirke (St. Nicholas Cathedral), this time in stone. It was erected outside the town fortifications, and stood finished in 1070 at the site where Church of Our Lady stands today, but only an underground crypt remains.<ref name"Danmarkshistorien">{{cite web|urlhttp://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/aarhus-1/?tx_historyview_pi1%5Blang%5D1&cHash42dfd94aaa459af3505372f8b2af029a|publisherAarhus University|titleAarhus|access-date15 August 2014|archive-date24 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150724213841/http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/aarhus-1/?tx_historyview_pi1%5Blang%5D1&cHash42dfd94aaa459af3505372f8b2af029a|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://bora.uib.no/bora-xmlui/bitstream/handle/1956/11335/det-aeldste-arhus-ca-770-1200.pdf?sequence1&isAllowedy|titleChurch and Priory of Our Lady |websitedanmarkshistorien.dk|publisherAarhus University|date24 May 2017 |access-date27 June 2017}}</ref>
Middle Ages
The growing influence of the Church during the Middle Ages gradually turned Aarhus, with its bishopric, into a prosperous religious centre. Many public and religious buildings were built in and around the town; notably Aarhus Cathedral was initiated in the late 12th&nbsp;century by the influential bishop Peder Vognsen, and around 1200, Aros had a total of four churches. The 13th century also marks a thorough reorganisation, erasing most of the town's original layout with new streets, relocations, dismantling and new constructions. The Church clearly had the upper hand in the Aarhus region during medieval times, and the large bishopric of Aarhus prospered and expanded territory, reaching as far as Viborg in extent.<ref nameUBAS /> In 1441, Christopher III issued the oldest known charter granting market town status, although similar privileges may have existed as far back as the 12th&nbsp;century. The charter is the first official recognition of the town as a regional power and is by some considered Aarhus's birth certificate.<ref name"Danmarkshistorien" /><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://aarhuswiki.dk/wiki/%C3%85rhus_k%C3%B8bstads_privilegium |titleStenbroen |websiteAarhusWiki |publisherAarhus Stadsarkiv |languageda |access-date26 July 2015}}</ref>
The commercial and religious status spurred town growth, and in 1477 the defensive earthen ramparts, which had ringed the town since the Viking Age, were abandoned to accommodate expansion. Parts of the ramparts still exist today and can be experienced as steep slopes at the riverside, and they have also survived in some place names of the inner city, including the streets of Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat).<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/voldgraven.htm |titleThe Moat |languageda |publisherThe Viking Museum |access-date15 August 2014 |archive-date19 August 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140819090527/http://www.hum.au.dk/moesgaard/vikingemuseet/voldgraven.htm |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://aarhuswiki.dk/wiki/Historien_om_Aarhus |titleHistorien om Aarhus |languageda |publisherAarhus Stadsarkiv |access-date26 July 2015}}</ref> Aarhus grew to become one of the largest cities in the country by the early 16th&nbsp;century. In 1657, octroi was imposed in larger Danish cities which changed the layout and face of Aarhus over the following decades. Wooden city walls were erected to prevent smuggling, with gates and toll booths on the major thoroughfares, Mejlgade and Studsgade. The city gates funnelled most traffic through a few streets where merchant quarters were built.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/registranter/stenbro/side6.htm |titleStenbroen |websiteAarhus Kommunes digitale korttjenester |publisherAarhus Kommune |languageda |access-date22 November 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304072940/http://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/registranter/stenbro/side6.htm |archive-date4 March 2016}}</ref>
In the 17th&nbsp;century, Aarhus entered a period of recession as it suffered blockades and bombardments during the Swedish wars and trade was dampened by the preferential treatment of the capital by the state.{{sfn|Olsen|2000|p124}} Not until the middle of the 18th&nbsp;century did growth return, in large part due to trade with the large agricultural catchment areas around the city; grain, particularly, proved to be a remunerative export.<ref name"Danmarkshistorien"/> The first factories were established at this time, as the Industrial Revolution reached the country, and in 1810 the harbour was expanded to accommodate growing trade.<ref namedcfb>{{cite web |urlhttp://dendigitalebyport.byhistorie.dk/koebstaeder/by.aspx?koebstadID74 |titleÅrhus: Byhistorie |publisherDansk Center for Byhistorie |access-date16 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref>IndustrialisationAarhus began to prosper in the 1830s as the industrial revolution reached the city and factories with steam-driven machinery became more productive.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://ddb.byhistorie.dk/koebstaeder/by.aspx?koebstadID74|titleDanmarks Købstæder: Århus: Byhistorie|publisherDansk Center for Byhistorie|access-date25 January 2023 |languageda}}</ref> In 1838, the electoral laws were reformed leading to elections for the 15 seats on the city council. The rules were initially very strict, allowing only the wealthiest citizens to run. In the 1844 elections, only 174 citizens qualified out of a total population of more than 7,000.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/da/politik/Byraadet/Byens-raad-dengang/Byens-raad-1838-1868.aspx|titleByens raad 1838–1868|languageda|firstAarhus|lastKommune|websiteAarhus Kommune|publisherAarhus Municipality|access-date21 November 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141129072144/https://www.aarhus.dk/da/politik/Byraadet/Byens-raad-dengang/Byens-raad-1838-1868.aspx|archive-date29 November 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> The first city council, mainly composed of wealthy merchants and industrialists, quickly looked to improve the harbour, situated along the Aarhus River. Larger ships and growing freight volumes made a river harbour increasingly impractical. In 1840, the harbour was moved to the coast, north of the river, where it became the largest industrial harbour outside Copenhagen over the following 15 years. From the outset, the new harbour was controlled by the city council, as it is to this day.<ref name"Byhistorie.dk">{{cite web|urlhttp://blog.byhistorie.dk/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/I-medgang-og-modgang-rapport-over-udviklingen-af-den-moderne-havn-i-Aarhus-fra-o.-1840-2006.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://blog.byhistorie.dk/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/I-medgang-og-modgang-rapport-over-udviklingen-af-den-moderne-havn-i-Aarhus-fra-o.-1840-2006.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|lastAndersen|firstLasse|titleRapport over udviklingen af den moderne havn i Aarhus fra o. 1840–2006|websiteDansk Center for Byhistorie|access-date27 June 2016|language=da}}</ref>
During the First Schleswig War, Aarhus was occupied by German troops from 21 June to 24 July 1849. The city was spared any fighting, but in Vejlby north of the city a cavalry skirmish known as Rytterfægtningen took place which stopped the German advance through Jutland.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/AarhusStadsarkiv/Home/Servicesider/Nyheder/2014/3-kvartal/Ugens-Aarhushistorie-Rytterfaegtningen.aspx?sc_langda|titleUgens Aarhushistorie – Rytterfægtningen|websiteAarhus Stadsarkiv|publisherAarhus Kommune|languageda|access-date22 November 2014|archive-date20 June 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170620103806/http://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/AarhusStadsarkiv/Home/Servicesider/Nyheder/2014/3-kvartal/Ugens-Aarhushistorie-Rytterfaegtningen.aspx?sc_langda|url-statusdead}}</ref> The war and occupation left a notable impact on the city as many streets, particularly on Frederiksbjerg, are named after Danish officers of the time. Fifteen years later, in 1864, the city was occupied again, this time for seven months, during the Second Schleswig War.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://stiften.dk/nyheder/1864-jylland-besat-af-tyske-tropper|title1864 Jylland besat af tyske tropper|firstIvan Freund|lastNielsen|publisherAarhus Stiftstidende|languageda|date10 October 2014|access-date22 November 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141208170205/http://stiften.dk/nyheder/1864-jylland-besat-af-tyske-tropper|archive-date8 December 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://danmarkshistorien.dk/perioder/det-unge-demokrati-1848-1901/treaarskrigen-1848-50-1-slesvigske-krig/|titleDet unge demokrati 1848–1901|publisherAarhus University|firstErik Strange|lastPetersen|languageda|access-date27 June 2016|archive-date19 January 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120119145912/http://danmarkshistorien.dk/perioder/det-unge-demokrati-1848-1901/treaarskrigen-1848-50-1-slesvigske-krig/|url-statusdead}}</ref>
In spite of wars and occupation, the city continued to expand and develop. In 1851, the octroi was abolished and the city walls were removed to provide easier access for trade. Regular steamship links with Copenhagen had begun with the Jylland in 1825–26 and the Dania (1827–36), and in 1862 Jutland's first railway was established between Aarhus and Randers.<ref>{{cite book |titleFælles kræfter. Danske dampskibe indtil 1870, bind III |lastMunchaus Petersen |firstHolger |year1986 |publisherFiskerimuseets Forlag |locationEsbjerg |isbn87-87453-25-8 |page89 |languageda}}</ref><ref name"Byhistorie.dk"/>
In the second half of the 19th&nbsp;century, industrialisation came into full effect and a number of new industries emerged around production and refinement of agricultural products, especially oil and butter. Many companies from this time would come to leave permanent iconic marks on Aarhus. The Ceres Brewery was established in 1856 and served as Aarhus's local brewery for more than 150 years, gradually expanding into an industrial district known as Ceres-grunden (lit.: the Ceres-ground).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ceres.dk/Default.aspx?ID25|lastCeres|titleHistory|access-date27 June 2016|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160328140433/http://www.ceres.dk/Default.aspx?ID25|archive-date28 March 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.hoflev.dk/article.asp?id134|lastCeres|titleCeres Bryggerierne A/S|year2013|websiteHoflev|access-date27 June 2016|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160507181622/http://www.hoflev.dk/article.asp?id134|archive-date7 May 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhusportalen.dk/ceres-grunden.asp|titleCeres-grunden|languageda|publisherAarhusportalen (Jyllands-Posten)|access-date11 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140814092510/http://www.aarhusportalen.dk/ceres-grunden.asp|archive-date14 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> In 1896, local farmers and businessmen created Korn- og Foderstof Kompagniet (KFK), focused on grain and feedstuffs. KFK established departments all over the country, while its headquarters remained in Aarhus where its large grain silos still stand today.{{sfn|Gejl|1996|p1...}}{{sfn|Jansen|1971|p1...}} Otto Mønsted created the Danish Preserved Butter Company in 1874, focusing on butter export to England, China and Africa and later founded the Aarhus Butterine Company in 1883, the first Danish margarine factory.<ref name"Otto">{{cite web|urlhttp://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/otto-moensted-1839-1916/|publisherAarhus University|titleOtto Mønsted (1839–1916)|date26 May 2015|access-date27 June 2016|languageda}}</ref> His company became an important local employer, with factory employees increasing from 100 in 1896 to 1,000 in 1931, partaking in the effective transformation of the city from a regional trade hub to an industrial centre.{{sfn|Travis|1998|p336}} Other new factories of note included the dockyard Aarhus Flydedok and the oil mill Århus Oliefabrik.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idKVFpAAAAMAAJ&qAarhus+Flydedok+%C3%85rhus+Oliefabrik|titleThe Scandinavian Year Book: A Comprehensive Guide to ... - Page 512|publisherDawson|year1953|page=512}}</ref>
Aarhus became the largest provincial city in the country by the turn of the century and the city marketed itself as the "Capital of Jutland". The population increased from 15,000 in 1870 to 52,000 in 1901 and, in response, the city annexed large land areas to develop new residential quarters such as Trøjborg, Frederiksbjerg and Marselisborg.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/registranter/frederiksbjerg/side1.htm |titleFrederiksbjerg Øst – Århus |languageda |authorMagistratens 2. Afdeling |year1979 |websiteKommuneatlas |publisherAarhus Municipality |access-date15 August 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304022939/http://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/registranter/frederiksbjerg/side1.htm |archive-date4 March 2016}}</ref> Many of its cultural institutions were also established at this time such as Aarhus Theatre (1900), the original State Library (1902), Aarhus University (1928) and several hospitals.<ref>Aarhus County Hospital, 1882, Aarhus Municipal Hospital (1893), Marselisborg Hospital (1913).</ref>Second World War
in the harbour]]
On 9 April 1940, Nazi Germany invaded Denmark, occupying Aarhus the following day; the occupation lasted for five years. This was a destructive period with major disasters, loss of life and economic depression. The Port of Aarhus became a hub for supplies to the Baltics and Norway, while the surrounding rail network supplied the Atlantic Wall in west Jutland and cargo headed for Germany. Combined, these factors resulted in a strong German presence, especially in 1944–45.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhuswiki.dk/wiki/Den_tyske_bes%C3%A6ttelse|titleAarhus Besættelse|publisherAarhus City Archives|access-date8 April 2016}}</ref>
fighting with German soldiers, 5 May 1945]]
Small resistance groups first appeared in 1941–42 but the first to co-ordinate with the Freedom Council was the Samsing Group, responsible for most operations from early 1943.{{sfn|Hansen|1946|p13}}{{sfn|Alenius|2002|p34}} The Samsing group, along with others in and around Aarhus, was dismantled in June 1944 when Grethe "Thora" Bartram turned her family and acquaintances over to German authorities.{{sfn|Kristensen|2010|p52}} In response, requests for assistance were sent to contacts in England and in October 1944 the Royal Air Force bombed the Gestapo headquarters successfully destroying archives and obstructing the ongoing investigation.{{sfn|Zabecki|1999|pp1350–1}}{{sfn|Trenear-Harvey|2009|p=2}}
In the summer of 1944 the Copenhagen-based resistance group Holger Danske helped establish the 5 Kolonne group and an SOE agent arrived from England to liaison with the L-groups.{{sfn|Hauerbach|1945|p8}} Subsequently, resistance operations escalated which was countered with Schalburgtage terror operations by the Peter group.{{sfn|Hauerbach|1945|p22}}{{sfn|Knudsen|2009|p76}} The increasingly destructive occupation was compounded when an ammunition barge exploded in July 1944, destroying much of the harbour area.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://stiften.dk/aarhus/70-aar-siden-eksplosionen-paa-aarhus-havn|title70 aar siden eksplosionen|newspaperÅrhus Stiftstidende|access-date21 November 2014}}</ref> On 5 May 1945 German forces in Denmark surrendered but during the transitional period fighting broke out resulting in 22 dead.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/ECE4463374/blodbad-pa-bispetorvet/|titleBlodbad på Bispetorvet|date10 April 1948 |publisherJyllandsposten|access-date21 November 2014}}</ref> On 8 May the British Royal Dragoons entered the city.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.befrielsen1945.dk/erindringer/indsendte/205.html|titleThe Royal Dragoons ankomst til Danmark|publisher5. Maj-Komiteen|access-date8 April 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160415165405/http://www.befrielsen1945.dk/erindringer/indsendte/205.html|archive-date15 April 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref>Post-World War II yearsIn the 1970s and 1980s the city entered a period of rapid economic growth and the service sector overtook trade, industry and crafts as the leading sector of employment for the first time.<ref namedhdk/> Workers gradually began commuting to the city from most of east and central Jutland as the region became more interconnected. The student population tripled between 1965 and 1977 turning the city into a Danish centre of research and education.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.au.dk/om/profil/historie/aarstal/|titleVIGTIGE ÅRSTAL|publisherAarhus Universitet|access-date23 November 2014}}</ref> The growing and comparably young population initiated a period of creativity and optimism; Gaffa and the KaosPilot school were founded in 1983 and 1991 respectively, and Aarhus was at the centre of a renaissance in Danish rock and pop music launching bands and musicians such as TV2, Gnags, Thomas Helmig, Bamses Venner, Anne Dorte Michelsen, Mek Pek and Shit & Chanel.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dengamleby.dk/aarhusrocks/|titleAarhus Rocks|publisherDen Gamle By|access-date23 November 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141112122249/http://www.dengamleby.dk/aarhusrocks/|archive-date12 November 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.nordeafonden.dk/aarhus-rocks-byen-og-musikken-1960-2014|titleByen og Musikken 1960–2914|publisherNordeaFonden|access-date23 November 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150725070116/http://nordeafonden.dk/aarhus-rocks-byen-og-musikken-1960-2014|archive-date25 July 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_geografi/Jylland/Jylland_-_byer/%C3%85rhus/%C3%85rhus_(Musikliv)|titleAarhus – rytmisk musik|publisherGyldendal|access-date27 July 2015}}</ref>
The 2000s
Since the turn of the millennium, Aarhus has seen an unprecedented building boom with many new institutions, infrastructure projects, city districts and recreational areas. Several of the construction projects are among the largest in Europe, such as the New University Hospital (DNU) and the harbourfront redevelopment.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://archello.com/project/aarhus-university-hospital---auh|titleHospital City on a Human Scale - the New University Hospital in Aarhus|publisherArchello|access-date25 January 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://trap.lex.dk/Aarhus_Havn|titleAarhus Havn|dateNovember 2019 |publisherlex: TrapDanmark|access-date25 January 2023 |languageda}}</ref>
Both the skyline and land use of the inner city is changing, as former industrial sites are being redeveloped into new city districts and neighbourhoods. Starting in 2008, the former docklands known as De Bynære Havnearealer (The Peri-urban Harbour-areas), and closest to the city seaside, are being converted to new mixed-use districts. It is among the largest harbourfront projects in Europe. The northern part dubbed Aarhus Ø (Aarhus Docklands) is almost finished as of 2018, while the southern district dubbed Sydhavnskvarteret (The South-harbour neighbourhood) is only starting to be developed.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/da/politik/Politikker-og-planer/Byudvikling-og-planlaegning/De-Bynaere-Havnearealer.aspx|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180422202630/https://www.aarhus.dk/da/politik/Politikker-og-planer/Byudvikling-og-planlaegning/De-Bynaere-Havnearealer.aspx|url-statusdead|titleDe Bynære Havnearealer|archive-date22 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.businessaarhus.dk/da/Fremtidens-Aarhus/Udviklingsomraader/Aarhus-Oe.aspx|titleBusiness Aarhus, Aarhus Ø|publisherBusiness Aarhus|access-date20 November 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141129062245/http://www.businessaarhus.dk/da/Fremtidens-Aarhus/Udviklingsomraader/Aarhus-Oe.aspx|archive-date29 November 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>[http://www.aarhus.dk/da/erhverv/byggeri-og-grunde/Byudvikling/Sydhavnskvarteret.aspx Sydhavnskvarteret] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180423033243/http://www.aarhus.dk/da/erhverv/byggeri-og-grunde/Byudvikling/Sydhavnskvarteret.aspx |date23 April 2018}} {{in lang|da}}</ref> The adjacent site of Frederiks Plads at the former DSB repair facilities have been under construction since 2014 as a new business and residential quarter.<ref>Official homepage: [http://frederiksplads.dk/ Frederiks Plads] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180502171159/http://frederiksplads.dk/ |date2 May 2018}} {{in lang|da}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.frederiksplads.dk/projekter/id%C3%A9en.aspx|titleFrederiks Plads|publisherNCC Property Development A/S|access-date20 November 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141129040101/http://www.frederiksplads.dk/projekter/id%C3%A9en.aspx|archive-date29 November 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.cfmoller.com/g/Frederiks-Plads-ny-bydel-i-centrum-af-Aarhus-i13235.html|titleFrederiks Plads|publisherC. F. Møller|access-date20 November 2014}}</ref> The main bus terminal close by is planned to be moved to the central railway station and the site will be redeveloped to a new residential neighbourhood.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhus.lokalavisen.dk/stor-ombygning-af-aarhus-h-fremrykkes-/20140530/artikler/706039475/1449|titleStor ombygning af Aarhus H Fremrykkes|publisherLokalavisen Aarhus|access-date20 November 2014|archive-date7 February 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160207153126/http://aarhus.lokalavisen.dk/stor-ombygning-af-aarhus-h-fremrykkes-/20140530/artikler/706039475/1449|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.businessaarhus.dk/da/Fremtidens-Aarhus/Udviklingsomraader/Rutebilstationen.aspx|titleBusiness Aarhus, Rutebilstation|publisherBusiness Aarhus|access-date20 November 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141129062121/http://www.businessaarhus.dk/da/Fremtidens-Aarhus/Udviklingsomraader/Rutebilstationen.aspx|archive-date29 November 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Elsewhere in the inner city, the site of the former Ceres breweries was redeveloped in 2012–2019 as a new mixed use neighbourhood known as CeresByen.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://ceresbyen.dk/ |titleCeresByen.dk|publisherCeresByen |access-date=20 November 2014}}</ref>
Construction of Aarhus Letbane, the first light rail system in the country, commenced in 2013, and the first increment was finished in December 2017.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://stiften.dk/aarhus/Letbanen-aabner-torsdag-med-gratis-ture/artikel/491217|titleLetbanen åbner torsdag med gratis ture|trans-titleThe light rail opens thursday with free rides|newspaperÅrhus Stiftstidende|authorCamilla Wilhardt Boesen|date21 December 2017|access-date20 November 2014}}</ref> Since then, the lightrail service has been expanded with two intercity sections to the towns of Odder and Grenå, respectively, and also includes a northward leg to the suburb of Lisbjerg.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://stiften.dk/aarhus/Sidste-tests-Snart-er-Odderbanen-klar-til-passagerer/artikel/526303|titleSidste tests: Snart er Odderbanen klar til passagerer|trans-titleLast tests: Soon Odderbanen is ready for passengers|newspaperÅrhus Stiftstidende|date31 July 2018|access-date3 August 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190802235702/https://stiften.dk/aarhus/Sidste-tests-Snart-er-Odderbanen-klar-til-passagerer/artikel/526303|archive-date2 August 2019|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.letbanen.dk/nyheder/nyheder/2019/grenaa-driftsstart/|titleLetbanen åbner for passagerdrift til Grenaa 30. april|date24 April 2019 |publisherLetbanen|access-date3 August 2019}}</ref> The light rail system is planned to tie many other suburbs closer to central Aarhus in the future, with the next phase including local lines to Brabrand in the east and Hinnerup to the north.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.letbanen.dk/nyheder/nyheder/2018/33-etape-2-ruller-videre/|titleGrønt lys fra politikerne: Etape 2 ruller videre|date26 June 2018 |trans-titleGreen light from the politicians: Stage 2 rolls on|publisherLetbanen|access-date=3 August 2019}}</ref>
Accelerating growth since the early 2000s, brought the inner urban area to roughly 260,000 inhabitants by 2014. The rapid growth is expected to continue until at least 2030 when Aarhus municipality has set an ambitious target for 375,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/da/aarhus/FremtidensAarhus1.aspx|titleFremtidens Aarhus|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date20 November 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141129063823/http://www.aarhus.dk/da/aarhus/FremtidensAarhus1.aspx|archive-date29 November 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>GeographyAarhus is located at the Bay of Aarhus facing the Kattegat sea in the east with the peninsulas of Mols and Helgenæs across the bay to the northeast. Mols and Helgenæs are both part of the larger regional peninsula of Djursland. A number of larger cities and towns is within easy reach from Aarhus by road and rail, including Randers ({{convert|38.5|km}} by road north), Grenå (northeast), Horsens ({{convert|50|km}} south) and Silkeborg ({{convert|44|km}} east).<ref name"GM">{{Google maps|urlhttp://www.freemaptools.com/how-far-is-it-between.htm|access-date18 December 2014}}</ref>
Topography
At Aarhus's location, the Bay of Aarhus provides a natural harbour with a depth of {{convert|10|m|abbron}} quite close to the shore.{{sfn|Olsen|2000|p124}} Aarhus was founded at the mouth of a brackish water fjord, but the original fjord no longer exists, as it has gradually narrowed into what is now the Aarhus River and the Brabrand Lake, due to natural sedimentation. The land around Aarhus was once covered by forests, remains of which exist in parts of Marselisborg Forest to the south and Riis Skov to the north.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_geografi/Jylland/Riis_Skov|titleRiis Skov|publisherGyldendal|access-date28 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dengamleby.dk/museum-aarhus/malerier-fra-aarhus/marselisborgskovene/ |titleMarselisborgskovene |publisherDen Gamle By |access-date27 July 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140306053230/http://www.dengamleby.dk/museum-aarhus/malerier-fra-aarhus/marselisborgskovene/ |archive-date6 March 2014}}</ref> Several lakes extend west from the inner city as the landscape merges with the larger region of Søhøjlandet with heights exceeding {{convert|152|m|ft}} at Himmelbjerget between Skanderborg and Silkeborg.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/Dokumenter/Teknik-og-Miljoe/Natur-og-Miljoe/Ud-i-naturen/Stier-og-ruter/6-infotavler-Vandreruten-Aarhus-Silkeborg.ashx|titleVandreruten Aarhus-Silkeborg|publisherAarhus.dk|access-date1 August 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140809204445/http://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/Dokumenter/Teknik-og-Miljoe/Natur-og-Miljoe/Ud-i-naturen/Stier-og-ruter/6-infotavler-Vandreruten-Aarhus-Silkeborg.ashx|archive-date9 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> The highest natural point in Aarhus Municipality is Jelshøj at 128 metres above sea level, in the southern district of Højbjerg. The hilltop is home to a Bronze Age barrow shrouded in local myths and legends.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://fortidsmindeguide.dk/Jelshoej.br011.0.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110518173721/http://www.fortidsmindeguide.dk/Jelshoej.br011.0.html |url-statusdead |archive-date18 May 2011 |titleJelshøj – en storhøj fra bronzealderen |languageda |publisherDanmarks Kulturarvs Forening (DAKUA) |access-date15 October 2017}}</ref>
The hilly area around Aarhus consists of a morainal plateau from the last ice age, broken by a complex system of tunnel valleys. The most prominent valleys of this network are the Aarhus Valley in the south, stretching inland east–west with the Aarhus River, Brabrand Lake, Årslev Lake and Tåstrup Lake, and the Egå Valley to the north, with the stream of Egåen, Egå Engsø, the bog of Geding-Kasted Mose and Geding Lake. Most parts of the two valleys have been drained and subsequently farmed, but in the early 2000s some of the drainage was removed and parts of the wetlands were restored for environmental reasons. The valley system also includes the stream of Lyngbygård Å in the west and valleys to the south of the city, following erosion channels from the pre-quaternary. By contrast, the Aarhus River Valley and the Giber River Valley are late glacial meltwater valleys. The coastal cliffs along the Bay of Aarhus consist of shallow tertiary clay from the Eocene and Oligocene (57 to 24 million years ago).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_geografi/Danmarks_kommuner/%C3%85rhus_Kommune|titleAarhus Kommune|publisherGyldendal|access-date19 July 2014|languageda|archive-date2 May 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160502021559/http://denstoredanske.dk/Danmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_geografi/Danmarks_kommuner/%c3%85rhus_Kommune|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://extra.geus.info/web/nm-grundvand-brabrand-dalen.htm|titleBrabrand Dalen|date13 January 2005|publisherAarhus County|access-date9 April 2016|languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://ntsnet.dk/sites/default/files/%C3%85rhus%20%C3%85dal.pdf|titleAarhus Ådal|publisherDanish Ministry of Education|access-date9 April 2016|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304000141/http://ntsnet.dk/sites/default/files/%C3%85rhus%20%C3%85dal.pdf|archive-date4 March 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/|titleLandskab og bebyggelse|publisherAarhus Municipality|access-date9 April 2016|languageda|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130914192312/http://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/|archive-date14 September 2013|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Climate
{{climate chart
|East Jutland
|−2.7|2.4|60
|−2.8|2.5|41
|−0.9|5.4|48
|1.2|10.5|42
|5.5|15.8|50
|9.2|18.9|55
|11.3|21.2|67
|11.1|20.8|65
|7.8|16.3|72
|5.0|11.8|77
|1.5|6.9|80
|−0.9|4.1|68
|float=right
|clear=none
|units=metric
|sourceDansk Meteorologisk Institut<ref name"DMI-climate"/>}}
Aarhus has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb)<ref name"climate-data">{{cite web|urlhttp://en.climate-data.org/country/169/|titleClimate: Denmark, Aarhus|publisherClimate Data|languageda|access-date25 October 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161026165109/http://en.climate-data.org/country/169/|archive-date26 October 2016|url-statuslive}}, Note:The Köppen World Map is rather course-scaled, and not very useful or precise on scales the size of Denmark.</ref> and the weather is constantly influenced by major weather systems from all four ordinal directions, resulting in unstable conditions throughout the year.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.dmi.dk/vejr/til-lands/maaned-og-saeson/vejrkorset-efteraarsvejrets-fire-hjoerner/ |titleVejrkorset - efterårsvejrets fire hjørner |trans-titleThe Weathercross - the four corners of autumn weather |publisherDanish Meteorological Institute |languageda |first1Michael|last1Skelbæk|first2Niels|last2Hansen|date16 September 2015 |access-date14 February 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180215024207/https://www.dmi.dk/vejr/til-lands/maaned-og-saeson/vejrkorset-efteraarsvejrets-fire-hjoerner/ |archive-date15 February 2018 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Temperature varies a great deal across the seasons with a mild spring in April and May, warmer summer months from June to August, frequently rainy and windy autumn months in October and September and cooler winter months, often with frost and occasional snow, from December to March. The city centre experiences the same climatic effects as other larger cities with higher wind speeds, more fog, less precipitation and higher temperatures than the surrounding, open land.<ref name"WeatherOnline">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/climate/Denmark.htm |titleDenmark |publisherWeatherOnline |access-date24 November 2014 |language=da}}</ref>
Western winds from the Atlantic and North Sea are dominant resulting in more precipitation in western Denmark. In addition, Jutland rises sufficiently in the centre to lift air to higher, colder altitudes contributing to increased precipitation in eastern Jutland. Combined, these factors make east and south Jutland comparatively wetter than other parts of the country.<ref name"DMI-climate"/> Average temperature over the year is {{convert|8.43|°C}} with February being the coldest month ({{convert|0.1|C|F|dispor}}) and August the warmest ({{convert|15.9|C|F|dispor}}). Temperatures in the sea can reach {{convert|17|-|22|C|F}} in June to August, but it is not uncommon for beaches to register {{convert|25|C|F}} locally.<ref name"WeatherOnline"/><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ditdanmark.com/article.95.html |titleThe climate in Denmark |publisherDitDanmark |access-date9 January 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305212556/http://www.ditdanmark.com/article.95.html |archive-date=5 March 2016}}</ref>
The geography in the area affects the local climate of the city with the Aarhus Bay imposing a temperate effect on the low-lying valley floor where central Aarhus is located. Brabrand Lake to the west further contributes to this effect and as a result, the valley has a comparably mild, temperate climate. The sandy ground on the valley floor dries up quickly after winter and warms faster in the summer than the surrounding hills of moist-retaining boulder clay. These conditions affect crops and plants that often bloom 1–2 weeks earlier in the valley than on the northern and southern hillsides.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/index.php?titleDanmarks_geografi_og_historie/Danmarks_geografi/Danmarks_kommuner/%C3%85rhus_Kommune|titleAarhus Kommune|publisherGyldendal|access-date23 November 2014|languageda}}</ref>
Because of the northern latitude, the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter. On the summer solstice, the sun rises at 04:26 and sets at 21:58, providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight. On the winter solstice, it rises at 08:37 and sets at 15:39 with 7 hours and 2 minutes of daylight. The difference in length of days and nights between summer and winter solstices is 10 hours and 30 minutes.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.torbenhermansen.dk/almanak/almanak.php#|titleSol op/ned |publisherAlmanak|access-date17 November 2013|language=da}}</ref>
{{Weather box|width=auto
|collapsed=yes
|location=East Jutland (Tirstrup) (1961–1990)
|metric first=Yes
|single line=Yes
|Jan high C = 2.4
|Feb high C = 2.5
|Mar high C = 5.4
|Apr high C = 10.5
|May high C = 15.8
|Jun high C = 18.9
|Jul high C = 21.2
|Aug high C = 20.8
|Sep high C = 16.3
|Oct high C = 11.8
|Nov high C = 6.9
|Dec high C = 4.1
|year high C= 11.4
|Jan mean C= 0.2
|Feb mean C= 0.1
|Mar mean C= 2.3
|Apr mean C= 5.8
|May mean C= 10.8
|Jun mean C= 14.1
|Jul mean C= 16.2
|Aug mean C= 15.9
|Sep mean C= 12.1
|Oct mean C= 8.7
|Nov mean C= 4.4
|Dec mean C= 1.8
|Jan low C= -2.7
|Feb low C= −2.8
|Mar low C= -0.9
|Apr low C= 1.2
|May low C= 5.5
|Jun low C= 9.2
|Jul low C= 11.3
|Aug low C= 11.8
|Sep low C= 7.8
|Oct low C= 5.0
|Nov low C= 1.5
|Dec low C= -0.9
|year low C= 3.8
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm=60
|Feb precipitation mm=41
|Mar precipitation mm=48
|Apr precipitation mm=42
|May precipitation mm=50
|Jun precipitation mm=55
|Jul precipitation mm=67
|Aug precipitation mm=65
|Sep precipitation mm=72
|Oct precipitation mm=77
|Nov precipitation mm=80
|Dec precipitation mm=68
|year precipitation mm=722
|unit rain days=1mm
|Jan rain days=11
|Feb rain days=8
|Mar rain days=7
|Apr rain days=9
|May rain days=9
|Jun rain days=9
|Jul rain days=10
|Aug rain days=10
|Sep rain days=11
|Oct rain days=11
|Nov rain days=13
|Dec rain days=12
|Jan sun=41
|Feb sun=75
|Mar sun=141
|Apr sun=207
|May sun=254
|Jun sun=251
|Jul sun=243
|Aug sun=239
|Sep sun=165
|Oct sun=101
|Nov sun=65
|Dec sun=45
|year sun=1827
|source {{cite web|urlhttps://www.dmi.dk/vejrarkiv/|title=Danish Meteorological Institute}}
}}
Politics and administration
{{For|further information about politics|Aarhus Municipality|List of mayors of Aarhus}}
Aarhus is the seat of Aarhus Municipality, and Aarhus City Council (Aarhus Byråd) is also the municipal government with headquarters in Aarhus City Hall. The Mayor of Aarhus since 2010 is Jacob Bundsgaard of the Social Democrats.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhus.lokalavisen.dk/nyheder/2017-11-22/-Jacob-Bundsgaard-forts%C3%A6tter-som-borgmester-i-Aarhus-Kommune-915580.html|titleJacob Bundsgaard fortsætter som borgmester i Aarhus Kommune|trans-titleJacob Bundsgaard continues as Mayor in Aarhus Municipality|publisherLokalavisen|date22 November 2017|access-date10 June 2018|archive-date12 June 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612141015/http://aarhus.lokalavisen.dk/nyheder/2017-11-22/-Jacob-Bundsgaard-forts%C3%A6tter-som-borgmester-i-Aarhus-Kommune-915580.html|url-statusdead}}</ref> Municipal elections are held every fourth year on the third Tuesday of November with the next election in 2025. The city council consists of 31 members elected for four-year terms. When an election has determined the composition of the council, it elects a mayor, two deputy mayors and five aldermen from their ranks.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/da/politik/byraadet.aspx|titleByråd|publisherAarhus Municipality|date15 July 2003|access-date10 July 2014|languageda|archive-date1 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140801103827/http://www.aarhus.dk/da/politik/Byraadet.aspx|url-statusdead}}</ref> Anyone who is eligible to vote and who resides within the municipality can run for a seat on the city council provided they can secure endorsements and signatures from 50 inhabitants of the municipality.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/politik/Valg/For-kandidater/Stillere.aspx|titleStillere|publisherAarhus Municipality|date6 August 2015|access-date6 August 2015|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160207161204/http://www.aarhus.dk/politik/Valg/For-kandidater/Stillere.aspx|archive-date7 February 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The first publicly elected mayor of Aarhus was appointed in 1919. In the 1970 Danish Municipal Reform the current Aarhus municipality was created by merging 20 municipalities.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhuswiki.dk/wiki/Aarhus_Kommune|titleAarhus Kommune|publisherAarhus Universitet|access-date6 August 2014 |languageda}}</ref> Aarhus was the seat of Aarhus County until the 2007 Danish municipal reform, which substituted the Danish counties with five regions and replaced Aarhus County with Central Denmark Region (Region Midtjylland), seated in Viborg.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.rm.dk/om-os/|titleOm os|publisherRegion Midtjylland|access-date23 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref>
Subdivisions
Aarhus Municipality has 45 electoral wards and polling stations in four electoral districts for the Folketing (national Parliament).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/da/politik/Valg/Find-dit-valgsted/Distrikter.aspx|titleFind dit valgsted|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date3 August 2015|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150621041735/http://www.aarhus.dk/da/politik/Valg/Find-dit-valgsted/Distrikter.aspx|archive-date21 June 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref> The diocese of Aarhus has four deaneries composed of 60 parishes within Aarhus municipality.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhusstift.dk/om/|titleOm Aarhus Stift|publisherAarhus Stift|access-date3 August 2015|languageda|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161022202943/http://aarhusstift.dk/om/|archive-date22 October 2016}}</ref> Aarhus municipality contains 21 postal districts and some parts of another 9.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.postdanmark.dk/da/Documents/Lister/regionsopdelt-postnummer-excel.xls|titleRegionsopdelt Postnummer|publisherPostdanmark|access-date3 August 2015|languageda}}</ref> The urban area of Aarhus and the immediate suburbs are divided into the districts Aarhus C, Aarhus N, Aarhus V, Viby J, Højbjerg and Brabrand.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://postal-codes.cybo.com/denmark/aarhus/|title9 Postal Codes in Aarhus, Central Denmark Region|publisherCybo|access-date25 January 2023}}</ref> Environmental planning
{{main|Energy in Denmark}}
. The lakes and wetlands of Årslev Engsø and Egå Engsø were re-established in the 2000s to help manage the water cycle.]]
<!--- Energy --->
Aarhus has increasingly been investing in environmental planning and, in accordance with national policy, aims to be {{chem|CO|2}}-neutral and independent of fossil fuels for heating by 2030.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://stateofgreen.com/en/profiles/city-of-aarhus/solutions/co2-neutrality-by-2030-an-aim-for-a-growing-aarhus|titleCO2-neutrality by 2030 – an aim for a growing Aarhus|publisherState of Green|access-date10 June 2018|archive-date15 May 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150515224956/http://stateofgreen.com/en/profiles/city-of-aarhus/solutions/co2-neutrality-by-2030-an-aim-for-a-growing-aarhus|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/CityOfAarhus/Home/activityareas/Climate-and-the-environment.aspx?sc_langda|titleClimate and the Environment|publisherAarhus Municipality|date20 March 2012|access-date10 June 2018|archive-date12 June 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612142752/http://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/CityOfAarhus/Home/activityareas/Climate-and-the-environment.aspx?sc_langda|url-statusdead}}</ref> The municipal power plants were adapted for this purpose in the 2010s. In 2015, the municipality took over three private straw-fired heating plants and the year after, a new 77 MW combined heat and power biomass plant at Lisbjerg Power Station was completed while Studstrup Power Station finished a refit to move from coal to wood chips.<ref name"Østjydsk Halm">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/eDoc/1/3/0/1304008-1763186-1-pdf.pdf |titleOvertagelse af Østjydsk Halmvarmes halmvarmeværker |publisherAarhus Municipality |languageda |access-date22 January 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171015095145/https://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/eDoc/1/3/0/1304008-1763186-1-pdf.pdf |archive-date15 October 2017 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"Grøn varme">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/affaldvarmeaarhus/Home/Om-AffaldVarme-Aarhus/NewsList/2016/3-kvartal/PM-Nu-er-varmen-groen.aspx?sc_langda |titleNu er varmen grøn |publisherAarhus Municipality |languageda |access-date22 January 2017 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20240528011909/https://www.webcitation.org/6nhdnvF1M?urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/affaldvarmeaarhus/Home/Om-AffaldVarme-Aarhus/NewsList/2016/3-kvartal/PM-Nu-er-varmen-groen.aspx%3Fsc_langda |archive-date28 May 2024 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In conjunction with the development of the Docklands district there are plans for a utility-scale seawater heat pump which will take advantage of fluctuating electricity prices to supply the district heating system.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/affaldvarmeaarhus/Home/Varme/Varmeplan-Aarhus/Varmeproduktion/Energianlaeg-Aarhus-Oe.aspx?sc_langda|titleEnergianlæg Aarhus Ø|trans-titleEnergy plant Aarhus Ø|languageda|publisherAarhus Municipality|date25 October 2016|access-date10 June 2018|archive-date12 June 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612142946/https://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/affaldvarmeaarhus/Home/Varme/Varmeplan-Aarhus/Varmeproduktion/Energianlaeg-Aarhus-Oe.aspx?sc_langda|url-statusdead}}</ref> Since 2015, the city has been implementing energy-saving LED technology in street lighting; by January 2019, about half of the municipal street lighting had been changed. Apart from reducing the city's CO<sub>2</sub> emissions, it saves 30% on the electricity bill, thereby making it a self-financed project over a 20-year period.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://aarhus.dk/nyt/teknik-og-miljoe/2019/januar-2019/aarhus-skriver-historie-med-nye-gadelamper/ |titleAarhus skriver historie med nye gadelamper |languageda |publisherAarhus Municipality |trans-titleAarhus writes history with new street lights |date22 January 2019 |access-date14 April 2019 |archive-date14 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190414150342/https://aarhus.dk/nyt/teknik-og-miljoe/2019/januar-2019/aarhus-skriver-historie-med-nye-gadelamper/ |url-statusdead }}</ref>
<!--- Water --->
The municipality aims for a coherent and holistic administration of the water cycle to protect against, and clean up previous, pollution as well as encourage green growth and self-sufficiency. The main issues are excessive nutrients, adapting to increased (and increasing) levels of precipitation brought on by climate change, and securing the water supply.<ref name"VandVision">{{cite web |urlhttps://aarhus.dk/demokrati/politikker-og-planer/natur-og-miljoe/vandvision2100/ |titleVand Vision 2100 |publisherAarhus Municipality |languageda |access-date14 April 2019}}</ref> These goals have manifested in a number of large water treatment projects often in collaboration with private partners. In the 2000s, underground rainwater basins were built across the city while the two lakes Årslev Engsø and Egå Engsø were created in 2003 and 2006 respectively. The number of sewage treatment plants is planned to be reduced from 17 to 2 by 2025, as the treatment plants in Marselisborg and Egå are scheduled for expansion to take over all waste water treatment. They have already been refitted for biogas production to become net producers of electricity and heat.<ref name"Marspower">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/2114761-worlds-first-city-to-power-its-water-needs-with-sewage-energy/|titleWorld's first city to power its water needs with sewage energy|workNew Scientist|languageda|firstKata |lastKaráth |date1 September 2016 |access-date14 April 2019}}</ref><ref name"Egåpower">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aarhusportalen.dk/nyheder-om-miljoe-og-energi.asp?AjrDcmntId42435 |titleEpokegørende teknologi får strømmen til at flyde |publisherAarhus Municipality |languageda |access-date22 January 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160419090759/http://www.aarhusportalen.dk/nyheder-om-miljoe-og-energi.asp?AjrDcmntId42435 |archive-date19 April 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref> To aid the new treatment plants, and avoid floodings, sewage and stormwater throughout the municipality is planned to be separated into two different drainage systems. Construction began in 2017 in several areas, but it is a long process that is scheduled to be finished by 2085.<ref name"SepKloak">{{cite web|urlhttps://aarhus.dk/borger/bolig-byggeri-og-miljoe/miljoe-og-kloak/vand-og-kloak/separatkloakering/|titleSeparatkloakering|publisherAarhus Municipality|languageda|access-date14 April 2019|archive-date14 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190414215822/https://aarhus.dk/borger/bolig-byggeri-og-miljoe/miljoe-og-kloak/vand-og-kloak/separatkloakering/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/da/borger/bolig-og-byggeri/Kommuneplanlaegning/~/media/Dokumenter/Teknik-og-Miljoe/Planlaegning-og-Byggeri/Kommuneplan/Klimatilpasningsplan-2014-december.pdf|titleKlimatilpasningsplan 2014 - Tilpasning til mere vand|languageda|publisherAarhus Municipality|access-date27 October 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171027125758/http://www.aarhus.dk/da/borger/bolig-og-byggeri/Kommuneplanlaegning/~/media/Dokumenter/Teknik-og-Miljoe/Planlaegning-og-Byggeri/Kommuneplan/Klimatilpasningsplan-2014-december.pdf|archive-date27 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
<!--- Afforestation and rewilding --->
Afforestation projects have been undertaken to prevent groundwater pollution, secure drinking water, sequester {{chem|CO|2}}, increase biodiversity, create an attractive countryside, provide easy access to nature and offer outdoor activities to the public. In 2000, the first project, the New Forests of Aarhus, was completed, which aimed to double the forest cover in the municipality and, in 2009, another phase was announced to double forest cover once more before the year 2030.<ref name"Skov2020">{{cite web |urlhttps://aarhus.dk/media/5158/skovudviklingsplan-2010-2020.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://aarhus.dk/media/5158/skovudviklingsplan-2010-2020.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|titleSkovudviklingsplan 2010 -2020 |publisherAarhus Municipality |languageda |access-date14 April 2019}}</ref> The afforestation plans were realised as a local project in collaboration with private landowners, under a larger national agenda.<ref name"NyeSkove">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/gogreenwithaarhus/Home/Maal/Attraktiv-by/Nye-skove-sikrer-drikkevand-natur-og-friluftsliv.aspx?sc_langda |titleNye skove sikrer drikkevand, natur og friluftsliv |publisherAarhus Municipality |languageda |access-date22 January 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160207153418/http://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/gogreenwithaarhus/Home/Maal/Attraktiv-by/Nye-skove-sikrer-drikkevand-natur-og-friluftsliv.aspx?sc_langda |archive-date7 February 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Other projects to expand natural habitats include a rewilding effort in Geding-Kasted Bog and continuous monitoring of the four Natura 2000 areas in the municipality.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/Dokumenter/Teknik-og-Miljoe/Natur-og-Miljoe/Natur-og-landskab/Naturkvalitetsplan/Naturkvalitetsplan-2013-2030.pdf|titleNaturkvalitetsplan 2013 - 2030|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date25 January 2023|languageda|archive-date16 January 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170116174519/https://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/Dokumenter/Teknik-og-Miljoe/Natur-og-Miljoe/Natur-og-landskab/Naturkvalitetsplan/Naturkvalitetsplan-2013-2030.pdf|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Demographics
{| class="wikitable floatright"
|+ Main immigrant groups<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.statbank.dk/10024|titleFOLK1C: FOLKETAL DEN 1. I KVARTALET EFTER OMRÅDE, KØN, ALDER (5-ÅRS INTERVALLER), HERKOMST OG OPRINDELSESLAND|workStatistics Denmark}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.statbank.dk/statbank5a/SelectOut/PxSort.asp?file2023623184220423062037FOLK1C&PLanguage1&MainTableFOLK1C&MainTablePrestextPopulation%20at%20the%20first%20day%20of%20the%20quarter&potsize241 | titleStatistikbanken - data og tal }}</ref>
|-
! Nationality || Population in 2017 || Population in 2023
|-
|{{flag|Lebanon}} || 5,030 || 5,240
|-
|{{flag|Somalia}} || 4,554 || 4,905
|-
|{{flag|Turkey}} || 4,370 || 4,362
|-
|{{flag|Iraq}} || 3,688 || 3,916
|-
|{{flag|Iran}} || 2,577 || 3,043
|-
|{{flag|Vietnam}} || 2,551 || 2,578
|-
|{{flag|Germany}} || 2,261 || 2,551
|-
|{{flag|Poland}} || 2,235 || 2,672
|-
|{{flag|Afghanistan}} || 2,092 || 2,591
|-
|{{flag|Romania}} || 1,983 || 2,678
|}
{{See also|Religion in Denmark}}
Aarhus has a population of 261,570 on {{convert|91|km2|sqmi|sortableon}} for a density of 2,874/km<sup>2</sup> (7,444/sq mi).<ref name"DSPopulation"/> Aarhus municipality has a population of 330,639 on 468&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> with a density of 706/km<sup>2</sup> (1,829/sq mi). Less than a fifth of the municipal population resides beyond city limits and almost all live in an urban area.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.noegletal.dk/|titleBefolkningsandel i bymæssig bebyggelse|publisherØkonomi og Indenrigsministeriet|access-date8 December 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180208230627/http://www.noegletal.dk/|archive-date8 February 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref> The population of Aarhus is both younger and better-educated than the national average which can be attributed to the high concentration of educational institutions.<ref name"Ojylbu">{{cite web|urlhttp://vbn.aau.dk/en/publications/fremtidens-byudvikling-i-oestjylland%2874466d00-7cf0-11dc-97b9-000ea68e967b%29.html|formatPDF|titleFremtidens Byudvikling i Østjylland|year2007|author((Peter Bro, PhD-studerende, MSc, Aalborg Universitet))|author2((Henrik Harder, Lektor, PhD HD.O MAA, Aalborg Universitet))|languageda|access-date10 July 2014}}</ref> More than 40% of the population have an academic degree while only some 14% have no secondary education or trade.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.noegletal.dk/|titleØIMs Kommunale Nøgletal, Aarhus Kommune, Andel 25-64-årige med videregående uddannelse|publisherØkonomi og Indenrigsministeriet|access-date8 December 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180208230627/http://www.noegletal.dk/|archive-date8 February 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref> The largest age group is 20- to 29-year-olds and the average age is 37.5, making it the youngest city in the country and one of its youngest municipalities.<ref name"Danmarks Statistik: FOLK1">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.statistikbanken.dk/|titleFOLK1: Folketal den 1|publisherDanmarks Statistik|access-date8 December 2014|languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.statistikbanken.dk/|titleGALDER: Gennemsnitsalder 1. januar efter kommune og køn|publisherDanmarks Statistik|access-date8 December 2014|languageda}}</ref> Women have slightly outnumbered men for many years.<ref name="Danmarks Statistik: FOLK1"/>
The city is home to 75 different religious groups and denominations, most of which are Christian or Muslim with a smaller number of Buddhist, Hindu, and Jewish communities. Since the 1990s there has been a marked growth in diverse new spiritual groups although the total number of followers remains small.<ref name"Aarhus 2013 religion i forandring">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.religion.dk/religionsanalysen/aarhus-2013-religion-i-forandring|titleAarhus 2013 religion i forandring|date10 December 2013 |publisherReligion|access-date8 December 2014|languageda}}</ref> The majority of the population are members of the Protestant state church, Church of Denmark, which is by far the largest religious institution both in the city and the country as a whole. Some 20% of the population are not officially affiliated with any religion, a percentage that has been slowly rising for many years.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://samtidsreligion.au.dk/fileadmin/Samtidsreligion/Religion_i_Aarhus_2013/online_med_forside.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://samtidsreligion.au.dk/fileadmin/Samtidsreligion/Religion_i_Aarhus_2013/online_med_forside.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|titleReligion_i_Aarhus_2013, s. 475|publisherCentre for Samtidsreligion, Aarhus Universitet|access-date8 December 2014|language=da}}</ref>
During the 1990s there was significant immigration from Turkey and in the 2000s, there was a fast growth in the overall immigrant community, from 27,783 people in 1999 to 40,431 in 2008.{{sfn|Eade|Mele|2011|p67}} The majority of immigrants have roots outside Europe and the developed world, comprising some 25,000 people from 130 different nationalities, with the largest groups coming from the Middle East and North Africa. Some 15,000 have come from within Europe, with Poland, Germany, Romania and Norway being the largest contributors.<ref name"Danmarks Statistik: FOLK1"/>
Many immigrants have established themselves in the suburbs of Brabrand, Hasle and Viby, where the percentage of inhabitants with foreign origins has risen by 66% since 2000. This has resulted in a few so-called ghettos, defined as residential areas with more than half of inhabitants from non-Western countries and with relatively high levels of poverty and/or crime. Gellerup is the most notable neighbourhood in that respect. The ghetto-labelling has been criticised as unnecessarily stigmatising and counterproductive for social and economical development of the related areas.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.trm.dk/nyheder/2019/faerre-udsatte-boligomraader-og-ghettoomraader-paa-de-nye-lister/|titleFærre udsatte boligområder og ghettoområder på de nye lister |trans-titleFewer vulnerable neighbourhoods and ghetto-areas on the new lists |publisherMinistry of Transport and Housing|languageda|date1 December 2019|access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://fagbladetboligen.dk/artikler/2019/december/ghettolisten-skrumper-men-det-gaar-langsomt/|title"Ghettolisten" skrumper - men det går langsomt|trans-titleThe "Ghetto List" is shrinking - but it goes slowly |publisherBL (Danmarks Almene Boliger)|firstRegnar M.|lastNielsen|languageda|date1 December 2019|access-date=28 January 2020}}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.dr.dk/nyheder/indland/hvorfor-bruger-vi-egentlig-begrebet-ghetto-om-boligomraader-i-danmark|titleHvorfor bruger vi egentlig begrebet 'ghetto' om boligområder i Danmark?|trans-titleWhy exactly are we using the term 'ghetto' about neighbourhoods in Denmark? |publisherDR (Danish Broadcasting Corporation)|authorTheis Lange Olsen|languageda|date1 December 2018|access-date28 January 2020}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
! rowspan="3" |Population groups
! colspan="2" |Year
|-
! colspan"2" |2023<ref>{{Cite web |titleStatistikbanken |urlhttps://www.statbank.dk/20024 |access-date2023-07-02 |websitewww.statbank.dk |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titlePopulation at the first day of the quarter by region, sex, age (5 years age groups), ancestry and country of origin - StatBank Denmark - data and statistics |urlhttps://www.statbank.dk/statbank5a/SelectVarVal/Define.asp?MainTableFOLK1C&PLanguage1&PXSId0&wsidcftree |access-date2023-07-02 |websitewww.statbank.dk}}</ref>
|-
!Number
!%
|-
!Danish descent
!295,687
!81.62%
|-
!Immigrants
!48,207
!13.31%
|-
|EU-27
|15,940
|4.4%
|-
|Europe outside EU-27
|11,386
|3.14%
|-
|Africa
|8,576
|2.37%
|-
|North America
|956
|0.26%
|-
|South and Central America
|1,866
|0.52%
|-
|Asia
|27,501
|7.59%
|-
|Oceania
|259
|–
|-
|Stateless
|
|–
|-
|Unknown
|
|–
|-
|Total
|362,266
|100%
|}
Economy
]]
The economy of Aarhus is predominantly knowledge- and service-based, strongly influenced by the University of Aarhus and the large healthcare industry. The service sector dominates the economy and is growing as the city transitions away from manufacturing. Trade and transportation remain important sectors, benefiting from the large port and central position on the rail network. Manufacturing has been in slow but steady decline since the 1960s while agriculture has long been a marginal sector within the municipality.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://dendigitalebyport.byhistorie.dk/koebstaeder/erhverv.aspx?koebstadID74|titleDanmarks Købsteder: Århus|publisherDen digitale byport|access-date8 December 2014|languageda}}</ref> The municipality is home to 175,000 jobs with some 100,000 in the private sector and the rest split between state, region and municipality.<ref name"Aarhus Kommune"/> The region is a major agricultural producer, with many large farms in the outlying districts.<ref name"Aarhus: Economy">{{cite web|urlhttp://bcg.thetimes.co.uk/Europe/Denmark/Aarhus#/Europe/Denmark/Aarhuseconomy|titleAarhus: Economy|workThe Times|access-date23 July 2014|archive-date6 October 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141006081325/http://bcg.thetimes.co.uk/Europe/Denmark/Aarhus#/Europe/Denmark/Aarhuseconomy|url-statusdead}}</ref> People commute to Aarhus from as far away as Randers, Silkeborg and Skanderborg and almost a third of those employed within the Aarhus municipality commute from neighbouring communities.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.noegletal.dk/|titleAndel indpendlere|publisherØkonomi og Indenrigsministeriet|access-date8 December 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180208230627/http://www.noegletal.dk/|archive-date8 February 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www2.blst.dk/udgiv/Publikationer/2008/978-87-92256-60-7/html/kap01.htm#1.4|titleInteraktion og infrastruktur i Østjylland|publisherMiljøministeriet|access-date8 December 2014|languageda|archive-date25 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150725062711/http://www2.blst.dk/udgiv/Publikationer/2008/978-87-92256-60-7/html/kap01.htm#1.4|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://stiften.dk/aarhus/shoppere-stroemmer-til-byen-handle|titleShoppere strømmer til byen|date19 January 2011 |publisherAarhus Stiftidende|access-date11 December 2014|languageda}}</ref> Aarhus is a centre for retail in the Nordic and Baltic countries, with expansive shopping centres, the busiest commercial street in the country and a dense urban core with many speciality shops.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/aarhus-1/?pdf1&cHash36b812a39ba044783ca6e0ba615a1d63|titleDanmarkshistorien.dk|publisherGyldendal|access-date9 December 2014|archive-date25 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150725062920/http://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/aarhus-1/?pdf1&cHash36b812a39ba044783ca6e0ba615a1d63|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.stroeget-aarhus.dk/index.php/stroget|titleStrøget|publisherStrøgforeningen|access-date23 November 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150115190131/http://www.stroeget-aarhus.dk/index.php/stroget|archive-date15 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The job market is knowledge- and service-based, and the largest employment sectors are healthcare and social services, trade, education, consulting, research, industry and telecommunications.<ref name"Aarhus Kommune">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/Dokumenter/Borgmesterens-Afdeling/Statistik-og-Ledelsesinformation/Arbejdsmarked-og-erhverv/Erhvervsstruktur/2006-2017/Erhvervsstrukturen-2012.pdf|titleErhvervsstrukturen i Aarhus Kommune 2012|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date8 December 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170402080934/https://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/Dokumenter/Borgmesterens-Afdeling/Statistik-og-Ledelsesinformation/Arbejdsmarked-og-erhverv/Erhvervsstruktur/2006-2017/Erhvervsstrukturen-2012.pdf|archive-date2 April 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref> The municipality has more high- and middle-income jobs, and fewer low-income jobs, than the national average.<ref name"Aarhus Kommune"/> Today, the majority of the largest companies in the municipality are in the sectors of trade, transport and media.<ref name"Otto2">{{cite web|urlhttp://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/ECE6531438/aarhus-10-stoerste-virksomheder/|titleDe 10 største virksomheder i Aarhus|languageda|websitejyllandsposten.dk|date4 March 2014 |publisherJyllandsposten|access-date9 December 2014}}</ref> The wind power industry has strong roots in Aarhus and the larger region of Central Jutland, and nationally, most of the revenue in the industry is generated by companies in the greater Aarhus area. The wind industry employs about a thousand people within the municipality, making it a central component in the local economy.<ref name"Otto3">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/subsites/aarhus-wind-energy/spotbokse/articles/tekst2|titleThe tightest wind cluster in the world|languageda|publisherWindpower.org|access-date20 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160509004606/http://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/subsites/aarhus-wind-energy/spotbokse/articles/tekst2|archive-date9 May 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref> The biotech industry is well-established in the city, with many small- and medium-sized companies mainly focused on research and development.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.danskbiotek.dk/sites/default/files/nyhedsbreve/Liste_over_biotekselskaber_i_Danmark_ultimo_20071.pdf|titleBiotekselskaber i Danmark ultimo 2007|publisherDansk biotek|access-date9 December 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151129055842/http://www.danskbiotek.dk/sites/default/files/nyhedsbreve/Liste_over_biotekselskaber_i_Danmark_ultimo_20071.pdf|archive-date29 November 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref> There are multiple Big Tech companies with offices in the city, including Uber and Google.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.uber.com/en-DK/blog/aarhus-engineering/ | titleArchitects of Infrastructure: Meet Uber Aarhus Engineering | date=27 December 2017 }}</ref>
Several major companies are headquartered in Aarhus, including four of the ten largest in the country. These include Arla Foods, one of the largest dairy groups in Europe, Salling Group, Denmark's largest retailer, Jysk, a worldwide retailer of household goods, Vestas, a global wind turbine manufacturer,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.windpowerengineering.com/vestas-gains-impressive-lead-as-top-wind-turbine-manufacturer/|titleVestas gains impressive lead as top wind-turbine manufacturer|websiteWindpower Engineering & Development}}</ref> Terma A/S, a major defence and aerospace manufacturer, Per Aarsleff, a civil engineering company and several large retail companies.<ref namedsd/><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.vestas.com|titleFind Vestas|publisherVestas Windsystems|access-date9 December 2014}}</ref> Other large employers of note include Krifa, Systematic A/S,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://stiften.dk/artikel/aarhus-firma-scorer-milliard-kontrakt-med-usas-forsvar|titleAarhus-firma scorer milliard kontrakt med USAs forsvar|firstMorten|lastRavn|date7 February 2017|websitestiften.dk}}</ref>), and Bestseller A/S. Since the early 2000s, the city has experienced an influx of larger companies moving from other parts of the Jutland peninsula.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://stiften.dk/nyheder/se-listen-de-stoerste-virksomheder-i-aarhus|titleTop Companies in Aarhus|date8 October 2010 |publisherAarhus Stifstidende|access-date9 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/erhverv/ECE6202290/aarhus-er-en-magnet-for-firmaer/|titleAarhus er en magnet for firmaer|date4 November 2013 |publisherJyllandsposten|access-date9 December 2014}}</ref>
Port of Aarhus
{{Main|Port of Aarhus}}
The Port of Aarhus is one of the largest industrial ports in northern Europe with the largest container terminal in Denmark, processing more than 50% of Denmark's container traffic and accommodating the largest container vessels in the world.<ref nameaarhushavn>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhushavn.dk/en/about_port_of_aarhus/about_port_of_aarhus.htm|titleAbout Port of Aarhus|publisherAarhus Havn|access-date16 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140724233317/http://www.aarhushavn.dk/en/about_port_of_aarhus/about_port_of_aarhus.htm|archive-date24 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"Signe Ferslev Pedersen">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.business.dk/transport/maersk-arving-vil-kapre-mere-gods-til-aarhus|titleMærsk-arving vil kapre mere gods til Aarhus|authorSigne Ferslev Pedersen|workBerlingske Tidende|date21 July 2014|access-date23 July 2014|languageda|archive-date24 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140724143626/http://www.business.dk/transport/maersk-arving-vil-kapre-mere-gods-til-aarhus|url-statusdead}}</ref> It is a municipal self-governing port with independent finances. The facilities handle some 9.5&nbsp;million tonnes of cargo a year (2012). Grain is the principal export, while feedstuffs, stone, cement and coal are among the chief imports.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhushavn.dk/en/about_port_of_aarhus/cargo_statistics/cargo_statistics.htm|titleCargo statistics|publisherAarhus Havn|access-date21 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140623123858/http://www.aarhushavn.dk/en/about_port_of_aarhus/cargo_statistics/cargo_statistics.htm|archive-date23 June 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Since 2012 the port has faced increasing competition from the Port of Hamburg and freight volumes have decreased somewhat from the peak in 2008.<ref name="Signe Ferslev Pedersen"/>
The ferry terminal presents the only alternative to the Great Belt Link for passenger transport between Jutland and Zealand. It has served different ferry companies since the first steamship route to Copenhagen opened in 1830. Currently, Mols-Linien operates the route and annually transports some two million passengers and a million vehicles. Additional roll-on/roll-off cargo ferries serve Finland and Kalundborg on a weekly basis and smaller outlying Danish ports at irregular intervals. Since the early 2000s the port has increasingly become a destination for cruise lines operating in the Baltic Sea.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhushavn.dk/download/formularer/aarsrapport2013.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aarhushavn.dk/download/formularer/aarsrapport2013.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|publisherAarhus Havn|titleAarsrapport 2013|access-date9 December 2014 |languageda}}</ref>
Tourism
in the harbour]]
The ARoS Art Museum, the Old Town Museum and Tivoli Friheden are among Denmark's top tourist attractions.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.visitdenmark.com/en-us/denmark/attractions/denmarks-top-attractions|titleDenmark's top attractions|publisherVisit Denmark|access-date29 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140820060526/http://www.visitdenmark.com/en-us/denmark/attractions/denmarks-top-attractions|archive-date20 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> With a combined total of almost 1.4&nbsp;million visitors they represent the driving force behind tourism but other venues such as Moesgård Museum and Kvindemuseet are also popular. The city's extensive shopping facilities are also said to be a major attraction for tourists, as are festivals, especially NorthSide and SPOT.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.jutlandstation.dk/festivals-energize-aarhus-tourism-industry/|titleFestivals energize Aarhus' tourism industry|publisherJutlandstation.dk|date13 June 2014|access-date29 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140729140651/http://www.jutlandstation.dk/festivals-energize-aarhus-tourism-industry/|archive-date29 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.businessaarhus.dk/~/media/Subsites/Business-Aarhus/Publikationer/Engelsk/Aarhus-as-a-Shopping-City.pdf|titleAarhus – a city of shopping|publisherBusiness Aarhus|access-date29 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140720222915/http://www.businessaarhus.dk/~/media/Subsites/Business-Aarhus/Publikationer/Engelsk/Aarhus-as-a-Shopping-City.pdf|archive-date20 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Many visitors arrive on cruise ships: in 2012, 18 vessels visited the port with over 38,000 passengers.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhushavn.dk/en/terminals/cruise_ships_terminal/cruise_ships_terminal.htm|titleCruise ships terminal|publisherAarhus Havn|access-date29 July 2014|archive-date6 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140806203037/http://www.aarhushavn.dk/en/terminals/cruise_ships_terminal/cruise_ships_terminal.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In the 2010s, there was a significant expansion of tourist facilities, culminating in the opening of the 240-room Comwell Hotel in July 2014, which increased the number of hotel rooms in the city by 25%. Some estimates put the number of visitors spending at least one night as high as 750,000 a year, most of them Danes from other regions, with the remainder coming mainly from Norway, Sweden, northern Germany and the United Kingdom. Overall, they spend roughly DKK 3&nbsp;billion (€402&nbsp;million) in the city each year.<ref name"kulturturisme.dk">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.kulturturisme.dk/media/507561/Aarhus-som-kulturel-city-break-destination-final_med_logo.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.kulturturisme.dk/media/507561/Aarhus-som-kulturel-city-break-destination-final_med_logo.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|titleAarhus som kulturel city destination|publisherkulturturisme.dk|access-date23 November 2014}}</ref> The primary motivation for tourists choosing Aarhus as a destination is experiencing the city and culture, family and couples vacation or as a part of a round trip in Denmark. The average stay is little more than three days on average.<ref name="kulturturisme.dk"/>
There are more than 30 tourist information spots across the city. Some of them are staffed, while others are online, publicly accessible touchscreens. The official tourist information service in Aarhus is organised under VisitAarhus, a corporate foundation initiated in 1994 by Aarhus Municipality and local commercial interest organisations.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/denmark/tourist-in-aarhus|titleTourist Information|publisherVisitAarhus|access-date5 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140818150433/http://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/denmark/tourist-in-aarhus|archive-date18 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.dk/aarhus/om-visitaarhus|titleOm VisitAarhus|publisherVisitAarhus|languageda|access-date5 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140728204258/http://www.visitaarhus.dk/aarhus/om-visitaarhus|archive-date28 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>Research parks
, a department of INCUBA Science Park]]
The largest research park in Aarhus is INCUBA Science Park, focused on IT and biomedical research, It is based on Denmark's first research park, Forskerpark Aarhus (Research Park Aarhus), founded in 1986, which in 2007 merged with another research park to form INCUBA Science Park. The organisation is owned partly by Aarhus University and private investors and aims to foster close relationships between public institutions and startup companies.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://incuba.dk/om-incuba/historie/ |publisherINCUBA Science Park |titleINCUBA Science Park – Historie |access-date1 October 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160815060808/http://incuba.dk/om-incuba/historie/ |archive-date15 August 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> It is physically divided across 4 locations after a new department was inaugurated in Navitas Park in 2015, which it will share with the Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and AU Engineering. Another major centre for knowledge is Agro Food Park in Skejby, established to facilitate co-operation between companies and public institutions working within food science and agriculture. In January 2017 Arla Foods will open the global innovation centre Arla Nativa in Agro Food Park and in 2018 Aarhus University is moving the Danish Centre for Food and Agriculture there as well.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://dca.au.dk/aktuelt/nyheder/vis/artikel/foedevareforskningen-faar-kontor-i-agro-food-park/ |publisherAarhus University |titleFødevareforskningen får kontor i Agro Food Park |date4 July 2016 |access-date1 October 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161103033748/http://dca.au.dk/aktuelt/nyheder/vis/artikel/foedevareforskningen-faar-kontor-i-agro-food-park/ |archive-date3 November 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"AgroFact">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.agrofoodpark.dk/om-agro-food-park/fakta-om-agro-food-park|publisherAgro Food Park|titleFakta om Agro Food Park|languageda|access-date20 September 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161002050010/http://www.agrofoodpark.dk/om-agro-food-park/fakta-om-agro-food-park|archive-date2 October 2016|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2016, some 1000 people worked at Agro Food Park, spread across 50 companies and institutions and in August 2016 Agro Food Park management published plans to expand facilities from 92,000 m<sup>2</sup> to {{convert|325000|m2|sqft}}.<ref name="AgroFact"/>
In addition, Aarhus is home to the Aarhus School of Architecture, one of two Danish Ministry of Education institutions that provide degree programs in architecture, and some of the largest architecture firms in the Nordic countries such as Schmidt Hammer Lassen Architects, Arkitema Architects and C. F. Møller Architects.<ref name"toft">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.toft-arkitektur.dk/pdf/Arkitekturklyngen_01.03.2009.pdf |publisherCenter for Strategisk Byforskning |titleArkitekturklyngen i Århus |access-date1 October 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161220180753/http://www.toft-arkitektur.dk/pdf/Arkitekturklyngen_01.03.2009.pdf |archive-date20 December 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Taken together these organisations form a unique concentration of expertise and knowledge in architecture outside Copenhagen, which the Danish Ministry of Business and Growth refers to as {{lang|da|arkitekturklyngen}} (the architecture cluster). To promote the "cluster", the School of Architecture will be given new school buildings centrally in the new Freight Station Neighbourhood, planned for development in the 2020s. In the interim, the city council supports a culture, business and education centre in the area, which may continue in the future neighbourhood in some form. The future occupants of the neighbourhood will be businesses and organisations selected for their ability to be involved in the local community, and it is hoped that the area will evolve into a hotspot for creativity and design.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://arkitektforeningen.dk/node/21310 |publisherDanish Association of Architects |titleAAØ Anbefaler Arkitektklyngen i Aarhus |access-date1 October 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171017044233/https://arkitektforeningen.dk/node/21310 |archive-date17 October 2017 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://arkitektforeningen.dk/node/25524 |publisherDanish Association of Architects |titleArkitekterhvervets visioner for en ny arkitektskole i Aarhus |access-date1 October 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171017044427/https://arkitektforeningen.dk/node/25524 |archive-date17 October 2017 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://stiften.dk/aarhus/gode-muligheder-for-at-bevare-jyllands-svar-paa-christiania|newspaperÅrhus Stiftstidende|titleGode muligheder for at bevare Jyllands svar på Christiania|access-date1 October 2016|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161009225448/http://stiften.dk/aarhus/gode-muligheder-for-at-bevare-jyllands-svar-paa-christiania|archive-date9 October 2016|url-statuslive}}</ref>Cityscape
{{see also|Architecture of Aarhus}}
{{wide image|Panorama of Aarhus.jpg|1200px|Panoramic view of the Aarhus skyline, seen from the top of ARoS (2012)}}
Aarhus has developed in stages, from the Viking Age to modern times, all visible in the city today. Many architectural styles are represented in different parts of the city such as Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, National Romantic, Nordic Classicism, Neoclassical, Empire and Functionalism.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/|titleArkitektur og byggeskik i byen|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date14 December 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130914192312/http://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/|archive-date14 September 2013|url-statusdead}}</ref> The city has developed around the main transport hubs – the river, the harbour, and later the railway station – and as a result, the oldest parts are also the most central and busiest today.<ref namedhdk>{{cite web |titleAarhus |urlhttps://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/aarhus |publisherDanmarksHistoriendk |access-date25 January 2023 |languageda}}</ref>
The streets of Volden (The Rampart) and Graven (The Moat) testify to the defences of the initial Viking town, and Allégaderingen in Midtbyen roughly follows the boundaries of that settlement. The street network in the inner city formed during the Middle Ages with narrow, curved streets and low, dense housing by the river and the coast. Vesterport (Westward Gate) still bears the name of the medieval city gate and the narrow alleyways Posthussmøgen and Telefonsmøgen are remnants of toll stations from that time.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://reader.livedition.dk/aarhuskommune/188/|titleKulturhistorisk redegørelse 2013|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date14 December 2014|languageda}}</ref> The inner city has the oldest preserved buildings, especially the Latin Quarter, with houses dating back to the early 17th&nbsp;century in Mejlgade and Skolegade.{{sfn|Olsen|2000|p124}} Medieval merchants' mansions with courtyards can be seen in Klostergade, Studsgade and Skolegade. By far, the largest part of the present-day city was built during and after the industrialisation of the late 1800s, and the most represented architectural styles today are historicism and modernism, especially the subgenre of Danish functionalism of which there are many fine examples.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.kulturhusaarhus.dk/arkitektur-i-aarhus-moderne-og-modernistisk/|titleArkitektur i Århus – moderne og modernistisk|publisherKulturhuset|authorMikkelhede|date8 October 2020|access-date25 January 2023 |languageda}}</ref> The building boom of the 2000s has imprinted itself on Aarhus with a redeveloped harbourfront, many new neighbourhoods (also in the inner city), and a revitalised public space. It is also beginning to change the skyline with several dominating high-rises.<ref namedhdk/>
Developments
In recent years, Aarhus has experienced a large demand in housing and offices, spurring a construction boom in some parts of the city. The newly built city district of Aarhus Ø, formerly docklands, includes major housing developments, mostly consisting of privately owned apartments, designed by architects such as CEBRA, and JDS Architects.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.troldtekt.com/inspiration/architecture-in-the-big-cities/the-seagulls-have-taken-off-and-the-architecture-is-coming-into-its-own/|titleThe seagulls have taken off, and the architecture is coming into its own|publisherTroldtekt|access-date25 January 2023|archive-date25 January 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230125125213/https://www.troldtekt.com/inspiration/architecture-in-the-big-cities/the-seagulls-have-taken-off-and-the-architecture-is-coming-into-its-own/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://archello.com/project/the-iceberg|titleThe Iceberg|publisherarchello|access-date=25 January 2023}}</ref>
In the second quarter of 2012, the population of the area stood at only 5; however, that number had risen to 3,940 by October 2019.<ref>{{cite web|titleFejl|urlhttps://ledelsesinformation.aarhuskommune.dk/aarhus-i-tal/default.aspx?docvfs://Global/Befolkning-antal.xview|url-statusdead|access-date24 May 2021|websiteledelsesinformation.aarhuskommune.dk|archive-date9 November 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201109013206/https://ledelsesinformation.aarhuskommune.dk/aarhus-i-tal/default.aspx?doc=vfs%3A%2F%2FGlobal%2FBefolkning-antal.xview}}</ref>
The main public transportation service is bus line 23, as well as Østbanetorvet train station.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.rejseplanen.dk/bin/stboard.exe/mn?ldhicp2a&Lvs_rp4&mlm&input860014802&boardTypedep&timenow&selectDatetoday&maxJourneys&productsFilter1111111111111111&startyes|titleAfgange fra Østbanetorvet (Letbane) |publisherReiseplanen|access-date25 January 2023 |languageda}}</ref> Plans to service the area by the light rail line Aarhus Letbane have now been shelved.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bt.dk/trafik/ingen-alternativer-til-letbanen-pa-aarhus-o-det-er-virkelig-skuffende|titleIngen alternativer til letbanen på Aarhus Ø: 'Det er virkelig skuffende' |publisherB.T.|authorKristensen, Kathrine Emilie|date6 September 2021|access-date25 January 2021 |languageda}}</ref>
Landmarks
, 2016 and 1945, opening of the river]]
Aarhus Cathedral (Århus Domkirke) in the centre of Aarhus, is the longest and tallest church in Denmark at {{convert|93|m|abbron}} and {{convert|96|m|abbron}} in length and height respectively. Originally built as a Romanesque basilica in the 13th&nbsp;century, it was rebuilt and enlarged as a Gothic cathedral in the late 15th and early 16th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhusdomkirke.dk/kirkebygningen/|titleKirkebygningen|publisherAarhus Domkirke|access-date17 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> Even though the cathedral stood finished around 1300, it took more than a century to build; the associated cathedral school of Aarhus Katedralskole was already founded in 1195 and ranks as the 44th oldest school in the world.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.akat.dk/historien/|titleHistorien|publisherAarhus Katedralskole|access-date22 July 2014|languageda|archive-date11 October 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141011053944/https://www.akat.dk/historien/|url-statusdead}}</ref> Another important and historic landmark in the inner city, is the Church of Our Lady (Vor Frue Kirke) also from the 13th&nbsp;century in Romanesque and Gothic style. It is smaller and less impressive, but it was the first cathedral of Aarhus and founded on an even older church constructed in 1060; the oldest stone church in Scandinavia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhusvorfrue.dk/page/3416/kryptkirken|titleKryptkirken|publisherVor Frue Krirke i Aarhus|access-date17 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/arkitektur_byggeskik_byen/Arkitektur_byggeskik_byen_4.htm|titleRomansk 1050–1250|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date28 July 2014|languageda|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304073319/http://gis.aarhus.dk/kommuneatlas/arkitektur_byggeskik_byen/Arkitektur_byggeskik_byen_4.htm|archive-date4 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://danmarkshistorien.dk/leksikon-og-kilder/vis/materiale/vor-frue-kirke-og-kloster/|titleVor Frue Kirke og Kloster|publisherAarhus Universitet|access-date17 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhuswiki.dk/wiki/Vor_Frue_Kirke|titleVor Frue Kirke|publisherAarhusWiki|access-date17 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> Langelandsgade Kaserne in National Romantic Style from 1889 is the oldest former military barracks left in the country; home to the university Department of Aesthetics and Communication since 1989.
<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.arkark.dk/building.aspx?buildingid3009|titleLangelandsgades Kaserne (Artillerikasernen), Århus|publisherArkArk|access-date20 December 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141220172037/http://www.arkark.dk/building.aspx?buildingid3009|archive-date20 December 2014|url-statusdead}}. Architectural and historical information with images.</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://studerende.au.dk/en/studies/subject-portals/arts/campus/kasernen/|titleKasernen|publisherDepartment of Arts, Aarhus University|date18 December 2014|access-date20 December 2014|languageda}}</ref><ref>P. E. Niemann (1981): Feltartilleriet i Aarhus 1881–1969 Zac, {{ISBN|87-7348-047-9}} {{in lang|da}}</ref>
Marselisborg Palace (Marselisborg Slot), designed by Hack Kampmann in Neoclassical and Art Nouveau styles, was donated by the city to Prince Christian and Princess Alexandrine as a wedding present in 1898.<ref namekongehuset>{{cite web|urlhttp://kongehuset.dk/english/palaces/marselisborg-palace/marselisborg-palace|titleMarselisborg Palace|publisherKongehuset.dk|access-date18 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150707011903/http://kongehuset.dk/english/palaces/marselisborg-palace/marselisborg-palace|archive-date7 July 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|lastTarbensen|firstKenn|urlhttp://www.historie-online.dk/nyt/bogfeature/b241203.htm|titleMarselisborg Slot|publisherhistorie-online.dk|access-date18 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150924030422/http://www.historie-online.dk/nyt/bogfeature/b241203.htm|archive-date24 September 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref> The Aarhus Custom House (Toldkammeret) from 1898, is said to be Hack Kampmann's finest work.<ref namedac>{{cite web |lastEgeberg |firstKasper |urlhttp://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/danish-architecture-guide/aarhus/toldkammeret-the-custom-house/ |titleToldkammeret (the Custom House) |publisherDAC |access-date18 July 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140725061926/http://www.dac.dk/en/dac-life/danish-architecture-guide/aarhus/toldkammeret-the-custom-house/ |archive-date25 July 2014 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
Tivoli Friheden (Tivoli Freedom) opened in 1903 and has since been the largest amusement park in the city and a tourist attraction. Aarhus Theatre from 1916 in the Art Nouveau style is the largest provincial theatre in Denmark.<ref name"Aarhus Teater">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Kunst_og_kultur/Teater/Danske_teatre/Aarhus_Teater|titleAarhus Teater|date22 November 2012 |publisherGyldendal|access-date18 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.b.dk/kultur/aarhus-teater-faar-millionstoette|titleAarhus Teater får millionstøtte|workBerlingske Tidende|date12 April 2011|access-date18 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> The early buildings of Aarhus University, especially the main building completed in 1932, designed by Kay Fisker, Povl Stegmann and by C.F. Møller have gained an international reputation for their contribution to functionalist architecture.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Erhverv,_karriere_og_ledelse/P%C3%A6dagogik_og_uddannelse/Danske_universiteter/Aarhus_Universitet|titleAarhus Universitet|publisherGyldendal|access-date18 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> The City Hall (Aarhus Rådhus) from 1941 with an iconic {{convert|60|m|abbron}} tower clad in marble, was designed by Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller in a modern Functionalist style.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.archdaily.com/540719/ad-classics-aarhus-city-hall-arne-jacobsen-and-erik-moller|titleAD Classics: Aarhus City Hall / Arne Jacobsen and Erik Møller|publisherArchDaily|authorLangdon, David|date16 January 2019|access-date=25 January 2023}}</ref>
{{clear right}}
Culture
Aarhus is home to many annual cultural events and festivals, museums, theatres, and sports events of both national and international importance, and presents some of the largest cultural attractions in Denmark. There is a long tradition of music from all genres, and many Danish bands have emerged from Aarhus. Libraries, cultural centres and educational institutions present free or easy opportunities for the citizens to participate in, engage in, or be creative with cultural events and productions of all kinds.<ref>{{cite web |lastBallard |firstBarclay |titleAarhus finds success as European Capital of Culture |urlhttps://www.businessdestinations.com/featured/aarhus-finds-success-as-european-capital-of-culture/ |publisherBusiness Destination |date28 August 2018 |access-date=25 January 2023}}</ref>
Since 1938, Aarhus has marketed itself as Smilets by (City of smiles) which has become both an informal moniker and official slogan. In 2011, the city council opted to change the slogan to "Aarhus. Danish for Progress" but it was unpopular and abandoned after just a few years.<ref name"Stads_Smil">{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhuswiki.dk/wiki/Smilets_by|titleSmilets by|publisherAarhus City Archives|languageda|access-date29 December 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161231170714/http://aarhuswiki.dk/wiki/Smilets_by|archive-date31 December 2016|url-statuslive}}</ref> Other slogans that have occasionally been used are Byen ved havet (City by the sea), Mellem bugt og bøgeskov (Between bay and beechwood) and Verdens mindste storby (World's smallest big city).<ref name"Stift_Plakat">{{cite news|urlhttp://stiften.dk/kultur/Gammel-plakat-er-en-bestseller/artikel/348018|titleGammel plakat er en bestseller|newspaperÅrhus Stiftstidende|languageda|access-date29 December 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161231170509/http://stiften.dk/kultur/Gammel-plakat-er-en-bestseller/artikel/348018|archive-date31 December 2016|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"eb">{{cite web|urlhttp://ekstrabladet.dk/ferie/ferie-i-danmark/verdens-mindste-storby-hjem-til-aarhus/6449526|titleVerdens mindste storby: Hjem til Aarhus|workEkstra Bladet|date17 December 2016 |languageda|access-date12 January 2017}}</ref> Aarhus is featured in popular songs such as Hjem til Aarhus by På Slaget 12, Lav sol over Aarhus by Gnags, 8000 Aarhus C by Flemming Jørgensen, Pigen ud af Aarhus by Tina Dickow and Slingrer ned ad Vestergade by Gnags. In 1919, the number Sangen til Aarhus (Song to Aarhus) had become a popular hit for a time, but the oldest and perhaps best known "national anthem" for the city is the classical Aarhus Tappenstreg from 1872 by Carl Christian Møller which is occasionally played at official events or at performances by local marching bands and orchestras.<ref name"DansMus-Rødder">{{cite web|urlhttp://ringstedfolkedansere.dk/DMR%20og%20DMH/DMR-14%20Aarhus%20Tappenstreg%20(HjLiv%201997-03).pdf|titleArhus Tappenstreg|publisherDansens og musikkens rødder|languageda|access-date29 December 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170101000945/http://ringstedfolkedansere.dk/DMR%20og%20DMH/DMR-14%20Aarhus%20Tappenstreg%20(HjLiv%201997-03).pdf|archive-date1 January 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Rosa">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.rosa.org/vennelystviser-sunget-af-dorthe-kollo/|titleVennelystviser sunget af Dorthe Kollo|publisherROSA|languageda|access-date29 December 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170101001114/https://www.rosa.org/vennelystviser-sunget-af-dorthe-kollo/|archive-date1 January 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref>Museums
]]
Aarhus has a range of museums, including two of the largest in the country, measured by the number of paying guests, Den Gamle By and ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum. Den Gamle By (The Old Town), officially Danmarks Købstadmuseum (Denmark's Market Town Museum), presents Danish townscapes from the 16th&nbsp;century to the 1970s with individual areas focused on different time periods. 75 historic buildings collected from different parts of the country have been brought here to create a small town in its own right.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Kunst_og_kultur/Museumsv%C3%A6sen/Historiske_museer_og_samlinger/Den_Gamle_By|titleDen Gamle By|publisherGyldendal|access-date19 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dengamleby.dk/udforsk-den-gamle-by/nye-tider-1927/|titleNye tider 1927|publisherDen Gamle By|access-date19 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140811014003/http://www.dengamleby.dk/udforsk-den-gamle-by/nye-tider-1927/|archive-date11 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
]]
ARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum, the city's main art museum, is one of the largest art museums in Scandinavia with a collection covering Danish art from the 18th&nbsp;century to the present day as well as paintings, installations and sculptures representing international art movements and artists from all over the world. The iconic glass structure on the roof, Your Rainbow Panorama, was designed by Olafur Eliasson and features a promenade offering a colourful panorama of the city.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Kunst_og_kultur/Museumsv%C3%A6sen/Kunstmuseer/Museer,_Danmark/ARoS_Aarhus_Kunstmuseum|titleARoS Aarhus Kunstmuseum|publisherGyldendal|access-date20 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://en.aros.dk/about-aros/|titleAbout ARoS|publisherARoS|access-date20 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140622090247/http://en.aros.dk/about-aros/|archive-date22 June 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>
The Moesgård Museum specialises in archaeology and ethnography in collaboration with Aarhus University with exhibits on Denmark's prehistory, including weapon sacrifices from Illerup Ådal and the Grauballe Man.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Kunst_og_kultur/Museumsv%C3%A6sen/Historiske_museer_og_samlinger/Moesg%C3%A5rd_Museum|titleMoesgård Museum|publisherGyldendal|access-date20 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> Kvindemuseet, the Women's Museum, from 1984 contains collections of the lives and works of women in Danish cultural history.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://kvindemuseet.dk/uk/the-museum/about-the-women%E2%80%99s-museum/|titleFacts about the Women's Museum|publisherKvindemuseet|access-date20 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140728020334/http://kvindemuseet.dk/uk/the-museum/about-the-women%E2%80%99s-museum/|archive-date28 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> The Occupation Museum (Besættelsesmuseum) presents exhibits illustrating the German occupation of the city during the Second World War;<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Occupation Museum Aarhus 1940–45 |urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/danmark/the-occupation-museum-aarhus-1940-45-gdk603884 |publisherVisit Aarhus |access-date20 July 2014}}</ref> the University Park on the campus of Aarhus University includes the Natural History Museum with 5,000 species of animals, many in their natural surroundings;<ref>{{cite web |titleNational History Museum |urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/danmark/natural-history-museum-gdk603718 |publisherVisit Aarhus |access-date20 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> and the Steno Museum is a museum of the history of science and medicine with a planetarium.<ref>{{cite web |titleSteno Museum |urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/danmark/the-steno-museum-gdk604059 |publisherVisit Aarhus |access-date20 July 2014}}</ref> Kunsthal Aarhus (Aarhus Art Hall) hosts exhibitions of contemporary art including painting, sculpture, photography, performance art, film and video. Strictly speaking it is not a museum but an arts centre, one of the oldest in Europe, built and founded in 1917.<ref>{{cite web |titleKunsthal Aarhus: Om |urlhttps://kunsthalaarhus.dk/en/Kunsthal/Om |publisherKunsthal Aarhus |access-date25 January 2023}}</ref>Libraries and community centres
at the harbour front]]
Public libraries in Denmark are also cultural and community centres. They play an active role in cultural life and host many events, exhibitions, discussion groups, workshops, educational courses and facilitate everyday cultural activities for and by the citizens. In June 2015, the large central library and cultural centre of Dokk1 opened at the harbour front. Dokk1 also includes civil administrations and services, commercial office rentals and a large underground robotic car park and aims to be a landmark for the city and a public meeting place. The building of Dokk1 and the associated squares and streetscape is also collectively known as Urban Mediaspace Aarhus and it is the largest construction project Aarhus municipality has yet undertaken.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.urbanmediaspace.dk/en/dokk1.html|titleDokk1|publisherUrban Mediaspace Aarhus|access-date15 October 2015}}</ref> Apart from this large main library, some neighbourhoods in Aarhus have a local library engaged in similar cultural and educational activities, but on a more local scale.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.aakb.dk/biblioteker|titleBiblioteker|languageda|publisherAarhus Kommunes Biblioteker|access-date=15 October 2015}}</ref>
The State Library (Statsbiblioteket) at the university campus has status of a national library.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://en.statsbiblioteket.dk/about-the-library/mission-vision-and-strategy/mission-vision-and-strategy|titleMission, vision and strategy|publisherStatsbiblioteket|access-date29 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140729211306/http://en.statsbiblioteket.dk/about-the-library/mission-vision-and-strategy/mission-vision-and-strategy|archive-date29 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> The city is a member of the ICORN organisation (International Cities of Refuge Network) in an effort to provide a safe haven to authors and writers persecuted in their countries of origin.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://icorn.org/city/arhus|titleCities|publisherICORN|access-date16 December 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151006061020/http://icorn.org/city/arhus|archive-date6 October 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
There are several cultural and community centres throughout the city. This includes Folkestedet in the central Åparken, facilitating events for and by non-commercial associations, organisations and clubs, and activities for the elderly, the nearby Godsbanen at the railway yard, with workshops, events and exhibitions, and Globus1 in Brabrand facilitating sports and various cultural activities.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.globus1.dk/|titleGlobus1|languageda|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date15 October 2015}}</ref>Performing arts
]]
The city enjoys strong musical traditions, both classical and alternative, underground and popular, with educational and performance institutions such as the concert halls of Musikhuset, the opera of Den Jyske Opera, Aarhus Symfoniorkester (Aarhus Symphony Orchestra) and Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium (Royal Academy of Music, Aarhus/Aalborg). Musikhuset is the largest concert hall in Scandinavia, with seating for more than 3,600 people. Other major music venues include VoxHall, rebuilt in 1999, and the associated venue of Atlas, Train nightclub at the harbourfront, and Godsbanen, a former rail freight station.<ref namegodsbanen>{{cite web|urlhttp://godsbanen.dk/english/|titleAbout Godsbanens|publisherGodsbanen|access-date30 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://fondenvoxhall.dk/fonden/historie/|titleFonden VoxHall|publisherFonden VoxHall|access-date26 July 2014|languageda|archive-date28 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140728203230/http://fondenvoxhall.dk/fonden/historie/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://train.dk/|titleTRAIN|websitetrain.dk|access-date=12 October 2015}}</ref>
The acting scene in Aarhus is diverse, with many groups and venues engaged in a broad span of genres, from animation theatre and children's theatre to classical theatre and improvisational theatre. Aarhus Teater is the oldest and largest venue with mostly professional classical acting performances. Svalegangen, the second largest theatre, is more experimental with its performances and other notable groups and venues includes EntréScenen, Katapult, Gruppe 38, Helsingør Teater, Det Andet Teater and Teater Refleksion as well as dance venues like Bora Bora.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.svalegangen.dk/|titleSmukt, grimt og brølende relevant|websitewww.svalegangen.dk}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.detandetteater.dk/om-teatret/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140727215326/http://www.detandetteater.dk/om-teatret/|url-statusdead|archive-date27 July 2014|titleOm teatret|publisherDet Andet Teater|access-date26 July 2014|languageda}}</ref><ref>[http://www.visitaarhus.dk/danmark/teater/teatre-i-aarhus Theatres in Aarhus] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140725222114/http://www.visitaarhus.dk/danmark/teater/teatre-i-aarhus |date25 July 2014}} VisitAarhus {{in lang|da}}</ref> The cultural center of Godsbanen includes several scenes and stages<ref namegodsbanen/> and the Concert Halls of Musikhuset also stage theatrical plays regularly and is home to the children's theatre Filuren and a comedy club.<ref>Musikhuset Aarhus: [https://musikhusetaarhus.dk/kampagner/teater/ Teater] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180111165552/https://musikhusetaarhus.dk/kampagner/teater/ |date11 January 2018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://filuren.dk/|titleUngdoms- og børneteater i Aarhus Centrum - Teaterhuset Filuren|websitefiluren.dk}}</ref><ref>Musikhuset Aarhus: [https://musikhusetaarhus.dk/kampagner/comedy-zoo/ Comedy Zoo] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180111170107/https://musikhusetaarhus.dk/kampagner/comedy-zoo/ |date11 January 2018}}</ref> The city hosts a biannual international theatre festival, International Living Theatre (ILT), with the next event being scheduled for 2021.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.iltfestival.dk/en/|titleILT Festival|publisherILT - International Living Theatre|access-date=10 January 2018}}</ref>
Since 2010 the music production centre of PROMUS (Produktionscentret for Rytmisk Musik) has supported the rock scene in the city along with the publicly funded ROSA (Dansk Rock Samråd), which promotes Danish rock music in general.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus2017.dk/projektet/aarhus-styrkepositioner/kulturinstitutioner-og-den-skabende-kunst|titleKulturinstitutioner og den skabende kunst|publisherAarhus 2017|access-date26 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140808140459/http://www.aarhus2017.dk/projektet/aarhus-styrkepositioner/kulturinstitutioner-og-den-skabende-kunst|archive-date8 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Aarhus is known for its musical history. Fuelled by a relatively young population jazz clubs sprang up in the 1950s which became a tour stop for many iconic American Jazz musicians. By the 1960s, the music scene diversified into rock and other genres and in the 1970s and 1980s, Aarhus became a centre for rock music, fostering iconic bands such as Kliché, TV-2 and Gnags and artists such as Thomas Helmig and Anne Linnet. Acclaimed bands since the 1970s include Under Byen, Michael Learns to Rock, Nephew, Carpark North, Spleen United, VETO, Hatesphere and Illdisposed in addition to individual performers such as Medina and Tina Dico.<ref>{{cite web |lastKullberg |firstErling |title1966-76: When Aarhus became the new music metropolis of Denmark |urlhttps://seismograf.org/en/node/8592 |publisherSeismograf |dateOctober 2016 |access-date25 January 2023}}</ref>Events and festivalsAarhus hosts many annual or recurring festivals, concerts and events, with the festival of Aarhus Festuge as the most popular and wide-ranging, along with large sports events.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/denmark/sports-events-in-aarhus|titleSport events in Aarhus|publisherVisitAarhus|access-date23 August 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150809192408/http://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/denmark/sports-events-in-aarhus|archive-date9 August 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sportaarhusevents.dk/en|titleSport Aarhus Events|publisherSport Aarhus Events|access-date23 August 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150414201409/http://www.sportaarhusevents.dk/en|archive-date14 April 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref> Aarhus Festuge is the largest multicultural festival in Scandinavia, always based on a special theme and takes place every year for ten days between late August and early September, transforming the inner city with festive activities and decorations of all kinds.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhusfestuge.dk/en//|titleAarhus Festuge|publisherAarhus Festuge|access-date26 July 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Gyldendals_Teaterleksikon/Teatre/%C3%85rhus_Festuge|titleÅrhus Festuge|publisherGyldendal|access-date26 July 2014|languageda}}</ref>
There are numerous music festivals; the eight-day Aarhus Jazz Festival features jazz in many venues across the city. It was founded in 1988 and usually takes place in July every year, occasionally August or September.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.jazzfest.dk/?a&langen&s&arrangor&kryds_id&date&id&aid&fn&location&band_link_id&genre&organiser|titleAarhus Jazz Festival|publisherAarhus Jazz Festival Association|access-date30 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140808173202/http://www.jazzfest.dk/?a&langen&s&arrangor&kryds_id&date&id&aid&fn&location&band_link_id&genre&organiser|archive-date8 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> There are several annually recurring music festivals for contemporary popular music in Aarhus. NorthSide Festival presents well-known bands every year in mid-June on large outdoor scenes. It is a relatively new event, founded in 2010, but grew from a one-day event to a three-day festival in its first three years, now with 35,000 paying guests in 2015.<ref>[http://www.northside.dk/ NorthSide 2014] Official homepage</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.dk/danmark/northside-gdk603870|titleNothside 2015|publisherVisit Aarhus|access-date26 July 2014|languageda|archive-date29 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140729060946/http://www.visitaarhus.dk/danmark/northside-gdk603870|url-statusdead}}</ref> Spot festival is aiming to showcase up-and-coming Danish and Scandinavian talents at selected venues of the inner city.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.visitaarhus.com/aarhus-region/plan-your-trip/spot-festival-gdk645998|titleSPOT Festival|publisherVisitAarhus|date2023|access-date25 January 2023}}</ref> The outdoor Grøn Koncert music festival takes place every year in many cities across Denmark, including Aarhus. Danmarks grimmeste festival (lit. Denmark's ugliest Festival) is a small summer music festival held in Skjoldhøjkilen, Brabrand.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.songkick.com/venues/1766473-danmarks-grimmeste-festival|title Danmarks Grimmeste Festival – Aarhus |date27 May 2022 |publisherSongkick|access-date=25 January 2023}}</ref>
Aarhus also hosts recurring events dedicated to specific art genres. International Living Theatre (ILT) is a bi-annual festival, established in 2009, with performing arts and stage art on a broad scale. The festival has a vision of showing the best plays and stage art experiences of the world, while at the same time attracting thespians and stage art interested people from both Aarhus and Europe at large.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ilt15.dk/en/|titleILT-15|access-date23 August 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150502183820/http://www.ilt15.dk/en/|archive-date2 May 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref> LiteratureXchange is a new annual festival from 2018, focused on literature from around the world as well as regional talents.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.litx.dk/english/|titleLiteratureXchange|access-date11 July 2019}}</ref> The city actively promotes its gay and lesbian community and celebrates the annual Aarhus Pride gay pride festival while Aarhus Festuge usually includes exhibits, concerts and events designed for the LGBT communities.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhuspride.dk/|titleAarhus Pride|publisherAarhus Pride|access-date6 August 2015|languageda}}</ref>
Notable events of a local scope include the university boat-race, held in the University Park since 1991, which has become a local spectator event attracting some 20,000 people. The boat race pits costumed teams from the university departments against each other in inflatable boats in a challenge to win the Gyldne Bækken (Golden Chamber Pot) trophy.<ref name"kapsejlads">{{cite news|urlhttp://www.bt.dk/nyheder/se-billederne-fra-aarhus-traditionen-kapsejlads-noegenloeb-og-twerk-konkurrence|titleSe billederne fra Aarhus-traditionen|newspaperBT|languageda|access-date20 January 2017}}</ref> The annual lighting of the Christmas lights on the Salling department store in Søndergade has also become an attraction in recent times, packing the pedestrianised city centre with thousands of revellers.<ref name"salling">{{cite news|urlhttp://stiften.dk/aarhus/Se-video-Salling-taendte-500000-julelys-/artikel/381609|titleSalling taendte 500000 julelys|newspaperÅrhus Stiftstidende|languageda|access-date20 January 2017}}</ref> Significant dates such as Saint Lucy's Day, Sankt Hans (Saint John's Eve) and Fastelavn are traditionally celebrated with numerous events across the city.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.visitaarhus.dk/aarhusregionen/planlaeg-din-tur/sankt-hans-i-aarhus-gdk909505|titleSankt Hans i Aarhus|publisherVisitAarhus|access-date25 January 2023 |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.aarhusmotion.dk/event/vinterloebet-aarhusoe/info/fastelavn|titleFASTELAVN FOR BÅDE BØRN OG VOKSNE |publisherAarhus Motion|access-date25 January 2023 |languageda}}</ref>
Parks, nature, and recreation
{{see also|List of parks in Aarhus}}
, form most of the coastline.]]
The beech forests of Riis Skov and Marselisborg occupy the hills along the coast to the north and south, and apart from the city centre, sandy beaches form the coastline of the entire municipality. There are two public sea baths, the northern Den Permanente below Riis Skov and close to the harbour area, and the southern Ballehage Beach in the Marselisborg Forests. As in most of Denmark, there are no private beaches in the municipality, but access to Den Permanente requires a membership, except in the summer.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.dk/aarhus/natur/en-tur-paa-stranden|titleEn Tur På Stranden|publisherVisitAarhus|access-date10 December 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141213015054/http://www.visitaarhus.dk/aarhus/natur/en-tur-paa-stranden|archive-date13 December 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>
]]
The relatively mild, temperate marine climate, allows for outdoor recreation year round, including walking, hiking, cycling, and outdoor team sports. Mountain biking is usually restricted to marked routes.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://vorespuls.dk/artikel/dks-bedste-mtb-ruter-sjov-nedkorsel-ved-aarhus|titleDKS bedste MTB ruter sjov nedkørsel ved Aarhus|date6 January 2014 |publishervorespuls.dk|access-date10 December 2014|languageda}}</ref> Watersports like sailing, kayaking, motor boating, etc. are also popular, and since the bay rarely freezes up in winter, they can also be practised most of the year. Recreational and transportational pathways for pedestrians and cyclists, radiate from the city centre to the countryside, providing safety from motorised vehicles and a more tranquil experience.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.naturhistoriskmuseum.dk/Files//Filer/Solstraaler/a5-folder-UK.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.naturhistoriskmuseum.dk/Files//Filer/Solstraaler/a5-folder-UK.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|titleSunbeams Over Århus|publisherNatural History Museum, Aarhus Nature and Environment (Municipality of Aarhus), The Outdoor Council|access-date23 August 2015}} Pamphlet of seven routes ("sunbeams").</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.naturhistoriskmuseum.dk/Brug_museet/Guidede_ture_p%C3%A5_museet_og_i_naturen/Brug_Solstr%C3%A5ler_over_Aarhus|titleSolstråler over Århus|publisherNatural History Museum, Aarhus|languageda|access-date23 August 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150711172637/http://www.naturhistoriskmuseum.dk/Brug_museet/Guidede_ture_p%C3%A5_museet_og_i_naturen/Brug_Solstr%C3%A5ler_over_Aarhus|archive-date11 July 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref> This includes the 19 kilometre long pathway of Brabrandstien, encircling the Brabrand Lake.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/ECE4451949/historien-om-en-sti?page2|titleHistorien om en sti|trans-titleThe history of a pathway|languageda|firstMogens|lastWeinrich|newspaperJyllands-Posten|date13 November 2000|access-date2 July 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140819083411/http://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/ECE4451949/historien-om-en-sti?page2|archive-date19 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://aarhus.dk/media/9766/aabrinken-brabrand-soe-aarslev-engsoe.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://aarhus.dk/media/9766/aabrinken-brabrand-soe-aarslev-engsoe.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-statuslive|titleMap of the lake area|publisherAarhus Municipality|access-date2 July 2018}}</ref> The long-range hiking route Aarhus-Silkeborg, starts off from Brabrandstien.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://naturstyrelsen.dk/publikationer/2009/mar/vandreruten-aarhus-silkeborg/|titleVandreruten Århus-Silkeborg|languageda|publisherÅrhus Amt, Natur- og Miljøkontore|date16 March 2009|access-date2 July 2018}}</ref>
Aarhus has an unusually high number of parks and green spaces, 134 of them, covering a total area of around {{convert|550|ha|abbron}}.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/borger/natur-og-miljoe/park-og-skov/parker.aspx|titleParker|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date20 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140729003500/http://www.aarhus.dk/borger/natur-og-miljoe/park-og-skov/parker.aspx|archive-date29 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> The central Botanical Gardens (Botanisk Have) from 1875 are a popular destination, as they include The Old Town open-air museum and host a number of events throughout the year. Originally used to cultivate fruit trees and other useful plants for the local citizens, there are now a significant collection of trees and bushes from different habitats and regions of the world, including a section devoted to native Danish plants.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.com/ln-int/danmark/the-botanical-garden-gdk653305|titleThe Botanical Garden|publisherVisit Aarhus|access-date20 July 2014}}</ref> Recently renovated tropical and subtropical greenhouses, exhibit exotic plants from throughout the world.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://scitech.au.dk/aktuelt/nyheder/vis/artikel/botanisk-have-i-aarhus-faar-vaeksthus-og-vidensformidling-i-topklasse/|titleBotanisk Have i Århus får væksthus og vidensformidling i topklasse|publisherAarhus University|access-date20 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140812102216/http://scitech.au.dk/aktuelt/nyheder/vis/artikel/botanisk-have-i-aarhus-faar-vaeksthus-og-vidensformidling-i-topklasse/|archive-date12 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Also in the city centre is the undulating University Park, recognised for its unique landscaped design with large old oak trees.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.au.dk/en/about/profile/history/25kapitlerafuniversitetetshistorie/thebuildingsandtheuniversitypark/|titleThe Buildings and the University Park|publisherAarhus University|access-date23 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140812104220/http://www.au.dk/en/about/profile/history/25kapitlerafuniversitetetshistorie/thebuildingsandtheuniversitypark/|archive-date12 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> The Memorial Park (Mindeparken) at the coast below Marselisborg Palace, offers a panoramic view across the Bay of Aarhus and is popular with locals for outings, picnics or events.<ref namemmpark>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.visitaarhus.dk/danmark/marselisborg-mindepark-gdk653302|titleMarselisborg Mindepark|publisherVisit Aarhus|access-date20 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhus.guide.dk/mindeparken.asp|titleMindeparken|publisherAarhus Guide|access-date20 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140726230222/http://aarhus.guide.dk/mindeparken.asp|archive-date26 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Other notable parks include the small central City Hall Park (Rådhusparken) and Marienlyst Park (Marienlystparken).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhuswiki.dk/wiki/R%C3%A5dhusparken|titleRådhusparken|access-date26 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> Marienlyst Park is a relatively new park from 1988, situated in Hasle out of the inner city and is less crowded, but it is the largest park in Aarhus, including woodlands, large open grasslands and soccer fields.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://bornibyen.dk/aarhus/places/3437-marienlystparken|titleMarienlystparken|publisherBørn i byen|access-date23 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref><ref>Marienlyst Park is between 48 and 83 hectares, depending on how much of the woodlands are included. The woodlands are known as Brendstrup Skov.</ref>
Marselisborg Forests and Riis Skov, has a long history of recreational activities of all kinds, including several restaurants, hotels and opportunities for green exercise. There are marked routes here for jogging, running and mountain biking and large events are hosted regularly. This includes running events, cycle racing and orienteering, the annual Classic Race Aarhus with historic racing cars, all attracting thousands of people.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.craa.dk/en/about-craa/what-is-it/|titleWhat is it about?|publisherClassic Race Aarhus|access-date23 August 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150923210934/http://www.craa.dk/en/about-craa/what-is-it/|archive-date23 September 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref> Marselisborg Deer Park (Marselisborg Dyrehave) in Marselisborg Forests, comprises {{convert|22|ha|abbron}} of fenced woodland pastures with free-roaming sika and roe deer.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhus.guide.dk/dyrehaven.asp|titleMarselisborg Dyrehave|publisherAarhus Portalen|access-date20 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140726230407/http://aarhus.guide.dk/dyrehaven.asp|archive-date26 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Below the Moesgård Museum in the southern parts of the Marselisborg Forests, is a large historical landscape of pastures and woodlands, presenting different eras of Denmark's prehistory. Sections of the forest comprise trees and vegetation representing specific climatic epochs from the last Ice Age to the present.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.visitaarhus.dk/aarhusregionen/planlaeg-din-tur/marselisborg-skovene-gdk653295|titleMarselisborg Skovene|publisherMarselisborg Skovene|access-date25 January 2023 |languageda}}</ref> Dotted across the landscape are reconstructed Stone Age and Bronze Age graves, buildings from the Iron Age, Viking Age and medieval times, with grazing goats, sheep and horses in between.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/media/7695/fortidens-spor-i-marselisborg-skove.pdf|titleFortidens spor i Marselisborg skove|publisherNatur og Miliø|access-date25 January 2023|languageda|archive-date25 January 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230125135837/https://www.aarhus.dk/media/7695/fortidens-spor-i-marselisborg-skove.pdf|url-statusdead}}</ref>Food, drink, and nightlifeAarhus has a large variety of restaurants and eateries offering food from cultures all over the world, especially Mediterranean and Asian, but also international gourmet cuisine, traditional Danish food and New Nordic Cuisine.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.spiseguiden.dk/soegning.asp?regionid18&regionnameRegion+Midtjylland&postalcode8000%2C+8100%2C+8200%2C+8210%2C+8220%2C+8230%2C+8240%2C+8245%2C+8250%2C+8260%2C+8270&cityAarhus&geoscope3&lineid0&keywordid0&sortorder0&pagenumber1&searchinputrestaurant&postnummerAarhus |titleRestaurants in Aarhus |workJyllands-Posten |languageda |access-date27 August 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140903074225/http://www.spiseguiden.dk/soegning.asp?regionid18&regionnameRegion+Midtjylland&postalcode8000%2C+8100%2C+8200%2C+8210%2C+8220%2C+8230%2C+8240%2C+8245%2C+8250%2C+8260%2C+8270&cityAarhus&geoscope3&lineid0&keywordid0&sortorder0&pagenumber1&searchinputrestaurant&postnummerAarhus |archive-date3 September 2014 |url-statusdead}} Reviews and data on 453 restaurants in Aarhus.</ref> Among the oldest restaurants are Rådhuscafeen (lit. The City Hall Café), opened in 1924, serving a menu of traditional Danish meals, and Peter Gift from 1906, a tavern with a broad beer selection and a menu of smørrebrød and other Danish dishes.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aoa.dk/restaurant-og-cafe/raadhuus-kafeen |titleAoA Raadhus Cafeen |publisherAoA |languageda |access-date20 December 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141220044729/http://www.aoa.dk/restaurant-og-cafe/raadhuus-kafeen |archive-date20 December 2014 |url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://petergift.dk/ |titlePeter Gift |publisherPeter Gift |languageda |access-date20 December 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141218061249/http://petergift.dk/ |archive-date18 December 2014 |url-statusdead}}</ref> In Aarhus, New Nordic can be experienced at Kähler Villa Dining, Hærværk and Domestic, but local produce can be had at many places, especially at the twice-weekly food markets in Frederiksbjerg.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.facebook.com/Ingerslevtorv/ |titleTorvet på Ingerslev |languageda |publisherFacebook|access-date2 May 2018}}</ref> Aarhus and Central Denmark Region was selected as European Region of Gastronomy in 2017.<ref>European Region of Gastronom: [http://www.europeanregionofgastronomy.org/awards/awarded-and-candidate-regions Awarded and Candidate Regions] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170412062403/http://www.europeanregionofgastronomy.org/awards/awarded-and-candidate-regions |date12 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.danishfoodregion.eu/ |titleEuropean Region of Gastronomy 2017 |websiteEuropean Region of Gastronomy |access-date11 April 2017 |archive-date12 April 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170412062806/http://www.danishfoodregion.eu/ |url-statusdead }}</ref> The city (and municipality) is a member of the Délice Network, an international non-profit organisation nurturing and facilitating knowledge exchange in gastronomy.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.delice-network.com/Delice-member-cities/Aarhus|titleAarhus, Denmark|publisherDélice Network|access-date28 October 2018|archive-date29 October 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181029035553/https://www.delice-network.com/Delice-member-cities/Aarhus|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Appraised high-end restaurants serving international gourmet cuisine include Frederikshøj, Substans, Gastromé, Det Glade Vanvid, Nordisk Spisehus, Restaurant Varna, Restaurant ET, Gäst, Brasserie Belli, Møf.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.whiteguide.dk/province/aarhus|titleWhite Guide - Aarhus|publisherWhite Guide|access-date19 May 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180503075840/http://www.whiteguide.dk/province/aarhus|archive-date3 May 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://guide.michelin.com/dk/aarhus/restaurants?max30&sortrelevance&orderdesc|titleAarhus Michelin Restaurants|publisherMichelin|access-date19 May 2018|archive-date20 May 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180520054914/https://guide.michelin.com/dk/aarhus/restaurants?max30&sortrelevance&orderdesc|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.spiseguiden.dk/nyhed.asp?Id64&LcIdda&AjrDcmntId774&Scope0&ScopeKey0 |titleInternational mesterklasse på Frederikshøj |languageda |trans-titleInternational gourmet class at Frederikshøj |first1Maria Danmark |last1Nielsen |first2Katrine |last2Holler |name-list-styleamp |websiteSpiseguiden.dk |publisherJyllands-Posten |date28 April 2014 |access-date27 August 2014 |quote22 restaurants in Aarhus were among the best in Denmark, according to White Guide |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140903074715/http://www.spiseguiden.dk/nyhed.asp?Id64&LcIdda&AjrDcmntId774&Scope0&ScopeKey0 |archive-date3 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://politiken.dk/rejser/turengaartil/europa/danmark/aarhus/restauranter/ |titleRestauranter i Aarhus |firstOle |lastLoumann |websitePolitiken |access-date30 July 2014 |languageda |trans-titleRestaurants in Aarhus |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140714052143/http://politiken.dk/rejser/turengaartil/europa/danmark/aarhus/restauranter/ |archive-date14 July 2014}}</ref> Restaurants in Aarhus were the first in provincial Denmark to receive Michelin stars since 2015, when Michelin inspectors ventured outside Copenhagen for the first time.<ref>{{cite web |authorDaniel Winther Pedersen |urlhttp://www.spiseguiden.dk/nyhed/danske_restauranter_faar_stjerner_i_februar/877 |titleDanske restauranter får stjerner i februar |trans-titleDanish restaurants receive stars in February |languageda |websiteSpiseguiden.dk |publisherJyllands-Posten |date15 January 2015 |access-date2 June 2016 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160918235433/http://www.spiseguiden.dk/nyhed/danske_restauranter_faar_stjerner_i_februar/877 |archive-date18 September 2016}}</ref>
Vendors of street food are numerous throughout the centre, often selling from small trailers on permanent locations formally known as Pølsevogne (lit. sausage wagons), traditionally serving a Danish variety of hot dogs, sausages and other fast food. There are increasingly more outlets inspired by other cultural flavours such as sushi, kebab and currywurst.<ref>{{cite web |trans-titleSausage wagons in Aarhus |urlhttp://www.krak.dk/p%C3%B8lsevogne/%C3%A5rhus/s%C3%B8g.cs |titlePølsevogne i Aarhus |websiteKrak.dk |languageda |access-date20 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://aarhusupdate.dk/takeaway-fra-ginza-sushi-ingen-snak-og-fin-value-money/ |titleTakeaway fra Ginza Sushi |websiteAarhus Update |date12 November 2014 |languageda |access-date20 December 2014}}</ref>
The city centre is packed with cafés, especially along the river and the Latin quarter. Some of them also include an evening restaurant, such as Café Casablanca, Café Carlton, Café Cross and Gyngen.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://studenterguiden.dk/byguide/Aarhus/Cafeer/5/9?page3 |titleByguide |publisherStudenterguiden |languageda |access-date20 December 2014}}</ref> Aarhus Street Food and Aarhus Central Food Market are two indoor food courts from 2016 in the city centre, comprising a variety of street food restaurants, cafés and bars.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://aarhusstreetfood.com/ |titleAarhus Street Food |websiteAarhus Street Food}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://aarhuscentralfoodmarket.dk/en/aarhus-central-food-market-new-food-mecca-heart-aarhus/ |titleWelcome to the new food mecca in the heart of Aarhus |websiteAarhus Central Food Market |access-date10 January 2017 |archive-date11 January 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170111003445/http://aarhuscentralfoodmarket.dk/en/aarhus-central-food-market-new-food-mecca-heart-aarhus/ |url-statusdead}}</ref>
Aarhus has a robust and diverse nightlife. The action tends to concentrate in the inner city, with the pedestrianised riverside, Frederiksgade, the Latin Quarter, and Jægergårdsgade on Frederiksbjerg as the most active centres at night, but things are stirring elsewhere around the city too. The nightlife scene offers everything from small joints with cheap alcohol and a homely atmosphere to fashionable nightclubs serving champagne and cocktails or small and large music venues with bars, dance floors and lounges. A short selection of well-established places where you can have a drink and socialise, include the fashionable lounge and night club Kupé at the harbourfront, the relaxed Ris Ras Filliongongong offering waterpipes and an award-winning beer selection, Fatter Eskild with a broad selection of Danish bands playing mostly blues and rock, the wine and book café Løve's in Nørregade, Sherlock Holmes, a British-style pub with live music, and the brew pub of Sct. Clemens, with A Hereford Beefstouw restaurant across the cathedral.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.loeves.dk/bogcafe/omtale.php|titleOmtale|publisherLoeves|languageda|access-date20 December 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140903110911/http://www.loeves.dk/bogcafe/omtale.php|archive-date3 September 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ale.dk/index.php?id495|titleServing in Aarhus|publisherDanske Ølentusiaster (Aarhus C)|languageda|access-date28 August 2014|archive-date3 September 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140903113844/http://www.ale.dk/index.php?id495|url-statusdead}}</ref>{{sfn|Porter|Prince|2007|p372}} A few nightlife spots are aimed at gays and lesbians specifically, including Gbar (nightclub) and Café Sappho.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.visitaarhus.com/aarhus/see-and-do/aarhus-lgbt|titleAarhus for LGBTQ+ |publisherVisitAarhus|access-date=25 January 2023}}</ref>
The Århus Set (Danish: Århus Sæt) is a set of drinks often ordered together, named for the city and consisting of two beverages, one Ceres Top beer and one shot Arnbitter, both originally from Aarhus. Ordering "a set" suffices in most bars and pubs.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.b.dk/nationalt/et-aarhus-saet-er-ikke-laengere-fra-aarhus |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160416115658/http://www.b.dk/nationalt/et-aarhus-saet-er-ikke-laengere-fra-aarhus |archive-date16 April 2016 |titleEt "Aarhus-sæt" er ikke længere fra Aarhus |workBerlingske Tidende |date6 January 2015 |languageda |access-date6 January 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.tv2oj.dk/artikel/239834:Aarhus--Arnbitter-forlader-Aarhus |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160307144956/http://www.tv2oj.dk/artikel/239834%3AAarhus--Arnbitter-forlader-Aarhus |archive-date7 March 2016 |url-statuslive |titleArnbitter forlader Aarhus |publisherTV2 Østjylland |languageda |access-date6 January 2016}}</ref> Aarhus Bryghus is a local craft brewery with a sizeable production. The brewery is located in the southern district of Viby and a large variety of their craft brews are available there, in most larger well-assorted stores in the city, and in some bars and restaurants as well. They also export.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhusbryghus.dk/homepage/english/|titleAarhus Bryghus|access-date1 June 2016}}</ref>
Local dialect
{{see also|Danish dialects}}
The Aarhus dialect, commonly called Aarhusiansk (Aarhusian in English), is a Jutlandic dialect in the Mid-Eastern Jutland dialect area, traditionally spoken in and around Aarhus.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://dialekt.ku.dk/dialekter/jysk/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160313225417/http://dialekt.ku.dk/dialekter/jysk/ |archive-date13 March 2016 |titleJysk |publisherUniversity of Copenhagen |languageda |access-date6 January 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Aarhusian, as with most local dialects in Denmark, has diminished in use through the 20th century and most Danes today speak some version of Standard Danish with slight regional features. Aarhusian, however, still has a strong presence in older segments of the population and in areas with high numbers of immigrants.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://politiken.dk/kultur/ECE1852264/saarn-bevarer-etniske-unge-aarhusiansk-ikkaa/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160126013238/http://politiken.dk/kultur/ECE1852264/saarn-bevarer-etniske-unge-aarhusiansk-ikkaa/ |archive-date26 January 2016 |titleSaarn bevarer etniske unge ikkaa |workPolitiken |date25 December 2012 |languageda |access-date6 January 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://stiften.dk/dagens-portraet/hun-fandt-den-aarhusianske-dialekt-i-aarhus-v |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160505041916/http://stiften.dk/dagens-portraet/hun-fandt-den-aarhusianske-dialekt-i-aarhus-v |archive-date5 May 2016 |titleHun fandt den Aarhusianske dialekt i Aarhus V |newspaperÅrhus Stiftstidende |languageda |access-date6 January 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://stiften.dk/aarhus/vi-snakker-mindre-aarhusiansk-do |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160501230900/http://stiften.dk/aarhus/vi-snakker-mindre-aarhusiansk-do |archive-date1 May 2016 |titleVi snakker mindre Aarhusiansk do |newspaperÅrhus Stiftstidende |languageda |access-date6 January 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Some examples of common, traditional and unique Aarhusian words are: træls ('tiresome'), noller ('silly' or 'dumb') and dælme (excl. 'damn me!').<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.information.dk/284790 |titleAarhus – engelsk for noller |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160208031329/http://www.information.dk/284790 |archive-date8 February 2016 |workDagbladet Information |date11 November 2011 |languageda |access-date6 January 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://odt.hum.ku.dk/dokumenter/Glargaard__Amalie.__2014_._Tr_ls_-_dialekt_eller_standardsprog._Eksamensopgave.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160224134428/http://odt.hum.ku.dk/dokumenter/Glargaard__Amalie.__2014_._Tr_ls_-_dialekt_eller_standardsprog._Eksamensopgave.pdf |archive-date24 February 2016 |titleTræls – dialekt eller standardsprog |publisherUniversity of Copenhagen |languageda |access-date15 January 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The dialect is notable for single-syllable words ending in "d" being pronounced with stød while the same letter in multiple-syllable words is pronounced as "j", i.e., Odder is pronounced "Ojjer". Like other dialects in East Jutland, it has two grammatical genders, similar to Standard Danish, but different from West Jutlandic dialects, which have only one.<ref>{{cite book|urlhttp://pure.au.dk/portal/da/publications/aarhusiansk--byens-sprog-foer-og-nu(eb13f420-ae37-11dc-89ab-000ea68e967b).html |titleÅrhusiansk – byens sprog før og nu|lastBorchmann|firstSimon|chapter4|year2009|publisherAarhus Universitetsforlag|isbn978-87-7934-436-5}}</ref> In 2009, the University of Aarhus compiled a list of contemporary public figures who best exemplify the dialect, including Jacob Haugaard, Thomas Helmig, Steffen Brandt, Stig Tøfting, Flemming Jørgensen, Tina Dickow and Camilla Martin. In popular culture, the dialect features prominently in Niels Malmros's movie Aarhus by Night and in 90s comedy sketches by Jacob Haugaard and Finn Nørbygaard.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://jysk.au.dk/fileadmin/www.jysk.au.dk/publikationer/centrets_publikationer/Aarhusiansk.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160506161443/http://jysk.au.dk/fileadmin/www.jysk.au.dk/publikationer/centrets_publikationer/Aarhusiansk.pdf |archive-date6 May 2016 |titleAarhusiansk |publisherUniversity of Aarhus |languageda |access-date6 January 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Sports
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Club
!Sport
!League
!Venue (capacity)
!Founded
!Titles
!Attendance
|-
| style="white-space:nowrap;" | Aarhus Gymnastikforening
| style="white-space:nowrap;" | Football
| style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:center;"| Superliga
| style="white-space:nowrap;" | Ceres Park (20,032)
| align=center | 1880
| align=center | 5
| aligncenter | 23,990<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.agffodboldafd.dk/Historie_page7070.aspx|titleHistorie|publisherAarhus Gymnastikforening|access-date10 December 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141213014911/http://www.agffodboldafd.dk/Historie_page7070.aspx|archive-date13 December 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|-
| Aarhus GF Håndbold
| Handball
| style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:center;"| Danish Handball League
| Ceres Arena (4,700)
| align=center | 2001
| align=center | 9<ref>In 2001, A.G.F., Aarhus KFUM, VRI and Brabrand IF merged to form Aarhus GF Håndbold. Collectively these clubs have 9 titles.</ref>
| aligncenter | 4,700<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhusportalen.dk/vis_artikel.asp?ArticleId8042|titleHåndbold: Århus GF mestre i tilskuere|publisherAarhus Portalen|access-date10 December 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141220170915/http://www.aarhusportalen.dk/vis_artikel.asp?ArticleId8042|archive-date20 December 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|-
| Bakken Bears
| Basketball
| style="white-space:nowrap; text-align:center;"| Danish Basketball League
| style="white-space:nowrap;" | Vejlby-Risskov Hallen (1,800)
| align=center | 1962
| align=center | 16
| aligncenter | 2,500<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.bakkenbears.com/index.php?id58|titleTilskuerrekorder|publisherBakken Bears|access-date10 December 2014}}</ref>
|}
]]
Aarhus has three major men's professional sports teams: the Superliga team Aarhus Gymnastikforening (AGF), Danish Handball League's Aarhus GF Håndbold, and Danish Basketball League's Bakken Bears. Notable or historic clubs include Aarhus 1900, Aarhus Fremad, Idrætsklubben Skovbakken and Aarhus Sejlklub. Aarhus Idrætspark has hosted matches in the premiere Danish soccer league since it was formed in 1920 and matches for the national men's soccer team in 2006 and 2007.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dbu.dk/Nyheder/2006/December/landskamp_i_aarhus|titleLandskamp i Aarhus|publisherDansk Boldspil Union|access-date10 December 2014|archive-date16 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150716032203/http://www.dbu.dk/Nyheder/2006/December/landskamp_i_aarhus|url-statusdead}}</ref> The five sailing clubs routinely win national and international titles in a range of disciplines and the future national watersports stadium will be located on the Aarhus Docklands in the city centre.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sejlsport.dk/nyt/2014/08/ap-moeller-fonden-donerer-penge-til-nyt-sejlsportscenter|titleAP Møller Fonden donerer penge til ny sejlsportscenter|publisherSejlsport.dk|access-date10 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sejlsport.dk/kapsejlads/resultater|titleResultater|publisherSejlsport.Dk|access-date10 December 2014}}</ref> The Bakken Bears won the Danish basketball championships in 2011, 2012, 2013 and 2014.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bakkenbears.com/about/|titleHvem er Bakken Bears?|publisherBakken Bears|access-date25 January 2023 |languageda}}</ref>
The municipality actively supports sports organisations in and around the city, providing public organisations that aim to attract major sporting events and strengthen professional sports.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/omkommunen/organisation/Kultur-og-Borgerservice/Sport-og-Fritid.aspx|titleSport og Fritid Aarhus Kommune|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date12 April 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150515022010/http://www.aarhus.dk/omkommunen/organisation/Kultur-og-Borgerservice/Sport-og-Fritid.aspx|archive-date15 May 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref> The National Olympic Committee and Sports Confederation of Denmark counts some 380 sports organisations within the municipality and about one third of the population are members of one.<ref name"dif">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dif.dk/da/om_dif/medlemstal|titleMedlemstal|publisherDansk Idræts Forbund|access-date10 December 2014}}</ref> Soccer is by far the most popular sport followed by Gymnastics, Handball and Badminton.<ref name="dif"/>
In recent decades, many free and public sports facilities have sprung up across the city, such as street football, basketball, climbing walls, skateboarding and beach volley. Several natural sites also offer green exercise, with exercise equipment installed along the paths and tracks reserved for mountain biking. The newly reconstructed area of Skjoldhøjkilen is a prime example.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/Dokumenter/Teknik-og-Miljoe/Natur-og-Miljoe/Ud-i-naturen/brochurer-og-foldere/Naturfoldere-fra-Aarhus-Kommune/Skjoldhoejkilen---et-rekreativt-omraade.pdf|titleSkjoldhøjkilen et rekreativt område|publisherAarhus Kommune|languageda|access-date31 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140302155612/http://www.aarhus.dk/~/media/Dokumenter/Teknik-og-Miljoe/Natur-og-Miljoe/Ud-i-naturen/brochurer-og-foldere/Naturfoldere-fra-Aarhus-Kommune/Skjoldhoejkilen---et-rekreativt-omraade.pdf|archive-date2 March 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Aarhus has hosted many sporting events including the 2010 European Women's Handball Championship, the 2014 European Men's Handball Championship, the 2013 Men's European Volleyball Championships, the 2005 European Table Tennis Championships, the Denmark Open in badminton, the UCI Women's Road Cycling World Cup, the 2006 World Orienteering Championships, the 2006 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships and the GF World Cup (women's handball).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/CityOfAarhus/Home/The-international-perspective/Business-development-in-an-international-perspective/Aarhus-is-Denmarks-Number-One-for-Sporting-Events.aspx|titleAarhus is Denmark's Number One for Sporting Events|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date1 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140809204338/http://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/CityOfAarhus/Home/The-international-perspective/Business-development-in-an-international-perspective/Aarhus-is-Denmarks-Number-One-for-Sporting-Events.aspx|archive-date9 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> On average, Aarhus is hosting one or two international sailing competitions every year. In 2008, the city hosted the ISAF Youth Sailing World Championships<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sailing-aarhus.dk/kapsejladser-og-events/events/ |titlePast Events |publisherSailing Aarhus |access-date21 August 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150705222632/http://www.sailing-aarhus.dk/kapsejladser-og-events/events/ |archive-date5 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sailing-aarhus.dk/kapsejladser-og-events/tidligere-kapsejladser/ |titleFuture Events |publisherSailing Aarhus |access-date21 August 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150720091139/http://www.sailing-aarhus.dk/kapsejladser-og-events/tidligere-kapsejladser/ |archive-date20 July 2015}}</ref> and in 2018 it was host to the ISAF Sailing World Championships, the world championship for the 12 Olympic sailing disciplines.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus2018.com/|titleHempel Sailing World Championships Aarhus 2018|websiteAarhus 2018 Sailing World Championships|access-date4 August 2017|archive-date5 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170805015741/http://www.aarhus2018.com/|url-statusdead}}</ref> Aarhus is an important qualifier for the 2020 Olympics.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://politiken.dk/sport/ECE2252016/aarhus-vil-have-sejler-vm-i-byens-nye-forhave/|titleAarhus vil have sejler VM i byens nye forhave|workPolitiken|date2 April 2014|access-date23 November 2014}}</ref>Education
{{see also|List of educational institutions in Aarhus}}
]]
Aarhus is the principal centre for education in the Jutland region. It draws students from a large area, especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula. The relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities.<ref nameetb>{{cite web|urlhttp://australia.etbnews.com/117939/aarhus-denmarks-city-of-smiles-3/|titleAarhus, Denmark's City of Smiles|publisherETB News|access-date26 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140808142527/http://australia.etbnews.com/117939/aarhus-denmarks-city-of-smiles-3/|archive-date8 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Aarhus has the greatest concentration of students in Denmark, fully 12% of citizens attending short, medium or long courses of study. In addition to around 25 institutions of higher education, several research forums have evolved to assist in the transfer of expertise from education to business.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus2017.dk/projektet/aarhus-styrkepositioner/uddannelse|titleUddannelse|publisherAarhus 2017|access-date26 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140808142522/http://www.aarhus2017.dk/projektet/aarhus-styrkepositioner/uddannelse|archive-date8 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> The city is home to more than 52,000 students.<ref>Aarhus Kommune: [http://www.aarhus.dk/aarhus/Uddannelse-i-Aarhus/Boliger.aspx Boliger] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150925115327/http://www.aarhus.dk/aarhus/Uddannelse-i-Aarhus/Boliger.aspx |date25 September 2015}}</ref>{{when|date=October 2017}}
Since 2012, Aarhus University (AU) has been the largest university in Denmark by number of students enrolled.<ref name"businessaarhus.dk">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.businessaarhus.dk/da/NewsList/2011/4-kvartal/Aarhus-Universitet-runder-40-000-studerende.aspx |titleAarhus Universitet runder 40.000 studerende: Business Aarhus |publisherBusinessaarhus.dk |access-date10 July 2014 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141011134105/http://www.businessaarhus.dk/da/NewsList/2011/4-kvartal/Aarhus-Universitet-runder-40-000-studerende.aspx |archive-date11 October 2014 |url-statusdead}}</ref> It is ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by several of the most influential and respected rankings. The university has approximately 41,500 Bachelor and Master students enrolled as well as about 1,500 PhD students.<ref name"businessaarhus.dk"/> It is possible to engage in higher academic studies in many areas, from the traditional spheres of natural science, humanities and theology to more vocational academic areas like engineering and dentistry.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.au.dk/en/about/profile/history/25kapitlerafuniversitetetshistorie/facultyoftheology/|titleFaculty of Theology|publisherAarhus University|access-date1 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140812203040/http://www.au.dk/en/about/profile/history/25kapitlerafuniversitetetshistorie/facultyoftheology/|archive-date12 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Aarhus Tech is one of the largest technical colleges in Denmark, teaching undergraduate study programmes in English, including vocational education and training (VET), continuing vocational training (CVT), and human resource development.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhustech.dk/english/english/aarhus-tech-international/services|titleAARHUS TECH International services|publisherAarhustech.dk|access-date1 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140808043003/http://aarhustech.dk/english/english/aarhus-tech-international/services|archive-date8 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Business Academy Aarhus is among the largest business academies in Denmark and offers undergraduate and some academic degrees, in IT, business and technical fields. The academic level technical aspects are covered in a collaboration with Aarhus Tech, Aarhus School of Marine and Technical Engineering and Aarhus Educational Centre for Agriculture.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.baaa.dk/about-us/about-business-academy-aarhus/ |titleAbout Business Academy Aarhus |publisherBusiness Academy Aarhus |access-date16 May 2017}}</ref> The Danish School of Media and Journalism (DMJX) is the oldest and largest of the colleges, offering journalism courses since 1946, with approximately 1,700 students as of 2014. DMJX has been an independent institution since 1974, conducting research and teaching at undergraduate level, and in 2004, master's courses in journalism was established in a collaboration with Aarhus University. The latter is offered through the Centre for University studies in journalism, granting degrees through the university.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://mundusjournalism.com/universities/uni-dsj|titleThe Danish School of Media and Journalism|publisherMundusjournalism.com|access-date1 August 2014|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140727121548/http://mundusjournalism.com/universities/uni-dsj|archive-date27 July 2014}}</ref>
The Royal Academy of Music in Aarhus (Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium) is a conservatoire, established under the auspices of the Danish Ministry of Culture in 1927. In 2010, it merged administratively with the Royal Academy of Music in Aalborg, which was founded in 1930.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.masterstudies.co.uk/universities/Denmark/The-Royal-Academy-of-Music-Det-Jyske-Musikkonservatorium/|titleThe Royal Academy of Music – Det Jyske Musikkonservatorium|publisherMasterstudies.co.uk|access-date1 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140808061517/http://www.masterstudies.co.uk/universities/Denmark/The-Royal-Academy-of-Music-Det-Jyske-Musikkonservatorium/|archive-date8 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Under the patronage of His Royal Highness Crown Prince Frederik, it offers graduate level studies in areas such as music teaching, and solo and professional musicianship. VIA University College was established in January 2008 and is one of eight new regional organisations offering bachelor courses of all kinds, throughout the Central Denmark Region. It offers over 50 higher educations, taught in Danish or sometimes in English, with vocational education and it participates in various research and development projects.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.viauc.com/about/Pages/about-us.aspx|titleAbout VIA|publisherViauc.com|access-date1 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140729104641/http://www.viauc.com/about/Pages/about-us.aspx|archive-date29 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Aarhus School of Architecture (Arkitektskolen Aarhus) was founded in 1965. Along with the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts of Copenhagen, it is responsible for the education of architects in Denmark. With an enrolment of approximately 900 students, it teaches in five main departments: architecture and aesthetics, urban and landscape, architectonic heritage, design and architectural design.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Kunst_og_kultur/Arkitektur/Arkitekturinstitutioner/Arkitektskolen_Aarhus|titleArkitektskolen Aarhus|publisherGyldendal|access-date1 August 2014|languageda}}</ref>TransportAarhus has two ring roads; Ring 1, roughly encircling the central district of Aarhus C, and the outlying Ring 2. Six major intercity motorways radiate from the city centre, connecting with nearby cities Grenå, Randers, Viborg, Silkeborg, Skanderborg and Odder.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://trimis.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/project/documents/Rapport%20om%20midtjyske%20motorvej.pdf|titleMidtjysk motorvej|publisherVejdirekoratet|access-date25 January 2023|languageda|archive-date1 August 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230801190305/https://trimis.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/project/documents/Rapport%20om%20midtjyske%20motorvej.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In the inner city, motorised traffic is highly regulated, larger parts are pedestrianised and in the 2000s, a system of roads prioritised for cyclists have been implemented, connecting to suburban areas.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.visitaarhus.com/areas-and-cities/aarhus/activities/aarhus-bike|titleAarhus by bike|publisherVisitAarhus|access-date25 January 2023}}</ref>
The main railway station in Aarhus is Aarhus Central Station located in the city centre. DSB has connections to destinations throughout Denmark and also services to Flensburg and Hamburg in Germany.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://aarhus.com/city__traffic.asp|titleCity & traffic|publisheraarhus.com|access-date28 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140726221547/http://www.aarhus.com/city__traffic.asp|archive-date26 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Aarhus Letbane is a local electric tram-train system that opened in December 2017, connecting the central station and the inner city with the University Hospital in Skejby and also replaced local railway services to Grenaa and Odder in late 2018. It is the first electric light rail system in Denmark and more routes are planned to open in coming years. Tickets for the light rail are also available in local yellow bus lines.<ref>{{cite magazine |urlhttp://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/aarhus-tram-train-project-gets-the-go-ahead.html |titleAarhus tram-train project gets the go-ahead |date10 May 2012 |magazineRailway Gazette International |access-date11 May 2012 |archive-date1 March 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200301085800/https://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/aarhus-tram-train-project-gets-the-go-ahead.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Most city bus lines go through the inner city and pass through either Park Allé or Banegårdspladsen, or both, right at the central station.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.midttrafik.dk/in-english.aspx|titleBuses in Aarhus and other city buses|publisherMidttraffik|access-date28 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140626164737/https://www.midttrafik.dk/in-english.aspx|archive-date26 June 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Regional and Inter-city buses terminate at Aarhus Bus Terminal, just east of the central station.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.midttrafik.dk/kundeservice/salgssteder/aarhus-kommune/|titleMidttrafik Kundecenter|publisherMidttrafik|access-date9 November 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171109134602/https://www.midttrafik.dk/kundeservice/salgssteder/aarhus-kommune/|archive-date9 November 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://aarhuswiki.dk/wiki/Aarhus_Rutebilstation|titleAarhus Rutebilstation|publisherAarhusWiki|languageda|access-date9 November 2017}}</ref> FlixBus provides long-distance buses that travel to other cities in Denmark and Europe.<ref>{{cite web |titleBus Routes Overview |urlhttps://global.flixbus.com/bus-routes |websiteFlixBus |access-date=15 February 2020}}</ref>
Ferries administered by Danish ferry company Mols-Linien transports passengers and motorvehicles between Aarhus and Sjællands Odde on Zealand.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mols-linien.dk/index.dsp?page3630|titleKatExpress 1 – en af verdens største hurigfargen|publisherMols Linien|access-date29 July 2014|languageda|archive-date29 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140729172643/http://www.mols-linien.dk/index.dsp?page3630|url-statusdead}}</ref> The ferries comprises HSC KatExpress 1 and HSC KatExpress 2, the world's largest diesel-powered catamarans,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ldlines.co.uk/bienvenue_norman_arrow.php|titleWelcome Aboard – Norman Arrow|publisherLdlines.co.uk|access-date1 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120326152955/http://www.ldlines.co.uk/bienvenue_norman_arrow.php|archive-date26 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> and HSC Max Mols.
<ref>{{cite web |titleNew 115 metre high speed catamaran for Molslinjen – largest ferry to be built by Austal |urlhttps://www.austal.com/news/new-115-metre-high-speed-catamaran-molslinjen-largest-ferry-be-built-austal |publisherAustal |date24 October 2019 |access-date=25 January 2023}}</ref>
Aarhus Airport is located on Djursland, {{convert|40|km|mi|abbron}} north-east of Aarhus near Tirstrup, and provides links to both Copenhagen and international destinations.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.arhus-aar.airports-guides.com/aar_airport_maps.html|titleAarhus Airport (AAR)|publisherAirport Guides|access-date28 July 2014}}</ref> The larger Billund Airport is situated {{convert|95|km|mi|abbron}} south-west of Aarhus.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Bil,_b%C3%A5d,_fly_m.m./Luftfart/Lufthavne_og_jordorganisation/Billund_Airport|titleBillund Airport|publisherGyldendal|access-date28 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> There has been much discussion about constructing a new airport closer to the city for many years, but so far no plans have been realised.<ref>{{cite web |lastDalhoff |firstMaria |urlhttp://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/erhverv/ECE6541244/borgmester-vil-droefte-en-ny-lufthavn/|titleBorgmester Vil Drøfte en ny lufthavn|workJyllands-Posten|date6 March 2014|access-date28 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> In August 2014, the city council officially initiated a process to assert the viability of a new international airport.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/erhverv/ECE6976154/nu-skal-ny-lufthavnsplacering-undersoeges/|titleNu skal ny lufthavnsplacering undersøges|publisherMorgenavisen Jyllands-Posten|date27 August 2014|access-date29 August 2014|languageda}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.aarhus.dk/da/erhverv/erhvervsudvikling/Infrastruktur-og-byudvikling/Analyse-af-en-eventuel-ny-placering-af-Aarhus-Lufthavn.aspx |titleAnalyse af en eventuel ny placering af Aarhus Lufthavn |publisherAarhus Kommune |date17 June 2015 |access-date2 June 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160807104229/https://www.aarhus.dk/da/erhverv/erhvervsudvikling/Infrastruktur-og-byudvikling/Analyse-af-en-eventuel-ny-placering-af-Aarhus-Lufthavn.aspx |archive-date7 August 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref> A small seaplane now operates four flights daily between Aarhus harbour and Copenhagen harbour.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.business.dk/transport/pengemandens-millionplan-vandfly-skal-i-timedrift-mellem-koebenhavn-og-aar |titlePengemandens millionplan: Vandfly skal i timedrift mellem København og Aarhus|workbusiness.dk|date25 May 2016|access-date28 May 2016}}</ref>
Aarhus has a free bike sharing system, Aarhus Bycykler (Aarhus City Bikes). The bicycles are available from 1 April to 30 October at 57 stands throughout the city and can be obtained by placing a DKK 20 coin in a release slot, like caddies in a supermarket. The coin can be retrieved when the bike is returned at a random stand. Bicycles can also be hired from many shops.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/AarhusBycykel/Home/English.aspx|titleAarhus City Bikes|publisherAarhus Kommune|access-date29 July 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140809142130/http://www.aarhus.dk/sitecore/content/Subsites/AarhusBycykel/Home/English.aspx|archive-date9 August 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
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Healthcare
{{See also|Healthcare in Denmark}}
Aarhus is home to Aarhus University Hospital, one of six Danish "Super Hospitals" officially established in 2007 when the regions reformed the Danish healthcare sector.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.danskekommuner.dk/Global/Artikelbilleder/2015/DK-3/DK-3-side-26-27.pdf |titleSupersygehus |publisherAarhus Municipality |access-date22 April 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160605114943/http://www.danskekommuner.dk/Global/Artikelbilleder/2015/DK-3/DK-3-side-26-27.pdf |archive-date5 June 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref> The university hospital is the result of a series of mergers in the 2000s between the local hospitals of Skejby Sygehus, the Municipal Hospital, the County Hospital, Marselisborg Hospital and Risskov Psychiatric Hospital. It is today the largest hospital in Denmark with a combined staff of some 10,000 and 1,150 patient beds,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.en.auh.dk/about-the-hospital/organisation/ |titleOrganisation |publisherAarhus University Hospital |access-date14 April 2019 |archive-date5 November 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201105174300/https://www.en.auh.dk/about-the-hospital/organisation/ |url-statusdead }}</ref> and has been ranked the best hospital in Denmark consecutively since 2008.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.en.auh.dk/about-the-hospital/denmarks-best-hospital/ |titleDenmark's best hospital 2018 |publisherAarhus University Hospital |date14 December 2018 |access-date14 April 2019 |archive-date1 December 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201201182416/https://www.en.auh.dk/about-the-hospital/denmarks-best-hospital/ |url-statusdead}}</ref> In 2012, construction of a new large hospital building began, known as Det Nye Universitetshospital (DNU) or 'The New University Hospital' in English, and it is centralising and accommodating all of the former departments, ending in 2019. The new hospital is divided in four clinical centres, a service centre and one administrative unit along with twelve research centres.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.auh.dk/om-auh/forskningsenheder/ |titleForskningsenheder |publisherAarhus University Hospital |access-date22 April 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160328175121/http://www.auh.dk/om-auh/forskningsenheder |archive-date28 March 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.auh.dk/om-auh/centre/ |titleCentre |publisherAarhus University Hospital |access-date22 April 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160330072000/http://www.auh.dk/om-auh/centre |archive-date30 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
Private hospitals specialised in different areas from plastic surgery to fertility treatments operate in Aarhus as well. Ciconia Aarhus Private Hospital founded in 1984 is a leading Danish fertility clinic and the first of its kind in Denmark. Ciconia has provided for the birth of 6,000 children by artificial insemination and continually conducts research into the field of fertility.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ciconia.dk/en/ |titleAbout |publisherCiconia Fertility Clinic |access-date22 April 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160509174140/http://www.ciconia.dk/en/ |archive-date9 May 2016 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Aagaard Clinic, established in 2004, is another private fertility and gynaecology clinic which since 2004 has undertaken fertility treatments that has resulted in 1550 births.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aagaardklinik.dk/10007,10128/about_the_clinic |titleAbout the clinic |publisherAagaard Fertility Clinic |access-date22 April 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160327025449/https://www.aagaardklinik.dk/10007,10128/about_the_clinic |archive-date27 March 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref> Aarhus Municipality also offers a number of specialised services in the areas of nutrition, exercise, sex, smoking and drinking, activities for the elderly, health courses and lifestyle.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aarhus.dk/da/borger/sundhed-og-sygdom/sundhedstilbud.aspx |titleSundhedstilbud |publisherAarhus Municipality |access-date22 April 2016 |languageda |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160424000120/http://www.aarhus.dk/da/borger/sundhed-og-sygdom/Sundhedstilbud.aspx |archive-date24 April 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref>Media
at the central station]]
TV tower, height {{convert|261|m|abbr=on}}]]
The first daily newspaper to appear in Aarhus was Århus Stiftstidende, established in 1794 as Aarhuus Stifts Adresse-Contoirs Tidender'', with a moderately conservative approach. Once one of Denmark's largest,{{sfn|Cremo|2010|p230}} it was a leading provincial newspaper for a time, but after the Second World War it increasingly faced competition from Demokraten (1884–1974) and {{Lang|da|Jyllands-Posten}}, both published in Aarhus. In 1998, it merged with Randers Amtsavis and is now run by Midtjyske Medier, part of Berlingske Media.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Samfund,_jura_og_politik/Massemedier/Medier_og_dagblade,_Danmark/%C3%85rhus_Stiftstidende |titleÅrhus Stiftstidende |publisherGyldendal |access-date21 July 2014}}</ref> The daily newspaper of {{lang|da|Jyllands-Posten}} was established in 1871 in Aarhus, and takes a generally right-wing editorial approach. With a reputation as a serious news publication, the paper has always included news from Jutland in particular, but somewhat less so since its promotion as a national newspaper in the 1960s. Today it is one of the three bestselling serious newspapers in Denmark, the others being Berlingske and Politiken.<ref>{{cite web |authorJette Drachmann Søllinge |urlhttp://www.denstoredanske.dk/Samfund,_jura_og_politik/Massemedier/Medier_og_dagblade,_Danmark/Jyllands-Posten |titleJyllands Posten in The Great Danish |workJyllands-Posten |publisherGyldendal |access-date21 July 2014 |languageda}}</ref> Jyllands-Posten publishes JP Aarhus, a section dedicated to news in and around Aarhus, and hosted a free cityguide website from 2010 to 2016.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/ |titleJP Aarhus |workJyllands-Posten |access-date5 February 2016 |archive-date2 February 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160202135343/http://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/ |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://jyllands-posten.dk/aarhus/erhverv/article4473815.ece|titleJyllands-Posten øger satsningen i Århus |trans-titleJyllands-Posten increase the bet in Århus |workJyllands-Posten|date11 March 2010 |access-date10 October 2017}}</ref> The Copenhagen-based media company of Politiken, also publishes several free local papers once a week in parts of Denmark and Sweden. In Aarhus, they publish a total of five local newspapers; Aarhus Midt, Aarhus Nord, Aarhus Vest, Aarhus Syd and Aarhus Onsdag.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://politikenslokalaviser.dk/ |titlePolitikens Lokalaviser |publisherPolitikens Lokalaviser A/S |languageda |access-date1 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://lokalavisen.dk/section/epapers |titleE-aviser |publisherPolitikens Lokalaviser A/S |access-date1 July 2018 |archive-date19 April 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180419004028/http://www.lokalavisen.dk/section/epapers |url-statusdead }}</ref> Aarhus Onsdag (Aarhus Wednesday) is financed completely by advertisements and available in both paperform and online. It was bought from Århus Stiftstidende in June 2017, but has been published for many years previous.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://journalisten.dk/stiften-tillidsmand-sikkert-godt-andre-steder-men-ikke-her|titleSikkert godt andre steder – men ikke her|trans-titleProbably good elsewhere - but not here|languageda|firstKerstin|lastBruun-Hansen|publisherJournalisten|date16 June 2017|access-date1 July 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.e-pages.dk/aarhusonsdag/391|titleAarhus Onsdag - 26-06-2018|website=www.e-pages.dk}}</ref>
Danmarks Radio has a large department in Aarhus with over 200 employees. It runs the DR Østjylland radio programme, provides local contributions to DR P4, and produces local regional television programmes.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dr.dk/Om_DR/Besoeg_DR/2013/09/03130303.htm|titleRundvisning i DR Aarhus|publisherDR|date3 September 2013|access-date21 July 2014|languageda}}</ref> In 1999, TV 2 moved its Jutland headquarters from Randers to Skejby in northern Aarhus. The station broadcasts regional news and current affairs television and radio programmes. Since 2012, it has run its own TV channel, TV 2 Østjylland.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.tv2oj.dk/artikel/48749:Om-TV-2---OeSTJYLLAND--Oejeblikke-paa-TV2OJ|titleFå overblikket over de første 20 år med TV 2|publishertv2oj.dk TV 2 {{pipe}} ØSTJYLLAND|access-date21 July 2014|languageda|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140730001629/http://www.tv2oj.dk/artikel/48749:Om-TV-2---OeSTJYLLAND--Oejeblikke-paa-TV2OJ|archive-date30 July 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref> Aarhus has its own local TV channel TVAarhus, transmitting since 1984.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.tv3aarhus.dk/Om_TV3_Ost/om_tv3_ost.html|titleOm TV3 Øst|publisherTVAarhus|languageda|access-date3 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140808054833/http://www.tv3aarhus.dk/Om_TV3_Ost/om_tv3_ost.html|archive-date8 August 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.antenneforeningen-aarhus.dk/tvaarhus.aspx|titleOm TVAarhus|publisherAntenneforeningen Aarhus|languageda|access-date3 August 2014}}</ref> After an agreement on 1 July 2014, TVAarhus can be watched by 130,000 households in Aarhus, making it the largest cable-transmitted local TV channel in Denmark.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://dinby.dk/aarhus-onsdag/dobbelt-saa-mange-kan-nu-se-tvaarhus|titleDobbelt så mange kan nu se TVAarhus|publisherAarhus Onsdag, Århus Stifstidende|languageda|date1 August 2014|access-date=3 August 2014}}</ref>
With over 1,700 students, the Danish School of Media and Journalism (Danmarks Medie- og Journalisthøjskole) is the country's largest and oldest school of journalism. The school works closely with Aarhus University, where the first journalism course was established in 1946. In 2004, the two institutions established the Centre for University Studies in Journalism, which offers master's courses.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://mundusjournalism.com/universities/uni-dsj|titleThe Danish School of Media and Journalism|publisherErasmus Mundus Master's in Journalism, Media and Globalisation|access-date21 July 2014|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140727121548/http://mundusjournalism.com/universities/uni-dsj|archive-date27 July 2014}}</ref>International relationsAarhus is home to 32 consulates:<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.danmarks-ambassade.com/2c.php?cDanmark |titleForeign consulates in Denmark |publisherDanmarks-ambassade.com |languageda |access-date=15 November 2015}}</ref>
{{Div col|colwidth=12em}}
*{{AUT}}
*{{BEL}}
*{{BFA}}
*{{CHL}}
*{{HRV}}
*{{CYP}}
*{{CZE}}
*{{EST}}
*{{FIN}}
*{{FRA}}
*{{DEU}}
*{{GRC}}
*{{HUN}}
*{{ISL}}
*{{JPN}}
*{{LTU}}
*{{MLT}}
*{{MEX}}
*{{NLD}}
*{{NOR}}
*{{OMN}}
*{{POL}}
*{{ROU}}
*{{SVK}}
*{{SVN}}
*{{KOR}}
*{{ESP}}
*{{SWE}}
*{{TUR}}
*{{UKR}}
*{{UK}}
{{div col end}}
Aarhus practices twinning on the municipal level. For the twin towns, see twin towns of Aarhus Municipality.
Notable people
{{main|List of people from Aarhus}}
Citations
Notes
{{notefoot}}
References
{{reflist|30em|refs<ref name"DMI-climate">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.dmi.dk/vejr/arkiver/normaler-og-ekstremer/klimanormaler-dk/ |titleKlimanormaler — Østjylland 1961–1990 |languageda |trans-titleClimatological — East Jutland 1961-1990 |publisherDanmarks Meteorologiske Institut [ Danish Meteorological Institute ] |access-date15 February 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130804083803/http://www.dmi.dk/vejr/arkiver/normaler-og-ekstremer/klimanormaler-dk/ |archive-date4 August 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
}}
;Publications
{{refbegin|50em}}
<!-- Books & Journals cited in the Notes section -->
*{{cite book|lastBiblioteker|firstÅrhus Kommunes|titleÅrhus leksikon|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLICVQwAACAAJ|year1997|publisher=Århus Kommunes Biblioteker}}
*{{cite book|lastCremo|firstMichael A.|titleThe Forbidden Archeologist: The Atlantis Rising Magazine Columns of Michael A. Cremo|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idX28zNKCBD28C&pgPA230|year2010|publisherTorchlight Publishing|isbn=978-0-89213-337-6}}
*{{cite book|last1Duffin|first1C.J.|last2Moody|first2R.T.J.|last3Gardner-Thorpe|first3C.|titleA History of Geology and Medicine|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhGpIAgAAQBAJ&pgPA312|date10 December 2013|publisherGeological Society of London|isbn=978-1-86239-356-1}}
*{{cite book|last1Eade|first1John|last2Mele|first2Christopher|titleUnderstanding the City: Contemporary and Future Perspectives|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idyID1sbTKjgAC&pgPT67|date15 July 2011|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-9932-5}}
*{{cite book|lastHulme|firstKaren|titleWar Torn Environment: Interpreting The Legal Threshold|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhKoXIleS8g4C&pgPA233|dateJanuary 2004|publisherMartinus Nijhoff Publishers|isbn=90-04-13848-X}}
*{{cite book|lastLoumann|firstOle|titleTuren går til Århus & Østjylland|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id85YtuAAACAAJ|year2009|publisherPolitiken|isbn978-87-567-8977-6}}
*{{cite book|lastMadsen|firstHans Jørgen|titleÅrhus of the Vikings|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXmwKAQAAIAAJ|year1975|publisher=Forhistorisk Museum}}
*{{cite book|lastMitcham|firstSamuel W.|titleGerman Order of Battle: 291st–999th Infantry divisions|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW12nzCN9DK4C&pgPT110|year2007|publisherStackpole Books|isbn=978-0-8117-3437-0}}
*{{cite book|last1Møller|first1Erik|last2Vindum|first2Kjeld|titleAarhus City Hall|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoB9UAAAAMAAJ|year1991|publisherDanish Architectural Press|isbn978-87-7407-110-5}}
*{{cite book|lastOlsen|firstSøren|titleDanmarks købstæder: 144 købstæder og andre gamle byer|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id2AKRQwAACAAJ|year2000|publisherGyldendals Bogklubber|isbn978-87-00-66364-0|pages=124–131}}
*{{cite book|last1Pedersen|first1Olaf|last2Hovesen|first2Ejnar|titleVidenskabshistorie i Aarhus: Videnskabshistorisk Museum, Medicinhistorisk Museum|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduFZ9QwAACAAJ|year1987|publisher=Institut for Videnskabshistorie}}
*{{cite book|last1Porter|first1Darwin|last2Prince|first2Danforth|titleFrommer's Denmark|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLTwStq9iAqUC&pgPA367|date5 June 2007|publisherJohn Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-10058-5}}
*{{cite book|last1Sevaldsen|first1Jørgen|last2Bjørke|first2Bo|last3Bjørn|first3Claus|titleBritain and Denmark: Political, Economic and Cultural Relations in the 19th and 20th Centuries|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsWKUdolTeUIC&pgPA330|dateJanuary 2003|publisherMuseum Tusculanum Press|isbn=978-87-7289-750-9}}
*{{cite book|lastThomsen|firstC. Walther|titleDet gamle Aarhus som Kunstnerne saa det|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtMwPAQAAIAAJ|year1968|publisher=Nellemann & Thomsen, Mejlgade 45}}
*{{cite book|lastTravis|firstA. S.|titleDeterminants in the Evolution of the European Chemical Industry, 1900–1939: New Technologies, Political Frameworks, Markets and Companies|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRqGURTkCxYsC&pgPA336|date31 October 1998|publisherSpringer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-7923-4890-0}}
*{{cite book|lastTrenear-Harvey|firstGlenmore S.|titleHistorical Dictionary of Air Intelligence|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id1RrjJc-s1scC&pgPA2|date13 April 2009|publisherScarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-8108-6294-4}}
*{{cite book|lastZabecki|firstDavid T.|titleWorld War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgYDN-UfehEEC&pgPA1350|year1999|publisherTaylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8240-7029-8}}
*{{cite book|lastAlenius|firstMarianne|titleIkke noget theselskab: Var vi terrorister?|year2002|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6VsvPwAACAAJ|publisherMuseum Tusculanum Press|isbn87-7289-736-8}}
*{{cite book|lastHauerbach|firstSven|title5. Kolonne; Aarhus-sabotørernes modige indsats|year1945|urlhttps://www.saxo.com/dk/5-kolonne-aarhus-sabotoerernes-modige-indsats_sven-hauerbach_ukendt_SX18985203|publisher5 Kolonne|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160415205821/https://www.saxo.com/dk/5-kolonne-aarhus-sabotoerernes-modige-indsats_sven-hauerbach_ukendt_SX18985203|archive-date=15 April 2016}}
*{{cite book|lastHansen|firstSalomon|titleJydske Sabotører. Willy Samsing-Gruppen|year1946|urlhttps://bibliotek.dk/da/work/810015-katalog%3A002218127|publisherSalomon Hansen}}
*{{cite book|lastKristensen|firstHenrik Skov|titleGrethe Bartram – fra kommunist til gestapoagent|year2010|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMS9fewAACAAJ&qGrethe+Bartram+%E2%80%93+fra+kommunist+til+gestapoagent|publisherNyt Nordisk Forlag|isbn=978-87-17-04140-0}}
*{{cite book|lastKnudsen|firstPeter Øvig|titleEfter drabet|year2009|urlhttps://www.saxo.com/dk/efter-drabet_peter-oevig-knudsen_hardback_9788702083279|publisherGyldendal|isbn=978-87-02-08327-9}}
*{{cite book|lastGejl|firstIb|titleFra købmandsgård til koncern. Korn- og Foderstof Kompagniet|year1996|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7hpEAQAACAAJ&qFra+k%C3%B8bmandsg%C3%A5rd+til+koncern.+Korn-+og+Foderstof+Kompagniet|publisherDanish National Business Archives|isbn=978-87-89386-17-1}}
*{{cite book|lastJansen|firstChristian R.|titleKorn, købmænd og kornkompagni|date1971|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsDPTPQAACAAJ|publisherAarhusUniversitetsforlag|isbn978-87-504-0252-7}}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
{{Div col|colwidth=50em}}
*{{cite book |lastJensen |firstKurt Balle | year2006 | publisherPressebureauet Silkeborg | titleAs time goes by – en jazzkrønike | isbn87-991273-1-8}}
*{{cite book |lastLykke |firstPalle | year1996| publisherAarhus Universitetsforlag | titleBy og universitet | isbn87-7288-683-8}}
*{{cite book |lastVarberg |firstJeanette | year2012 | publisherForlaget Moesgård | titleAros og vikingernes verden | isbn978-87-87334-91-4}}
*{{cite book |lastWeinrich |firstMogens | year2014 | publisherSaxo Publish | titleKend din by | isbn978-87-983087-0-6}}
*{{cite book |lastWeinrich |firstMogens | year2014 | publisherSaxo Publish | titleKend din by II | isbn978-87-983087-4-4}}
*{{cite book |lastDalsgård |firstJens | year2013 | publisherÅrhus Byhistorisk Fond | titleAarhus-København – en fotografisk spejling | isbn978-87-91324-45-1}}
*{{cite book |last1Fode |first1Henrik |last2Navntoft |first2Claus P. | year2014 | publisherÅrhus Byhistorisk Fond | titleSom kunstnerne så Aarhus | isbn978-87-91324-47-5}}
*{{cite book |lastByrum |firstFinn | year2008 | publisherGlobe | titleÅrhus fra oven | isbn978-87-7900-646-1}}
*{{cite book |lastBender |firstJohan | year2008 | publisherKlematis | titleHurra for Århus | isbn978-87-641-0296-3}}
*{{cite book |lastFode |firstHenrik | year2005 | publisherÅrhus Byhistoriske Fond | titleÅrhus besat | isbn978-87-91324-11-6}}
*{{cite book |lastCarlsen |firstSøren Højlund | year2011 | publisherTurbine Forlaget | titleÅrhus i hjertet | isbn978-87-7090-484-1}}
*{{cite book |lastElgaard |firstSøren | year2009 | publisherAarhus Universitetsforlag | titleÅrhus Havn | isbn978-87-7934-457-0}}
*{{cite book |lastHansen |firstFinn Egeland | year2010 | publisherSiesta | titleVerdens navle | isbn978-87-92539-25-0}}
*{{cite book |lastDamm |firstAnnette | year2005 | publisherMoesgård | titleVikingernes Aros | isbn87-87334-62-3}}
{{div col end}}
External links
{{Commons and category}}
{{Wikivoyage}}
*[http://www.aarhus.dk Aarhus Kommune] Official municipal and city portal {{in lang|da}}
*[http://www.visitaarhus.com Visit Aarhus] Official tourist site
<!--*[http://webwalk.dk/locations/dk/aarhus/index.html Virtual Aarhus (newer)]-->
<!--*[http://www.virtualdenmark.dk/vraarhus/index_en.html Virtual Aarhus (older)]-->
*{{Wikisource-inline|list**{{cite EB9 |wstitle Aarhuus |volumeI | page3 |short=1}}
**{{Cite Nuttall|titleAarhus |shortx |noicon=x}}
**{{Cite EB1911|wstitleAarhus |volume I | page3-4 ||shortx |noicon=x}}
**{{Cite CE1913|wstitleAarhus |shortx |noicon=x}}
**{{Cite Collier's|wstitleAarhuus (city) |shortx |noicon=x}}
}}
{{Aarhus}}
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{{Cities and towns in Aarhus Municipality}}
{{Education in Aarhus}}
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}}
{{Geographic location
|Northwest = Favrskov Municipality
|North = Syddjurs Municipality
|Northeast = Mols
|West = Silkeborg
|Center = Aarhus
|South = Odder Municipality
|Southwest = Skanderborg
|Southeast = Samsø
|East = Helgenæs
}}
{{Coord|56.1572|10.2107|type:city|display=title}}
{{Authority control}}
<!--please leave the empty space as standard-->
Category:Cities and towns in the Central Denmark Region
Category:Cities and towns in Aarhus Municipality
Category:Municipal seats of the Central Denmark Region
Category:Municipal seats of Denmark
Category:Port cities and towns in Denmark
Category:Viking Age populated places | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarhus | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.070726 |
1043 | Northern cavefish | <ref>{{cite journal |last1Poulson |first1T. L |titleAdaptations of cave fishes with some comparisons to deep-sea fishes |journalEnvironmental Biology of Fishes |volume62 |issue2001 |pages=345-364}}</ref>{{Short description|Species of fish}}
{{speciesbox
| image = Amblyopsis spelaea.jpg
| image_upright = 1.2
| status = NT
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref <ref name"iucn status 19 November 2021">{{cite iucn |authorNatureServe |date2014 |titleAmblyopsis spelaea |volume2014 |pagee.T1080A19034608 |doi10.2305/IUCN.UK.2014-3.RLTS.T1080A19034608.en |access-date=19 November 2021}}</ref>
| genus = Amblyopsis
| species = spelaea
| authority = DeKay, 1842
}}
The northern cavefish or northern blindfish (Amblyopsis spelaea) is found in caves through Kentucky and southern Indiana. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the species as near threatened.<ref name="iucn status 19 November 2021"/>
The life cycle of northern cavefish includes a protolarval stage. In this stage, eggs and those that have recently hatched into protolarvae are kept by the mother internally in a gill chamber. Juveniles become free swimming and can leave. The northern cavefish lives to a maximum age of at least ten years and reaches sexual maturity at approximately six years of age.<ref namefr88>{{cite journal|journalFederal Register|titleEndangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Seven Species Not Warranted for Listing as Endangered or Threatened Species|pages83368–83377|author((U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Species Assessment Team, Ecological Services Program))|volume88|issue228|date29 November 2023}} {{Federal Register|88|83368}}</ref>{{rp|83374}}
During a 2013 study of Amblyopsis spelaea, scientists found that the species was divided into two distinct evolutionary lineages: one north of the Ohio River, in Indiana, and one south of the river, in Kentucky. The southern population retained the name A. spelaea and the northern was re-designated Amblyopsis hoosieri in a 2014 paper published in the journal ZooKeys.<ref name"ZooKeys">{{cite journal |last1Chakrabarty |first1Prosanta |last2Prejean |first2Jacques A. |last3Niemiller |first3Matthew L. |dateMay 29, 2014 |titleThe Hoosier cavefish, a new and endangered species (Amblyopsidae, Amblyopsis) from the caves of southern Indiana |journalZooKeys |publisherPensoft |issue412 |pages41–57 |doi10.3897/zookeys.412.7245|pmc4042695 |pmid24899861|doi-accessfree|bibcode2014ZooK..412...41C }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |lastHoward |firstBrian Clark |dateMay 30, 2014 |titleBlind Hoosier Cavefish: Freshwater Species of the Week |urlhttp://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/05/30/blind-hoosier-cavefish-freshwater-species-of-the-week/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141207165016/http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2014/05/30/blind-hoosier-cavefish-freshwater-species-of-the-week/ |url-statusdead |archive-dateDecember 7, 2014 |websiteNational Geographic |access-dateJanuary 23, 2015 }}</ref> Neither species is found north of the White River, flowing east to west south of Bedford, Indiana.
The northern cavefish was under consideration for listing under the Endangered Species Act, however, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service found in 2023 that despite the loss of two metapopulations of A. spelaea, listing was not warranted, as the four metapopulations that still exist had sufficient redundancy of subpopulations to mitigate threats.<ref namefr88/> The metapopulations are divided among two units that are separated by the Rough Creek Fault Zone. Threats to the species include habitat degradation, especially by groundwater contamination from encroaching agricultural operations, cities and industry, forest loss and surface water impoundment.Behavior The Northern Cave Fish hunts in a special way since it can't see. It has tiny sensing spots all over its body that can feel when food is swimming nearby, even in complete darkness.[1] These fish can tell there's food around just by feeling the movements in the water, even when the food is several finger-lengths away.[1]References
{{Reflist}}
* {{FishBase species|genusAmblyopsis|speciesspelaea|year2005|month10}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q2842127}}
Category:Amblyopsidae
Category:Cave fish
Cavefish, Northern
Category:Fish of the United States
Category:Fish described in 1842
Category:Taxa named by James Ellsworth De Kay
Category:Mammoth Cave National Park
{{Percopsiformes-stub}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_cavefish | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.076905 |
1046 | Abatement | Abatement refers generally to a lessening, diminution, reduction, or moderation; specifically, it may refer to:
421-a tax abatement, property tax exemption in the U.S. state of New York
Abatement ab initio, a legal doctrine that, if the accused dies before appeals are exhausted, the conviction gets vacated
Abatement of debts and legacies, a common law doctrine of wills
Abatement in pleading, a legal defense to civil and criminal actions
Abatement (heraldry), a modification of the shield or coat of arms imposed by authority for misconduct
Asbestos abatement, removal of asbestos from structures
Bird abatement, driving or removing undesired birds from an area
Dust abatement, the process of inhibiting the creation of excess soil dust
Graffiti abatement, a joint effort between groups to eliminate graffiti
Marginal abatement cost, the marginal cost of reducing pollution
Noise abatement, strategies to reduce noise pollution or its impact
Nuisance abatement, regulatory compliance methodology
Tax abatement, temporary reduction or elimination of a tax
See also
Abate (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abatement | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.078963 |
1049 | Amateur | thumb|Amateur association football player
An amateur () is generally considered a person who pursues an avocation independent from their source of income. Amateurs and their pursuits are also described as popular, informal, self-taught, user-generated, DIY, and hobbyist.
History
Historically, the amateur was considered to be the ideal balance between pure intent, open mind, and the interest or passion for a subject. That ideology spanned many different fields of interest. It may have its roots in the ancient Greek philosophy of amateur athletes competing in the Olympics. The ancient Greek citizens spent most of their time in other pursuits, but competed according to their natural talents and abilities.
The "gentleman amateur" was a phenomenon among the gentry of Great Britain from the 17th century until the 20th century. With the start of the Age of Reason, with people thinking more about how the world works around them, (see science in the Age of Enlightenment), things like the cabinets of curiosities, and the writing of the book The Christian Virtuoso, started to shape the idea of the gentleman amateur. He was vastly interested in a particular topic, and studied, observed, and collected things and information on his topic of choice. The Royal Society in Great Britain was generally composed of these "gentleman amateurs", and is one of the reasons science today exists the way it does. A few examples of these gentleman amateurs are Francis Bacon, Isaac Newton, and Sir Robert Cotton, 1st Baronet, of Connington.
Amateurism can be seen in both a negative and positive light. Since amateurs often lack formal training and are self-taught, some amateur work may be considered sub-par. For example, amateur athletes in sports such as basketball, baseball, or football are regarded as possessing a lower level of ability than professional athletes. On the other hand, an amateur may be in a position to approach a subject with an open mind (as a result of the lack of formal training) and in a financially disinterested manner. An amateur who dabbles in a field out of interest rather than as a profession, or possesses a general but superficial interest in any art or a branch of knowledge, is often referred to as a dilettante.
Amateur athletics
Olympics
Through most of the 20th century the Olympics allowed only amateur athletes to participate and this amateur code was strictly enforced, Jim Thorpe was stripped of track and field medals for having taken expense money for playing baseball in 1912.
Later on, the nations of the Communist Bloc entered teams of Olympians who were all nominally students, soldiers, or working in a profession, but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full-time basis.
Near the end of the 1960s, the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association (CAHA) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team's full-time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams. They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF) and the International Olympic Committee (IOC). At the IIHF Congress in 1969, the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non-NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada. The decision was reversed in January 1970 after IOC President Avery Brundage said that ice hockey's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made. Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA. In 1976, the IIHF agreed to allow "open competition" between all players in the World Championships. However, NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics, because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid-season and the IOC's amateur-only policy.
Before the 1984 Winter Olympics, a dispute formed over what made a player a professional. The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible. However, the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play. The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL-contracted players were eligible, as long as they had not played in any NHL games. This made five players on Olympic rosters—one Austrian, two Italians and two Canadians—ineligible. Players who had played in other professional leagues—such as the World Hockey Association—were allowed to play. Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible. In 1986, the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988, but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals.
After the 1972 retirement of IOC President Brundage, the Olympic amateurism rules were steadily relaxed, amounting only to technicalities and lip service, until being completely abandoned in the 1990s (in the United States, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 prohibits national governing bodies from having more stringent standards of amateur status than required by international governing bodies of respective sports. The act caused the breakup of the Amateur Athletic Union as a wholesale sports governing body at the Olympic level).
Olympic regulations regarding amateur status of athletes were eventually abandoned in the 1990s with the exception of wrestling, where the amateur fight rules are used because professional wrestling is largely staged with predetermined outcomes. Starting from the 2016 Summer Olympics, professionals were allowed to compete in boxing, though amateur fight rules are still used for the tournament.
Contribution of amateurs
Many amateurs make valuable contributions in the field of computer programming through the open source movement. Amateur dramatics is the performance of plays or musical theater, often to high standards, but lacking the budgets of professional West End or Broadway performances. Astronomy, chemistry, history, linguistics, and the natural sciences are among the fields that have benefited from the activities of amateurs. Gregor Mendel was an amateur scientist who never held a position in his field of study. Radio astronomy was founded by Grote Reber, an amateur radio operator. Radio itself was greatly advanced by Guglielmo Marconi, a young Italian man who started out by tinkering with a coherer and a spark coil as an amateur electrician. Pierre de Fermat was a highly influential mathematician whose primary vocation was law.
In the 2000s and 2010s, the distinction between amateur and professional has become increasingly blurred, especially in areas such as computer programming, music and astronomy. The term amateur professionalism, or pro-am, is used to describe these activities.
List of amateur pursuits
Amateur astronomy, including a list of notable amateur astronomers
Amateur chemistry, including a list of notable amateur chemists
Amateur film
Amateur geology or rockhounding, including a list of notable amateur geologists
Amateur journalism
Amateur radio
Amateur sports
Amateur theatre
Amateur pornography
Arts and crafts or handicraft, including a list of handicrafts carried out by amateurs
Fan fiction
Fan art
Independent scholar
Independent scientist or gentleman scientist, including a list of notable amateur scientists
See also
Professional
Semi-professional
Amateurism in the NCAA
Amateur professionalism
Hobby
List of amateur chess players
List of amateur mathematicians
List of amateur wrestlers
Volunteering
References
Further reading
*
Category:Occupations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.094022 |
1051 | Alexis Carrel | {{short description|French surgeon and biologist (1873–1944)}}
{{use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Infobox medical person
| image = Alexis Carrel 02.jpg
| caption = Carrel in 1923
| birth_date {{Birth date|1873|6|28|dfyes}}
| birth_place = Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, France
| death_date {{Death date and age|1944|11|5|1873|6|28|dfyes}}
| death_place = Paris, France
| education = University of Lyon
| profession = Surgeon, biologist
| specialism = Transplantology, thoracic surgery
| research_field | known_for New techniques in vascular sutures and pioneering work in transplantology and thoracic surgery
| work_institutions = {{ubl|University of Chicago|Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research}}
| prizes = Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (1912)
| signature = Signature of Alexis Carrel.png
}}
Alexis Carrel ({{IPA|fr|alɛksi kaʁɛl|lang}}; 28 June 1873 – 5 November 1944) was a French surgeon and biologist who spent most of his scientific career in the United States. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 for pioneering vascular suturing techniques. He invented the first perfusion pump with Charles Lindbergh opening the way to organ transplantation. Carrel was also a pioneer in tissue culture, transplantology and thoracic surgery. He is known for his leading role in implementing eugenic policies in Vichy France.<ref name"Alexis Carrel, Pioneer Surgeon">Sade, Robert M. MD. [https://web.archive.org/web/20150912072030/http://academicdepartments.musc.edu/humanvalues/pdf/transplantationat100years.pdf Alexis Carrel, Pioneer Surgeon] Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, South Carolina.</ref>{{sfn|Reggiani|p288|2007}}{{sfn|Schneider|1990|pp272–282}}<ref name"Andrés Horacio Reggiani p. 107">(see Reggiano (2002){{page needed|dateJune 2019}} as well as Caillois, p. 107{{full citation needed|dateJune 2019}})</ref>
Biography
Born in Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon, Rhône, Carrel was raised in a devout Catholic family and was educated by Jesuits, though he had become an agnostic by the time he became a university student.<ref>{{Cite web |titleLourdes resident physician gives lecture on 'miraculous' cures |urlhttps://www.thebostonpilot.com/article.asp?ID184474 |access-date2023-03-03 |websitewww.thebostonpilot.com |languageen |archive-date14 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200714110417/https://www.thebostonpilot.com/article.asp?ID184474 |url-statuslive }}</ref> He studied medicine at the University of Lyon.
Working as an intern at a Lyon hospital, he developed a technique for suturing small blood vessels using extremely fine needles. He published his first scientific article about this method in 1902.<ref name="Alexis Carrel, Pioneer Surgeon" />
In 1902, Carrel underwent a transformative experience that led him from being a skeptic of the reported visions and miracles at Lourdes to a believer in spiritual cures. This conversion came about after he witnessed the inexplicable healing of Marie Bailly,<ref name"Jaki">{{cite web |last1Jaki |first1Stanley L. |titleLibrary : Two Lourdes Miracles and a Nobel Laureate: What Really Happened? |urlhttps://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?id2866 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201001031230/https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/view.cfm?id2866 |archive-date1 October 2020 |access-date6 September 2020 |websiteCatholic Culture}}</ref> who then identified Carrel as the principal witness of her cure.<ref name"Francois">{{Cite journal |last1Francois |first1B. |last2Sternberg |first2E. M. |last3Fee |first3E. |year2014 |titleThe Lourdes Medical Cures Revisited |journalJournal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences |volume69 |issue1 |pages135–162 |doi10.1093/jhmas/jrs041 |pmc3854941 |pmid22843835}}</ref> Despite facing opposition from his peers in the medical community, Carrel refused to dismiss a supernatural explanation for the event. His beliefs proved to be a hindrance to his career and reputation in academic medicine in France, and as a result he left France for Canada. Carrel would write a book about the case The Voyage to Lourdes, which was released four years after his death.<ref>Alexis Carrel, The Voyage to Lourdes (New York, Harper & Row, 1950).</ref>
Shortly after arriving in Canada, he accepted a position at the University of Chicago. While there he collaborated with American physician Charles Claude Guthrie in work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the head. Carrel would be awarded the 1912 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for these efforts.
In 1906, he joined the newly formed Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research in New York where he spent the rest of his career.<ref name"Reggiani">Reggiani{{incomplete short citation|dateJune 2019}}<!--is this the book God's Eugenicist or the 2002 journal article--></ref><ref name":0">{{cite web |titleAlexis Carrel - Biographical |urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1912/carrel/biographical/ |archive-url |archive-date|access-date |website=Nobelprize.org}}</ref> There he did significant work on tissue cultures with pathologist Montrose Thomas Burrows.
In World War I, Carrel served as a major in the French Army medical Corps. During this time he developed the popular Carrel-Dakin method for treating wounds.<ref name=":0" />
In the 1930s, Carrel and Charles Lindbergh became close friends not only because of the years they worked together but also because they shared personal, political, and social views. Lindbergh initially sought out Carrel to see if his sister-in-law's heart, damaged by rheumatic fever, could be repaired. When Lindbergh saw the crudeness of Carrel's machinery, he offered to build new equipment for the scientist. Eventually they built the first perfusion pump, an invention instrumental to the development of organ transplantation and open heart surgery. Lindbergh considered Carrel his closest friend, and said he would preserve and promote Carrel's ideals after his death.<ref name="Reggiani" />
In 1939, Carrel returned to France and took a position with the French Ministry of Health.<ref name=":0" /> Due to his close proximity with Jacques Doriot's fascist Parti Populaire Français (PPF) during the 1930s and his role in implementing eugenics policies during Vichy France, he was accused after the Liberation of collaboration, but died before the trial.
In his later life he returned to his Catholic roots. In 1939, he met with Trappist monk Alexis Presse on a recommendation. Although Carrel was skeptical about meeting with a priest,<ref name"Jaki" /> Presse ended up having a profound influence on the rest of Carrel's life.<ref name"Reggiani" /> In 1942, he said "I believe in the existence of God, in the immortality of the soul, in Revelation and in all the Catholic Church teaches." He summoned Presse to administer the Catholic Sacraments on his death bed in November 1944.<ref name="Jaki" />
For much of his life, Carrel and his wife spent their summers on the {{ill|Île Saint-Gildas,|fr|vsup}} which they owned. After he and Lindbergh became close friends, Carrel persuaded him to also buy a neighboring island, the Ile Illiec, where the Lindberghs often resided in the late 1930s.{{sfn|Friedman|2007|p[https://archive.org/details/immortalistschar00frie_0/page/140 140]}}
Contributions to science
Vascular suture
Carrel was a young surgeon who was deeply affected by the 1894 assassination of the French president, Sadi Carnot, who died from a severed portal vein that surgeons believed was irreparable.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastSade|firstRobert M.|titleTransplantation at 100 Years: Alexis Carrel, Pioneer Surgeon|journalThe Annals of Thoracic Surgery|volume80|issue6|pages2415–2418|doi10.1016/j.athoracsur.2005.08.074|pmid16305931|year2005|doi-accessfree}}</ref> This tragedy inspired Carrel to develop new techniques for suturing blood vessels, such as the "triangulation" technique using three stay-sutures to minimize damage to the vascular wall during suturing. Carrel learned this technique from an embroideress, and later incorporated it into his work. According to Julius Comroe, Carrel performed every feat and developed every technique in vascular surgery using experimental animals between 1901 and 1910, leading to his great success in reconnecting arteries and veins and performing surgical grafts. These achievements earned him the Nobel Prize in 1912.{{sfn|Simmons|2002|pp199–204}}
Wound antisepsis
During World War I (1914–1918), Carrel and the English chemist Henry Drysdale Dakin developed the Carrel–Dakin method of treating wounds with an antiseptic solution based on chlorine, known as Dakin's solution. This method, which involved wound debridement and irrigation with a high volume of antiseptic fluid, was a significant medical advancement in the absence of antibiotics. For his contributions, Carrel was awarded the Légion d'honneur. The Carrel–Dakin method became widely used in hospitals. The mechanical irrigation technique developed by Carrel is still used today.<ref namedakin1>Henry D. Dakin (1915): "On the use of certain antiseptic substances in the treatment of infected wounds". British Medical Journal, volume 2, issue 2852, pp. 318–310.</ref><ref namedakin2>H. D. Dakin and E. K. Kunham (1918). A Handbook of Antiseptics. Published by Macmillan, New York.</ref><ref namedakin3>H. D. Dakin (1915): Comptes rendues de la Academie des Sciences, CLXI, p. 150. Cited by Marcel Dufresne, Presse médicale (1916)</ref> Organ transplants Carrel co-authored a book with pilot Charles Lindbergh, The Culture of Organs. Together, they developed the perfusion pump in the mid-1930s, which made it possible for organs to remain viable outside of the body during surgical procedures.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastSade |firstRobert M. |date2017 |titleA Surprising Alliance: Two Giants of the 20th Century |journalThe Annals of Thoracic Surgery |languageen |volume103 |issue6 |pages2015–2019 |doi10.1016/j.athoracsur.2016.12.056|pmid28528032 |pmc5439301 }}</ref> This innovation is considered to be a significant advancement in the fields of open-heart surgery and organ transplantation, and it paved the way for the development of the artificial heart, which became a reality many years later.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_carrel2.html| title Red Gold . Innovators & Pioneers . Alexis Carrel {{!}} PBS| website PBS| access-date 24 August 2017| archive-date 13 April 2014| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140413142138/http://www.pbs.org/wnet/redgold/innovators/bio_carrel2.html| url-status live}}</ref> Although some critics accused Carrel of exaggerating Lindbergh's contributions to gain publicity,{{sfn|Wallace|2003|p101}} other sources indicate that Lindbergh played a significant role in the device's development.<ref>{{cite web| url http://mbbnet.umn.edu/doric/lindbergh.html| title The Doric Column - Lindbergh & Carrel, organ perfusion, tissue culture, transplants, gene therapy| access-date 6 October 2006| archive-date 9 November 2006| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20061109195116/http://www.mbbnet.umn.edu/doric/lindbergh.html| url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url http://www.charleslindbergh.com/heart| title The "Lone Eagle's" Contribution to Cardiology| access-date 6 October 2006| archive-date 5 October 2006| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20061005092538/http://www.charleslindbergh.com/heart/| url-status live}}</ref> In recognition of their groundbreaking work, both Carrel and Lindbergh appeared on the cover of Time magazine on June 13, 1938. Tissue culture and cellular senescence Carrel developed methods to keep animal tissues alive in culture. He was interested in the phenomenon of senescence or aging. He believed that all cells continued to grow indefinitely, which became a widely accepted view in the early 20th century.<ref name"Fossel2004">{{cite book | url https://books.google.com/books?idUYeUk9m9yeQC&pgPA24 | title Cells, Aging, and Human Disease | first Michael B. | last Fossel | publisher Oxford University Press | isbn 978-0-19-514035-4 | pages 504 | date 2004-06-02 }} page 24.</ref> In 1912, Carrel began an experiment at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, where he cultured tissue from an embryonic chicken heart in a stoppered Pyrex flask of his own design.<ref name"JEM-CARREL">{{cite journal|titleOn the Permanent Life of Tissues Outside of the Organism|journalJournal of Experimental Medicine|date1912-05-01|firstAlexis|lastCarrel|volume15|issue5|pages516–528 |doi10.1084/jem.15.5.516|pmid19867545|pmc2124948 }}</ref> He supplied the culture with nutrients regularly and maintained it for over 20 years, longer than a chicken's normal lifespan. This experiment received significant popular and scientific attention,<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/feb/18/haruko-obokata-stap-cells-controversy-scientists-lie|titleWhat pushes scientists to lie? The disturbing but familiar story of Haruko Obokata|lastRasko|firstJohn|author2Carl Power|date18 February 2015|newspaperThe Guardian|access-date19 February 2015|archive-date18 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150218215536/http://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/feb/18/haruko-obokata-stap-cells-controversy-scientists-lie|url-status=live}}</ref> but it was never successfully replicated.
In the 1960s, Leonard Hayflick and Paul Moorhead proposed the concept of the Hayflick limit, which states that differentiated cells undergo only a limited number of divisions before dying.<ref name"Fossel2004" /> Hayflick suggested that Carrel's daily feeding of nutrients continually introduced new living cells to the culture, resulting in anomalous results.<ref>{{cite journal | title Mortality and Immortality at the Cellular Level. A Review | first L. | last Hayflick | journal Biochemistry (Moscow) |dateNovember 1997 | volume 62 | issue 11 | pages 1180–1190 | pmid 9467840 }}</ref> J. A. Witkowski argued that the deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture, possibly without Carrel's knowledge,{{efn|1Witkowski's explanation is actually based on the account of a visiting medical researcher, Ralph Buchbaum, who reports being told by a technician in Carrel's lab "Dr. Carrel would be so upset if we lost the strain, we just add a few embryo cells now and then". After the first six months, Carrel's colleague Albert Ebeling had actually taken charge of the cultures and published several papers about their development, until they were eventually discarded in 1946. Witkowski, in "Dr. Carrel's immortal cells", op. cit., quotes Buchbaum's account. At the end Buchbaum writes that "I told this story, of my visit to Carrel's laboratory, to various people. Dr. Bloom (''Buchbaum's director of research in Chicago'') refused to believe it. Others chuckled gleefully. Dr. Carrel was to blame only in that he did not keep on top of what was really going on in the laboratory (mostly, he wrote the papers). Dr. Parker and Dr. Ebeling probably suspected something, hence the "retirement". In the interest of truth and science, the incident should have been thoroughly investigated. If it had been, some heads might have rolled, sacrificed to devotion to a wrong hypothesis - immortality of cell strains.". Witkowski also reports Dr. Margaret Murray, an early tissue culturist, telling him that "one of Carrel's technicians of that time was passionately anti-fascist and detested Carrel's political and social ideas" and expressing her belief that "this technician would willingly have discredited Carrel scientifically if possible."}} could also explain the results.<ref>{{cite journal | title Dr. Carrel's immortal cells | first JA | last Witkowski | year 1980 | volume 24 | issue 2 | pages 129–142 | journal Medical History | pmid 6990125 | pmc 1082700 | doi10.1017/S0025727300040126}}</ref>
Despite the doubts surrounding Carrel's experiment, it remains an important part of scientific history, and his work on tissue culture had a significant impact on the development of modern medicine.
Honors
Carrel was elected to the American Philosophical Society in 1909 and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1914.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAPS Member History |urlhttps://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creatorAlexis+Carrel&title&subject&subdiv&mem&year&year-max&dead&keyword&smodeadvanced |access-date2023-12-13 |websitesearch.amphilsoc.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2023-02-09 |titleAlexis Carrel |urlhttps://www.amacad.org/person/alexis-carrel |access-date2023-12-13 |websiteAmerican Academy of Arts & Sciences |languageen}}</ref> Carrel was a member of learned societies in the U.S., Spain, Russia, Sweden, the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Vatican City, Germany, Italy, and Greece, and was elected twice, in 1924 and 1927, as an honorary member of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR.<ref name"Каррель">{{cite web |titleКаррель А.. - Общая информация |urlhttp://www.ras.ru/win/db/show_per.asp?P.id-50655.ln-ru |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130625051904/http://www.ras.ru/win/db/show_per.asp?P.id-50655.ln-ru |archive-date25 June 2013 |access-date6 September 2020 |websiteRAS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleИнформационная система "Архивы Российской академии наук" |urlhttp://isaran.ru/?qru/person&guid15951A86-B2A3-6253-8F23-7D4E9FA8D600 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140407075723/http://isaran.ru/?qru/person&guid15951A86-B2A3-6253-8F23-7D4E9FA8D600 |archive-date7 April 2014 |access-date4 April 2014}}</ref> He also received honorary doctorates from Queen's University of Belfast, Princeton University, Brown University, and Columbia University.
In 1972, the Swedish Post Office honored Carrel with a stamp that was part of its Nobel stamp series.<ref>[http://nobelprize.org/nobel/stamps/1972.html The Nobel Stamps of 1972] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060205201406/http://nobelprize.org/nobel/stamps/1972.html |date5 February 2006 }}</ref> Seven years later, in 1979, the lunar crater Carrel<ref>{{Cite book |lastCocks |firstElijah E. |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32468980 |titleWho's who on the moon : a biographical dictionary of lunar nomenclature |date1995 |publisherTudor Publishers |othersJosiah C. Cocks |isbn0-936389-27-3 |edition1st |locationGreensboro |oclc32468980}}</ref> was named after him as a tribute to his breakthroughs. In February 2002, to celebrate the 100th anniversary of Charles Lindbergh's birth, the Lindbergh-Carrel Prize was established by the Medical University of South Carolina at Charleston.<ref name"Lindbergh Symposium">{{cite web|urlhttp://research.musc.edu/lindbergh/laureates.htm|titleCharles Lindbergh Symposium|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120207000237/http://research.musc.edu/lindbergh/laureates.htm |archive-date2012-02-07}}</ref> Michael DeBakey and nine other scientists were the first recipients of the prise, a bronze statuette, named "Elisabeth" after Elisabeth Morrow, the sister of Lindbergh's wife Anne Morrow who died from heart disease.<ref>{{Cite web | urlhttp://www.fondazionecarrel.org/carrel/1.htm | titleFoundation Alexis Carrel for thoracic and cardiovascular researches | access-date22 September 2013 | archive-date27 September 2013 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130927012554/http://www.fondazionecarrel.org/carrel/1.htm | url-statuslive }}</ref> Lindbergh's frustration with the limitations of medical technology, specifically the lack of an artificial heart pump for heart surgery, led him to reach out to Carrel.
Man, the Unknown (1935, 1939)
{{Main|Man, the Unknown}}
In 1935, Carrel's book, ''L'Homme, cet inconnu'' (Man, the Unknown), became a best-seller.{{sfn|Carrel|1939|}} The book attempted to comprehensively outline what is known, and unknown, of the human body and human life "in light of discoveries in biology, physics, and medicine",{{sfn|Simmons|2002|pp=199–204}} to shed light on the problems of the modern world, and to provide possible routes to a better life for human beings.
In the book, Carrel argued that humans of "poor quality" were outbreeding those of good quality and causing the "enfeeblement of the white races."<ref>{{Cite journal |lastRosen |firstS. McKee |date1937 |titleReview of Personality in Politics. |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/2767840 |journalAmerican Journal of Sociology |volume42 |issue6 |pages953 |doi10.1086/217622 |jstor2767840 |issn0002-9602}}</ref> He advocated for an elite group of intellectuals to guide mankind and to incorporate eugenics into the social framework. He argued for an aristocracy that would come from individuals of potential and advocated for euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane. Notably, Carrel's endorsement of euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane was published in the mid-1930s, prior to the implementation of death camps and gas chambers in Nazi Germany.
In the 1936 German introduction of his book, Carrel added praise for the Nazi regime at the publisher's request, which did not appear in other language editions.<ref>As quoted by Andrés Horacio Reggiani: ''God's eugenicist. Alexis Carrel and the sociobiology of decline. Berghahn Books, Oxford 2007, p. 71. See Der Mensch, das unbekannte Wesen''. DVA, Stuttgart 1937.</ref> After the second world war the book and his role with the Vichy regime would stain his reputation such that his name was removed from streets in more than 20 French cities and the Alexis Carrel Medical Faculty in Lyon was renamed in 1996.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Dutkowski |first1P. |last2De Rougemont |first2O. |last3Clavien |first3P.-A. |date2008 |titleAlexis Carrel: Genius, Innovator and Ideologist |journalAmerican Journal of Transplantation |languageen |volume8 |issue10 |pages1998–2003 |doi10.1111/j.1600-6143.2008.02364.x|pmid18727692 |s2cid32544299 |doi-accessfree }}</ref> French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems
{{Eugenics sidebar}}
In 1937, Carrel joined the Centre d'Etudes des Problèmes Humains, which was led by Jean Coutrot. Coutrot's goal was to develop what he called an "economic humanism" through "collective thinking." However, in 1941, Carrel went on to advocate for the creation of the French Foundation for the Study of Human Problems (Fondation Française pour l'Etude des Problèmes Humains). This foundation was created by decree of the Vichy regime in 1941, and Carrel served as a "regent." Carrel's connections to the cabinet of Vichy France president Philippe Pétain, specifically French industrial physicians André Gros and Jacques Ménétrier, helped pave the way for the creation of the foundation.<ref name="Andrés Horacio Reggiani p. 107" />
The foundation played a significant role in the establishment of the field of occupational medicine, which was institutionalized by the Provisional Government of the French Republic (GPRF) through the 11 October 1946 law. The foundation's efforts were not limited to occupational medicine and extended to other areas such as demographics, economics, nutrition, habitation, and opinion polls. Notable figures associated with the foundation's work include Robert Gessain, Paul Vincent, Jean Bourgeois-Pichat, François Perroux, Jean Sutter, and Jean Stoetzel. The foundation achieved several notable accomplishments throughout its history.<ref name"Reggiani" /> It played a crucial role in the promotion of the 16 December 1942 Act, which mandated the use of a prenuptial certificate before marriage. This certificate aimed to ensure the good health of spouses, particularly regarding sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) and "life hygiene." Additionally, the institute created the livret scolaire, a document that recorded the grades of French secondary school students, allowing for the classification and selection of students based on academic performance.{{sfn|Reggiani|2002|pp331–356}}
Gwen Terrenoire's book, "Eugenics in France (1913–1941): a review of research findings," describes the Foundation for the Study of Human Problems as a pluridisciplinary center that employed approximately 300 researchers, primarily statisticians, psychologists, and physicians, from the summer of 1942 until the end of autumn 1944. Following the liberation of Paris, Alexis Carrel, the founder, was suspended by the Minister of Health, and he died in November 1944. The Foundation underwent a purge and emerged shortly afterward as the Institut national d'études démographiques (INED), which is still active today.<ref>Gwen Terrenoire, "Eugenics in France (1913–1941) a review of research findings", Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 2003 {{cite web|urlhttp://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf |titleArchived copy |access-date12 February 2006 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060218180717/http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf |archive-date18 February 2006 }}</ref> Although Carrel had died, most of his team transferred to INED, which was headed by demographer Alfred Sauvy, who coined the term "Third World." Other team members joined the Institut national d'hygiène (National Hygiene Institute), later known as INSERM.
See also
* HeLa
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
Citations
{{citation style|date=June 2019}}
{{Reflist}}
Cited sources
*{{cite book |last1Reggiani |first1Andrés Horacio |date2007|titleGod's Eugenicist: Alexis Carrel and the Sociobiology of Decline |publisherBerghahn Books |isbn978-1-84545-172-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idZhx-fkqlOgQC |access-date6 September 2020 |languageen}}
* {{cite book|doi10.1017/CBO9780511572937|titleQuality and Quantity|year1990|last1Schneider|first1William H.|s2cid143397049|isbn=978-0-521-37498-9}}
* {{cite book |last1Wallace |first1Max |titleThe American Axis: Henry Ford, Charles Lindbergh, and the Rise of the Third Reich |date29 August 2003 |publisherSt. Martin's Press |isbn978-0-312-29022-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsVcMoKVqEv4C |access-date=5 September 2020}}
*{{cite book|lastFriedman|firstDavid M.|titleThe Immortalists: Charles Lindbergh, Dr. Alexis Carrel, and Their Daring Quest to Live Forever|year2007|publisherEcco/HarperCollins|locationNew York, NY|isbn978-0-06-052815-7|pages[https://archive.org/details/immortalistschar00frie_0/page/140 140]|url=https://archive.org/details/immortalistschar00frie_0/page/140}}
*{{Cite book | title Doctors and discoveries: lives that created today's medicine | first1John G. |last1Simmons | publisherHoughton Mifflin Harcourt | isbn978-0-618-15276-6 | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPD2-gpsoh8kC&pgPA199 | year2002 | pmc2568410 | volume94 | issue12 | journalJ Natl Med Assoc| pages1098–1100 }}
* {{cite journal|doi10.1215/00161071-25-2-331|titleAlexis Carrel, the Unknown: Eugenics and Population Research under Vichy|journalFrench Historical Studies|volume25|issue2|pages331–356|year2002|last1Reggiani|first1A. H.|s2cid161094444}}
* {{cite book |orig-year1939|last1Carrel |first1Alexis |titleMan, The Unknown |dateDecember 2018 |publisherMuriwai Books |isbn978-1-78912-510-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVIqbDwAAQBAJ |access-date5 September 2020|ref{{sfnref|Carrel1939}}}}Further reading* {{cite book |last1Szasz |first1Thomas |titleThe Theology of Medicine: The Political-philosophical Foundations of Medical Ethics |year1977 |publisherHarper & Row |isbn9780060905453 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idV-wgAQAAIAAJ |access-date5 September 2020 |language=en}}
* David Zane Mairowitz. "Fascism à la mode: in France, the far right presses for national purity", Harper's Magazine; 10/1/1997
* Terrenoire, Gwen, CNRS. Eugenics in France (1913–1941) : a review of research findings, Joint Programmatic Commission UNESCO-ONG Science and Ethics, 24 March 2003 ([https://web.archive.org/web/20060218180717/http://ong-comite-liaison.unesco.org/ongpho/acti/3/2/document/8/pdfen.pdf Comité de Liaison ONG-UNESCO])
* [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-017-9645-3_4 Borghi L. (2015) "Heart Matters. The Collaboration Between Surgeons and Engineers in the Rise of Cardiac Surgery". In: Pisano R. (eds) A Bridge between Conceptual Frameworks. History of Mechanism and Machine Science, vol 27. Springer, Dordrecht, pp. 53–68]
External links
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Alexis Carrel}}
{{EB1922 Poster|Carrel, Alexis|Alexis Carrel}}
* {{Nobelprize|name=Alexis Carrel}} including the Nobel Lecture on 11 December 1912 Suture of Blood-Vessels and Transplantation of Organs
* [http://www.fondazionecarrel.org/ Research Foundation entitled to Alexis Carrel]
* {{cite magazine
| title=Data from France
| date=1944-10-16
| magazine=Time
| url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885802,00.html
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081214222014/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885802,00.html
| url-status=dead
| archive-date=14 December 2008
| access-date=2008-08-10
}} Time, 16 October 1944
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081214232532/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,801605,00.html Death of Alexis Carrel], Time, 13 November 1944
{{Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Laureates 1901–1925}}
{{1912 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Organ transplantation}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Carrel, Alexis}}
Category:1873 births
Category:1944 deaths
Category:French eugenicists
Category:Converts to Roman Catholicism from atheism or agnosticism
Category:French Nobel laureates
Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Category:French Roman Catholics
Category:French collaborators with Nazi Germany
Category:Knights of the Legion of Honour
Category:Members of the Pontifical Academy of Sciences
Category:Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)
Category:Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Category:Honorary members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
Category:People from Sainte-Foy-lès-Lyon
Category:French fascists
Category:French vascular surgeons
Category:History of transplant surgery
Category:Rockefeller University people
Category:20th-century French physicians
Category:Members of the American Philosophical Society
Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis_Carrel | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.108798 |
1055 | All Souls' Day | {{short description|Day for commemoration of all the faithful departed}}
{{other uses|All Souls' Day (novel)|All Souls Day (film)}}
{{hatnote group|
{{redirect|Holy Souls}}
{{redirect|Faithful Departed|the Cranberries album|To the Faithful Departed}}
}}
{{pp-move-vandalism|small = yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Infobox holiday
|holiday_name = All Souls' Day
|type = Christian
|image = William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1825-1905) - The Day of the Dead (1859).jpg
|caption = ''All Souls' Day'' by William-Adolphe Bouguereau
|nickname = {{hlist | Feast of All Souls | Defuncts' Day | Day of Remembrance | Commemoration of all the faithful departed}}
|observedby = {{ubl|Catholicism|Eastern Orthodoxy|Lutheranism|Anglicanism|Methodism|Other Protestant denominations}}
|litcolor Black, where it is tradition<ref name"ReferenceA">General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 346</ref> (otherwise violet or purple)<ref name="ReferenceA">General Instruction of the Roman Missal, 346</ref> or violet
|begins |ends
|significance = For the souls of all the faithful departed
|date = 2 November
|celebrations |duration 1 day
|frequency = Annual
|observances = {{hlist | Prayer for the departed | visits to cemeteries | decking of graves | special pastries and food}}
|relatedto = {{hlist | Saturday of Souls | Thursday of the Dead | Day of the Dead | Halloween | All Saints' Day | Samhain | Totensonntag | Blue Christmas}}
}}
'''All Souls' Day, also called The Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed''',<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.catholicculture.org/culture/liturgicalyear/calendar/day.cfm?date2022-11-02 | titleThe Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed (All Souls' Day)| access-date25 November 2022 | archive-date25 November 2022 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221125113536/https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/liturgicalyear/calendar/day.cfm?date2022-11-02 | url-statuslive }}</ref> is a day of prayer and remembrance for the faithful departed,{{sfn|Bregman|2010|p45}} observed by Christians on 2 November.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p42}}{{sfn|Ball|2003|p33|ps: All Souls' Day: The annual commemoration of all the faithful departed, 2 November.}} In Western Christianity, including Roman Catholicism and certain parts of Lutheranism and Anglicanism, All Souls' Day is the third day of Allhallowtide, after All Saints' Day (1 November) and All Hallows' Eve (31 October).{{sfn|Bannatyne|1998|p12}} Before the standardization of Western Christian observance on 2 November by St. Odilo of Cluny in the 10th century, many Roman Catholic congregations celebrated All Souls' Day on various dates during the Easter season as it is still observed in the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Eastern Catholic churches and the Eastern Lutheran churches. Churches of the East Syriac Rite (Assyrian Church of the East, Ancient Church of the East, Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, Chaldean Catholic Church), (Syriac Catholic Church). commemorate all the faithful departed on the Friday before Lent.<ref name"Economic2022">{{cite web |titleAll Souls’ Day: History, significance and all you need to know |urlhttps://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/international/us/all-souls-day-history-significance-and-all-you-need-to-know/articleshow/95258672.cms |publisherThe Economic Times |access-date2 November 2024 |date2 November 2022}}</ref> As with other days of the Allhallowtide season, popular practices for All Souls Day include attending Mass offered for the souls of the faithful departed, as well as Christian families visiting graveyards in order to pray and decorate their family graves with garlands, flowers, candles and incense.<ref name"UCA2014">{{cite web |titleIn South Asia, All Souls' Day is also a tribute to ecumenism |urlhttps://www.ucanews.com/news/in-south-asia-all-souls-day-is-also-a-tribute-to-ecumenism/74531 |publisherUnion of Catholic Asian News |year2014|access-date2 November 2024 |languageEnglish}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAll Saints Day and} All Souls Day |urlhttp://www.lutheranlayman.com/2022/11/all-saints-day-all-souls-day.html |publisherA Lutheran Layman |access-date2 November 2024 |date1 November 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Markussen|2013|p183}} Given that many Christian cemeteries are interdenominational in nature, All Souls Day observances often have an ecumenical dimension, with believers from various Christian denominations praying together and cooperating to adorn graves.<ref name"TOI2012"/><ref name"Vatican2015"/>
In other languages
Known in Latin as Commemoratio Omnium Fidelium Defunctorum, All Souls' Day is known
* in other Germanic languages as Allerseelen (German), Allerzielen (Dutch), Alla själars dag (Swedish), and Alle Sjæles Dag (Danish);
* in the Romance languages as Dia de Finados or Dia dos Fiéis Defuntos (Portuguese), Commémoration de tous les fidèles Défunts (French), Día de los Fieles Difuntos (Spanish), Commemorazione di tutti i fedeli defunti (Italian), and Ziua morților or Luminația (Romanian);
* in the Slavic languages as Wspomnienie Wszystkich Wiernych Zmarłych or Zaduszki (Polish), Vzpomínka na všechny věrné zesnulé, Památka zesnulých or Dušičky (Czech), Pamiatka zosnulých or Dušičky (Slovak), Spomen svih vjernih mrtvih (Croatian), and День всех усопших верных or День поминовения всех усопших (''Den' vsekh usopshikh vernykh; Den' pominoveniya vsekh usopshih) (Russian)
* in the {{langx|bat|Vėlinės}} or {{lang|bat|Visų Šventųjų Diena}}
* in {{langx|hu|Halottak napja}}
* and in {{langx|cy|Dygwyl y Meirw||Feast of the Dead}}.
Background
In the Catholic Church, "the faithful" refers essentially to baptized Catholics; "all souls" commemorates the church penitent of souls in purgatory, whereas "all saints" commemorates the church triumphant of saints in heaven. In the liturgical books of the Latin Church it is called the Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed'' ({{langx|la|linksyes|Commemoratio omnium fidelium defunctorum}}). The Catholic Church teaches that the purification of the souls in purgatory can be assisted by the actions of the faithful on earth. Its teaching is based also on the practice of prayer for the dead mentioned as far back as 2 Maccabees 12:42–46.<ref nameCCC /> The theological basis for the feast is the doctrine that the souls which, on departing from the body, are not perfectly cleansed from venial sins, or have not fully atoned for past transgressions, are debarred from the Beatific vision, and that the faithful on earth can help them by prayers, alms, deeds, and especially by the sacrifice of the Holy Mass.{{sfn|Mershman|1907}}
In the Lutheranism, "the whole people of God in Christ Jesus" are seen as saints and All Souls Day commemorates those believers who have died as the 'faithful departed'.<ref name"Joyocala">{{cite web |titleAll Souls’ Day |urlhttps://joyocala.wordpress.com/2023/11/02/all-souls-day-2/ |publisherJoy Lutheran Church |locationOcala |languageen |date=2 November 2023}}</ref>
The United Protestant tradition emphasizes "the Christian belief in bodily resurrection and eternal life" in observances of All Souls Day.<ref name"Deshpande2023">{{cite web |last1Deshpande |first1Sanjana |titleChristians across India commemorate ’All Souls’ Day’ |urlhttps://www.mid-day.com/news/india-news/photo/christians-across-india-commemorate-all-souls-day-98011/5 |publisherMid-Day |access-date2 November 2024 |languageen |date=3 November 2023}}</ref>
All Souls Day is seen by many Christian leaders are one in which ecumenism is celebrated, given that believers from various denominations collectively visit Christian cemeteries that are interdenominational in nature.<ref name"Vatican2015">{{cite web |titleAll Souls Day in South Asia an ecumenical event |urlhttps://www.archivioradiovaticana.va/storico/2015/11/02/all_souls_day_in_south_asia_an_ecumenical_event_%E2%80%8E/en-1183913 |publisherVatican Radio |access-date2 November 2024 |date2 November 2015}}</ref><ref name"TOI2012"/> Christians from the Catholic, Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican, Methodist and Baptist denominations often come together to clean, repair and then decorate graveyards together.<ref name"UCA2014"/><ref name"TOI2012"/> Ecumenical prayer services are often held at Christian cemeteries on All Souls Day.<ref name"TOI2012">{{cite web |titleShillong, Dibrugarh residents remember departed loved ones on All Souls' Day |urlhttps://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/guwahati/shillong-dibrugarh-residents-remember-departed-loved-ones-on-all-souls-day/articleshow/17071096.cms |publisherThe Times of India |access-date2 November 2024 |date3 November 2012}}</ref> Observance by Christian denomination Western Christianity, 1888]]HistoryIn Western Christianity, there is ample evidence of the custom of praying for the dead in the inscriptions of the catacombs, with their constant prayers for the peace of the souls of the departed and in the early liturgies, which commonly contain commemorations of the dead. Tertullian, Cyprian and other early Western Fathers witness to the regular practice of praying for the dead among the early Christians.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p459}}
In the sixth century, it was customary in Benedictine monasteries to hold a commemoration of the deceased members at Whitsuntide. In the time of St. Isidore of Seville (d. 636) who lived in what is today Spain, the Monday after Pentecost was designated to remember the deceased. At the beginning of the ninth century, Abbot Eigil of Fulda set 17 December as commemoration of all deceased in part of what is today Germany.{{sfn|MacDonald|1967|p=119}}
According to Widukind of Corvey (c. 975), there also existed a ceremony praying for the dead on 1 October in Saxony.{{sfn|Mershman|1907}} But it was the day after All Saints' Day that Saint Odilo of Cluny chose when in the 11th century he instituted for all the monasteries dependent on the Abbey of Cluny an annual commemoration of all the faithful departed, to be observed with alms, prayers, and sacrifices for the relief of the suffering souls in purgatory. Odilo decreed that those requesting a Mass be offered for the departed should make an offering for the poor, thus linking almsgiving with fasting and prayer for the dead.{{sfn|Butler|1990|p=12}}
The 2 November date and customs spread from the Cluniac monasteries to other Benedictine monasteries and thence to the Western Church in general.{{sfn|McNamara|2013}} The Diocese of Liège was the first diocese to adopt the practice under Bishop Notger (d. 1008).{{sfn|Mershman|1907}} 2 November was adopted in Italy and Rome in the thirteenth century.{{sfn|MacDonald|1967|p=119}}
In the 15th century the Dominicans instituted a custom of each priest offering three Masses on the Feast of All Souls. During World War I, given the great number of war dead and the many destroyed churches where Mass could no longer be said, Pope Benedict XV, granted all priests the privilege of offering three Masses on All Souls' Day.{{sfn|Saunders|2003}}
Roman Catholicism
If 2 November falls on a Sunday, All Souls' Day is observed on that day. In the Liturgy of the hours of All Souls' day the sequence Dies irae can be used ad libitum. Every priest is allowed to celebrate three holy Masses on All Souls' Day.
In Divine Worship: The Missal, used by members of the Anglican Ordinariates, the minor propers (Introit, Gradual, Tract, Sequence, Offertory, and Communion) are those used for Renaissance and Classical musical requiem settings, including the Dies Irae. This permits the performance of traditional requiem settings in the context of the Divine Worship Form of the Roman Rite on All Souls' Day as well as at funerals, votive celebrations of all faithful departed, and anniversaries of deaths.<ref>Divine Worship: The Missal, pp. 871–875, 1024–1032</ref>
In the ordinary form of the Roman Rite, as well as in the Personal Ordinariates established by Benedict XVI for former Anglicans, it remains on 2 November if this date falls on a Sunday;<ref>Roman Missal, "The Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed", and "Universal Norms on the Liturgical Year and the Calendar", 59</ref><ref>Divine Worship: The Missal, "Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed (All Souls)", p. 871</ref> in the 1962–1969 form of the Roman Rite, use of which is still authorized, it is transferred to Monday, 3 November.<ref>Missale Romanum 1962, Rubricæ generales, "De dierum liturgicorum occurentia accidentali eorumque translatione", 96b</ref>
According to the sacred tradition of the Catholic Church, from Nov. 1 to Nov. 8, it is possible to gain plenary indulgence for the benefit of the souls of the departed who are in Purgatory.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://bookofheaven.com/prayers/plenary-indulgence-nov-1-8/|titleNovember 1 to 8: Plenary Indulgence for the Deceased}}</ref>
All Souls' indulgences
According to the Enchiridion of Indulgences, a plenary indulgence applicable only to the souls in purgatory (commonly called the poor souls) is granted to the faithful who devoutly visit a cemetery (graveyard) and pray for the dead.<ref name"Seton2024">{{cite web |titlePlenary Indulgences for All Souls Week and the Month of November |urlhttps://seton-parish.org/plenary-indulgences-for-all-souls-week-and-the-month-of-november |publisherSt. Elizabeth Ann Seton Parish |access-date2 November 2024}}</ref> The plenary indulgence can be gained between the second and ninth days of Allhallowtide (November 1-8); a partial indulgence is granted on other days of the year.<ref name"Seton2024"/> In order to gain the plenary indulgence, the Christian must have received confession and absolution and the eucharist twenty days before or after visiting the graveyard, in addition to praying for the intentions of the Pope.<ref name="Seton2024"/>
A plenary indulgence, applicable only to the poor souls, can be obtained by visiting a church, chapel or oratory on All Souls Day and praying the Lord's Prayer there, along with the Apostle's Creed, Athanasian Creed or Nicene Creed. Alternatively, Christians can pray the Lauds or Vespers of the Office of the Dead and the Eternal Rest prayer for the dead.<ref nameEnchIndul /><ref namecatholic.org />
Lutheran churches
outside a Lutheran church in the Swedish city of Röke during Allhallowtide|250px|thumb|right]]
Among continental Lutherans, its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained. During Luther's lifetime, All Souls' Day was widely observed in Saxony although the Roman Catholic meaning of the day was discarded;{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} ecclesiastically in the Lutheran Church, the day was merged with and is often seen as an extension of All Saints' Day, with many Lutherans still visiting and decorating graves on all the days of Allhallowtide, including All Souls' Day.{{sfn|Markussen|2013|p183}} In the Lutheran Churches, "the whole people of God in Christ Jesus" are seen as saints and All Souls Day commemorates those believers who have died as the 'faithful departed'.<ref name"Joyocala"/> Just as it is the custom of French people, of all ranks and creeds, to decorate the graves of their dead on the jour des morts, Germans come to the graveyards on All Souls' Day with offerings of flowers and special grave lights.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}
Anglican Communion
in the Diocese of Sydney, a parish dedicated to All Souls]]
In the Church of England it is called The Commemoration of the Faithful Departed and is an optional celebration; Anglicans view All Souls' Day as an extension of the observance of All Saints' Day and it serves to "remember those who have died", in connection with the theological doctrines of the resurrection of the body and the Communion of Saints.{{sfn|Bays|Hancock|2012|p128}}{{sfn|Armentrout|Slocum|1999|p7}}
In the Anglican Communion, All Souls' Day is known liturgically as the Commemoration of All Faithful Departed, and is an optional observance seen as "an extension of All Saints' Day", the latter of which marks the second day of Allhallowtide.{{sfn|Armentrout|Slocum|1999|p7}}{{sfn|Dickison|2014}} Historically and at present, several Anglican churches are dedicated to All Souls. During the English Reformation, the observance of All Souls' Day lapsed, although a new Anglican theological understanding of the day has "led to a widespread acceptance of this commemoration among Anglicans".{{sfn|Michno|1998|p160}} Patricia Bays, with regard to the Anglican view of All Souls' Day, wrote that:{{sfn|Bays|Hancock|2012|p=128}}
{{blockquote|All Souls Day … is a time when we particularly remember those who have died. The prayers appointed for that day remind us that we are joined with the Communion of Saints, that great group of Christians who have finished their earthly life and with who we share the hope of resurrection from the dead. |source{{harvnb|Bays|Hancock|2012|p128}}}}
As such, Anglican parishes "now commemorate all the faithful departed in the context of the All Saints' Day celebration", in keeping with this fresh perspective.{{sfn|Armentrout|Slocum|1999|p7}} Contributing to the revival was the need "to help Anglicans mourn the deaths of millions of soldiers in World War I".{{sfn|English|2004|p4}} Members of the Guild of All Souls, an Anglican devotional society founded in 1873, "are encouraged to pray for the dying and the dead, to participate in a requiem of All Souls' Day and say a Litany of the Faithful Departed at least once a month".{{sfn|Armentrout|Slocum|1999|p=232}}
At the Reformation the celebration of All Souls' Day was fused with All Saints' Day in the Church of England<ref nameEpiscopal /> or, in the judgement of some, it was "deservedly abrogated".{{sfn|BCP|1850}} It was reinstated in certain parishes in connection with the Oxford Movement of the 19th century<ref nameEpiscopal/> and is acknowledged in United States Anglicanism in the Holy Women, Holy Men calendar<ref nameEpiscopal/> and in the Church of England with the 1980 Alternative Service Book. It features in Common Worship as a Lesser Festival called "Commemoration of the Faithful Departed (All Souls' Day)".<ref name"churchofengland">{{cite web |titleLesser Festivals |urlhttps://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/lesser-festivals |websiteThe Church of England |access-date3 November 2021 |languageen |archive-date5 December 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201205224537/https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/lesser-festivals |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Reformed churches
Certain Reformed (Continental Reformed, Presbyterian, and Congregationalist) churches observe All Souls Day.<ref name"TOI2012"/> In All Souls Day observances by the Reformed Churches, the theological doctrine of "the Christian belief in bodily resurrection and eternal life" is emphasized, along with a remembrance of the faithful departed.<ref name"Deshpande2023"/> Additionally, dead are remembered on the feast of Totensonntag (Totenfest), the last Sunday before Advent. It was introduced in 1816, in Prussia, and in addition to the Reformed, it is observed by Lutherans in addition to Allhallowtide, particularly in areas with a large Germanic presence.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.ndr.de/geschichte/chronologie/Totensonntag-Welche-Bedeutung-hat-der-stille-Gedenktag,totensonntag104.html | titleTotensonntag: Welche Bedeutung hat der stille Gedenktag? | access-date19 June 2023 | archive-date19 June 2023 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230619094133/https://www.ndr.de/geschichte/chronologie/Totensonntag-Welche-Bedeutung-hat-der-stille-Gedenktag,totensonntag104.html | url-statuslive }}</ref>
Methodist churches
In the Methodist Church, saints refer to all Christians and therefore, on All Saints' Day, the Church Universal, as well as the deceased members of a local congregation are honoured and remembered.{{sfn|Hileman|2003}}{{sfn|Peck|2011}} In Methodist congregations that celebrate the liturgy on All Souls' Day, the observance, as with Anglicanism and Lutheranism, is viewed as an extension of All Saints' Day and as such, Methodists "remember our loved ones who had died" in their observance of this feast.<ref namesheringhammethodist.org.uk />Eastern Catholic, Eastern Lutheran and Eastern Orthodox
{{Main|Saturday of Souls}}
Saturday of Souls (or Soul Saturday) is a day set aside for the commemoration of the dead within the liturgical year of the Eastern Orthodox, Eastern Lutheran and Byzantine Catholic Churches.<ref name"Economic2022"/> Saturday is a traditional day of prayer for the dead, because Christ lay dead in the Tomb on Saturday.<ref name"GOArch">{{cite web |titleSaints and Feasts: Saturday of Souls |urlhttps://www.goarch.org/chapel/saints?contentid1017&PCodeMEATSA&DT02/22/2020 |websitewww.goarch.org |publisherGreek Orthodox Archdiocese of America |access-date6 November 2020 |archive-date18 April 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210418141452/https://www.goarch.org/chapel/saints?contentid1017&PCodeMEATSA&DT02/22/2020 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
These days are devoted to prayer for departed relatives and others among the faithful who would not be commemorated specifically as saints. The Divine Services on these days have special hymns added to them to commemorate the departed. There is often a Panikhida (Memorial Service) either after the Divine Liturgy on Saturday morning or after Vespers on Friday evening, for which Koliva (a dish made of boiled wheatberries or rice and honey) is prepared and placed on the Panikhida table. After the Service, the priest blesses the Koliva. It is then eaten as a memorial by all present.<ref name"orthodoxpath">{{cite web |authorPanteleimon of Antinoes |titleSaturday of the Souls |urlhttps://www.orthodoxpath.org/catechisms-and-articles/saturday-of-the-souls/ |websiteThe Orthodox Path |access-date6 November 2020 |date9 March 2013 |archive-date20 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201020062026/https://www.orthodoxpath.org/catechisms-and-articles/saturday-of-the-souls/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Radonitsa
{{Main|Radonitsa}}
Another Memorial Day in the East, Radonitsa, does not fall on a Saturday, but on either Monday or Tuesday of the second week after Pascha (Easter).<ref name"Averky">{{cite web |titleThe Liturgics of Archbishop Averky |urlhttp://www.holytrinitymission.org/books/english/liturgics_averky_e.htm#_Toc104768210 |websitewww.holytrinitymission.org |access-date6 November 2020 |archive-date26 July 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110726153144/http://www.holytrinitymission.org/books/english/liturgics_averky_e.htm#_Toc104768210 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Bulgakov Handbook">S. V. Bulgakov, Handbook for Church Servers, 2nd ed., 1274 pp. (Kharkov, 1900), pp. 586–589. Tr. by Archpriest Eugene D. Tarris © 2007.</ref> Radonitsa does not have special hymns for the dead at the Divine Services. Instead a Panikhida will follow the Divine Liturgy, and then all will bring paschal foods to the cemeteries to greet the departed with the joy of the Resurrection.<ref name"Averky"/>
East Syriac tradition
East Syriac churches including the Syro Malabar Church and Chaldean Catholic Church commemorates the feast of departed faithful on the last Friday of Epiphany season (which means Friday just before start of Great Lent).<ref namenasranifoundation.org /> The season of Epiphany remembers the revelation of Christ to the world. Each Friday of Epiphany season, the church remembers important evangelistic figures.<ref namesyromalabarchurch.in />
In the Syro Malabar Church, the Friday before the parish festival is also celebrated as feast of departed faithful when the parish remembers the activities of forebears who worked for the parish and faithful. They also request the intercession of all departed souls for the faithful celebration of parish festival. In East Syriac liturgy, the church remembers departed souls including saints on every Friday throughout the year since the Christ was crucified and died on Friday.{{citation needed|dateNovember 2021}} Popular customs On All Souls Day, Christians of various denominational backgrounds, including Catholics, Lutherans, Anglicans and Methodists, among others, often help one another clean the graves of cemeteries, along with adorning them with flowers.<ref name"UCA2014"/> The General Secretary of the Church of North India described the ecumenism present in All Souls Day, stating that "This coming together shows Christian unity".<ref name"UCA2014"/> With respect to the economy, vendors "sell flowers, candles and incense sticks" to those visiting the graveyards, who are Christians of the Catholic and Protestant traditions.<ref name"UCA2014"/> Prayer services with representatives from different Christian denomination for All Souls Day are held at graveyards for those visiting them.<ref name"TOI2012"/><ref name"Vatican2015"/>
All Souls Day emphasizes "the Christian belief in bodily resurrection and eternal life".<ref name"Deshpande2023"/> Some All Souls' Day traditions are associated with the doctrine of the poor souls of purgatory (in Roman Catholicism) or the intermediate state (in Protestantism and Orthodoxy). Bell tolling is done in honour of the dead. Lighting candles serves variously to kindle a light for the poor souls, honour the dead, as well as to ward off demons.<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Burning of Blessed Candles is Beneficial To the Suffering Souls |urlhttps://friendsofthepoorsouls.blogspot.com/2006/04/burning-of-blessed-candles-is.html |publisherThe Friends of the Poor Souls |access-date2 November 2024 |languageen |date4 April 2006}}</ref><ref name"CarterPetro1998">{{cite book|last1Carter|first1Albert Howard |last2Petro|first2Jane Arbuckle|titleRising from the Flames: The Experience of the Severely Burned|year1998|publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press|languageen|isbn978-0-8122-1517-5|page100}}</ref> Soul cakes are given to children going souling—going from door to door to pray for the dead (cf. trick-or-treating, Pão-por-Deus).{{sfn|Schousboe|2012|pp10–13}}<ref nameMosteller>{{cite book|lastMosteller|firstAngie |titleChristian Origins of Halloween |date2 July 2014|publisherRose Publishing |isbn978-1-59636-535-3|quoteIn Protestant regions souling remained an important occasion for soliciting food and money from rich neighbors in preparation for the coming cold and dark months.}}</ref>EuropeAll Souls' Day is celebrated in many European countries with vigils, candles, the decoration of graves, and special prayers as well as many regional customs.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Examples of regional customs include leaving cakes for departed loved ones on the table and keeping the room warm for their comfort in Tirol and the custom in Brittany, where people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel, bareheaded, at the graves of their loved ones and anoint the hollow of the tombstone with holy water or to pour libations of milk on it. At bedtime, supper is left on the table for the souls.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} All Souls' Day is known in Maltese as Jum il-Mejtin, and is accompanied a traditional supper including roasted pig, based on a custom of letting a pig loose on the streets with a bell around its neck, to be fed by the entire neighborhood and cooked on that day to feed the poor.<ref nameToM /> In Linz, funereal musical pieces known as aequales were played from tower tops on All Souls' Day and the evening before.<ref nametriton /> In the Czech Republic and Slovakia All Souls' Day is called Dušičky, or "little souls". Traditionally, candles are left on graves on Dušičky.<ref>{{cite web |last1Strašíková |first1Lucie |titleDušičky – čas symbolického prolínání světa živých a mrtvých |urlhttps://ct24.ceskatelevize.cz/domaci/1435848-dusicky-cas-symbolickeho-prolinani-sveta-zivych-a-mrtvych |websiteČT24 |publisherČeská televize |access-date30 October 2021 |languagecs |archive-date30 October 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211030144504/https://ct24.ceskatelevize.cz/domaci/1435848-dusicky-cas-symbolickeho-prolinani-sveta-zivych-a-mrtvych |url-statuslive }}</ref> In Sicily and other regions of southern Italy, All Souls' Day is celebrated as the Festa dei Morti or U juornu rii morti, the "Commemoration of the Dead" or the "Day of the Dead", which according to Joshua Nicolosi of the Sicilian Post could be seen "halfway between Christian and pagan traditions".<ref>{{Cite web|titleSicilian Post: The Day of the Dead in Sicily|dateNovember 2018 |urlhttps://www.sicilianpost.it/en/the-day-of-the-dead-in-sicily-between-life-and-the-afterlife/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201129162641/https://www.sicilianpost.it/en/the-day-of-the-dead-in-sicily-between-life-and-the-afterlife/ |archive-date29 November 2020 }}</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite web|titlePalermo Street Food - The Sicilian Day of the Dead|dateNovember 2014 |urlhttp://www.palermostreetfood.com/blog/2014/11/1/the-sicilian-day-of-the-dead|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160330122721/http://www.palermostreetfood.com:80/blog/2014/11/1/the-sicilian-day-of-the-dead |archive-date30 March 2016 }}</ref> Families visit and clean grave sites, home altars are decorated with family photos and votive candles, and children are gifted a special basket or cannistru of chocolates, pomegranate, and other gifts from their ancestors.<ref>{{Cite web|titleDooid Magazine - All Souls Day Traditions in Sicily|date12 October 2019 |urlhttps://magazine.dooid.it/en/interests-en/events/all-souls-day-traditions-sicily/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211102175021/https://magazine.dooid.it/en/interests-en/events/all-souls-day-traditions-sicily/ |archive-date2 November 2021 }}</ref><ref name":0" /> Because of the gifting of sugary sweets and the emphasis on sugar puppet decorations, the Commemoration Day has spurred local Sicilian events such as the Notte di Zucchero ("Night of Sugar") in which communities celebrate the dead.<ref>{{Cite web|titleNotte di Zucchero|urlhttp://nottedizucchero.it/|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201101070212/http://nottedizucchero.it/ |archive-date1 November 2020 }}</ref> {{Lang|it|Piada dei morti}} ({{Literal translation|piada of the dead}}), a sweet focaccia topped with raisins, almonds, walnuts, and pine nuts,<ref name":3">{{Cite web |lastLazzari |firstMartina |date29 October 2023 |titlePiada dei morti, preparazione e curiosità sulla dolce "piadina" romagnola |trans-titlePiada dei morti: Preparation and curiosity about the sweet Romagnol "piadina" |urlhttps://www.riminitoday.it/social/piada-dei-morti-preparazione-e-curiosita-sulla-dolce-piadina-romagnola.html |access-date17 February 2024 |websiteRiminiToday |languageit}}</ref><ref name":4">{{Cite web |date31 October 2017 |titlePiada dei morti ricetta dolce facile romagnolo per il 2 Novembre |trans-titleEasy recipe for sweet Romagnol piada dei morti for 2 November |urlhttps://blog.giallozafferano.it/loti64/piada-dei-morti-ricetta-facile/ |access-date17 February 2024 |websiteGiallo Zafferano |languageit-IT}}</ref> is traditionally eaten in November for All Souls' Day in the environs of Rimini, in Emilia-Romagna.<ref name":3" />
Indian subcontinent
In the Indian subcontinent (India, Pakistan and Bangladesh), Christians hold prayer services in which they pray for the faithful departed, especially remembering their loved ones.<ref name"Deshpande2023"/><ref name"Vatican2015"/> Christians of various denominations visit cemeteries and adorn graves with flower petals, garlands, candles and incense sticks.<ref name"Deshpande2023"/><ref name"Vatican2015"/>
Philippines
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2022}}
{{Main|All Saints' Day#Philippines}}
In the Philippines, Hallow mas is variously called "Undás", "Todos los Santos" (Spanish, "All Saints"), and sometimes "Araw ng mga Patay / Yumao" (Tagalog, "Day of the dead / those who have passed away"), which incorporates All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day.{{Dubious|reasonAs at Day of the Dead, it's confusing whether "Undás" is more than one day|dateNovember 2022}} Filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead to clean and repair their tombs. Offerings of prayers, flowers, candles,<ref name"guardian-world-saints" /> and food. Chinese Filipinos additionally burn incense and kim. Many also spend the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the cemetery with feasts and merriment.See also
{{Portal|Christianity}}
* Purgatorial society
* Guild of All Souls
* Zaduszki
* Flowering Sunday
* Cemetery Sunday
* Totensonntag
References
Citations
{{reflist|refs<ref nameToM>{{Cite web|urlhttps://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/maltese-traditions-to-mark-all-souls-day-at-the-inquisitors-palace.629197|titleMaltese traditions to mark All Souls Day at the Inquisitor's Palace|websiteTimes of Malta|date27 October 2016|access-date5 July 2019|archive-date5 July 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190705180634/https://timesofmalta.com/articles/view/maltese-traditions-to-mark-all-souls-day-at-the-inquisitors-palace.629197|url-statuslive}}</ref>
<ref name"guardian-world-saints">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2010/nov/01/all-saints-day |titleAll Saints Day around the world |newspaperThe Guardian |date1 November 2010 |access-date2020-11-02 |archive-date19 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190419214947/https://www.theguardian.com/world/gallery/2010/nov/01/all-saints-day |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref name=triton>From sleevenotes, Triton Trombone Quartet: "German Trombone Music"; BIS-CD-644</ref>
<ref namenasranifoundation.org>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nasranifoundation.org/calendar/dr/reflection_9fri_denha.html |titleCommemoration of the Departed Faithful |workNasrani Foundation |access-date3 November 2016 |archive-date4 November 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161104002148/http://www.nasranifoundation.org/calendar/dr/reflection_9fri_denha.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
<ref namesyromalabarchurch.in>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.syromalabarchurch.in/pdf/Panchangam%20English2016.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.syromalabarchurch.in/pdf/Panchangam%20English2016.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleSyro Malabar Liturgical Calendar 2016|publisher=Syro-Malabar Major Archiepiscopal Commission for Liturgy}}</ref>
<ref nameEpiscopal>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.episcopalchurch.org/files/bi102812half_0.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.episcopalchurch.org/files/bi102812half_0.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |websiteepiscopalchurch.org|publisherThe Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society|date28 October 2012|title=All Saints' Day/All Faithful Departed}}</ref>
<ref namesheringhammethodist.org.uk>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sheringhammethodist.org.uk/allsoulsdayservice.htm |titleAll Souls Day Service |lastSherwood |firstColin |workSt Andrew`s Methodist Church |publisherMethodist Church of Great Britain |access-date21 September 2015 |quoteDuring our All Souls Day Service on 2nd. November, as we remembered our loved ones who had died, some recently and other longer ago, candles were lit in memory of them and placed on a cairn built in front of the pulpit. |archive-date8 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220808050633/https://www.sheringhammethodist.org.uk/allsoulsdayservice.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref>
<ref nameEnchIndul>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/tribunals/apost_penit/documents/rc_trib_appen_doc_20020826_enchiridion-indulgentiarum_lt.html |publisherLibreria Editrice Vaticana |date16 July 1999| edition4th|titleEnchiridion Indulgentiarum |languagela |url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100114232116/https://www.vatican.va/roman_curia/tribunals/apost_penit/documents/rc_trib_appen_doc_20020826_enchiridion-indulgentiarum_lt.html |archive-date14 January 2010 |at=N.15}}</ref>
<ref namecatholic.org>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.catholic.org/prayers/indulgw.php|titleThe Enchiridion of Indulgences|websiteCatholic Online|access-date5 July 2019|archive-date8 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190408194630/https://www.catholic.org/prayers/indulgw.php|url-statuslive}}</ref>
<ref nameCCC>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2N.HTM|workCatechism of the Catholic Church|publishervatican.va|titleThe Final Purification, or Purgatory|access-date15 March 2020|archive-date14 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150214044852/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P2N.HTM|url-status=live}}</ref>
}}
Sources
{{refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
*{{cite book|last1Armentrout|first1Donald S.|last2Slocum|first2Robert Boak|titleAn Episcopal Dictionary of the Church: A User-Friendly Reference for Episcopalians|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idy_RpbmWNfHcC&pgPA7|year1999|publisherChurch Publishing Incorporated|isbn=978-0-89869-211-2}}
*{{cite book|lastBall|firstAnn|titleEncyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHCBLswEACAAJ|year2003|publisherOur Sunday Visitor|isbn978-0-87973-910-2}}
*{{cite book|lastBannatyne|firstLesley|titleHALLOWEEN: An American Holiday, an American History|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoNmZBAAAQBAJ&qThe+Church+brought+its+saints%27+celebrations+to+every+new+land+it+conquered&pgPA12|year1998|publisherPelican|isbn978-1-4556-0553-8|access-date2 November 2020|archive-date21 August 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210821111808/https://books.google.com/books?idoNmZBAAAQBAJ&pgPA12&qThe+Church+brought+its+saints%27+celebrations+to+every+new+land+it+conquered|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|last1Bays|first1Patricia|last2Hancock|first2Carol L.|titleThis Anglican Church of Ours|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoxu2zjbxjnwC&pgPA128|year2012|publisherWood Lake|isbn=978-1-77064-439-7}}
*{{cite book|lastBregman|firstLucy|titleReligion, Death, and Dying|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIvS11snZnQ0C&qsouls+of+all+who+had+died|year2010|publisherABC-CLIO|isbn978-0-313-35180-8|access-date2 November 2020|archive-date20 August 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210820233432/https://books.google.com/books?idIvS11snZnQ0C&qsouls+of+all+who+had+died|url-status=live}}
*{{cite book|lastButler|firstAlban|author-linkAlban Butler|editor1Herbert J. Thurston|editor2Donald Attwater|titleButler's Lives of the Saints|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/ButlersLivesOfTheSaintsCompleteEdition/page/n43/mode/2up|volumeI : January – February – March|year1990|publisherChristian Classics|locationWestminster, Maryland|chapterSt Odilo, Abbot}}
*{{cite EB1911|wstitleAll Souls' Day|volume1}}
*{{cite book|last1Cross|first1Frank Leslie|author-link1Frank Leslie Cross|last2Livingstone|first2Elizabeth A.|titleThe Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfUqcAQAAQBAJ&pgPA42|year2005|publisherOxford University Press|isbn978-0-19-280290-3}}
*{{cite web|urlhttps://baptistnews.com/opinion/commentaries/item/29405-recovering-allhallowtide|titleRecovering Allhallowtide|lastDickison|firstScott|date22 October 2014|publisherBaptist News Global|access-date20 September 2015|archive-date2 April 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402162033/http://baptistnews.com/opinion/commentaries/item/29405-recovering-allhallowtide|url-statusdead}}
*{{cite book|lastEnglish|firstJune|titleAnglican Young People's Dictionary|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idifDU1uF0sCkC&pgPA4|year2004|publisherChurch Publishing|isbn=978-0-8192-1985-5}}
*{{cite web|firstLaura Huff|lastHileman|titleWhat is All Saint's Day?|urlhttp://upperroom.org/askjulian/default.asp?actanswer&itemid276387|quoteSaints are just people who are trying to listen to God's word and live God's call. This is "the communion of saints" that we speak of in the Apostle's Creed – that fellowship of believers that reaches beyond time and place, even beyond death. Remembering the saints who have helped extend and enliven God's kingdom is what All Saints Day is about.|publisherThe Upper Room (United Methodist Church)|year2003|access-date31 October 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120126142637/http://upperroom.org/askjulian/default.asp?actanswer&itemid276387|archive-date26 January 2012|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite book|chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/newcatholicencyc1cath/page/306/|titleThe New Catholic Encyclopedia|editor-firstThe Most Revd William|editor-lastMacDonald|publisherThe Catholic University of America|chapterAll Souls' Day|date1967|isbn9780070102354}}
*{{cite book|lastMarkussen|firstAnne Kjaersgaard|editor1-firstEric|editor1-lastVenbrux|editor2-firstThomas|editor2-lastQuartier|editor3-firstClaudia|editor3-lastVenhorst|editor4-firstBrenda|editor4-lastMathijssen|titleChanging European Death Ways|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiaehAQAAQBAJ&pgPA183|year2013|publisherLIT Verlag|locationMünster|isbn978-3-643-90067-8|chapter=Death and the State of Religion in Denmark}}
*{{cite web |urlhttp://www.zenit.org/en/articles/all-souls-commemoration |firstEdward |lastMcNamara |titleAll Souls' Commemoration |workZENIT – The World Seen From Rome |access-date30 October 2014 |date3 December 2013 |archive-date22 October 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141022151144/http://www.zenit.org/en/articles/all-souls-commemoration |url-statuslive }}
*{{cite web|urlhttp://www.zenit.org/en/articles/all-souls-day-and-the-vigil-mass|firstEdward|lastMcNamara|titleAll Souls' Day and the Vigil Mass|date29 October 2014|workZENIT – The World Seen From Rome|access-date30 October 2014|archive-date23 October 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151023013800/http://www.zenit.org/en/articles/all-souls-day-and-the-vigil-mass|url-statuslive}}
*{{cite book|editorRight Rev. Richard Mant|titleThe Book of Common Prayer|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxUhVAAAAcAAJ&pgPR59|edition6th|year1850|publisherFrancis & John Rivington|ref={{sfnref|BCP|1850}}}}
*{{cite CE1913|wstitleAll Souls' Day |volume1 |firstFrancis|lastMershman }}
*{{cite book|lastMichno|firstDennis G.|titleA Priest's Handbook: The Ceremonies of the Church, Third Edition|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPo1Ocgw79DMC&pgPA160|year1998|publisherChurch Publishing|isbn=978-0-8192-2504-7}}
*{{cite web |firstThe Rev. J. Richard |lastPeck |titleDo United Methodists believe in saints? |urlhttp://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?clwL4KnN1LtH&b4746355&ct3166373 |quoteWe also recognize and celebrate All Saints' Day (1 Nov.) and "all the saints who from their labors rest". United Methodists call people "saints" because they exemplified the Christian life. In this sense, every Christian can be considered a saint. |publisherThe United Methodist Church |year2011 |access-date31 October 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120718063201/http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?clwL4KnN1LtH&b4746355&ct3166373 |archive-date=18 July 2012 }}
*{{Cite web |titleAll Saints and All Souls |lastSaunders |firstWilliam |workcatholiceducation.org |date2003 |access-date2 November 2020 |urlhttps://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/catholic-contributions/all-saints-and-all-souls.html |archive-date18 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201018023857/https://www.catholiceducation.org/en/culture/catholic-contributions/all-saints-and-all-souls.html |url-statuslive }}
*{{citation|workMedieval Histories|titleAlls Saints and All Souls|editor-firstKaren|editor-lastSchousboe|volume11|issue1|date2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160313104957/http://medievalhistories.com/wp-content/uploads/medievalhistories-november1.pdf|archive-date2016-03-13|urlhttp://medievalhistories.com/wp-content/uploads/medievalhistories-november1.pdf|isbn=978-87-92858-09-2}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
* [https://www.catholicireland.net/the-liturgy-of-all-souls-day/ Tracey OSM, Liam. "The liturgy of All Souls Day", Catholic Ireland, 30 November 1999]
External links
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.transfigcathedral.org/faith/Bulgakov/0606.pdf |titleSaturday before Pentecost |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070630225412/http://www.transfigcathedral.org/faith/Bulgakov/0606.pdf |archive-date=30 June 2007}}&nbsp;{{small|(17.1&nbsp;KB)}} Notes on Russian Orthodox observance by N. Bulgakov
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.transfigcathedral.org/faith/Bulgakov/0492.pdf |titleSaturday of Meatfare Week |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071129060838/http://www.transfigcathedral.org/faith/Bulgakov/0492.pdf |archive-date=29 November 2007}}&nbsp;{{small|(13.9&nbsp;KB)}} N. Bulgakov
* [http://en.radiovaticana.va/news/2016/11/02/pope_offers_mass_for_faithful_departed_on_all_souls_day/1269610 "Pope offers Mass for faithful departed on All Souls' Day", Vatican radio, 2 November 2016]
{{Hallowtide}}
{{Liturgical year of the Catholic Church}}
{{Halloween}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Allhallowtide
Category:Christianity and death
Category:Eastern Orthodox liturgical days
Category:Medieval legends
Category:Holidays based on the date of Easter<!--Eastern Orthodox churches have movable days for this-->
Category:November observances
Category:Observances honoring the dead | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_Souls'_Day | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.135859 |
1057 | Anatole France | {{short description|French author and journalist (1844–1924)}}
{{for|the metro station|Anatole France (Paris Métro)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox writer
| name {{lang|fr|Anatole France|italicunset}}
| image = Anatole France young years.jpg
| birth_name {{lang|fr|François-Anatole Thibault|italicunset}}
| birth_date {{birth date|1844|4|16|dfy}}
| birth_place = Paris, France
| death_date {{death date and age|1924|10|12|1844|4|16|dfy}}
| death_place = Tours, France
| occupation = Novelist
| awards = {{awd|Nobel Prize in Literature|1921}}
| signature = A france sign.gif
}}
{{lang|fr|Anatole France|italicunset}} ({{IPA|fr|anatɔl fʁɑ̃s|lang}}; born {{lang|fr|François-Anatole Thibault|italicunset}} {{IPA|fr|frɑ̃swa anatɔl tibo|}}; 16 April 1844 – 12 October 1924) was a French poet, journalist, and novelist with several best-sellers. Ironic and skeptical, he was considered in his day the ideal French man of letters.<ref nameNYT10131924>"[https://www.nytimes.com/1924/10/13/archives/anatole-france-great-author-dies-veteran-philosopher-jacques.html Anatole France, Great Author, Dies]", The New York Times, October 13, 1924, p.1</ref> He was a member of the Académie Française, and won the 1921 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements, characterized as they are by a nobility of style, a profound human sympathy, grace, and a true Gallic temperament".<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1921/france/facts/|titleThe Nobel Prize in Literature 1921 |websitewww.nobelprize.org |access-date=28 September 2023}}</ref>
France is also widely believed to be the model for narrator Marcel's literary idol Bergotte in Marcel Proust's In Search of Lost Time.<ref>{{cite web |titleMarcel Proust: A Life, by Edmund White |urlhttp://tenpagesormore.blogspot.com/2010/07/3-marcel-proust-life-by-edmund-white-pp.html |date12 July 2010 |access-date28 September 2023}}</ref>
Early years
The son of a bookseller, France, a bibliophile,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://benonsensical.com/blog/tag/famous-bibliophiles |titleAnatole France |workbenonsensical |date24 July 2010 |access-date30 July 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121113174349/http://benonsensical.com/blog/tag/famous-bibliophiles |archive-date13 November 2012 |url-statusdead}}</ref> spent most of his life around books. His father's bookstore specialized in books and papers on the French Revolution and was frequented by many writers and scholars. France studied at the Collège Stanislas, a private Catholic school, and after graduation he helped his father by working in his bookstore.<ref>{{cite book |authorTylden-Wright, David |titleAnatole France |locationNew York |publisherWalker and Company |date1967 |page37}}</ref> After several years, he secured the position of cataloguer at Bacheline-Deflorenne and at Lemerre. In 1876, he was appointed librarian for the French Senate.<ref>{{cite book |authorTylden-Wright, David |titleAnatole France |locationNew York |publisherWalker and Company |date1967 |page55}}</ref>
Literary career
France began his literary career as a poet and a journalist. In 1869, Le Parnasse contemporain published one of his poems, "{{lang|fr|La Part de Madeleine|italicunset}}". In 1875, he sat on the committee in charge of the third Parnasse contemporain compilation. As a journalist, from 1867, he wrote many articles and notices. He became known with the novel {{lang|fr|Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard}} (1881).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/french-literature-biographies/anatole-france |titleFrance, Anatole |encyclopediaEncyclopedia.Com, Cengage |year2018 |access-date28 September 2023}}</ref> Its protagonist, skeptical old scholar Sylvester Bonnard, embodied France's own personality. The novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the Académie Française.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.librarything.com/bookaward/Prix+Montyon+de+l%27Acad%C3%A9mie+fran%C3%A7aise |titleBook awards: Prix Montyon de l'Académie française: Book awards by cover. |workLibraryThing |access-date11 June 2022}}</ref> |italic=unset}}, 1894–1924]]
In {{lang|fr|La Rotisserie de la Reine Pedauque}} (1893) France ridiculed belief in the occult, and in {{lang|fr|Les Opinions de Jérôme Coignard}} (1893), France captured the atmosphere of the {{lang|fr|fin de siècle}}. He was elected to the Académie Française in 1896.<ref>{{cite book |authorVirtanen, Reino |titleAnatole France |locationNew York |publisherTwayne Publishers, Inc. |date1968 |page88}}</ref>
France took a part in the Dreyfus affair. He signed Émile Zola's manifesto supporting Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage.<ref>{{cite book |authorTekijä, jonka |urlhttp://authorscalendar.info/afrance.htm |titleAnatole France (1844-1924)- pseudonym for Jacques Anatole Francois Thibault |location |publisherAuthors’ Calendar. books and writers |date |page|access-date11 June 2022}}</ref> France wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel Monsieur Bergeret.
France's later works include Penguin Island (''{{Lang|fr|L'Île des Pingouins}},'' 1908) which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans – after the birds have been baptized by mistake by the almost-blind Abbot Mael. It is a satirical history of France, starting in medieval times, going on to the author's own time with special attention to the Dreyfus affair and concluding with a dystopian future. The Gods Are Athirst ({{lang|fr|Les dieux ont soif}}, 1912) is a novel, set in Paris during the French Revolution, about a true-believing follower of Maximilien Robespierre and his contribution to the bloody events of the Reign of Terror of 1793–94. It is a wake-up call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time. The Revolt of the Angels ({{Lang|fr|La Revolte des Anges}}, 1914) is often considered France's most profound and ironic novel. Loosely based on the Christian understanding of the War in Heaven, it tells the story of Arcade, the guardian angel of Maurice d'Esparvieu. Bored because Bishop d'Esparvieu is sinless, Arcade begins reading the bishop's books on theology and becomes an atheist. He moves to Paris, meets a woman, falls in love, and loses his virginity causing his wings to fall off, joins the revolutionary movement of fallen angels, and meets the Devil, who realizes that if he overthrew God, he would become just like God. Arcade realizes that replacing God with another is meaningless unless "in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy Ialdabaoth." "Ialdabaoth", according to France, is God's secret name and means "the child who wanders".
He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. He died on 13 October 1924<ref name=NYT10131924/> and is buried in the Neuilly-sur-Seine Old Communal Cemetery near Paris.
On 31 May 1922, France's entire works were put on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum ("List of Prohibited Books") of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/indexlibrorum.html |titleModern History Sourcebook: {{lang|la|Index librorum prohibitorum|nocaty}}, 1557–1966 (Index of Prohibited Books) |firstPaul |lastHalsall |dateMay 1998 |publisherInternet History Sourcebooks Project (Fordham University) }}</ref> He regarded this as a "distinction".<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://archive.org/details/sim_current-opinion_1922-08_73_2/page/295/mode/1up?qAnatole |titleANATOLE FRANCE REGARDS IT AS A "DISTINCTION" TO HAVE HIS BOOKS BANNED BY THE HOLY ROMAN CHURCH |workCurrent Opinion |dateSeptember 1922 |page295 |access-date30 September 2023}}</ref> This Index was abolished in 1966.
Personal life
In 1877, France married Valérie Guérin de Sauville, a granddaughter of Jean-Urbain Guérin, a miniaturist who painted Louis XVI.<ref name"Leduc2004">{{cite book |authorÉdouard Leduc |titleAnatole France avant l'oubli |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlRpAHOLmpF4C&pgPA222|year2004|publisherÉditions Publibook |isbn978-2-7483-0397-1 |pages219, 222–}}</ref> Their daughter Suzanne was born in 1881 (and died in 1918).
France's relations with women were always turbulent, and in 1888 he began a relationship with Madame Arman de Caillavet, who conducted a celebrated literary salon of the Third Republic. The affair lasted until shortly before her death in 1910.<ref name="Leduc2004"/>
After his divorce, in 1893, France had many liaisons, notably with a Madame Gagey, who committed suicide in 1911.<ref>{{cite book |last1Leduc|first1Edouard |titleAnatole France avant l'oubli |publisherEditions Publibook |isbn9782748303971 |page223 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlRpAHOLmpF4C&pgPA223 |languagefr |year=2006}}</ref>
In 1920, France married for the second time, to Emma Laprévotte.<ref name"Lahy-Hollebecque">{{cite book |authorLahy-Hollebecque, M. |year1924 |title{{lang|fr|Anatole France et la femme}} 252 pp |publisher=Baudinière}}</ref>
France had socialist sympathies and was an outspoken supporter of the 1917 Russian Revolution. However, he also vocally defended the institution of monarchy as more inclined to peace than bourgeois democracy, saying in relation to efforts to end the First World War that "a king of France, yes a king, would have had pity on our poor, exhausted, bloodied nation. However, democracy is without a heart and without entrails. When serving the powers of money, it is pitiless and inhuman."<ref>Original text here. Marcel Le Goff, Anatole France à La Béchellerie - Propos et souvenirs 1914-1924 (Léo Delteil, Paris, 1924), p. 166.</ref> In 1920, he gave his support to the newly founded French Communist Party.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Anatole+France |titleAnatole France |encyclopediaThe Free Dictionary |access-date28 September 2023}}</ref> In his book The Red Lily, France famously wrote, "The law, in its majestic equality, forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges, to beg in the streets, and to steal loaves of bread."<ref>{{cite journal |last1Go |first1Johann J. |titleStructure, choice, and responsibility |journalEthics & Behavior |date2020 |volume30 |issue3 |pages230–246 |doi10.1080/10508422.2019.1620610|s2cid197698306 }}</ref>
Reputation
The English writer George Orwell defended France and declared that his work remained very readable, and that "it is unquestionable that he was attacked partly from political motives".<ref>{{Cite book |title What Is Fiction For?: Literary Humanism Restored |url https://books.google.com/books?idec1uBgAAQBAJ |publisher Indiana University Press |date 29 December 2014b|isbn 9780253014122|language en |first Bernard |last Harrison |access-date28 September 2023}}</ref>
Works
Poetry
for Vanity Fair, 1909]]
(1900)]]
* {{Lang|fr|Les Légions de Varus}}, poem published in 1867 in the Gazette rimée.
* {{Lang|fr|Poèmes dorés}} (1873)
* {{Lang|fr|Les Noces corinthiennes}} (The Bride of Corinth) (1876)
Prose fiction
* {{Lang|fr|Jocaste et le chat maigre}} (Jocasta and the Famished Cat) (1879)
* {{Lang|fr|Le Crime de Sylvestre Bonnard}} (The Crime of Sylvestre Bonnard) (1881)
* {{Lang|fr|Les Désirs de Jean Servien}} (The Aspirations of Jean Servien) (1882)
* {{Lang|fr|Abeille}} (Honey-Bee) (1883)
* {{Lang|fr|Balthasar}} (1889)
* {{Lang|fr|Thaïs}} (1890)
* ''{{Lang|fr|L'Étui de nacre}} (Mother of Pearl) (1892)
* {{Lang|fr|La Rôtisserie de la reine Pédauque}} (At the Sign of the Reine Pédauque) (1892)
* {{Lang|fr|Nos Enfants}} (Our Children: Scenes from the Country and the Town) (1886) illustrated by Louis-Maurice Boutet de Monvel
* {{Lang|fr|Les Opinions de Jérôme Coignard}} (The Opinions of Jerome Coignard) (1893)
* {{Lang|fr|Le Lys rouge}} (The Red Lily) (1894)
* {{Lang|fr|Le Puits de Sainte Claire}} (The Well of Saint Clare) (1895)
* {{Lang|fr|L'Histoire contemporaine}} (A Chronicle of Our Own Times)
** 1: {{Lang|fr|L'Orme du mail}} (The Elm-Tree on the Mall) (1897)
** 2: {{Lang|fr|Le Mannequin d'osier}} (The Wicker-Work Woman'') (1897)
** 3: {{Lang|fr|L'Anneau d'améthyste}} (The Amethyst Ring) (1899)
** 4: {{Lang|fr|Monsieur Bergeret à Paris}} (Monsieur Bergeret in Paris) (1901)
* Clio (1900)
* {{Lang|fr|Histoire comique}} (''A Mummer's Tale) (1903)
* {{Lang|fr|Sur la pierre blanche}} (The White Stone) (1905)
* {{Lang|fr|L'Affaire Crainquebille}} (1901)
* {{Lang|fr|L'Île des Pingouins}} (Penguin Island) (1908)
* {{Lang|fr|Les Contes de Jacques Tournebroche}} (The Merrie Tales of Jacques Tournebroche) (1908)
* {{Lang|fr|Les Sept Femmes de Barbe bleue et autres contes merveilleux}} (The Seven Wives of Bluebeard and Other Marvelous Tales) (1909)
* Bee The Princess of the Dwarfs (1912)
* {{Lang|fr|Les dieux ont soif}} (The Gods Are Athirst) (1912)
* {{Lang|fr|La Révolte des anges}} (The Revolt of the Angels) (1914)
* {{Lang|fr|Marguerite}} (1920) illustrated by Fernand Siméon
Memoirs
* {{Lang|fr|Le Livre de mon ami}} (My Friend's Book) (1885)
* {{Lang|fr|Pierre Nozière}} (1899)
* {{Lang|fr|Le Petit Pierre}} (Little Pierre) (1918)
* {{Lang|fr|La Vie en fleur}} (The Bloom of Life) (1922)
Plays
* {{Lang|fr|Au petit bonheur}} (1898)
* Crainquebille (1903)
* {{Lang|fr|La Comédie de celui qui épousa une femme muette}} (The Man Who Married A Dumb Wife) (1908)
* {{Lang|fr|Le Mannequin d'osier}} (The Wicker Woman) (1928)
Historical biography
* {{Lang|fr|Vie de Jeanne d'Arc}} (The Life of Joan of Arc) (1908)
Literary criticism
* Alfred de Vigny (1869)
* {{Lang|fr|Le Château de Vaux-le-Vicomte}} (1888)
* {{Lang|fr|Le Génie Latin}} (The Latin Genius) (1909)
Social criticism
* {{Lang|fr|Le Jardin d'Épicure}} (The Garden of Epicurus) (1895)
* {{Lang|fr|Opinions sociales}} (1902)
* {{Lang|fr|Le Parti noir}} (1904)
* {{Lang|fr|Vers les temps meilleurs}} (1906)
* {{Lang|fr|Sur la voie glorieuse}} (1915)
* {{Lang|fr|Trente ans de vie sociale}}, in four volumes, (1949, 1953, 1964, 1973)
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Library resources box|byyes|viaf4925052|onlinebooks=yes}}
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/anatole-france}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id755 |nameAnatole France}}
* [http://noblib.internet-box.ch/NLEW.php?authorid=21 List of Works]
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Anatole France}}
* {{Librivox author |id=890}}
* {{OL author}}
* {{Nobelprize}}
* [https://www.nytimes.com/packages/html/books/nobel-France.pdf "Anatole France, Nobel Prize Winner"] by Herbert S. Gorman, The New York Times'', 20 November 1921
* [http://library.syr.edu/digital/guides/f/france_a.htm Correspondence with architect Jean-Paul Oury] at Syracuse University
* {{lang|fr|[http://tsar.mcgill.ca/bibliographie/Anatole_France Université McGill: le roman selon les romanciers]}}
* [http://www.litteratureaudio.com/livres-audio-gratuits-mp3/tag/anatole-france/ Anatole France, his work in audio version] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090919031610/http://www.litteratureaudio.com/livres-audio-gratuits-mp3/tag/anatole-france |date19 September 2009 }} {{in lang|fr}}
{{Anatole France}}
{{Académie française Seat 38}}
{{Nobel Prize in Literature}}
{{Thaïs}}
{{1921 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:France, Anatole}}
Category:1844 births
Category:1924 deaths
Category:Writers from Paris
Category:French bibliophiles
Category:Collège Stanislas de Paris alumni
Category:French fantasy writers
Category:French Nobel laureates
Category:19th-century French poets
Category:French satirists
Category:Members of the Académie Française
Category:Nobel laureates in Literature
Category:Dreyfusards
Category:19th-century French novelists
Category:20th-century French novelists
Category:French socialists
Category:French male poets
Category:French male novelists
Category:19th-century French male writers
Category:French historical novelists
Category:Burials at Neuilly-sur-Seine community cemetery
Category:19th-century pseudonymous writers
Category:20th-century pseudonymous writers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatole_France | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.170128 |
1058 | André Gide | {{Short description|French author and Nobel laureate (1869–1951)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see :Template:Infobox writer/doc -->
| name = André Gide
| awards = {{awd|Nobel Prize in Literature|1947}}
| image = André Gide.jpg
| caption | birth_name André Paul Guillaume Gide
| birth_date {{birth date|dfyes|1869|11|22}}
| birth_place = Paris, France
| death_date {{death date and age|dfyes|1951|2|19|1869|11|22}}
| death_place = Paris, France
| resting_place = Cimetière de Cuverville, Cuverville, Seine-Maritime
| occupation = {{hlist|Novelist|essayist|dramatist}}
| genre | movement
| notableworks = The Immoralist<br />Strait Is the Gate<br/> Les caves du Vatican (The Vatican Cellars; sometimes published in English under the title ''Lafcadio's Adventures)<br/> The Pastoral Symphony<br/> The Counterfeiters<br/>The Fruits of the Earth''
| spouse {{marriage|Madeleine Rondeaux|1895|1938|enddied}}
| children = Catherine Gide
| signature = André Gide signature.svg
| website | education Lycée Henri-IV
}}
André Paul Guillaume Gide ({{IPA|fr|ɑ̃dʁe pɔl ɡijom ʒid|lang}}; 22 November 1869 – 19 February 1951) was a French writer and author whose writings spanned a wide variety of styles and topics. He was awarded the 1947 Nobel Prize in Literature. Gide's career ranged from his beginnings in the symbolist movement, to criticising imperialism between the two World Wars. The author of more than fifty books, he was described in his obituary in The New York Times as "France's greatest contemporary man of letters" and "judged the greatest French writer of this century by the literary cognoscenti."<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.andregide.org/remembrance/nytgide.html|titleNew York Times obituary|websitewww.andregide.org|access-date20 March 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110806050538/http://www.andregide.org/remembrance/nytgide.html|archive-date6 August 2011|url-statusdead|dfdmy-all}}</ref>
Known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works, Gide expressed the conflict and eventual reconciliation of the two sides of his personality (characterized by a Protestant austerity and a transgressive sexual adventurousness, respectively). Gide engaged in child rape; having sex with young boys who were not of the age of consent. Gide's work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritanical constraints. He worked to achieve intellectual honesty. As a self-professed pederast, he used his writing to explore his struggle to be fully oneself, including owning one's sexual nature, without betraying one's values. His political activity was shaped by the same ethos. While sympathetic to Communism in the early 1930s, as were many intellectuals, after his 1936 journey to the USSR he supported the anti-Stalinist left; during the 1940s he shifted towards more traditional values and repudiated Communism as an idea that breaks with the traditions of the Christian civilization.
Early life
Gide was born in Paris on 22 November 1869 into a middle-class Protestant family. His father Jean Paul Guillaume Gide was a professor of law at University of Paris; he died in 1880, when the boy was eleven years old. His mother was Juliette Maria Rondeaux. His uncle was political economist Charles Gide. His paternal family traced its roots to Italy. The ancestral Guidos had moved to France and other western and northern European countries after converting to Protestantism during the 16th century, and facing persecution in Catholic Italy.<ref>Wallace Fowlie, André Gide: His Life and Art, Macmillan (1965), p. 11</ref><ref>Pierre de Boisdeffre, ''Vie d'André Gide, 1869–1951: André Gide avant la fondation de la Nouvelle revue française (1869–1909), Hachette (1970), p. 29</ref><ref>Jean Delay, La jeunesse d'André Gide, Gallimard (1956), p. 55</ref>
Gide was brought up in isolated conditions in Normandy. He became a prolific writer at an early age, publishing his first novel The Notebooks of André Walter (French: Les Cahiers d'André Walter), in 1891, at the age of twenty-one.
In 1893 and 1894, Gide travelled in Northern Africa. There he came to accept his attraction to boys and youths.<ref>If It Die: Autobiographical Memoir'' by André Gide (first edition 1920, Vintage Books, 1935, translated by Dorothy Bussy: "but when Ali – that was my little guide's name – led me up among the sandhills, in spite of the fatigue of walking in the sand, I followed him; we soon reached a kind of funnel or crater, the rim of which was just high enough to command the surrounding country...As soon as we got there, Ali flung the coat and rug down on the sloping sand; he flung himself down too, and stretched on his back...I was not such a simpleton as to misunderstand his invitation"..."I seized the hand he held out to me and tumbled him on to the ground." [p. 251]</ref>
Gide befriended Irish playwright Oscar Wilde in Paris, where the latter was in exile. In 1895 the two men met in Algiers. Wilde had the impression that he had introduced Gide to homosexuality, but Gide had discovered homosexuality on his own.<ref>Out of the past, Gay and Lesbian History from 1869 to the present (Miller 1995:87)</ref><ref>If It Die: Autobiographical Memoir by André Gide (first edition 1920) (Vintage Books, 1935, translated by Dorothy Bussy: "I should say that if Wilde had begun to discover the secrets of his life to me, he knew nothing as yet of mine; I had taken care to give him no hint of them, either by deed or word....No doubt, since my adventure at Sousse, there was not much left for the Adversary to do to complete his victory over me; but Wilde did not know this, nor that I was vanquished beforehand or, if you will...that I had already triumphed in my imagination and my thoughts over all my scruples." [p. 286])</ref>
The middle years
{{more citations needed|section|date=November 2017}}<!--5 paragraphs have no citations-->
in 1924.]]
(1924)]]
In 1895, after his mother's death, Gide married his cousin Madeleine Rondeaux,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.museeprotestant.org/en/notice/andre-gide1869-1951/|titleAndré Gide (1869–1951) – Musée virtuel du Protestantisme|websitewww.museeprotestant.org|access-date20 March 2018}}</ref> but the marriage remained unconsummated. In 1896, he was elected mayor of La Roque-Baignard, a commune in Normandy.
Gide spent the summer of 1907 in Jersey, with friends Jacques Copeau and Théo van Rysselberghe and their families. He rented a room in La Valeuse Cottage in St Brelade. Whilst there he worked on the second chapter of Strait Is the Gate (French: La Porte étroite), and van Rysselberghe painted his portrait.<ref>{{cite book |lastMoore |firstDiane Monier |year2024 |titleImmoralists and Drama Queens: André Gide, Théo Van Rysselberghe and their colourful entourage, Jersey 1907-1909 |publisherBlue Ormer |urlhttps://blueormer.gg/product/immoralists-and-drama-queens/ |isbn=978-1-915786-12-8}}</ref>
In 1908, Gide helped found the literary magazine Nouvelle Revue Française (The New French Review).<ref name="Nobel">{{Nobelprize}}</ref>
During World War I, Gide visited England. One of his friends there was artist William Rothenstein. Rothenstein described Gide's visit to his Gloucestershire home in his autobiography:
{{blockquote|text=André Gide was in England during the war...He came to stay with us for a time, and brought with him a young nephew, whose English was better than his own. The boy made friends with my son John, while Gide and I discussed everything under the sun. Once again I delighted in the range and subtlety of a Frenchman's intelligence; and I regretted my long severance from France. Nobody understood art more profoundly than Gide, no one's view of life was more penetrating. ...
Gide had a half satanic, half monk-like mien; he put one in mind of portraits of Baudelaire. Withal there was something exotic about him. He would appear in a red waistcoat, black velvet jacket and beige-coloured trousers and, in lieu of collar and tie, a loosely knotted scarf. ...
The heart of man held no secrets for Gide. There was little that he didn't understand, or discuss. He suffered, as I did, from the banishment of truth, one of the distressing symptoms of war. The Germans were not all black, and the Allies all white, for Gide.<ref>William Rothenstein, Men and Memories, Faber & Faber, 1932, p. 344</ref>}}
In 1916, Gide was about 47 years old when he took Marc Allégret, age 15, as a lover. Marc was one of five children of Élie Allégret and his wife. Gide had become friends with the senior Allégret during his own school years when Gide's mother had hired Allégret as a tutor for her son. Élie Allégret had been best man at Gide's wedding. After Gide fled with Marc to London, his wife Madeleine burned all his correspondence in retaliation– "the best part of myself," Gide later commented.
In 1918, Gide met and befriended Dorothy Bussy; they were friends for more than 30 years, and she translated many of his works into English.
Gide also became close friends with the critic Charles Du Bos.<ref>{{cite encyclopaedia|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idnOwBEsoNiUMC|firstServanne|lastWoodward|titleDu Bos, Charles|page233|encyclopaediaEncyclopedia of the Essay|editor-firstTracy|editor-lastChevalier|publisherFitzroy Dearborn Publishers|year1997|isbn978-1-135-31410-1}}</ref> Together they were part of the Foyer Franco-Belge, in which capacity they worked to find employment, food and housing for Franco-Belgian refugees who arrived in Paris following the 1914 German invasion of Belgium.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor40925953|firstKatherine Jane|lastDavies|titleA 'Third Way' Catholic Intellectual: Charles Du Bos, Tragedy, and Ethics in Interwar Paris|journalJournal of the History of Ideas|volume71|issue4|year2010|page655|doi10.1353/jhi.2010.0005|s2cid144724913}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCLAYDAAAQBAJ|firstAlan|lastPrice|titleThe End of the Age of Innocence: Edith Wharton and the First World War|publisherSt. Martin's Press|year1996|isbn978-1-137-05183-7|pages28–9}}</ref> Their friendship later declined, due to Du Bos's perception that Gide had disavowed or betrayed his spiritual faith, in contrast to Du Bos's own return to faith.<ref>{{cite journal|firstHerbert|lastDieckmann|titleAndré Gide and the Conversion of Charles Du Bos|journalYale French Studies|year1953|issue12|page69|doi10.2307/2929290|jstor2929290}}</ref>{{sfn|Woodward|1997|p233}}
Du Bos's essay Dialogue avec André Gide was published in 1929.<ref>{{cite book |lastEinfalt |firstMichael |year2010 |titleThe Maritain Factor: Taking Religion into Interwar Modernism |publisherLeuven University Press |page160 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtmArx-Qak5QC |editor-first1Rajesh|editor-last1Heynickx|editor-first2Jan|editor2-lastDe Maeyer|chapterDebating Literary Autonomy: Jacques Maritain versus André Gide|isbn978-90-5867-714-3 }}</ref> The essay, informed by Du Bos's Catholic convictions, condemned Gide's homosexuality.{{sfn|Einfalt|2010|p158}} Gide and Du Bos's mutual friend Ernst Robert Curtius criticised the book in a letter to Gide, writing that "he [Du Bos] judges you according to Catholic morals suffices to neglect his complete indictment. It can only touch those who think like him and are convinced in advance. He has abdicated his intellectual liberty."{{sfn|Einfalt|2010|p160}}
In the 1920s, Gide became an inspiration for such writers as Albert Camus and Jean-Paul Sartre. In 1923, he published a book on Fyodor Dostoyevsky. When he defended homosexuality in the public edition of Corydon (1924), he received widespread condemnation. He later considered this his most important work.
In 1923, Gide sired a daughter, Catherine, by Elisabeth van Rysselberghe, a much younger woman. He had known her for a long time, as she was the daughter of his friends Maria Monnom and Théo van Rysselberghe, a Belgian neo-impressionist painter. This caused the only crisis in the long-standing relationship between Allégret and Gide, and damaged his friendship with Théo van Rysselberghe. This was possibly Gide's only sexual relationship with a woman,<ref>{{cite journal|urlhttp://www.lrb.co.uk/v20/n24/edmund-white/on-the-chance-that-a-shepherd-boy|titleOn the chance that a shepherd boy …|firstEdmund|lastWhite|date10 December 1998|issue24|pages3–6|access-date20 March 2018|journalLondon Review of Books|volume20}}</ref> and it was brief in the extreme. Catherine was his only descendant by blood. He liked to call Elisabeth "La Dame Blanche" ("The White Lady").
Elisabeth eventually left her husband to move to Paris and manage the practical aspects of Gide's life (they had adjoining apartments built on the rue Vavin). She worshipped him, but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship.{{Citation needed|reasonElisabeth's mother Maria was called La Petite Dame. Never heard about La Dame blanche as a name for Elisabeth. Also not sure that Elisabeth was married during their brief affair.|dateApril 2019}}
In 1924, he published an autobiography If it Die... (French: Si le grain ne meurt). In the same year, he produced the first French-language editions of Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness and Lord Jim.
After 1925, Gide began to campaign for more humane conditions for convicted criminals. His legal wife, Madeleine Gide, died in 1938. Later he explored their unconsummated marriage in Et nunc manet in te, his memoir of Madeleine, published in English in the United States in 1952.
Africa
From July 1926 to May 1927, Gide traveled through the colony of French Equatorial Africa with his lover Marc Allégret. They went successively to Middle Congo (now the Republic of the Congo), Ubangi-Shari (now the Central African Republic), briefly to Chad and then to Cameroon. He kept a journal, which he published as Travels in the Congo (French: Voyage au Congo) and Return from Chad (French: Retour du Tchad).<ref name="Nobel"/>
In this work, he criticized the behavior of French business interests in the Congo and inspired reform.<ref name"Nobel"/> In particular, he strongly criticized the Large Concessions regime (French: Régime des Grandes Concessions). The government had conceded part of the colony to French companies, allowing them to exploit the area's natural resources, in particular rubber. He related that native workers were forced to leave their village for several weeks to collect rubber in the forest, and compared their exploitation by the companies to slavery. The book contributed to the growing anti-colonialism movements in France and helped thinkers to re-evaluate the effects of colonialism in Africa.<ref>[http://www.lire.fr/critique.asp/idC31184/idR219/idTC3/idG2 Voyage au Congo suivi du Retour du Tchad] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070316041458/http://www.lire.fr/critique.asp/idC%3D31184/idR%3D219/idTC%3D3/idG%3D2 |date16 March 2007 }}, in Lire, July–August 1995 {{in lang|fr}}</ref>Political views and the Soviet UnionDuring the 1930s, Gide briefly became a Communist, or more precisely, a fellow traveler (he never formally joined any Communist party), but he, an individualist himself, advocated the idea of Communist individualism.<ref name"gf" /> Despite supporting the Soviet Union, he acknowledged the political repression in the USSR. Gide insisted on the release of Victor Serge, a Soviet writer and a member of the Left Opposition who was prosecuted by the Stalinist regime for his views.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://lareviewofbooks.org/article/victor-serge-the-spirit-of-liberty/ | titleVictor Serge: The Spirit of Liberty | date23 August 2022 }}</ref><ref name"bio"/> As a distinguished writer sympathizing with the cause of Communism, he was invited to speak at Maxim Gorky's funeral and to tour the Soviet Union as a guest of the Soviet Union of Writers. He encountered censorship of his speeches and was particularly disillusioned with the state of culture under Soviet Communism. In his work, ''Retour de L'U.R.S.S. (Return from the USSR'', 1936), he broke with such socialist friends as Jean-Paul Sartre{{citation needed|dateAugust 2023}}; the book was addressed to pro-Soviet readers, so the purpose was to expose a reader to doubts instead of presenting harsh criticism.<ref name"bio"/> While admitting the economic and social achievements of the USSR compared to the Russian Empire, he noted the decay of culture, the erasure of the individuality of Soviet citizens, and the suppression of any dissent:
{{quote|Then would it not be better to, instead of playing on words, simply to acknowledge that the revolutionary spirit (or even simply the critical spirit) is no longer the correct thing, that it is not wanted any more? What is wanted now is compliance, conformism. What is desired and demanded is approval of all that is done in the U. S. S. R.; and an attempt is being made to obtain an approval that is not mere resignation, but a sincere, an enthusiastic approval. What is most astounding is that this attempt is successful. On the other hand the smallest protest, the least criticism, is liable to the severest penalties, and in fact is immediately stifled. And I doubt whether in any other country in the world, even Hitler's Germany, thought to be less free, more bowed down, more fearful (terrorized), more vassalized.|André Gide Return from the U. S. S. R.<ref>Return from the U. S. S. R. translated in English, D. Bussy (Alfred Knopf, 1937), pp. 41–42</ref>}}
Gide does not express his attitude towards Stalin, but he describes the signs of his personality cult: "in each [home], ... the same portrait of Stalin, and nothing else"; "portrait of Stalin... , in the same place no doubt where the icon used to be. Is it adoration, love, or fear? I do not know; always and everywhere he is present."<ref>Return from the U. S. S. R. translated in English, D. Bussy (Alfred Knopf, 1937), pp. 25; 45</ref> However, Gide wrote that these problems could be solved by raising the cultural level of Soviet society.
When Gide began preparing his manuscript for publication, the Kremlin was immediately informed about it,<ref name"rg">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/314098942|titleAndre Gide's Retour de L'U.R.S.S. and Its Publication History: A View from the Kremlin}}</ref> and soon Gide would be visited by the Soviet author Ilya Ehrenburg, who said that he agreed with Gide, but asked to postpone the publication, as the Soviet Union assisted the Republicans in Spain; two days later, Louis Aragon delivered a letter from Jef Last asking to postpone the publication. These measures didn't help, and as the book was published, Gide was condemned in the Soviet press<ref name"rg"/><ref name"bio"/> and by the "friends of the USSR": Nordahl Grieg wrote that the reason of writing the book was Gide's impatience, and that with his book he made a favour to the Fascists, who greeted it with joy.<ref>{{cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNIZnEAAAQBAJ | isbn978-0-299-33650-9 | titleThe Making of an Antifascist: Nordahl Grieg Between the World Wars | date14 June 2022 | publisherUniversity of Wisconsin Pres }}</ref> In 1937, in response, Gide published Afterthoughts on the U. S. S. R.; earlier, Gide read Trotsky's The Revolution Betrayed and met Victor Serge who provided him more information about the Soviet Union.<ref name"bio">Alan Sheridan. André Gide: A Life in the Present (1999)</ref> In Afterthoughts, Gide is more direct in his criticism of the Soviet society: "Citrine, Trotsky, Mercier, Yvon, Victor Serge, Leguay, Rudolf and many others have helped me with their documentation. Everything they have taught me so far I had only suspected it – has confirmed and reinforced my fears".<ref name"aft">Afterthoughts: A Sequel to Back from the U.S.S.R (1937)</ref> The main points of Afterthoughts were that the dictatorship of the proletariat became the dictatorship of Stalin, and that the privileged bureaucracy became the new ruling class which profited by the workers' surplus labour, spending the state budget on projects like the Palace of Soviets or to raise its own standards of living, while the working class lived in extreme poverty; Gide cited the official Soviet newspapers to prove his statements.<ref name"aft"/><ref name="bio"/><ref>[https://files.libcom.org/files/Vanguard%20(Vol.%204,%20No.%201,%20November%201937).pdf Gide answers his Bolshevik critics] libcom.org</ref>
During the World War II Gide came to a conclusion that "absolute liberty destroys the individual and also society unless it be closely linked to tradition and discipline"; he rejected the revolutionary idea of Communism as breaking with the traditions, and wrote that "if civilization depended solely on those who initiated revolutionary theories, then it would perish, since culture needs for its survival a continuous and developing tradition." In Thesee, written in 1946, he showed that an individual may safely leave the Maze only if "he had clung tightly to the thread which linked him with the past". In 1947, he said that although during the human history the civilizations rose up and died, the Christian civilization may be saved from doom "if we accepted the responsibility of the sacred charge laid on us by our traditions and our past." He also said that he remained an individualist and protested against "the submersion of individual responsibility in organized authority, in that escape from freedom which is characteristic of our age."<ref name="gf">[http://chinhnghia.com/the-god-that-failed.pdf The God that failed] chinhnghia.com</ref>
Gide contributed to the 1949 anthology The God That Failed. He could not write an essay because of his state of health, so the text was written by Enid Starkie, based on paraphrases of Return from the USSR, Afterthoughts, from a discussion held in Paris at l'Union pour la Verite in 1935, and from his Journal; the text was approved by Gide.<ref name"gf" />1930s and 1940sIn 1930 Gide published a book about the Blanche Monnier case titled La Séquestrée de Poitiers, changing little but the names of the protagonists. Monnier was a young woman who was kept captive by her own mother for more than 25 years.<ref name"Pujolas">Pujolas, Marie. ''En tournage, un documentaire sur l'incroyable affaire de "La séquestrée de Poitiers". France TV info. Feb 27, 2015 [http://culturebox.francetvinfo.fr/cinema/documentaire/un-documentaire-sur-lincroyable-affaire-de-la-sequestree-de-poitiers-212899]</ref><ref name="Levy">Levy, Audrey. Destins de femmes: Ces Poitevines plus ou moins célèbres auront marqué l'Histoire. Le Point. Apr 21, 2015. [http://www.lepoint.fr/villes/destins-de-femmes-21-04-2015-1923072_27.php]</ref>
In 1939, Gide became the first living author to be published in the prestigious Bibliothèque de la Pléiade''.
He left France for Africa in 1942 and lived in Tunis from December 1942 until it was re-taken by French, British and American forces in May 1943 and he was able to travel to Algiers where he stayed until the end of World War II.<ref nameOBrien>{{cite book|lastO'Brien|firstJustin|titleThe Journals of Andre Gide Volume IV 1939–1949. Translated from the French|date1951|publisherSecker & Warburg}}</ref> In 1947, he received the Nobel Prize in Literature "for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings, in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight".<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1947/|titleThe Nobel Prize in Literature 1947|websitewww.nobelprize.org|access-date20 March 2018}}</ref> He devoted much of his last years to publishing his Journal.<ref>{{cite web
|title= André Gide (1869–1951)
|publisher=Musée virtuel du Protestantisme français
|urlhttp://www.museeprotestant.org/Pages/Notices.php?scatid148&noticeid811&lev1&Lget=FR
|access-date6 September 2010}}</ref> Gide died in Paris on 19 February 1951. The Roman Catholic Church placed his works on the Index of Forbidden Books in 1952.<ref>[http://www.leninimports.com/andre_gide.html André Gide Biography (1869–1951)]. eninimports.com</ref>Gide's life as a writer
Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan summed up Gide's life as a writer and an intellectual:
{{quote|Gide was, by general consent, one of the dozen most important writers of the 20th century. Moreover, no writer of such stature had led such an interesting life, a life accessibly interesting to us as readers of his autobiographical writings, his journal, his voluminous correspondence and the testimony of others. It was the life of a man engaging not only in the business of artistic creation, but reflecting on that process in his journal, reading that work to his friends and discussing it with them; a man who knew and corresponded with all the major literary figures of his own country and with many in Germany and England; who found daily nourishment in the Latin, French, English and German classics, and, for much of his life, in the Bible; [who enjoyed playing Chopin and other classic works on the piano;] and who engaged in commenting on the moral, political and sexual questions of the day.<ref>André Gide: A Life in the Present by Alan Sheridan. Harvard University Press, 1999, p. xvi.</ref>}}
"Gide's fame rested ultimately, of course, on his literary works. But, unlike many writers, he was no recluse: he had a need of friendship and a genius for sustaining it."<ref>Alan Sheridan, p. xii.</ref> But his "capacity for love was not confined to his friends: it spilled over into a concern for others less fortunate than himself."<ref>Alan Sheridan, p. 624.</ref>
Writings
André Gide's writings spanned many genres – "As a master of prose narrative, occasional dramatist and translator, literary critic, letter writer, essayist, and diarist, André Gide provided twentieth-century French literature with one of its most intriguing examples of the man of letters."<ref>Article on André Gide in Contemporary Authors Online 2003.</ref>
But as Gide's biographer Alan Sheridan points out, "It is the fiction that lies at the summit of Gide's work."<ref>Information in this paragraph is extracted from André Gide: A Life in the Present by Alan Sheridan, pp. 629–33.</ref> "Here, as in the oeuvre as a whole, what strikes one first is the variety. Here, too, we see Gide's curiosity, his youthfulness, at work: a refusal to mine only one seam, to repeat successful formulas...The fiction spans the early years of Symbolism, to the "comic, more inventive, even fantastic" pieces, to the later "serious, heavily autobiographical, first-person narratives"...In France Gide was considered a great stylist in the classical sense, "with his clear, succinct, spare, deliberately, subtly phrased sentences."
Gide's surviving letters run into the thousands. But it is the Journal that Sheridan calls "the pre-eminently Gidean mode of expression."<ref>Information in this paragraph is extracted from André Gide: A Life in the Present by Alan Sheridan, p. 628.</ref> "His first novel emerged from Gide's own journal, and many of the first-person narratives read more or less like journals. In Les faux-monnayeurs, Edouard's journal provides an alternative voice to the narrator's." "In 1946, when Pierre Herbert asked Gide which of his books he would choose if only one were to survive," Gide replied, 'I think it would be my Journal.'" Beginning at the age of 18 or 19, Gide kept a journal all of his life and when these were first made available to the public, they ran to 1,300 pages.<ref>Journals: 1889–1913 by André Gide, trans. by Justin O'Brien, p. xii.</ref>
Struggle for values
"Each volume that Gide wrote was intended to challenge itself, what had preceded it, and what could conceivably follow it. This characteristic, according to Daniel Moutote in his Cahiers de André Gide essay, is what makes Gide's work 'essentially modern': the 'perpetual renewal of the values by which one lives.'"<ref>Quote taken from the article on André Gide in Contemporary Authors Online, 2003.</ref> Gide wrote in his Journal in 1930: "The only drama that really interests me and that I should always be willing to depict anew, is the debate of the individual with whatever keeps him from being authentic, with whatever is opposed to his integrity, to his integration. Most often the obstacle is within him. And all the rest is merely accidental."<ref>Journals: 1889–1913 by André Gide, trans. by Justin O'Brien, p. xvii.</ref>
As a whole, "The works of André Gide reveal his passionate revolt against the restraints and conventions inherited from 19th-century France. He sought to uncover the authentic self beneath its contradictory masks."<ref>Quote taken from the article on André Gide in the Encyclopedia of World Biography, Dec. 12, 1998, Gale Pub.</ref>
Sexuality
In his journal, Gide distinguishes between adult-attracted "sodomites" and boy-loving "pederasts", categorizing himself as the latter.
{{quote|I call a pederast the man who, as the word indicates, falls in love with young boys. I call a sodomite ("The word is sodomite, sir," said Verlaine to the judge who asked him if it were true that he was a sodomist) the man whose desire is addressed to mature men...The pederasts, of whom I am one (why cannot I say this quite simply, without your immediately claiming to see a brag in my confession?), are much rarer, and the sodomites much more numerous, than I first thought...That such loves can spring up, that such relationships can be formed, it is not enough for me to say that this is natural; I maintain that it is good; each of the two finds exaltation, protection, a challenge in them; and I wonder whether it is for the youth or the elder man that they are more profitable.<ref name"The Journals Of André Gide, Vol II 1914-1927.">{{cite book|last1Gide|first1Andre|titleThe Journals Of André Gide, Vol II 1914–1927|date1948|publisherAlfred A. Knopf|isbn978-0-252-06930-7|pages[https://archive.org/details/journalsofandreg031199mbp/page/n255 246]–247|urlhttps://archive.org/details/journalsofandreg031199mbp|access-date27 April 2016}}</ref>}}
{{box quote|width30em|bgcolorcornsilk|fontsize100%|saligncenter|quote= From an interview with film documentarian Nicole Védrès with Andre Gide:<br>
Védrès "May I ask you an indiscreet question?<br>
Gide "There are no indiscreet questions, only indiscreet answers."<br>
Védrès "Is it true, cher Maître, that you are a homosexual?"<br>
Gide "No monsieur, I am not a homosexual, I am a pederast!"<br>—from Vedres' documentary Life Starts Tomorrow (1950)<ref>Weinberg, Herman G., 1967. Josef von Sternberg. A Critical Study. New York: Dutton p. 121. Weinberg notes "Gide replied testily, with that refined distinction so characteristic of him…"</ref>
}}
Gide's journal documents his behavior in the company of Oscar Wilde. {{quote|Wilde took a key out of his pocket and showed me into a tiny apartment of two rooms...The youths followed him, each of them wrapped in a burnous that hid his face. Then the guide left us and Wilde sent me into the further room with little Mohammed and shut himself up in the other with the [other boy]. Every time since then that I have sought after pleasure, it is the memory of that night I have pursued...My joy was unbounded, and I cannot imagine it greater, even if love had been added. How should there have been any question of love? How should I have allowed desire to dispose of my heart? No scruple clouded my pleasure and no remorse followed it. But what name then am I to give the rapture I felt as I clasped in my naked arms that perfect little body, so wild, so ardent, so sombrely lascivious? For a long time after Mohammed had left me, I remained in a state of passionate jubilation, and though I had already achieved pleasure five times with him, I renewed my ecstasy again and again, and when I got back to my room in the hotel, I prolonged its echoes until morning.<ref name"If It Die: An Autobiography">{{cite book|last1Gide|first1Andre|titleIf It Die: An Autobiography|date1935|publisherRandom House|isbn978-0-375-72606-4|pages288|editionNew|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ide0-TBQAAQBAJ&qGide+A.+%281935%29.+If+It+Die%3A+An+Autobiography.+New+York%3A+Random+House.&pgPT3|access-date27 April 2016}}. Viewable here: {{cite web |last1Gide |first1André |titleIf it die : an autobiography [archived] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/ifitdie0000unse_h7e6/page/288/mode/2up?q%22had+believed+all+compromise+impossible%22 |websiteInternet Archive |date22 January 1963 |access-date14 May 2023}} Note: [https://archive.org/details/bwb_KS-470-205/page/284/mode/2up?q=%22had+believed+all+compromise+impossible%22 some editions of this same work] omit this section.
</ref>}}
Gide's novel Corydon, which he considered his most important work, includes a defense of pederasty. At that time (before 1945), the age of consent for any type of sexual activity was set at 13.
Bibliography
{{main|Bibliography of André Gide}}
See also
* Mise en abyme
* Pederasty
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Works cited
* Edmund White, [https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v20/n24/edmund-white/on-the-chance-that-a-shepherd-boy] André Gide: A Life in the Present. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998]
Further reading
* Noel I. Garde [Edgar H. Leoni], Jonathan to Gide: The Homosexual in History. New York:Vangard, 1964. {{oclc|3149115}}
* For a chronology of Gide's life, see pp.&nbsp;13–15 in Thomas Cordle, André Gide (The Griffin Authors Series). Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1969.
* For a detailed bibliography of Gide's writings and works about Gide, see pp.&nbsp;655–678 in Alan Sheridan, André Gide: A Life in the Present. Harvard, 1999.
External links
{{wikisource author}}
{{Commons category|André Gide}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* Website of the [http://www.fondation-catherine-gide.org/ Catherine Gide Foundation], held by Catherine Gide, his daughter
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171016085651/http://www.andregide.org/ Center for Gidian Studies]
* {{Gutenberg author | id2184 | nameAndré Gide}}
* {{FadedPage|idGide, André|nameAndré Gide|author=yes}}
* {{Internet Archive author |snameAndré Gide |soptt}}
*[http://noblib.internet-box.ch/NLEW.php?authorid=42 List of Works]
* {{Librivox author}}
* [https://www.goodreads.com/author/show/7617.Andr_Gide André Gide at Goodreads]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090913094434/http://www.gidiana.net/ Amis d'André Gide] in French
* [http://www.gidiana.net/GA.htm Period newspaper articles on Gide] interface in French
* [http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1947/ André Gide, 1947 Nobel Laureate for Literature]
* [http://www.ljhammond.com/classics/cl3.htm#gide André Gide: A Brief Introduction]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071006001903/http://www.societe-jersiaise.org/whitsco/mader1.htm Gide at Maderia in Jersey, 1901–07]
* {{PM20}}
{{André Gide}}
{{Nobel Prize in Literature Laureates 1926-1950}}
{{1947 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Modernism}}
{{Portal bar|Biography|France|Novels|LGBTQ}}
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Category:Nouvelle Revue Française editors | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/André_Gide | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.190898 |
1063 | Algorithms for calculating variance | {{Short description|Important algorithms in numerical statistics}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
Algorithms for calculating variance play a major role in computational statistics. A key difficulty in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares, which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values.
Naïve algorithm
A formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size N is:
:<math>\sigma^2 \overline{(x^2)} - \bar x^2 \frac {\sum_{i1}^N x_i^2 - (\sum_{i1}^N x_i)^2/N}{N}.</math>
Using Bessel's correction to calculate an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of n observations, the formula is:
:<math>s^2 \left(\frac {\sum_{i1}^n x_i^2} n - \left( \frac {\sum_{i=1}^n x_i} n \right)^2\right) \cdot \frac {n}{n-1}. </math>
Therefore, a naïve algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following:
<div style="margin-left: 35px; width: 600px">
{{framebox|blue}}
* Let {{math|n ← 0, Sum ← 0, SumSq ← 0}}
* For each datum {{mvar|x}}:
** {{math|n ← n + 1}}
** {{math|Sum ← Sum + x}}
** {{math|SumSq ← SumSq + x × x}}
* {{math|Var {{=}} (SumSq − (Sum × Sum) / n) / (n − 1)}}
{{frame-footer}}
</div>
This algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population: simply divide by n instead of n&nbsp;−&nbsp;1 on the last line.
Because {{math|SumSq}} and {{math|(Sum×Sum)/n}} can be very similar numbers, cancellation can lead to the precision of the result to be much less than the inherent precision of the floating-point arithmetic used to perform the computation. Thus this algorithm should not be used in practice,<ref name"Einarsson2005">{{cite book|firstBo|lastEinarsson|titleAccuracy and Reliability in Scientific Computing|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8hrDV5EbrEsC|year2005|publisherSIAM|isbn978-0-89871-584-2|page47}}</ref><ref name"Chan1983">{{cite journal|urlhttp://cpsc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/tr222.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://cpsc.yale.edu/sites/default/files/files/tr222.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|first1Tony F.|last1Chan|author1-linkTony F. Chan|first2Gene H.|last2Golub|author2-linkGene H. Golub|first3Randall J.|last3LeVeque|titleAlgorithms for computing the sample variance: Analysis and recommendations|journalThe American Statistician|volume37|issue3|pages242–247|year1983|jstor2683386|doi10.1080/00031305.1983.10483115}}</ref> and several alternate, numerically stable, algorithms have been proposed.<ref name":1">{{Cite book|last1Schubert|first1Erich|last2Gertz|first2Michael|date2018-07-09|titleNumerically stable parallel computation of (co-)variance|urlhttp://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id3221269.3223036|publisherACM|pages10|doi10.1145/3221269.3223036|isbn9781450365055|s2cid49665540}}</ref> This is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean.Computing shifted data
The variance is invariant with respect to changes in a location parameter, a property which can be used to avoid the catastrophic cancellation in this formula.
:<math>\operatorname{Var}(X-K)=\operatorname{Var}(X).</math>
with <math>K</math> any constant, which leads to the new formula
:<math>\sigma^2 \frac {\sum_{i1}^n (x_i-K)^2 - (\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i-K))^2/n}{n-1}. </math>
the closer <math>K</math> is to the mean value the more accurate the result will be, but just choosing a value inside the
samples range will guarantee the desired stability. If the values <math>(x_i - K)</math> are small then there are no problems with the sum of its squares, on the contrary, if they are large it necessarily means that the variance is large as well. In any case the second term in the formula is always smaller than the first one therefore no cancellation may occur.<ref name="Chan1983" />
If just the first sample is taken as <math>K</math> the algorithm can be written in Python programming language as
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def shifted_data_variance(data):
if len(data) < 2:
return 0.0
K = data[0]
n Ex Ex2 = 0.0
for x in data:
n += 1
Ex += x - K
Ex2 += (x - K) ** 2
variance = (Ex2 - Ex**2 / n) / (n - 1)
# use n instead of (n-1) if want to compute the exact variance of the given data
# use (n-1) if data are samples of a larger population
return variance
</syntaxhighlight>
This formula also facilitates the incremental computation that can be expressed as
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
K Ex Ex2 = 0.0
n = 0
def add_variable(x):
global K, n, Ex, Ex2
if n 0:
K = x
n += 1
Ex += x - K
Ex2 += (x - K) ** 2
def remove_variable(x):
global K, n, Ex, Ex2
n -= 1
Ex -= x - K
Ex2 -= (x - K) ** 2
def get_mean():
global K, n, Ex
return K + Ex / n
def get_variance():
global n, Ex, Ex2
return (Ex2 - Ex**2 / n) / (n - 1)
</syntaxhighlight>
Two-pass algorithm
An alternative approach, using a different formula for the variance, first computes the sample mean,
:<math>\bar x \frac {\sum_{j1}^n x_j} n,</math>
and then computes the sum of the squares of the differences from the mean,
:<math>\text{sample variance} s^2 \dfrac {\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - \bar x)^2}{n-1}, </math>
where s is the standard deviation. This is given by the following code:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def two_pass_variance(data):
n = len(data)
mean = sum(data) / n
variance = sum((x - mean) ** 2 for x in data) / (n - 1)
return variance
</syntaxhighlight>
This algorithm is numerically stable if n is small.<ref name"Einarsson2005"/><ref>{{cite book |lastHigham |firstNicholas J. |urlhttps://epubs.siam.org/doi/book/10.1137/1.9780898718027 |titleAccuracy and Stability of Numerical Algorithms |publisherSociety for Industrial and Applied Mathematics |year2002 |edition2nd |publication-placePhiladelphia, PA |chapterProblem 1.10 |doi10.1137/1.9780898718027|isbn978-0-898715-21-7 |ide{{ISBN|978-0-89871-802-7}}, 2002075848 }} Metadata also listed at [https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.5555/579525 ACM Digital Library].</ref> However, the results of both of these simple algorithms ("naïve" and "two-pass") can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums. Techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree.Welford's online algorithm
It is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass, inspecting each value <math>x_i</math> only once; for example, when the data is being collected without enough storage to keep all the values, or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation. For such an online algorithm, a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion.
The following formulas can be used to update the mean and (estimated) variance of the sequence, for an additional element x<sub>n</sub>. Here, <math display"inline">\overline{x}_n \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i1}^n x_i </math> denotes the sample mean of the first n samples <math>(x_1,\dots,x_n)</math>, <math display"inline">\sigma^2_n \frac{1}{n} \sum_{i1}^n \left(x_i - \overline{x}_n \right)^2</math> their biased sample variance, and <math display"inline">s^2_n \frac{1}{n - 1} \sum_{i=1}^n \left(x_i - \overline{x}_n \right)^2</math> their unbiased sample variance.
:<math>\bar x_n \frac{(n-1) \, \bar x_{n-1} + x_n}{n} \bar x_{n-1} + \frac{x_n - \bar x_{n-1}}{n} </math>
:<math>\sigma^2_n \frac{(n-1) \, \sigma^2_{n-1} + (x_n - \bar x_{n-1})(x_n - \bar x_n)}{n} \sigma^2_{n-1} + \frac{(x_n - \bar x_{n-1})(x_n - \bar x_n) - \sigma^2_{n-1}}{n}.</math>
:<math>s^2_n \frac{n-2}{n-1} \, s^2_{n-1} + \frac{(x_n - \bar x_{n-1})^2}{n} s^2_{n-1} + \frac{(x_n - \bar x_{n-1})^2}{n} - \frac{s^2_{n-1}}{n-1}, \quad n>1 </math>
These formulas suffer from numerical instability {{cn|dateMarch 2023}}, as they repeatedly subtract a small number from a big number which scales with n. A better quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the current mean, <math display"inline">\sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - \bar x_n)^2</math>, here denoted <math>M_{2,n}</math>:
: <math>\begin{align}
M_{2,n} & = M_{2,n-1} + (x_n - \bar x_{n-1})(x_n - \bar x_n) \\[4pt]
\sigma^2_n & = \frac{M_{2,n}}{n} \\[4pt]
s^2_n & = \frac{M_{2,n}}{n-1}
\end{align}</math>
This algorithm was found by Welford,<ref>{{cite journal |firstB. P. |lastWelford |year1962 |titleNote on a method for calculating corrected sums of squares and products |journalTechnometrics |volume4 |issue3 |pages419–420 |jstor1266577 |doi10.2307/1266577}}</ref><ref>Donald E. Knuth (1998). The Art of Computer Programming, volume 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, 3rd edn., p.&nbsp;232. Boston: Addison-Wesley.</ref> and it has been thoroughly analyzed.<ref name"Chan1983" /><ref>{{cite journal |lastLing |firstRobert F. |year1974 |titleComparison of Several Algorithms for Computing Sample Means and Variances |journalJournal of the American Statistical Association |volume69 |issue348 |pages859–866 |doi10.2307/2286154|jstor2286154 }}</ref> It is also common to denote <math>M_k \bar x_k</math> and <math>S_k M_{2,k}</math>.<ref>{{cite web |lastCook |firstJohn D. |date30 September 2022 |orig-date1 November 2014 |titleAccurately computing sample variance |urlhttp://www.johndcook.com/standard_deviation.html |websiteJohn D. Cook Consulting: Expert consulting in applied mathematics & data privacy}}</ref>
An example Python implementation for Welford's algorithm is given below.
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
# For a new value new_value, compute the new count, new mean, the new M2.
# mean accumulates the mean of the entire dataset
# M2 aggregates the squared distance from the mean
# count aggregates the number of samples seen so far
def update(existing_aggregate, new_value):
(count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate
count += 1
delta = new_value - mean
mean += delta / count
delta2 = new_value - mean
M2 += delta * delta2
return (count, mean, M2)
# Retrieve the mean, variance and sample variance from an aggregate
def finalize(existing_aggregate):
(count, mean, M2) = existing_aggregate
if count < 2:
return float("nan")
else:
(mean, variance, sample_variance) = (mean, M2 / count, M2 / (count - 1))
return (mean, variance, sample_variance)
</syntaxhighlight>
This algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to catastrophic cancellation, but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop. For a particularly robust two-pass algorithm for computing the variance, one can first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean, and then use this algorithm on the residuals.
The parallel algorithm below illustrates how to merge multiple sets of statistics calculated online.
Weighted incremental algorithm
The algorithm can be extended to handle unequal sample weights, replacing the simple counter n with the sum of weights seen so far. West (1979)<ref>{{cite journal |lastWest |firstD. H. D. |year1979 |titleUpdating Mean and Variance Estimates: An Improved Method |journalCommunications of the ACM |volume22 |issue9 |pages532–535 |doi10.1145/359146.359153 |s2cid30671293 |doi-access=free}}</ref> suggests this incremental algorithm:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def weighted_incremental_variance(data_weight_pairs):
w_sum w_sum2 mean S 0
for x, w in data_weight_pairs:
w_sum = w_sum + w
w_sum2 = w_sum2 + w**2
mean_old = mean
mean = mean_old + (w / w_sum) * (x - mean_old)
S = S + w * (x - mean_old) * (x - mean)
population_variance = S / w_sum
# Bessel's correction for weighted samples
# Frequency weights
sample_frequency_variance = S / (w_sum - 1)
# Reliability weights
sample_reliability_variance = S / (1 - w_sum2 / (w_sum**2))
</syntaxhighlight>
{{further|Weighted arithmetic mean#Weighted sample variance}}
Parallel algorithm
Chan et al.<ref name":0">{{Cite web |last1Chan |first1Tony F. |author1-linkTony F. Chan |last2Golub |first2Gene H. |author2-linkGene H. Golub |last3LeVeque |first3Randall J. |dateNovember 1979 |titleUpdating Formulae and a Pairwise Algorithm for Computing Sample Variances |urlhttp://i.stanford.edu/pub/cstr/reports/cs/tr/79/773/CS-TR-79-773.pdf |publisherDepartment of Computer Science, Stanford University |idTechnical Report STAN-CS-79-773, supported in part by Army contract No. DAAGEI-‘E-G-013 |contribution|contribution-url}}</ref> note that Welford's online algorithm detailed above is a special case of an algorithm that works for combining arbitrary sets <math>A</math> and <math>B</math>:
:<math>\begin{align}
n_{AB} & = n_A + n_B \\
\delta & = \bar x_B - \bar x_A \\
\bar x_{AB} & = \bar x_A + \delta\cdot\frac{n_B}{n_{AB}} \\
M_{2,AB} & = M_{2,A} + M_{2,B} + \delta^2\cdot\frac{n_A n_B}{n_{AB}} \\
\end{align}</math>.
This may be useful when, for example, multiple processing units may be assigned to discrete parts of the input.
Chan's method for estimating the mean is numerically unstable when <math>n_A \approx n_B</math> and both are large, because the numerical error in <math>\delta \bar x_B - \bar x_A</math> is not scaled down in the way that it is in the <math>n_B 1</math> case. In such cases, prefer <math display"inline">\bar x_{AB} \frac{n_A \bar x_A + n_B \bar x_B}{n_{AB}}</math>.
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def parallel_variance(n_a, avg_a, M2_a, n_b, avg_b, M2_b):
n = n_a + n_b
delta = avg_b - avg_a
M2 = M2_a + M2_b + delta**2 * n_a * n_b / n
var_ab = M2 / (n - 1)
return var_ab
</syntaxhighlight>
This can be generalized to allow parallelization with AVX, with GPUs, and computer clusters, and to covariance.<ref name":1" />Example
Assume that all floating point operations use standard IEEE 754 double-precision arithmetic. Consider the sample (4, 7, 13, 16) from an infinite population. Based on this sample, the estimated population mean is 10, and the unbiased estimate of population variance is 30. Both the naïve algorithm and two-pass algorithm compute these values correctly.
Next consider the sample ({{nowrap|10<sup>8</sup>&nbsp;+&nbsp;4}}, {{nowrap|10<sup>8</sup>&nbsp;+&nbsp;7}}, {{nowrap|10<sup>8</sup>&nbsp;+&nbsp;13}}, {{nowrap|10<sup>8</sup>&nbsp;+&nbsp;16}}), which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample. The two-pass algorithm computes this variance estimate correctly, but the naïve algorithm returns 29.333333333333332 instead of 30.
While this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of the naïve algorithm, further increasing the offset makes the error catastrophic. Consider the sample ({{nowrap|10<sup>9</sup>&nbsp;+&nbsp;4}}, {{nowrap|10<sup>9</sup>&nbsp;+&nbsp;7}}, {{nowrap|10<sup>9</sup>&nbsp;+&nbsp;13}}, {{nowrap|10<sup>9</sup>&nbsp;+&nbsp;16}}). Again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by the two-pass algorithm, but the naïve algorithm now computes it as −170.66666666666666. This is a serious problem with naïve algorithm and is due to catastrophic cancellation in the subtraction of two similar numbers at the final stage of the algorithm.
Higher-order statistics
Terriberry<ref>{{Cite web |lastTerriberry |firstTimothy B. |date15 October 2008 |orig-date9 December 2007 |titleComputing Higher-Order Moments Online |urlhttp://people.xiph.org/~tterribe/notes/homs.html |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140423031833/http://people.xiph.org/~tterribe/notes/homs.html |archive-date23 April 2014 |access-date5 May 2008}}</ref> extends Chan's formulae to calculating the third and fourth central moments, needed for example when estimating skewness and kurtosis:
:<math>
\begin{align}
M_{3,X} = M_{3,A} + M_{3,B} & {} + \delta^3\frac{n_A n_B (n_A - n_B)}{n_X^2} + 3\delta\frac{n_AM_{2,B} - n_BM_{2,A}}{n_X} \\[6pt]
M_{4,X} = M_{4,A} + M_{4,B} & {} + \delta^4\frac{n_A n_B \left(n_A^2 - n_A n_B + n_B^2\right)}{n_X^3} \\[6pt]
& {} + 6\delta^2\frac{n_A^2 M_{2,B} + n_B^2 M_{2,A}}{n_X^2} + 4\delta\frac{n_AM_{3,B} - n_BM_{3,A}}{n_X}
\end{align}</math>
Here the <math>M_k</math> are again the sums of powers of differences from the mean <math display="inline">\sum(x - \overline{x})^k</math>, giving
: <math>
\begin{align}
& \text{skewness} g_1 \frac{\sqrt{n} M_3}{M_2^{3/2}}, \\[4pt]
& \text{kurtosis} g_2 \frac{n M_4}{M_2^2}-3.
\end{align}
</math>
For the incremental case (i.e., <math>B = \{x\}</math>), this simplifies to:
: <math>
\begin{align}
\delta & = x - m \\[5pt]
m' & = m + \frac{\delta}{n} \\[5pt]
M_2' & = M_2 + \delta^2 \frac{n-1}{n} \\[5pt]
M_3' & = M_3 + \delta^3 \frac{ (n - 1) (n - 2)}{n^2} - \frac{3\delta M_2}{n} \\[5pt]
M_4' & = M_4 + \frac{\delta^4 (n - 1) (n^2 - 3n + 3)}{n^3} + \frac{6\delta^2 M_2}{n^2} - \frac{4\delta M_3}{n}
\end{align}
</math>
By preserving the value <math>\delta / n</math>, only one division operation is needed and the higher-order statistics can thus be calculated for little incremental cost.
An example of the online algorithm for kurtosis implemented as described is:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def online_kurtosis(data):
n mean M2 M3 M4 = 0
for x in data:
n1 = n
n = n + 1
delta = x - mean
delta_n = delta / n
delta_n2 = delta_n**2
term1 = delta * delta_n * n1
mean = mean + delta_n
M4 = M4 + term1 * delta_n2 * (n**2 - 3*n + 3) + 6 * delta_n2 * M2 - 4 * delta_n * M3
M3 = M3 + term1 * delta_n * (n - 2) - 3 * delta_n * M2
M2 = M2 + term1
# Note, you may also calculate variance using M2, and skewness using M3
# Caution: If all the inputs are the same, M2 will be 0, resulting in a division by 0.
kurtosis = (n * M4) / (M2**2) - 3
return kurtosis
</syntaxhighlight>
Pébaÿ<ref>{{Cite web |lastPébay |firstPhilippe Pierre |dateSeptember 2008 |othersSponsoring Org.: USDOE |titleFormulas for Robust, One-Pass Parallel Computation of Covariances and Arbitrary-Order Statistical Moments |urlhttps://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc837537/ |publisherSandia National Laboratories (SNL) |publication-placeAlbuquerque, NM, and Livermore, CA (United States) |viaUNT Digital Library |doi10.2172/1028931 |osti1028931 |idTechnical Report SAND2008-6212, TRN: US201201%%57, DOE Contract Number: AC04-94AL85000 |osti-access=free}}</ref>
further extends these results to arbitrary-order central moments, for the incremental and the pairwise cases, and subsequently Pébaÿ et al.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1=Pébaÿ
| first1=Philippe
| last2=Terriberry
| first2=Timothy
| last3=Kolla
| first3=Hemanth
| last4=Bennett
| first4=Janine
| year=2016
| title=Numerically Stable, Scalable Formulas for Parallel and Online Computation of Higher-Order Multivariate Central Moments with Arbitrary Weights
| journal=Computational Statistics
| volume=31
| issue=4
| pages=1305–1325
| publisher=Springer
| doi=10.1007/s00180-015-0637-z
| s2cid=124570169
| url=https://zenodo.org/record/1232635
}}</ref>
for weighted and compound moments. One can also find there similar formulas for covariance.
Choi and Sweetman<ref name="Choi2010">{{Cite journal
|last1 = Choi
|first1 = Myoungkeun
|last2 = Sweetman
|first2 = Bert
|s2cid = 17534100
|year = 2010
|title = Efficient Calculation of Statistical Moments for Structural Health Monitoring
|journal= Journal of Structural Health Monitoring
|volume=9
|issue=1
|pages=13–24
|doi=10.1177/1475921709341014
}}</ref>
offer two alternative methods to compute the skewness and kurtosis, each of which can save substantial computer memory requirements and CPU time in certain applications. The first approach is to compute the statistical moments by separating the data into bins and then computing the moments from the geometry of the resulting histogram, which effectively becomes a one-pass algorithm for higher moments. One benefit is that the statistical moment calculations can be carried out to arbitrary accuracy such that the computations can be tuned to the precision of, e.g., the data storage format or the original measurement hardware. A relative histogram of a random variable can be constructed in the conventional way: the range of potential values is divided into bins and the number of occurrences within each bin are counted and plotted such that the area of each rectangle equals the portion of the sample values within that bin:
: <math> H(x_k)=\frac{h(x_k)}{A}</math>
where <math>h(x_k)</math> and <math>H(x_k)</math> represent the frequency and the relative frequency at bin <math>x_k</math> and <math display"inline">A \sum_{k=1}^K h(x_k) \,\Delta x_k</math> is the total area of the histogram. After this normalization, the <math>n</math> raw moments and central moments of <math>x(t)</math> can be calculated from the relative histogram:
: <math>
m_n^{(h)} \sum_{k1}^{K} x_k^n H(x_k) \, \Delta x_k
\frac{1}{A} \sum_{k1}^K x_k^n h(x_k) \, \Delta x_k
</math>
: <math>
\theta_n^{(h)}\sum_{k1}^{K} \Big(x_k-m_1^{(h)}\Big)^n \, H(x_k) \, \Delta x_k
\frac{1}{A} \sum_{k1}^{K} \Big(x_k-m_1^{(h)}\Big)^n h(x_k) \, \Delta x_k
</math>
where the superscript <math>^{(h)}</math> indicates the moments are calculated from the histogram. For constant bin width <math>\Delta x_k\Delta x</math> these two expressions can be simplified using <math>I A/\Delta x</math>:
: <math>
m_n^{(h)}\frac{1}{I} \sum_{k1}^K x_k^n \, h(x_k)
</math>
: <math>
\theta_n^{(h)}\frac{1}{I} \sum_{k1}^K \Big(x_k-m_1^{(h)}\Big)^n h(x_k)
</math>
The second approach from Choi and Sweetman<ref name="Choi2010" /> is an analytical methodology to combine statistical moments from individual segments of a time-history such that the resulting overall moments are those of the complete time-history. This methodology could be used for parallel computation of statistical moments with subsequent combination of those moments, or for combination of statistical moments computed at sequential times.
If <math>Q</math> sets of statistical moments are known:
<math>(\gamma_{0,q},\mu_{q},\sigma^2_{q},\alpha_{3,q},\alpha_{4,q})
\quad </math> for <math>q=1,2,\ldots,Q </math>, then each <math>\gamma_n</math> can
be expressed in terms of the equivalent <math>n</math> raw moments:
: <math>
\gamma_{n,q}m_{n,q} \gamma_{0,q} \qquad \quad \textrm{for} \quad n1,2,3,4 \quad \text{ and } \quad q = 1,2, \dots ,Q
</math>
where <math>\gamma_{0,q}</math> is generally taken to be the duration of the <math>q^{th}</math> time-history, or the number of points if <math>\Delta t</math> is constant.
The benefit of expressing the statistical moments in terms of <math>\gamma</math> is that the <math>Q</math> sets can be combined by addition, and there is no upper limit on the value of <math>Q</math>.
: <math>
\gamma_{n,c}\sum_{q1}^Q \gamma_{n,q} \quad \quad \text{for } n=0,1,2,3,4
</math>
where the subscript <math>_c</math> represents the concatenated time-history or combined <math>\gamma</math>. These combined values of <math>\gamma</math> can then be inversely transformed into raw moments representing the complete concatenated time-history
: <math>
m_{n,c}\frac{\gamma_{n,c}}{\gamma_{0,c}} \quad \text{for } n1,2,3,4
</math>
Known relationships between the raw moments (<math>m_n</math>) and the central moments (<math> \theta_n = \operatorname E[(x-\mu)^n])</math>)
are then used to compute the central moments of the concatenated time-history. Finally, the statistical moments of the concatenated history are computed from the central moments:
: <math>
\mu_c=m_{1,c}
\qquad \sigma^2_c=\theta_{2,c}
\qquad \alpha_{3,c}=\frac{\theta_{3,c}}{\sigma_c^3}
\qquad \alpha_{4,c}={\frac{\theta_{4,c}}{\sigma_c^4}}-3
</math>
Covariance
Very similar algorithms can be used to compute the covariance.
Naïve algorithm
The naïve algorithm is
:<math>\operatorname{Cov}(X,Y) \frac {\sum_{i1}^n x_i y_i - (\sum_{i1}^n x_i)(\sum_{i1}^n y_i)/n}{n}. </math>
For the algorithm above, one could use the following Python code:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def naive_covariance(data1, data2):
n = len(data1)
sum1 = sum(data1)
sum2 = sum(data2)
sum12 = sum([i1 * i2 for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2)])
covariance = (sum12 - sum1 * sum2 / n) / n
return covariance
</syntaxhighlight>
With estimate of the mean
As for the variance, the covariance of two random variables is also shift-invariant, so given any two constant values <math>k_x</math> and <math>k_y,</math> it can be written:
:<math>\operatorname{Cov}(X,Y) \operatorname{Cov}(X-k_x,Y-k_y) \dfrac {\sum_{i1}^n (x_i-k_x) (y_i-k_y) - (\sum_{i1}^n (x_i-k_x))(\sum_{i=1}^n (y_i-k_y))/n}{n}. </math>
and again choosing a value inside the range of values will stabilize the formula against catastrophic cancellation as well as make it more robust against big sums. Taking the first value of each data set, the algorithm can be written as:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def shifted_data_covariance(data_x, data_y):
n = len(data_x)
if n < 2:
return 0
kx = data_x[0]
ky = data_y[0]
Ex Ey Exy = 0
for ix, iy in zip(data_x, data_y):
Ex += ix - kx
Ey += iy - ky
Exy += (ix - kx) * (iy - ky)
return (Exy - Ex * Ey / n) / n
</syntaxhighlight>
Two-pass
The two-pass algorithm first computes the sample means, and then the covariance:
:<math>\bar x \sum_{i1}^n x_i/n</math>
:<math>\bar y \sum_{i1}^n y_i/n</math>
:<math>\operatorname{Cov}(X,Y) \frac {\sum_{i1}^n (x_i - \bar x)(y_i - \bar y)}{n}. </math>
The two-pass algorithm may be written as:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def two_pass_covariance(data1, data2):
n = len(data1)
mean1 = sum(data1) / n
mean2 = sum(data2) / n
covariance = 0
for i1, i2 in zip(data1, data2):
a = i1 - mean1
b = i2 - mean2
covariance += a * b / n
return covariance
</syntaxhighlight>
A slightly more accurate compensated version performs the full naive algorithm on the residuals. The final sums <math display"inline">\sum_i x_i</math> and <math display"inline">\sum_i y_i</math> should be zero, but the second pass compensates for any small error.
Online
A stable one-pass algorithm exists, similar to the online algorithm for computing the variance, that computes co-moment <math display"inline"> C_n \sum_{i=1}^n (x_i - \bar x_n)(y_i - \bar y_n)</math>:
:<math>\begin{alignat}{2}
\bar x_n &= \bar x_{n-1} &\,+\,& \frac{x_n - \bar x_{n-1}}{n} \\[5pt]
\bar y_n &= \bar y_{n-1} &\,+\,& \frac{y_n - \bar y_{n-1}}{n} \\[5pt]
C_n &= C_{n-1} &\,+\,& (x_n - \bar x_n)(y_n - \bar y_{n-1}) \\[5pt]
&= C_{n-1} &\,+\,& (x_n - \bar x_{n-1})(y_n - \bar y_n)
\end{alignat}</math>
The apparent asymmetry in that last equation is due to the fact that <math display"inline"> (x_n - \bar x_n) \frac{n-1}{n}(x_n - \bar x_{n-1})</math>, so both update terms are equal to <math display="inline"> \frac{n-1}{n}(x_n - \bar x_{n-1})(y_n - \bar y_{n-1})</math>. Even greater accuracy can be achieved by first computing the means, then using the stable one-pass algorithm on the residuals.
Thus the covariance can be computed as
:<math>\begin{align}
\operatorname{Cov}_N(X,Y) \frac{C_N}{N} & \frac{\operatorname{Cov}_{N-1}(X,Y)\cdot(N-1) + (x_n - \bar x_n)(y_n - \bar y_{n-1})}{N}\\
&= \frac{\operatorname{Cov}_{N-1}(X,Y)\cdot(N-1) + (x_n - \bar x_{n-1})(y_n - \bar y_n)}{N}\\
&= \frac{\operatorname{Cov}_{N-1}(X,Y)\cdot(N-1) + \frac{N-1}{N}(x_n - \bar x_{n-1})(y_n - \bar y_{n-1})}{N}\\
&= \frac{\operatorname{Cov}_{N-1}(X,Y)\cdot(N-1) + \frac{N}{N-1}(x_n - \bar x_{n})(y_n - \bar y_{n})}{N}.
\end{align}</math>
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def online_covariance(data1, data2):
meanx meany C n 0
for x, y in zip(data1, data2):
n += 1
dx = x - meanx
meanx += dx / n
meany += (y - meany) / n
C += dx * (y - meany)
population_covar = C / n
# Bessel's correction for sample variance
sample_covar = C / (n - 1)
</syntaxhighlight>
A small modification can also be made to compute the weighted covariance:
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
def online_weighted_covariance(data1, data2, data3):
meanx meany 0
wsum wsum2 0
C = 0
for x, y, w in zip(data1, data2, data3):
wsum += w
wsum2 += w * w
dx = x - meanx
meanx += (w / wsum) * dx
meany += (w / wsum) * (y - meany)
C += w * dx * (y - meany)
population_covar = C / wsum
# Bessel's correction for sample variance
# Frequency weights
sample_frequency_covar = C / (wsum - 1)
# Reliability weights
sample_reliability_covar = C / (wsum - wsum2 / wsum)
</syntaxhighlight>
Likewise, there is a formula for combining the covariances of two sets that can be used to parallelize the computation:<ref name=":1" />
:<math>C_X C_A + C_B + (\bar x_A - \bar x_B)(\bar y_A - \bar y_B)\cdot\frac{n_A n_B}{n_X}. </math>Weighted batched version
A version of the weighted online algorithm that does batched updated also exists: let <math>w_1, \dots w_N</math> denote the weights, and write
:<math>\begin{alignat}{2}
\bar x_{n+k} &\bar x_n &\,+\,& \frac{\sum_{in+1}^{n+k} w_i (x_i - \bar x_n)}{\sum_{i=1}^{n+k} w_i} \\
\bar y_{n+k} &\bar y_n &\,+\,& \frac{\sum_{in+1}^{n+k} w_i (y_i - \bar y_n)}{\sum_{i=1}^{n+k} w_i} \\
C_{n+k} &C_n &\,+\,& \sum_{in+1}^{n+k} w_i (x_i - \bar x_{n+k})(y_i - \bar y_n) \\
&C_n &\,+\,& \sum_{in+1}^{n+k} w_i (x_i - \bar x_n)(y_i - \bar y_{n+k}) \\
\end{alignat}</math>
The covariance can then be computed as
:<math>\operatorname{Cov}_N(X,Y) \frac{C_N}{\sum_{i1}^{N} w_i}</math>
See also
*Kahan summation algorithm
*Squared deviations from the mean
*Yamartino method
References
<references />
External links
* {{MathWorld|titleSample Variance Computation|urlnameSampleVarianceComputation}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Algorithms For Calculating Variance}}
Category:Statistical algorithms
Category:Statistical deviation and dispersion
Category:Articles with example pseudocode
Category:Articles with example Python (programming language) code | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithms_for_calculating_variance | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.209574 |
1064 | Almond | {{short description|Species of nut}}
{{Other uses}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use American English|date=March 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-stylevanc|display-authors3}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Almonds - in shell, shell cracked open, shelled, blanched.jpg
| image_caption = Clockwise from top left: almonds with shell cracked open, shelled, unshelled, and blanched seed
| image_upright = 1.3
| image2 = Ametllesjuliol.jpg
| image2_caption = Almond tree with ripening fruit
| image2_alt = Branch of tree with green fruit
| genus = Prunus
| parent = Prunus subg. Amygdalus
| species = amygdalus
| authority = Batsch, 1801
| synonyms_ref <ref name"powo">{{cite web |titlePrunus amygdalus Batsch |urlhttps://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:60439867-2 |websitePlants of the World Online |publisherKew Science |access-date8 August 2021 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/rjp-375 |titleThe Plant List, Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb |access-date3 February 2016 |archive-date13 July 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713181247/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/rjp-375 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
| synonyms {{collapsible list |titleReplaced syn.|{{species list
|Amygdalus communis|L., 1753
}}}}{{collapsible list |title=Homotypic|{{species list
|Amygdalus amygdalus |(Batsch) Frye & Rigg, 1912 nom. illeg.
|Druparia amygdalus |(Batsch) Clairv., 1811
|Prunus communis |(L.) Arcang., 1882 nom. illeg.
}}}}{{collapsible list |title=Heterotypic|{{species list
|Amygdalus amara |Duhamel, 1768
|Amygdalus amygdalina |Oken ex M.Roem., 1847
|Amygdalus cochinchinensis |Lour., 1790
|Amygdalus communis var. fragilis |Ser., 1825
|Amygdalus communis var. macrocarpa |Ser., 1825
|Amygdalus decipiens |Poit. & Turpin, 1830
|Amygdalus dulcis |Mill., 1768
|Amygdalus elata |Salisb., 1796
|Amygdalus korshinskyi var. bornmuelleri |Browicz, 1974
|Amygdalus sativa |Mill., 1768
|Amygdalus sinensis |Steud., 1840
|Amygdalus stocksiana |Boiss., 1856
|Persica |Mill., 1754
|Prunus cochinchinensis |(Lour.) Koehne, 1915
|Prunus dulcis |(Mill.) D.A.Webb, 1967 nom. superfl.
|Prunus dulcis var. amara |(Duhamel) Buchheim, 1972
|Prunus dulcis var. fragilis |(Ser.) Buchheim, 1972
|Prunus dulcis var. spontanea |(Korsh.) Buchheim, 1972
|Prunus intermedia |A.Sav., 1882
|Prunus stocksiana |(Boiss.) Brandis, 1906
|Trichocarpus |Neck., 1790
}}}}
}}
The almond (Prunus amygdalus, syn. Prunus dulcis) is a species of tree from the genus Prunus. Along with the peach, it is classified in the subgenus Amygdalus, distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell (endocarp) surrounding the seed.<ref>{{Cite web |date27 July 2016 |titleAlmond Tree – Learn About Nature |urlhttps://www.learnaboutnature.com/plants/trees/almond-tree/ |access-date2022-04-08 |language=en-US}}</ref>
The fruit of the almond is a drupe, consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed, which is not a true nut.<ref name"eb">{{cite web |vauthorsPetruzzello M |titleAlmond – tree and nut |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/plant/almond |publisherEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date25 April 2024 |date11 April 2024}}</ref> Shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed. Almonds are sold shelled or unshelled. Blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat, which is then removed to reveal the white embryo. Once almonds are cleaned and processed, they can be stored for around a year if kept refrigerated; at higher temperatures they will become rancid more quickly.<ref name"k109">{{cite web | titleDo Almonds Go Bad? 3 Ways to Tell Almonds Are Spoiled | websiteAlice&#039;s Kitchen | date2023-12-14 | urlhttps://www.alices.kitchen/guide/do-almonds-go-bad/ | access-date2024-11-09}}</ref> Almonds are used in many cuisines, often featuring prominently in desserts, such as marzipan.<ref nameeb/>
The almond tree prospers in a moderate Mediterranean climate with cool winter weather.<ref nameeb/> It is rarely found wild in its original setting.<ref nameladizinsky99>{{cite journal|titleOn the origin of almond|authorG. Ladizinsky|s2cid25141013|journalGenetic Resources and Crop Evolution|volume46|year1999|pages143–147|doi10.1023/A:1008690409554|issue= 2}}</ref> Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to the ability to produce quality offspring entirely from seed, without using suckers and cuttings. Evidence of domesticated almonds in the Early Bronze Age has been found in the archeological sites of the Middle East, and subsequently across the Mediterranean region and similar arid climates with cool winters.
California produces about 80% of the world's almond supply.<ref nameeb/> Due to high acreage and water demand for almond cultivation, and need for pesticides, California almond production may be unsustainable, especially during the persistent drought and heat from climate change in the 21st century.<ref name":0">{{Cite news |date17 August 2021 |titleClimate Change In California Is Threatening The World's Top Almond Producer |languageen |workNPR |agencyAssociated Press|urlhttps://www.npr.org/2021/08/17/1028452988/climate-change-california-drought-heat-almond-production |access-date2022-05-21}}</ref> Droughts in California have caused some producers to leave the industry, leading to lower supply and increased prices.<ref name":0" />
Description
The almond is a deciduous tree growing to {{convert|3|-|4.5|m|0|abbroff}} in height,<ref nameeb/><ref>{{Cite book |lastU.S. Department of the Army |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idT2p7DwAAQBAJ&pgPA10 |titleThe Official U.S. Army Illustrated Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisherLyons Press |year2019 |isbn978-1-4930-4039-1 |locationGuilford, CT |pages10 |oclc1043567121}}</ref> with a trunk of up to {{convert|30|cm|0|abbroff}} in diameter. The young twigs are green at first, becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are {{convert|3|-|5|in|cm|0|abbron|orderflip}} long,<ref>Bailey, L.H.; Bailey, E.Z.; the staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium. 1976. Hortus third: A concise dictionary of plants cultivated in the United States and Canada. Macmillan, New York.</ref> with a serrated margin and a {{convert|2.5|cm|0|abbr=on}} petiole.
The fragrant flowers are white to pale pink, {{convert|3|-|5|cm|0|abbron}} diameter with five petals, produced singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early spring.<ref nameeb/><ref namerushforth>{{cite book|lastRushforth |firstKeith |titleCollins wildlife trust guide trees: a photographic guide to the trees of Britain and Europe |publisherHarper Collins |locationLondon |year1999 |isbn0-00-220013-9}}</ref><ref namerhs>{{cite book |lastGriffiths |firstMark D. |author2Anthony Julian Huxley |titleThe New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening |publisherMacmillan Press |locationLondon |year1992 |isbn0-333-47494-5}}</ref> Almond trees thrive in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters.<ref nameeb/> The optimal temperature for their growth is between {{convert|15|and|30|C|F}} and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 200 to 700 hours below {{convert|7.2|°C|°F|abbron}} to break dormancy.<ref>{{Cite web|titleFruit Cultural Data — P – California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc.|urlhttps://crfg.org/home/library/crfg-fruit-list/fruit-cultural-data-2/fruit-cultural-data-p/|access-date2020-06-12|languageen-US|archive-date19 March 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220319062538/https://crfg.org/home/library/crfg-fruit-list/fruit-cultural-data-2/fruit-cultural-data-p/|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the third year after planting. Trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting. The fruit matures in the autumn, 7–8 months after flowering.<ref namerhs/><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://coststudies.ucdavis.edu/files/almondvs08sprink.pdf |titleUniversity of California Sample Cost Study to Produce Almonds |access-date17 March 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120326084336/http://coststudies.ucdavis.edu/files/almondvs08sprink.pdf |archive-date=26 March 2012 }}</ref>
The almond fruit is {{cvt|3.5|-|6|cm|in|frac8}} long. It is not a nut but a drupe. The outer covering, consisting of an outer exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh, fleshy in other members of Prunus such as the plum and cherry, is instead a thick, leathery, grey-green coat (with a downy exterior), called the hull. Inside the hull is a woody endocarp which forms a reticulated, hard shell (like the outside of a peach pit) called the pyrena. Inside the shell is the edible seed, commonly called a nut.<ref nameeb/> Generally, one seed is present, but occasionally two occur. After the fruit matures, the hull splits and separates from the shell, and an abscission layer forms between the stem and the fruit so that the fruit can fall from the tree.<ref>{{cite web |firstDavid |lastDoll |date22 June 2009 |titleThe Seasonal Patterns of Almond Production |urlhttps://thealmonddoctor.com/2009/06/22/the-seasonal-patterns-of-almond-production/ |websiteThe Almond Doctor |publisherUniversity of California Cooperative Extension |access-date14 August 2018 |archive-date14 August 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180814142153/https://thealmonddoctor.com/2009/06/22/the-seasonal-patterns-of-almond-production/ |url-statusdead }}</ref> During harvest, mechanised tree shakers are used to expedite fruits falling to the ground for collection.<ref nameeb/>
{{gallery|mode=packed
|بادام و شکوفه بادام.JPG|Almond blossoms
|Kulturmandel unreife Früchte.JPG|Young almond fruit
|Green almonds.jpg|Green almonds
|Madrigueras (20578932389) (cropped).jpg|Mature almond nut
|Almond shell.jpg|Almond shell
|Almond with two kernels.jpg|A rare double-seeded shell
|Almonds.png|Harvested almonds
|Blanched almonds.jpg|Blanched almonds
|titleGallery of almonds}} Taxonomy Sweet and bitter almonds The seeds of Prunus dulcis var. dulcis are predominantly sweet<ref>{{cite web|lastKarl-Franzens-Universität (Graz)|titleAlmond (Prunus dulcis [Mill.] D. A. Webb.)|urlhttp://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Prun_dul.html|access-date10 April 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110514021042/http://www.uni-graz.at/~katzer/engl/Prun_dul.html|archive-date14 May 2011|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleAlmond and bitter almond|urlhttp://www.chow.com/ingredients/265|workfrom Quirk Books: www.quirkbooks.com|access-date8 April 2011| archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20110511175227/http://www.chow.com/ingredients/265| archive-date 11 May 2011 <!-- Bot inserted parameter. Either remove it; or change its value to "." for the cite to end in a ".", as necessary. -->| url-statuslive}}</ref> but some individual trees produce seeds that are somewhat more bitter.<ref name"eb" /> The genetic basis for bitterness involves a single gene, the bitter flavour furthermore being recessive,<ref>{{cite journal |lastHeppner |firstMyer J |date7 April 1923 |titleThe factor for bitterness in the sweet almond |journalGenetics |volume8 |issue4 |pages390–392 |doi10.1093/genetics/8.4.390 |pmc1200758 |pmid17246020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Dicenta |first1Federico |last2Ortega |first2Encarnacion |last3Martinez-Gomez |first3Pedro |s2cid9893400 |dateJanuary 2007 |titleUse of recessive homozygous genotypes to assess genetic control of kernel bitterness in almond |journalEuphytica |publisherSpringer |volume153 |issue1–2 |pages221–225 |doi10.1007/s10681-006-9257-6 }}<!--|access-date=4 March 2014--></ref> both aspects making this trait easier to domesticate. The fruits from Prunus dulcis var. amara are always bitter, as are the kernels from other species of genus Prunus, such as apricot, peach and cherry (although to a lesser extent).
The bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50% of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds. It also contains the enzyme emulsin which, in the presence of water, acts on the two soluble glucosides amygdalin and prunasin<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsSánchez-Pérez R, Belmonte FS, Borch J, Dicenta F, Møller BL, Jørgensen K |titlePrunasin hydrolases during fruit development in sweet and bitter almonds |journalPlant Physiology |volume158 |issue4 |pages1916–32 |dateApril 2012 |pmid22353576 |pmc3320195 |doi10.1104/pp.111.192021}}</ref> yielding glucose, cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde, the chemical causing the bitter flavour. Bitter almonds may yield 4–9&nbsp;milligrams of hydrogen cyanide per almond<ref>{{cite journal |vauthorsShragg TA, Albertson TE, Fisher CJ |titleCyanide poisoning after bitter almond ingestion |journalWest. J. Med. |volume136 |issue1 |pages65–9 |dateJanuary 1982 |pmid7072244 |pmc1273391 }}</ref> and contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds.<ref name"isrn">{{cite journal |journalISRN Toxicol |year2013 |issue19 September |page610648 |doi10.1155/2013/610648 |pmid24171123 |titlePotential Toxic Levels of Cyanide in Almonds (Prunus amygdalus), Apricot Kernels (Prunus armeniaca), and Almond Syrup |vauthorsChaouali N, Gana I, Dorra A, Khelifi F, Nouioui A, Masri W, Belwaer I, Ghorbel H, Hedhili A |pmc3793392 |volume2013|doi-accessfree }}</ref> The origin of cyanide content in bitter almonds is via the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin.<ref name"isrn"/> P450 monooxygenases are involved in the amygdalin biosynthetic pathway. A point mutation in a bHLH transcription factor prevents transcription of the two cytochrome P450 genes, resulting in the sweet kernel trait.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Sánchez-Pérez|first1R.|last2Pavan|first2S.|last3Mazzeo|first3R.|last4Moldovan|first4C.|last5Aiese Cigliano|first5R.|last6Del Cueto|first6J.|last7Ricciardi|first7F.|last8Lotti|first8C.|last9Ricciardi|first9L.|s2cid189818379|date14 June 2019|titleMutation of a bHLH transcription factor allowed almond domestication|journalScience|languageen|volume364|issue6445|pages1095–1098|doi10.1126/science.aav8197|pmid31197015|bibcode2019Sci...364.1095S|issn0036-8075|doi-accessfree|hdl11586/236719|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> Etymology The word almond is a loanword from Old French {{lang|fro|almande}} or {{lang|fro|alemande}},<ref nameEB1911>{{cite EB1911 |cite EB1911 |wstitleAlmond |volume1 |page716}}</ref> descended from Late Latin {{lang|la|amandula}}, {{lang|la|amindula}}, modified from Classical Latin {{lang|la|amygdala}}, which is in turn borrowed from Ancient Greek {{transliteration|grc|amygdálē}} ({{lang|grc|ἀμυγδάλη}})<ref nameEB1911/><ref name"oed">{{cite web |titleAlmond |urlhttps://www.etymonline.com/search?qalmond |publisherOnline Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper |access-date18 May 2023 |date2023}}</ref> (cf. amygdala, an almond-shaped portion of the brain).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |titleAlmond |urlhttp://dictionary.reference.com/browse/almond |dictionaryDictionary.com |access-date16 May 2012 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120427091114/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/almond |archive-date27 April 2012}}</ref> Late Old English had amygdales 'almonds'.<ref name="oed"/>
The adjective amygdaloid (literally 'like an almond, almond-like') is used to describe objects which are roughly almond-shaped, particularly a shape which is part way between a triangle and an ellipse. For example, the amygdala of the brain uses a direct borrowing of the Greek term {{transliteration|grc|amygdalē}}.<ref>{{cite journal |titleThe Amygdaloid Complex: Anatomy and Physiology |vauthorsSah P, Faber ES, Lopez De Armentia M, Power J |s2cid16456971 |doi10.1152/physrev.00002.2003 |journalPhysiological Reviews |date1 July 2003 |volume83 |pages803–834 |issue3 |pmid12843409}}</ref>
Origin and distribution
The precise origin of the almond is controversial due to estimates for its emergence across wide geographic regions.<ref nameimani/> Sources indicate that its origins were in an area stretching across Central Asia, Iran, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kurdistan, Afghanistan, and Iraq,<ref nameimani/><ref namekole/> or in an eastern Asian subregion between Mongolia and Uzbekistan.<ref name"imani">{{Cite web |lastImani |firstAli |date2022 |titleAlmond production experience in Iran compared to other countries in the world |urlhttps://hsri.ac.ir/_DouranPortal/Documents/Almond%20production%20experience%20in%20Iran%20compared%20to%20other%20countries%20in%20the%20world_20231022_123933.pdf |publisherHorticultural Sciences Research Institute, Agricultural Research, Education and Extension Organization, Iran Ministry of Agriculture|locationJahad, Iran |page12}}</ref><ref name"chin">{{cite journal |vauthorsChin SW, Shaw J, Haberle R, Wen J, Potter D |titleDiversification of almonds, peaches, plums and cherries – Molecular systematics and biogeographic history of Prunus (Rosaceae) |journalMolecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |dateJuly 2014 |volume76 |pages34–48 |doi10.1016/j.ympev.2014.02.024 |pmid24631854 |bibcode2014MolPE..76...34C |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S105579031400089X}}</ref> In other assessments, both botanical and archaeological evidence indicates that almonds originated and were first cultivated in West Asia, particularly in countries of the Levant.<ref nameladizinsky99/><ref name"kole">{{cite book|vauthorsMartínez-Gómez P, Sánchez-Pérez R, Dicenta F, Howad W, Arús P, Gradziel TM|year2007|chapter Almond (Chapter 11)|editorKole C|titleFruits and Nuts. Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants, vol 4|publisherSpringer|locationBerlin|chapter-urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-34533-6_11|isbn978-3-540-34533-6|doi10.1007/978-3-540-34533-6_11}}</ref> Other estimates specified Iran and Anatolia (present day Turkey) as origin locations of the almond, with botanical evidence for Iran as the main origin centre.<ref nameimani/><ref name"BĀDĀM – Encyclopaedia Iranica">{{Cite web |publisherEncyclopaedia Iranica |titleBadam (almond) |urlhttps://iranicaonline.org/articles/badam-almond|date19 August 2011 |access-date2 July 2024|quote=Iran and Anatolia were the center in which its various species evolved and from which they were diffused}}</ref>
The wild form of domesticated almond also grew in parts of the Levant.<ref namekole/><ref name"BĀDĀM – Encyclopaedia Iranica" /><ref namezohary>{{cite book |lastZohary |firstDaniel |author2Maria Hopf |titleDomestication of plants in the old world: the origin and spread of cultivated plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley |publisherOxford University Press |year2000 |page186 |isbn0-19-850356-3}}</ref> Almond cultivation was spread by humans centuries ago along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea into northern Africa and southern Europe,<ref namekole/><ref namechin/> and more recently to other world regions, notably California.<ref nameeb/><ref nameRieger>{{Cite web |urlhttps://homeorchard.ucanr.edu/Fruits_&_Nuts/Almond/ |titleAlmond |publisherDivision of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California |date2024|accessdate2 July 2024}}</ref>
Selection of the sweet type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication.<ref nameladizinsky99/><ref name"sp">{{cite book |lastSánchez-Pérez |firstRaquel |titleThe Almond Tree Genome |publisherSpringer Nature |year2023 |isbn978-3-030-30302-0 |editorSánchez-Pérez |editor-firstRaquel |seriesCompendium of Plant Genomes |locationBerlin |pages15–24 |chapterOrigin and Domestication of Wild Bitter Almond. Recent Advancements on Almond Bitterness |doi10.1007/978-3-030-30302-0_2 |editor-last2i Marti |editor-first2Angel Fernandez |editor-last3Martinez-Gomez |editor-first3Pedro |chapter-urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30302-0_2}}</ref> The wild ancestor of the almond used to breed the domesticated species is unknown.<ref nameladizinsky99/><ref namesp/> The species Prunus fenzliana may be the most likely wild ancestor of the almond, in part because it is native to Armenia and western Azerbaijan, where it was apparently domesticated.<ref nameladizinsky99 /><ref namekole/> Wild almond species were grown by early farmers, "at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps, and later intentionally in their orchards".<ref>{{cite book |lastDiamond |firstJared M. |author-linkJared Diamond |titleGuns, germs, and steel: the fates of human societies |publisherW.W. Norton |locationNew York |year1997 |page118 |isbn0-393-03891-2|title-linkGuns, Germs, and Steel }}</ref>
Cultivation
depiction of the almond harvest at Qand-i Badam, Fergana Valley (16th&nbsp;century)<ref>{{cite web|lastBhawani |urlhttp://warfare.atspace.eu/Moghul/Baburnama/Harvesting_of_the_almond_crop_at_Qand-i_Badam.htm |titleHarvesting of the almond crop at Qand-i Badam |date1590s |work=Baburnama}}</ref>]]
Almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees, due to "the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed.<ref nameladizinsky99 /> Thus, in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings, it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting".<ref namezohary/> Domesticated almonds appear in the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 BC), such as the archaeological sites of Numeira (Jordan),<ref nameladizinsky99/> or possibly earlier. Another well-known archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in Tutankhamun's tomb in Egypt (c. 1325 BC), probably imported from the Levant.<ref namezohary/> An article on almond tree cultivation in Spain is brought down in Ibn al-'Awwam's 12th-century agricultural work, Book on Agriculture.<ref>{{cite book|lastIbn al-'Awwam|firstYaḥyá|author-linkIbn al-'Awwam|titleLe livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) |year1864|locationParis|publisherA. Franck|translatorJ.-J. Clement-Mullet |pages260–263 (ch. 7 – Article 20)|urlhttps://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n14/mode/2up |languagefr|oclc780050566}} (pp. [https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n368/mode/2up 260]–263 (Article XX)</ref>
Of the European countries that the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh reported as cultivating almonds, Germany<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF&GENUS_XREFPrunus&SPECIES_XREFdulcis&TAXON_NAME_XREF&RANK |titleFlora Europaea Search Results |access-date17 July 2008 |publisherRoyal Botanic Garden Edinburgh |archive-date11 May 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110511164917/http://193.62.154.38/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF&GENUS_XREFPrunus&SPECIES_XREFdulcis&TAXON_NAME_XREF&RANK |url-statusdead }}</ref> is the northernmost, though the domesticated form can be found as far north as Iceland.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Prunus+dulcis |titlePrunus dulcis |access-date17 July 2008 |publisherPlants for a Future |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070819002033/http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-bin/arr_html?Prunus+dulcis |archive-date19 August 2007 }}</ref>
Varieties
Almond trees are small to medium-sized but commercial cultivars can be grafted onto a different root-stock to produce smaller trees. Varieties include:
* {{lang|fr|italicsunset|Nonpareil}} – originates in the 1800s. A large tree that produces large, smooth, thin-shelled almonds with 60–65% edible kernel per nut. Requires pollination from other almond varieties for good nut production.<ref nameARS/>
* {{lang|it|italicsunset|Tuono}} – originates in Italy. Has thicker, hairier shells with only 32% of edible kernel per nut. The thicker shell gives some protection from pests such as the navel orangeworm. Does not require pollination by other almond varieties.<ref nameARS/>
* Mariana – used as a rootstock to result in smaller trees
Breeding
Breeding programmes have found the high shell-seal trait.<ref name"Robens-et-al-2000">{{cite conference | urlhttp://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/albany-ca/wrrc/ftdp/docs/aflatoxin-elimination-workshop-proceedings/ | conferenceAflatoxin/Fumonisin Workshop 2000 | date25–27 October 2000 | locationYosemite, California, USA | page17 | last1Robens | first1Jane | last2Cary | first2Jeffrey W. | last3Campbell | first3Bruce C. | titleIntroduction}}</ref> Pollination The most widely planted varieties of almond are self-incompatible; hence these trees require pollen from a tree with different genetic characters to produce seeds. Almond orchards therefore must grow mixtures of almond varieties. In addition, the pollen is transferred from flower to flower by insects; therefore commercial growers must ensure there are enough insects to perform this task.<ref name"van Wyk 2019">{{cite book |last1van Wyk |first1Ben-Erik |titleFood plants of the world |date2019 |publisherCABI |isbn9781789241303 |page342 |edition2nd}}</ref> The large scale of almond production in the U.S. creates a significant problem of providing enough pollinating insects. Additional pollinating insects are therefore brought to the trees. The pollination of California's almonds is the largest annual managed pollination event in the world, with over 1&nbsp;million hives (nearly half of all beehives in the US) being brought to the almond orchards each February.<ref nameeb/><ref namebloom/>
Much of the supply of bees is managed by pollination brokers, who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least 49 states for the event. This business was heavily affected by colony collapse disorder at the turn of the 21st century, causing a nationwide shortage of honey bees and increasing the price of insect pollination. To partially protect almond growers from these costs, researchers at the Agricultural Research Service, part of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), developed self-pollinating almond trees that combine this character with quality characters such as a flavour and yield.<ref nameARS>{{cite web |authorAlfredo Flores |urlhttp://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100406.htm |titleARS Scientists Develop Self-pollinating Almond Trees |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101017050714/http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2010/100406.htm |archive-date17 October 2010 |publisherUSDA Agricultural Research Service |date6 April 2010}}</ref> Self-pollinating almond varieties exist, but they lack some commercial characters. However, through natural hybridisation between different almond varieties, a new variety that was self-pollinating with a high yield of commercial quality nuts was produced. Diseases
{{Main|List of almond diseases}}
Almond trees can be attacked by an array of damaging microbes, fungal pathogens, plant viruses, and bacteria.<ref name"PlantVillage">{{cite web | titleAlmond – Diseases and Pests, Description, Uses, Propagation | websitePlantVillage | urlhttp://plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/almond/infos | access-date2019-12-11}}</ref> Pests Pavement ants (Tetramorium caespitum), southern fire ants (Solenopsis xyloni), and thief ants (Solenopsis molesta) are seed predators.<ref name"PlantVillage" /> Bryobia rubrioculus mites are most known for their damage to this crop.<ref name"Bryobia-rubrioculus-UCANR">{{cite web | urlhttp://www.ipm.ucanr.edu/agriculture/almond/Brown-Mite/ | publisherUC Agriculture and Natural Resources (UC ANR) | titleBrown Mite / Almond / Agriculture: Pest Management Guidelines / UC Statewide IPM Program (UC IPM)}}</ref>
Sustainability
Almond production in California is concentrated mainly in the Central Valley,<ref name"bi">{{Cite news|urlhttp://www.businessinsider.com/amount-of-water-needed-to-grow-one-almond-orange-tomato-2015-4|titleChart shows how some of your favorite foods could be making California's drought worse|date8 April 2015|author1Brodwin E |author2Lee S|workBusiness Insider|access-date17 April 2017|languageen}}</ref> where the mild climate, rich soil, abundant sunshine and water supply make for ideal growing conditions. Due to the persistent droughts in California in the early 21st century, it became more difficult to raise almonds in a sustainable manner.<ref name"npr">{{cite web |author1Richard Gonzalez |titleHow Almonds Became A Scapegoat For California's Drought |urlhttps://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/04/16/399958203/how-almonds-became-a-scapegoat-for-californias-drought |publisherUS National Public Radio |access-date16 April 2019 |date16 April 2015}}</ref><ref name"bloom">{{cite news |author1Alan Bjerga |author2Donna Cohen |author3Cindy Hoffman |titleCalifornia Almonds Are Back After Four Years of Brutal Drought |newspaperBloomberg.com |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/2018-thirst-for-almonds/ |publisherBloomberg |access-date16 April 2019}}</ref> The issue is complex because of the high amount of water needed to produce almonds: a single almond requires roughly {{convert|1.1|usgal|impgal l|abbroff}} of water to grow properly.<ref namebi/><ref namenpr/><ref>{{Cite web|last1Mekonnen|first1M. M.|last2Hoekstra|first2A. Y.|titleThe green, blue and grey water footprint of crops and derived crop products|urlhttps://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1577/2011/hess-15-1577-2011.pdf|url-statuslive|access-date2021-06-19|websiteCopernicus|publisherTwente Water Centre, University of Twente|publication-placeEnschede, The Netherlands|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210123145145/https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/15/1577/2011/hess-15-1577-2011.pdf|archive-date23 January 2021}}</ref> Regulations related to water supplies are changing so some growers have destroyed their current almond orchards to replace with either younger trees or a different crop such as pistachio that needs less water.<ref name"AtlasObscura2021">{{cite web |titleWhy Are Almond Growers Uprooting Their Orchards? |urlhttps://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/uprooting-almond-orchard |websiteAtlas Obscura |date2 July 2021 |access-date=3 July 2021}}</ref>
, Israel]]
Sustainability strategies implemented by the Almond Board of California and almond farmers include:<ref namebloom/><ref name"abc2018">{{cite web |titleAnnual report: Growing Good – Almond Sustainability 2018 |urlhttps://newsroom.almonds.com/sites/default/files/pdf_file/Growing%20Good%202018.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://newsroom.almonds.com/sites/default/files/pdf_file/Growing%20Good%202018.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |publisherAlmond Board of California |access-date16 April 2019 |date2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleAlmond industry forerunner of future farm practices, sustainability program internationally recognized |urlhttps://www.farmprogress.com/tree-nuts/almond-industry-forerunner-future-farm-practices-sustainability-program-internationally |publisherWestern FarmPress |access-date16 April 2019 |date=6 March 2018}}</ref>
* tree and soil health, and other farming practices
* minimizing dust production during the harvest
* bee health
* irrigation guidelines for farmers
* food safety
* use of waste biomass as coproducts with a goal to achieve zero waste
* use of solar energy during processing
* job development
* support of scientific research to investigate potential health benefits of consuming almonds
* international education about sustainability practices
Production
{| class"wikitable" style"float:right; clear:right; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;"
|+ Almonds (with shell), 2022
|-
! Country
! Tonnes
|-
| {{USA}} || 1,858,010
|-
| {{AUS}} || 360,328
|-
| {{ESP}} || 245,990
|-
| {{TUR}} || 190,000
|-
| {{MAR}} || 175,763
|-
| {{center|World}} || 3,630,427
|-
| colspan"2" |<small>Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations<ref name"faostat">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|titleAlmonds (in shells) production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists) |publisherUN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) |date2024 |access-date= 23 April 2024}}</ref></small>
|}
In 2022, world production of almonds was 3.6&nbsp;million tonnes, led by the United States (table). Secondary producers were Australia and Spain.
United States
In the United States, production is concentrated in California where {{cvt|1000000|acre|ha|orderflip}} and six different almond varieties were under cultivation in 2017, with a yield of {{convert|2.25|e9lb|e9kg|abbroff}} of shelled almonds.<ref name"usda">{{cite web |last1Averill |first1Travis |title2017 Almond Forecast |urlhttp://www.almonds.com/sites/default/files/content/attachments/almond_objective_report_2017_presentation.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.almonds.com/sites/default/files/content/attachments/almond_objective_report_2017_presentation.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |publisherNational Agricultural Statistics Service, US Department of Agriculture |access-date12 November 2017 |date6 July 2017}}</ref> California production is marked by a period of intense pollination during late winter by rented commercial bees transported by truck across the U.S. to almond groves, requiring more than half of the total U.S. commercial honeybee population.<ref>{{cite news |author1Ginger Zee |author2David Miller |author3Kelly Harold |author4Andrea Miller |titleGrowing California almonds takes more than half of US honeybees |urlhttps://abcnews.go.com/US/growing-california-almonds-takes-half-us-honeybees/story?id52265334 |access-date1 September 2018 |workABC News |date16 January 2018}}</ref> The value of total U.S. exports of shelled almonds in 2016 was $3.2&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite web |last1Workman |first1Daniel |titleTop Almonds Exporters by Country in 2016 |urlhttp://www.worldstopexports.com/top-almonds-exporters-by-country/ |publisherWorld's Top Exports |access-date12 November 2017 |date25 July 2017 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171113003342/http://www.worldstopexports.com/top-almonds-exporters-by-country/ |archive-date=13 November 2017}}</ref>
All commercially grown almonds sold as food in the U.S. are sweet cultivars. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration reported in 2010 that some fractions of imported sweet almonds were contaminated with bitter almonds, which contain cyanide.<ref name":1">{{cite journal |vauthorsToomey VM, Nickum EA, Flurer CL |dateSeptember 2012 |titleCyanide and amygdalin as indicators of the presence of bitter almonds in imported raw almonds |urlhttps://zenodo.org/record/1230689 |url-statusdead |journalJournal of Forensic Sciences |volume57 |issue5 |pages1313–7 |doi10.1111/j.1556-4029.2012.02138.x |pmid22564183 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200725075712/https://zenodo.org/record/1230689 |archive-date2020-07-25 |s2cid20002210}}</ref> Australia Australia is the largest almond production region in the Southern Hemisphere. Most of the almond orchards are located along the Murray River corridor in New South Wales, Victoria, and South Australia.<ref>{{cite web |titleWhere are Australian Almonds grown? |urlhttp://australianalmonds.com.au/enjoy/australian_almonds/where-are-australian-almonds-grown |websiteAlmond Board of Australia |access-date22 December 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222115633/http://australianalmonds.com.au/enjoy/australian_almonds/where-are-australian-almonds-grown |archive-date22 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.theland.com.au/story/3580611/agri-comeback-kids-of-2014/ |titleAgri-comeback kids of 2014 |firstChris |lastGibson |newspaperSydney Morning Herald |date5 February 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151222205829/http://www.theland.com.au/story/3580611/agri-comeback-kids-of-2014/ |archive-date22 December 2015 |access-date22 December 2015 }}</ref>
Spain
Spain has diverse commercial cultivars of almonds grown in Catalonia, Valencia, Murcia, Andalusia, and Aragón regions, and the Balearic Islands.<ref name"gain">{{cite web |urlhttps://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Tree%20Nuts%20Annual_Madrid_EU-28_9-8-2016.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Tree%20Nuts%20Annual_Madrid_EU-28_9-8-2016.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleTree nuts annual; Almonds, shelled basis; Report number SP1619 |publisherGAIN Report, US Department of Agriculture |date15 September 2016 |access-date18 January 2018}}</ref> Production in 2016 declined 2% nationally compared to 2015 production data.<ref namegain/>
The almond cultivar 'Marcona' is recognisably different from other almonds and is marketed by name.<ref nameGradziel>{{cite book |authorGradziel, T.M. |year2011 |titleHorticultural Reviews |volume38 |chapterOrigin and Dissemination of Almonds |publisherWiley-Blackwell |editorJ. Janick |doi10.1002/9780470872376.ch2 |chapter-urlhttps://eurekamag.com/research/038/900/038900919.php |page55 |access-date10 April 2018|isbn9780470872376 }}</ref> The kernel is short, round, relatively sweet, and delicate in texture. Its origin is unknown and has been grown in Spain for a long time; the tree is very productive, and the shell of the nut is hard.<ref nameGradziel/>
Toxicity
Bitter almonds contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds.<ref name"isrn" /> Extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses, effects are severe or lethal, especially in children; the cyanide must be removed before consumption.<ref name"isrn" /> The acute oral lethal dose of cyanide for adult humans is reported to be {{cvt|0.5|–|3.5|mg/kg|mg/lb|1}} of body weight (approximately 50 bitter almonds), so that for children consuming 5–10 bitter almonds may be fatal.<ref name"isrn" /> Symptoms of eating such almonds include vertigo and other typical cyanide poisoning effects.<ref name":1" />
Almonds may cause allergy or intolerance. Cross-reactivity is common with peach allergens (lipid transfer proteins) and tree nut allergens. Symptoms range from local signs and symptoms (e.g., oral allergy syndrome, contact urticaria) to systemic signs and symptoms including anaphylaxis (e.g., urticaria, angioedema, gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.food-info.net/uk/intol/almond.htm |titleAlmond allergy |publisherFood-info.net |date26 July 2001 |access-date=17 March 2012}}</ref>
Almonds are susceptible to aflatoxin-producing moulds.<ref>{{cite web |year2009 |titleThe high cost of aflatoxins |urlhttp://www.almondboard.com/Handlers/Documents/The-High-Cost-of-Aflatoxins.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130607090652/http://www.almondboard.com/Handlers/Documents/The-High-Cost-of-Aflatoxins.pdf |archive-date7 June 2013 |access-date23 August 2012 |publisherAlmond Board of California}}</ref> Aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by moulds such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus.<ref name"Rushing">{{cite journal |last1Rushing |first1Blake R. |last2Selim |first2Mustafa I. |year2019 |titleAflatoxin B1: A review on metabolism, toxicity, occurrence in food, occupational exposure, and detoxification methods |journalFood and Chemical Toxicology |volume124 |pages81–100 |doi10.1016/j.fct.2018.11.047 |issn0278-6915 |pmid30468841 |s2cid53720187}}</ref> The mould contamination may occur from soil, previously infested almonds, and almond pests such as navel-orange worm. High levels of mould growth typically appear as grey to black filament-like growth. It is unsafe to eat mould-infected tree nuts.
Some countries have strict limits on allowable levels of aflatoxin contamination of almonds and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens. The European Union, for example, introduced a requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to the EU be tested for aflatoxin. If aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations, the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed.<ref>{{cite web |year2010 |titleAflatoxins in food |urlhttp://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/aflatoxins-food |publisherEuropean Food Safety Authority}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year2010 |titleNew EU Aflatoxin Levels and Sampling Plan |urlhttp://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/New%20EU%20Aflatoxin%20Levels%20and%20Sampling%20Plan_Brussels%20USEU_EU-27_3-9-2010.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111125111951/http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/New%20EU%20Aflatoxin%20Levels%20and%20Sampling%20Plan_Brussels%20USEU_EU-27_3-9-2010.pdf |archive-date25 November 2011 |access-date23 August 2012 |publisherUSDA Foreign Agricultural Service}}</ref>
Breeding programs have found the {{visible anchor|high shell-seal}} trait.<ref name"Robens-et-al-2000" /> High shell-seal provides resistance against these Aspergillus species and so against the development of their toxins.<ref name"Robens-et-al-2000" />
Mandatory pasteurisation in California
After tracing cases of salmonellosis to almonds, the USDA approved a proposal by the Almond Board of California to pasteurise almonds sold to the public. After publishing the rule in March 2007, the almond pasteurisation program became mandatory for California companies effective 1 September 2007.<ref>{{cite press release | title The Food Safety Program & Almond Pasteurization | publisher Almond Board of California | date 17 September 2010 | url http://www.almondboard.com/Handlers/FoodQualitySafety/Pasteurization/Pages/Default.aspx | access-date 17 September 2010 | url-status dead | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20100125013631/http://www.almondboard.com/Handlers/FoodQualitySafety/Pasteurization/Pages/Default.aspx | archive-date 25 January 2010}}</ref> Raw, untreated California almonds have not been available in the U.S. since then.
California almonds labeled "raw" must be steam-pasteurised or chemically treated with propylene oxide (PPO). This does not apply to imported almonds<ref>Agricultural Marketing Service (8 November 2006) "Almonds Grown in California: Changes to Incoming Quality Control Requirements" ({{Federal Register |71 |65373}}, {{Federal Register |71 |65374}}, {{Federal Register |71 |65375}} and {{Federal Register |71 |65376}})</ref> or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities.<ref>{{cite news |firstGarance |last Burke |titleAlmond pasteurization rubs some feelings raw |url http://www.insidebayarea.com/business/ci_6260038 |agencyAssociated Press |date 29 June 2007 |access-date8 November 2014 |url-status live |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141223060711/http://www.insidebayarea.com/business/ci_6260038 |archive-date 23 December 2014}}</ref> The treatment also is not required for raw almonds sold for export outside of North America.
The Almond Board of California states: "PPO residue dissipates after treatment". The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has reported: "Propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products; consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure". PPO is classified as Group 2B ("possibly carcinogenic to humans").<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwlpEAgAAQBAJ&pgPA36 |titleImproving the Safety and Quality of Nuts |editorHarris LJ |year2013 |publisherElsevier, Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition |isbn978-0-85709-748-4 |pages=36–37}}</ref>
The USDA-approved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organised by the Cornucopia Institute, a Wisconsin-based farm policy research group which filed a lawsuit in September 2008. According to the institute, this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on small-scale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets. A federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in early 2009 on procedural grounds. In August 2010, a federal appeals court ruled that the farmers have a right to appeal the USDA regulation. In March 2013, the court vacated the suit on the basis that the objections should have been raised in 2007 when the regulation was first proposed.<ref>{{Cite web
|title = The Authentic Almond Project
|publisher = The Cornucopia Institute.
|url = http://www.cornucopia.org/almonds/
|url-status = live
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100108124858/http://www.cornucopia.org/almonds/
|archive-date = 8 January 2010
}}</ref>
Uses
Nutrition
{{Nutritional value
| name = Almonds
| image = Mandorle sgusciate.jpg
| kJ = 2423
| carbs = 21.6 g
| starch = 0.7 g
| sugars = 4.4 g
| lactose = 0.00 g
| fibre = 12.5 g
| fat = 49.9 g
| satfat = 3.8 g
| monofat = 31.6 g
| polyfat = 12.3 g
| protein = 21.2 g
| water = 4.4 g
| vitA_iu = 1
| betacarotene_ug = 1
| lutein_ug = 1
| thiamin_mg = 0.211
| riboflavin_mg = 1.014
| niacin_mg = 3.385
| pantothenic_mg = 0.469
| vitB6_mg = 0.143
| folate_ug = 50
| choline_mg = 52.1
| vitC_mg = 0
| vitD_ug = 0
| vitE_mg = 25.6
| vitK_ug = 0.0
| calcium_mg = 264
| iron_mg = 3.72
| magnesium_mg = 268
| manganese_mg = 2.285
| phosphorus_mg = 484
| potassium_mg = 705
| sodium_mg = 1
| zinc_mg = 3.08
| copper_mg = 0.99
| selenium_ug = 2.5
<!-- amino acids -->| tryptophan = 0.214 g
| threonine = 0.598 g
| isoleucine = 0.702 g
| leucine = 1.488 g
| lysine = 0.580 g
| methionine = 0.151 g
| cystine = 0.189 g
| phenylalanine = 1.120 g
| tyrosine = 0.452 g
| valine = 0.817 g
| arginine = 2.446 g
| histidine = 0.557 g
| alanine = 1.027 g
| aspartic acid = 2.911 g
| glutamic acid = 6.810 g
| glycine = 1.469 g
| proline = 1.032 g
| serine = 0.948 g
| source_usda = 1
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170567/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
, 1900, which shows a woman eating almond biscuits (almond cookies)]]
Almonds are 4% water, 22% carbohydrates, 21% protein, and 50% fat. In a {{convert|100|g|oz|adjon|abbroff|frac2}} reference amount, almonds supply {{convert|579|kcal|kJ|orderflip|abbroff}} of food energy. The almond is a nutritionally dense food, providing a rich source (20% or more of the Daily Value, DV) of the B vitamins riboflavin and niacin, vitamin E, and the essential minerals calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and zinc. Almonds are a moderate source (10–19% DV) of the B vitamins thiamine, vitamin B<sub>6</sub>, and folate, choline, and the essential mineral potassium. They also contain substantial dietary fibre, the monounsaturated fat, oleic acid, and the polyunsaturated fat, linoleic acid. Typical of nuts and seeds, almonds are a source of phytosterols such as beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, campesterol, sitostanol, and campestanol.<ref name"Berryman2011">{{cite journal |vauthorsBerryman CE, Preston AG, Karmally W, Deckelbaum RJ, Kris-Etherton PM |titleEffects of almond consumption on the reduction of LDL-cholesterol: a discussion of potential mechanisms and future research directions |journalNutrition Reviews |volume69 |issue4 |pages171–85 |dateApril 2011 |pmid21457263 |doi10.1111/j.1753-4887.2011.00383.x|doi-accessfree }}</ref>
Health
Almonds are included as a good source of protein among recommended healthy foods by the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA).<ref name"cmp">{{cite web |titleProtein foods: nutrients and health benefits |urlhttps://www.choosemyplate.gov/protein-foods-nutrients-health |publisherChooseMyPlate.gov, USDA |access-date16 April 2019 |date4 October 2018 |archive-date16 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190416211522/https://www.choosemyplate.gov/protein-foods-nutrients-health |url-statusdead }}</ref> A 2016 review of clinical research indicated that regular consumption of almonds may reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering blood levels of LDL cholesterol.<ref name"Musa">{{cite journal | last1Musa-Veloso | first1Kathy | last2Paulionis | first2Lina | last3Poon | first3Theresa | last4Lee | first4Han Youl | titleThe effects of almond consumption on fasting blood lipid levels: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised controlled trials | journalJournal of Nutritional Science | volume5 | date16 August 2016 | issn2048-6790 | pmid27752301 | pmc5048189 | doi10.1017/jns.2016.19 | pagee34}}</ref><ref name"thchan">{{cite web |titleAlmonds |urlhttps://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/food-features/almonds/ |publisherTH Chan School of Public Health, Harvard University |access-date16 April 2019 |date2019}}</ref> Culinary
{{Cookbook}}{{Main|List of almond dishes}}
While the almond is often eaten on its own, raw or toasted, it is also a component of various dishes. Almonds are available in many forms, such as whole, slivered, and ground into flour. Almond pieces around {{Convert|2–3|mm|frac16}} in size, called "nibs", are used for special purposes such as decoration.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMdwm7jI9J10C&pgPT45|titleDictionary of Food: International Food and Cooking Terms from A to Z|lastSinclair|firstCharles|date1 January 2009|publisherA&C Black|isbn9781408102183|pages45|languageen}}</ref>
Almonds are a common addition to breakfast muesli or oatmeal. Colomba di Pasqua is the Easter counterpart of the two well-known Italian Christmas desserts, panettone and pandoro
<gallery>
File:Guinda-Almendras-Nata.JPG|Almond cream cake covered in slivered almonds
File:Colomba.jpg|Colomba di Pasqua, traditional Italian Easter bread
File:Flickr - cyclonebill - Gåsebryst.jpg|Danish cream cake covered with marzipan
</gallery>
Desserts
A wide range of classic sweets feature almonds as a central ingredient. Marzipan was developed in the Middle Ages. Since the 19th century almonds have been used to make bread, almond butter, cakes and puddings, candied confections, almond cream-filled pastries, nougat, cookies (macaroons, biscotti and qurabiya), and cakes (financiers, Esterházy torte), and other sweets and desserts.<ref>{{cite book |lastDolby |firstRichard |titleThe Cook's Dictionary: A New Family Manual of Cookery and Confectionery |date1830}}</ref>
The young, developing fruit of the almond tree can be eaten whole (green almonds) when they are still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not yet hardened. The fruit is somewhat sour, but is a popular snack in parts of the Middle East, eaten dipped in salt to balance the sour taste. Also in the Middle East they are often eaten with dates. They are available only from mid-April to mid-June in the Northern Hemisphere; pickling or brining extends the fruit's shelf life.
Marzipan
{{main|Marzipan}}
Marzipan, a smooth, sweetened almond paste, is used in a number of elegant cakes and desserts. Princess cake is covered by marzipan (similar to fondant), as is Battenberg cake. In Sicily, sponge cake is covered with marzipan to make cassatella di sant'Agata and cassata siciliana, and marzipan is dyed and crafted into realistic fruit shapes to make frutta martorana. The Andalusian Christmas pastry pan de Cádiz is filled with marzipan and candied fruit.
World cuisines
*In French cuisine, alternating layers of almond and hazelnut meringue are used to make the dessert dacquoise. Pithivier is one of many almond cream-filled pastries.
*In Germany, Easter bread called Deutsches Osterbrot is baked with raisins and almonds.
*In Greece almond flour is used to make amygdalopita, a glyka tapsiou dessert cake baking in a tray. Almonds are used for kourabiedes, a Greek version of the traditional quarabiya almond biscuits. A soft drink known as soumada is made from almonds in various regions.
*In Saudi Arabia, almonds are a typical embellishment for the rice dish kabsa.<ref>{{cite book |lastEl Masri |firstArwa |titleTea with Arwa: A Memoir of Family, Faith and Finding a Home in Australia |date27 September 2011 |publisherHachette Australia |isbn9780733628528 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6Gg0AgAAQBAJ&pgPT22}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastSalloum |firstHabeeb |titleThe Arabian Nights Cookbook: From Lamb Kebabs to Baba Ghanouj, Delicious Homestyle Arabian Cooking |date28 February 2012 |publisherTuttle Publishing |isbn9781462905249 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idv5TTAgAAQBAJ&dqKabsa+rice+almonds&pg=PA74}}</ref>
*In Iran, green almonds are dipped in sea salt and eaten as snacks on street markets; they are called chaqale bâdam. Candied almonds called noghl are served alongside tea and coffee. Also, sweet almonds are used to prepare special food for babies, named harire badam. Almonds are added to some foods, cookies, and desserts, or are used to decorate foods. People in Iran consume roasted nuts for special events, for example, during New Year (Nowruz) parties.
*In Italy, colomba di Pasqua is a traditional Easter cake made with almonds. Bitter almonds are the base for amaretti cookies, a common dessert. Almonds are also a common choice as the nuts to include in torrone.
*In Morocco, almonds in the form of sweet almond paste are the main ingredient in pastry fillings, and several other desserts. Fried blanched whole almonds are also used to decorate sweet tajines such as lamb with prunes. Southwestern Berber regions of Essaouira and Souss are also known for amlou, a spread made of almond paste, argan oil, and honey. Almond paste is also mixed with toasted flour and among others, honey, olive oil or butter, anise, fennel, sesame seeds, and cinnamon to make sellou (also called zamita in Meknes or slilou in Marrakech), a sweet snack known for its long shelf life and high nutritive value.
*In Indian cuisine, almonds are the base ingredients of pasanda-style and Mughlai curries. Badam halva is a sweet made from almonds with added colouring. Almond flakes are added to many sweets (such as sohan barfi), and are usually visible sticking to the outer surface. Almonds form the base of various drinks which are supposed to have cooling properties. Almond sherbet or sherbet-e-badaam, is a common summer drink. Almonds are also sold as a snack with added salt.
*In Israel almonds are used as a topping for tahini cookies or eaten as a snack.
*In Spain Marcona almonds are usually toasted in oil and lightly salted. They are used by Spanish confectioners to prepare a sweet called turrón.
*In Arabian cuisine, almonds are commonly used as garnishing for Mansaf.
*In British cuisine, almonds are used for dessert items such as Bakewell tart and Battenberg cake.
Milk
{{main|Almond milk}}
Almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk; the nut's soft texture, mild flavour, and light colouring (when skinned) make for an efficient analog to dairy, and a soy-free choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans. Raw, blanched, and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques, some of which are similar to that of soy milk and some of which use no heat, resulting in raw milk.
Almond milk, along with almond butter and almond oil, are versatile products used in both sweet and savoury dishes.
In Moroccan cuisine, sharbat billooz, a common beverage, is made by blending blanched almonds with milk, sugar and other flavourings.<ref>{{cite book |titleDictionary of Food: International Food and Cooking Terms from A to Z |isbn 9781408102183|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idMdwm7jI9J10C&qsharbat+billooz&pgPT1211|last1 Sinclair|first1 Charles|date January 2009| publisherA&C Black }}</ref>
Flour and skins
Almond flour or ground almond meal combined with sugar or honey as marzipan is often used as a gluten-free alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking.<ref>{{cite book |lastAmsterdam |firstElana |titleThe Gluten-Free Almond Flour Cookbook: Breakfasts, Entrees, and More |publisherRandom House of Canada |year2009 |isbn978-1-58761-345-6}}</ref>
Almonds contain polyphenols in their skins consisting of flavonols, flavan-3-ols, hydroxybenzoic acids and flavanones<ref name"skins">{{cite journal |doi10.1016/j.jfca.2009.08.015 |titleCharacterization of polyphenols, lipids and dietary fibre from almond skins (Amygdalus communis L.)|year2010 |last1Mandalari |first1G. |last2Tomaino |first2A. |last3Arcoraci |first3T. |last4Martorana |first4M. |last5Turco |first5V. Lo |last6Cacciola |first6F. |last7Rich |first7G.T. |last8Bisignano |first8C. |last9Saija |first9A. |last10Dugo |first10P. |last11Cross |first11K.L. |last12Parker |first12M.L. |last13Waldron |first13K.W. |last14Wickham |first14M.S.J. |journalJournal of Food Composition and Analysis |volume23 |issue2 |pages166–174}}</ref> analogous to those of certain fruits and vegetables. These phenolic compounds and almond skin prebiotic dietary fibre have commercial interest as food additives or dietary supplements.<ref nameskins/><ref>{{cite journal |titlePrebiotic effects of almonds and almond skins on intestinal microbiota in healthy adult humans |vauthorsLiu Z, Lin X, Huang G, Zhang W, Rao P, Ni L |journalAnaerobe |year2014 |issue4 |volume26 |pages1–6 |doi10.1016/j.anaerobe.2013.11.007 |pmid24315808}}</ref>
Syrup
Historically, almond syrup was an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds, usually made with barley syrup (orgeat syrup) or in a syrup of orange flower water and sugar, often flavoured with a synthetic aroma of almonds.<ref name"isrn"/> Orgeat syrup is an important ingredient in the Mai Tai and many other Tiki drinks.<ref>{{cite web |titleIn honor of orgeat |urlhttps://www.alcoholprofessor.com/blog-posts/blog/2017/10/18/in-honor-of-orgeat |websitealcoholprofessor.com |date18 October 2017 |access-date11 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleUpgrade your orgeat |urlhttps://nationalpost.com/life/food/cocktails-upgrade-your-orgeat-and-youll-find-not-all-tiki-drinks-%EF%AC%81t-under-the-same-umbrella |websitenationalpost.com |access-date25 August 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleTiki cocktail history basics |urlhttps://drinks.seriouseats.com/2014/03/tiki-cocktail-history-basics-of-tiki-drinks-essential-ingredients.html |websitedrinks.seriouseats.com |access-date11 March 2019}}</ref>
Due to the cyanide found in bitter almonds, modern syrups generally are produced only from sweet almonds. Such syrup products do not contain significant levels of hydrocyanic acid, so are generally considered safe for human consumption.<ref name"isrn"/> Oils
{{Nutritional value|
| name = Oil, almond
| serving_size = 100 g
| kJ = 3699
| fat = 100 g
| satfat = 8.2 g
| monofat = 69.9 g
| polyfat = 17.4 g
| omega6fat = 17.4 g
| omega3fat = 0
| vitE_mg = 39.2
| vitK_ug = 7.0
| iron_mg = 0
| note = [https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/171031/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
Almonds are a rich source of oil, with 50% of kernel dry mass as fat (whole almond nutrition table). In relation to total dry mass of the kernel, almond oil contains 32% monounsaturated oleic acid (an omega-9 fatty acid), 13% linoleic acid (a polyunsaturated omega-6 essential fatty acid), and 10% saturated fatty acid (mainly as palmitic acid).<!-- See USDA link in nutrition box. --> Linolenic acid, a polyunsaturated omega-3 fat, is not present (table). Almond oil is a rich source of vitamin E, providing 261% of the Daily Value per 100 millilitres.
When almond oil is analyzed separately and expressed per 100 grams as a reference mass, the oil provides {{convert|884|kcal|kJ|orderflip|abbron}} of food energy, 8 grams of saturated fat (81% of which is palmitic acid), 70 grams of oleic acid, and 17 grams of linoleic acid (oil table).
Oleum amygdalae, the fixed oil, is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds, and is a glyceryl oleate with a slight odour and a nutty taste. It is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether. Almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of almonds.<ref>{{cite journal |titleOil content and fatty acid composition of developing almond seeds |vauthorsSoler L, Canellas J, Saura-Calixto F |journalJ Agric Food Chem |year1988 |volume36 |issue4 |pages695–697 |doi10.1021/jf00082a007 |hdl10261/90477 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref> Sweet almond oil is used as a carrier oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics while bitter almond oil, containing benzaldehyde, is used as a food flavouring and in perfume.<ref name="van Wyk 2019" />
{{clear left}}
In culture
The almond is highly revered in some cultures. The tree originated in the Middle East. In the Bible, the almond is mentioned ten times, beginning with Genesis 43:11, where it is described as "among the best of fruits". In Numbers 17, Levi is chosen from the other tribes of Israel by Aaron's rod, which brought forth almond flowers. The almond blossom supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Holy Temple, "Three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on one branch, with a knob and a flower; and three cups, shaped like almond blossoms, were on the other … on the candlestick itself were four cups, shaped like almond blossoms, with its knobs and flowers" (Exodus 25:33–34; 37:19–20). Many Sephardic Jews give five almonds to each guest before special occasions like weddings.<ref>{{Cite web|date13 July 2017|titleJewish Sephardi Wedding Recipes and Traditions|urlhttps://www.myjewishlearning.com/2017/07/13/jewish-sephardi-wedding-recipes-and-traditions/|access-date2021-03-06|websiteMy Jewish Learning|languageen-US}}</ref>
Similarly, Christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the virgin birth of Jesus; paintings and icons often include almond-shaped haloes encircling the Christ Child and as a symbol of Mary. The word "luz", which appears in Genesis 30:37, sometimes translated as "hazel", may actually be derived from the Aramaic name for almond (Luz), and is translated as such in the New International Version and other versions of the Bible.<ref>{{cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idg8YSB2K9d1oC&pgPA37 |titleThe meaning of trees: botany, history, healing, lore|authorFred Hageneder |page37|isbn978-0-8118-4898-5|publisherChronicle Books|date=September 2005 }}</ref> The Arabic name for almond is لوز "lauz" or "lūz". In some parts of the Levant and North Africa, it is pronounced "loz", which is very close to its Aramaic origin.
The Entrance of the flower (La entrada de la flor) is an event celebrated on 1 February in Torrent, Spain, in which the clavarios and members of the Confrerie of the Mother of God deliver a branch of the first-blooming almond-tree to the Virgin.<ref>{{cite web |last1Sena |first1Laura |titleFuego y flor de almendro en l'Entrà de Torrent |urlhttp://www.levante-emv.com/horta/2016/02/02/fuego-flor-almendro-lentra-torrent/1373887.html |date2 February 2016 |websitelevante-emv.com |publisherLevante |access-date11 May 2017 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170525161925/http://www.levante-emv.com/horta/2016/02/02/fuego-flor-almendro-lentra-torrent/1373887.html |archive-date25 May 2017}}</ref> See also
* Fruit tree forms
* Fruit tree propagation
* Fruit tree pruning
* List of almond dishes
* List of edible seeds
* Candied almonds
* Dragée – a candy.
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Commons}}
{{Cookbook|Almond}}
* {{Wikispecies inline|Prunus amygdalus|Prunus amygdalus}}
* {{PFAF|Prunus dulcis}}
* [http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/datastore/?ds391&reportnumber612&catcol2806&categorysearchAlmond University of California Fruit and Nut Research and Information Center] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121206105214/http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/datastore/?ds391&reportnumber612&catcol2806&categorysearchAlmond |date6 December 2012 }}
{{Nuts}}
{{fatsandoils}}
{{Taxonbar|fromQ39918|from2Q15545507}}
{{Authority control}}
Almond
Category:Edible nuts and seeds
Category:Flora of temperate Asia
Category:Pollination management
Category:Snack foods
Almond oil
Category:Crops
Category:Fruit trees
Category:Symbols of California
Category:Taxa named by August Batsch
Category:Drought-tolerant trees | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almond | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.250793 |
1069 | Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda | {{Short description|none}}
<!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see WP:SDNONE -->
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2018}}
in 2020. ]]
{{Historical populations
|type |footnote Source:<ref name"2001 census">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.caricomstats.org/Files/Publications/NCR%20Reports/Antigua.pdf|title2000 ROUND OF POPULATION AND HOUSING CENSUS DATA ANALYSIS SUB-PROJECT|websiteCaricomstats.org|access-date30 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160817123708/http://www.caricomstats.org/Files/Publications/NCR%20Reports/Antigua.pdf|archive-date17 August 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|title = Census population and average annual growth rate
|percentages = pagr
|1871 | 35157
|1881 | 34964
|1891 | 36819
|1911 | 32269
|1921 | 29767
|1946 | 41757
|1960 | 54060
|1970 | 64794
|1991 | 60840
|2001 | 76886
|2011 | 86295
}}
This article is a demography of the population of Antigua and Barbuda including population density, ethnicity, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.
Population size and structure
, year 2005; Number of inhabitants in thousands.]]
According to the 2011 census the estimated resident population of Antigua and Barbuda was 86,295.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ab.gov.ag/article_details.php?id2560&category114 |titleOfficial Website for the Government of Antigua and Barbuda |access-date2014-11-25 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131230232635/http://www.ab.gov.ag/article_details.php?id2560&category114 |archive-date2013-12-30 }}</ref>
The estimated population of {{UN_Population|Year}} is {{UN_Population|Antigua and Barbuda}}, according to the {{UN_Population|source}}
Structure of the population
Table: Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 27.V.2011): <ref name"auto">{{Cite web| title UNSD — Demographic and Social Statistics | url https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/products/dyb/#statistics | access-date 2023-05-10 | website = unstats.un.org }}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 40 986
| align="right" | 44 581
| align="right" | 85 567
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 3 361
| align="right" | 3 262
| align="right" | 6 623
| align="right" | 7.74
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 3 272
| align="right" | 3 188
| align="right" | 6 460
| align="right" | 7.55
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 3 690
| align="right" | 3 638
| align="right" | 7 329
| align="right" | 8.57
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 3 554
| align="right" | 3 519
| align="right" | 7 073
| align="right" | 8.27
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 3 206
| align="right" | 3 418
| align="right" | 6 624
| align="right" | 7.74
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 3 135
| align="right" | 3 512
| align="right" | 6 647
| align="right" | 7.77
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 3 101
| align="right" | 3 516
| align="right" | 6 617
| align="right" | 7.73
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 3 049
| align="right" | 3 699
| align="right" | 6 748
| align="right" | 7.89
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 3 124
| align="right" | 3 588
| align="right" | 6 712
| align="right" | 7.84
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 2 893
| align="right" | 3 348
| align="right" | 6 241
| align="right" | 7.29
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 2 416
| align="right" | 2 694
| align="right" | 5 110
| align="right" | 5.97
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 1 763
| align="right" | 1 957
| align="right" | 3 721
| align="right" | 4.35
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 1 398
| align="right" | 1 569
| align="right" | 2 968
| align="right" | 3.47
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 1 066
| align="right" | 1 172
| align="right" | 2 238
| align="right" | 2.62
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 690
| align="right" | 810
| align="right" | 1 500
| align="right" | 1.75
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 527
| align="right" | 654
| align="right" | 1 181
| align="right" | 1.38
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 331
| align="right" | 520
| align="right" | 850
| align="right" | 0.99
|-
| align="right" | 85–89
| align="right" | 214
| align="right" | 298
| align="right" | 512
| align="right" | 0.60
|-
| align="right" | 90–94
| align="right" | 72
| align="right" | 122
| align="right" | 193
| align="right" | 0.23
|-
| align="right" | 95+
| align="right" | 27
| align="right" | 57
| align="right" | 84
| align="right" | 0.10
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 10 323
| align="right" | 10 088
| align="right" | 20 411
| align="right" | 23.85
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 27 640
| align="right" | 30 820
| align="right" | 58 460
| align="right" | 68.32
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 2 927
| align="right" | 3 633
| align="right" | 6 560
| align="right" | 7.67
|-
| align="right" | unknown
| align="right" | 96
| align="right" | 40
| align="right" | 136
| align="right" | 0.16
|-
|}
Table: Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2021, based on the results of the 2011 Population Census.<ref name="auto"/>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 47 556
| align="right" | 51 781
| align="right" | 99 337
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 3 534
| align="right" | 3 464
| align="right" | 6 998
| align="right" | 7.04
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 3 546
| align="right" | 3 483
| align="right" | 7 029
| align="right" | 7.08
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 3 620
| align="right" | 3 511
| align="right" | 7 131
| align="right" | 7.18
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 3 473
| align="right" | 3 387
| align="right" | 6 860
| align="right" | 6.91
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 3 961
| align="right" | 3 944
| align="right" | 7 905
| align="right" | 7.96
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 3 892
| align="right" | 3 930
| align="right" | 7 822
| align="right" | 7.87
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 3 511
| align="right" | 3 795
| align="right" | 7 306
| align="right" | 7.35
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 3 348
| align="right" | 3 815
| align="right" | 7 163
| align="right" | 7.21
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 3 280
| align="right" | 3 749
| align="right" | 7 029
| align="right" | 7.08
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 3 174
| align="right" | 3 850
| align="right" | 7 024
| align="right" | 7.07
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 3 152
| align="right" | 3 662
| align="right" | 6 814
| align="right" | 6.86
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 2 819
| align="right" | 3 345
| align="right" | 6 164
| align="right" | 6.21
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 2 247
| align="right" | 2 627
| align="right" | 4 874
| align="right" | 4.91
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 1 532
| align="right" | 1 834
| align="right" | 3 366
| align="right" | 3.39
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 1 095
| align="right" | 1 379
| align="right" | 2 474
| align="right" | 2.49
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 698
| align="right" | 920
| align="right" | 1 618
| align="right" | 1.63
|-
| align="right" | 80+
| align="right" | 674
| align="right" | 1 086
| align="right" | 1 760
| align="right" | 1.77
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 10 700
| align="right" | 10 458
| align="right" | 21 158
| align="right" | 21.30
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 32 857
| align="right" | 36 104
| align="right" | 68 961
| align="right" | 69.42
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 3 999
| align="right" | 5 219
| align="right" | 9 218
| align="right" | 9.28
|-
|}
Vital statistics
<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2.htm#2001|titleUnited Nations Demographic Yearbooks|websiteUnstats.un.org|access-date30 August 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.caricomstats.org/Files/Databases/Demography/AG.pdf|titleDEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE: ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA|websiteCaricomstats.org|access-date30 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161017170702/http://www.caricomstats.org/Files/Databases/Demography/AG.pdf|archive-date17 October 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right;"
|-
!
! width="70pt"|Average population
! width="70pt"|Live births
! width="70pt"|Deaths
! width="70pt"|Natural change
! width="70pt"|Crude birth rate (per 1000)
! width="70pt"|Crude death rate (per 1000)
! width="70pt"|Natural change (per 1000)
! width"70pt"|Infant mortality rate<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://caricomstats.org/Files/Databases/Demography/AG.pdf|titleDEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE: ANTIGUA AND BARBUDA|websiteCaricomstats.org|access-date30 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161017170702/http://www.caricomstats.org/Files/Databases/Demography/AG.pdf|archive-date17 October 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref>
! width="70pt"|TFR
|-
| 1950
| ~46 000
|1 654|| 535||1 119
|35.7||11.6||24.2
|-
| 1951
| ~48 000
|1 676|| 605||1 071
|34.7||style="color: red"|12.5||22.2
|-
| 1952
| ~50 000
|1 612|| 526||1 086
|32.3||10.5||21.8
|-
| 1953
| ~51 000
|1 687|| 599||1 088
|33.0||11.7||21.3
|-
| 1954
| ~52 000
|1 660|| 532||1 128
|31.9||10.2||21.7
|-
| 1955
| ~53 000
|1 880|| 516||1 364
|35.7||9.8||25.9
|-
| 1956
| ~53 000
|1 917|| 497||style="color: blue"|1 420
|style"color: blue"|36.1||9.4||style"color: blue"|26.8
|-
| 1957
| ~53 000
|1 764|| 512||1 252
|33.0||9.6||23.4
|-
| 1958
| ~54 000
|1 818|| 551||1 267
|33.8||10.3||23.6
|-
| 1959
| ~54 000
|1 831|| 517||1 314
|33.8||9.5||24.3
|-
| 1960
| ~55 000
|1 878|| 538||1 340
|34.3||9.8||24.5
|-
| 1961
| ~55 000
|1 768|| 503||1 265
|31.9||9.1||22.8
|-
| 1962
| ~56 000
|1 787|| 405||1 382
|31.7||7.2||24.5
|-
| 1963
| ~57 000
|1 833|| 574||1 259
|32.0||10.0||21.9
|-
| 1964
| ~59 000
|1 886|| 500||1 386
|32.2||8.5||23.7
|-
| 1965
| ~60 000
|1 742|| 484||1 258
|29.2||8.1||21.1
|-
| 1966
| ~61 000
|1 745|| 492||1 253
|28.7||8.1||20.6
|-
| 1967
| ~62 000
|1 794|| 440||1 354
|28.9||7.1||21.8
|-
| 1968
| ~63 000
|1 811|| 513||1 298
|28.7||8.1||20.5
|-
| 1969
| ~64 000
|1 527|| 410||1 117
|23.7||6.4||17.4
|-
| 1970
| ~65 000
|1 540|| 411||1 129
|23.6||6.3||17.3
|-
| 1971
| ~66 000
|1 700|| 414||1 286
|25.6||6.2||19.4
|-
| 1972
| ~67 000
|1 573|| 455||1 118
|23.4||6.8||16.6
|-
| 1973
| ~68 000
|1 257|| 377|| 880
|18.5||5.5||12.9
|-
| 1974
| ~69 000
|1 274|| 496|| 778
|18.6||7.2||11.3
|-
| 1975
| ~69 000
|1 336|| 463|| 873
|19.3||6.7||12.6
|-
| 1976
| ~70 000
|1 522|| 491||1 031
|21.8||7.0||14.8
|-
| 1977
| ~70 000
|1 429|| 489|| 940
|20.3||7.0||13.4
|-
| 1978
| ~71 000
|1 342|| 402|| 940
|19.0||5.7||13.3
|-
| 1979
| ~71 000
|1 397|| 469|| 928
|19.8||6.6||13.2
|-
| 1980
| ~70 000
|1 238|| 387|| 851
|17.6||5.5||12.1
|-
| 1981
| ~70 000
|1 177|| style="color: blue"|377|| 800
|16.9||5.4||11.5
|-
| 1982
| ~69 000
|1 152|| 394|| 758
|16.7||5.7||11.0
|-
| 1983
| ~68 000
|1 174|| 404|| 770
|17.3||5.9||11.3
|-
| 1984
| ~67 000
|1 126|| 386|| 740
|16.8||5.8||11.1
|-
| 1985
| ~66 000
|1 190|| 405|| 785
|18.1||6.2||11.9
|-
| 1986
| ~65 000
|1 130|| 383|| 747
|17.5||5.9||11.6
|-
| 1987
| ~63 000
|1 104|| 417|| 687
|17.4||6.6||10.8
|-
| 1988
| ~63 000
|1 107|| 389|| 718
|17.7||6.2||11.5
|-
| 1989
| ~62 000
|1 137|| 415|| 722
|18.3||6.7||11.7
|-
| 1990
| ~62 000
|1 288|| 433|| 855
|20.8||7.0||13.8
|-
| 1991
| 63 878
|1 178|| 438|| 740
|18.9||7.0||11.9
|-
| 1992
| 64 682
|1 256|| 442|| 814
|19.8||7.0||12.8
|-
| 1993
| 65 505
|1 228|| 455|| 773
|18.9||7.0||11.9
|-
| 1994
| 66 416
|1 271|| 451|| 820
|19.1||6.8||12.3
|-
| 1995
| 67 608
|1 347|| 434|| 913
|19.7||6.3||13.4
|-
| 1996
| 68 612
|1 400|| 429|| 971
|19.9||6.1||13.8
|-
| 1997
| 68 890
|1 448|| 468|| 980
|20.0||6.5||13.6
|-
| 1998
| 69 866
|1 366|| 456|| 910
|18.4||6.1||12.3
|-
| 1999
| 70 856
|1 329|| 509|| 820
|17.5||6.7||10.8
|-
| 2000
| 72 310
|1 528|| 447||1 081
|19.7||6.2||13.5
|-
| 2001
| 76 886
|1 350|| 462|| 888
|17.6||6.0||11.6
|17.8
|
|-
| 2002
| 77 665
|1 193|| 444|| 749
|15.4||5.7||9.7
|17.6
|
|-
| 2003
| 78 412
|1 227|| 454|| 773
|15.7||5.8||9.9
|14.7
|
|-
| 2004
| 79 196
|1 257|| 516|| 741
|15.9||6.5||9.4
|22.3
|
|-
| 2005
| 80 007
|1 190|| 497|| 693
|14.9||6.2||8.7
|13.5
|1.6
|-
| 2006
| 80 855
|1 195|| 465|| 730
|14.8||5.8||9.0
|8.4
|1.6
|-
| 2007
| 81 736
|1 282|| 471|| 811
|15.7||5.8||9.9
|17.9
|1.86
|-
| 2008
| 82 663
|1 438|| 538|| 900
|17.4||6.5||10.9
|17.4
|2.06
|-
| 2009
| 83 624
|1 404|| 515|| 889
|16.8||6.2||10.6
|14.3
|2.02
|-
| 2010
| 84 622
|1 245|| 498|| 747
|14.7||5.9||8.8
|12.9
|1.78
|-
| 2011
| 85 567
|1 232|| 475|| 757
|14.4||5.6||8.8
|20.3
|1.75
|-
| 2012
| 86 793
|1 174|| 507|| 667
|13.5||5.8||7.7
|16.2
|1.66
|-
| 2013
| 88 069
|1 093||463|| 630
|12.4||style="color: blue"|5.3||7.1
|11.0
|1.53
|-
| 2014
| 89 391
|1 100||590|| 510
|12.3||6.6||5.7
|11.8
|1.53
|-
| 2015
| 90 755
|1 159||527|| 632
|12.8||5.8||7.0
|8.6
|1.58
|-
| 2016
| 92 157
|1 063||542|| 521
|11.5||5.9||5.6
|12.2
|1.45
|-
| 2017
| 93 581
|1 108||599|| 509
|11.8||6.4||5.4
|9.0
|1.50
|-
| 2018
| 95 014
|style"color: red"|1 015|| 581|| style"color: red"|434
|style"color: red"|10.7||6.1||style"color: red"|4.6
|22.7
|style="color: red"|1.36
|-
| 2019
| 96 453
|1 088|| style="color: red"|618|| 470
|11.3||6.0||5.3
|12.0
|1.45
|-
| 2020
| 97 895
|1 163|| 574|| 589
|11.9||6.0||5.9
|6.0
|1.53
|-
| 2021
| 99 337
||| 649||
|||6.6||
|
|
|-
| 2022
| 100 772
||| ||
|||||
|
|
|}
Ethnic groups
The population of Antigua and Barbuda, is predominantly black (91.0%) or mixed (4.4%).<ref name="2001 census"/> 1.9% of the population is white and 0.7% East Indian. There is also a small Amerindian population: 177 in 1991 and 214 in 2001 (0.3% of the total population). The remaining 1.6% of the population includes people from the Middle East (0.6%) and China (0.2%).
The 2001 census disclosed that 19,425, or 30 per cent of the total population of Antigua and Barbuda, reported their place of birth as a foreign country.<ref name="2001 census"/> Over 15,000 of these persons were from other Caribbean states, representing 80 of the total foreign born. The main countries of
origin were Guyana, Dominica and Jamaica. Approximately 4,500 or 23 per cent of all foreign
born came from Guyana, 3,300 or 17 per cent came from Dominica and 2,800 or 14 per cent
came from Jamaica. The largest single group from a country outside the region came from the
United States. Of the total of 1,715 persons, nine per cent of the foreign born, came
from the United States while three per cent and one per cent came from the United Kingdom and Canada, respectively. Many of these are the children of Antiguans and Barbudans who had emigrated to these countries, mainly during the 1980s, and subsequently returned.
Languages
Antiguan and Barbudan Creole, English
Religion
Protestant 68.3% (Anglican 17.6%, Seventh Day Adventist 12.4%, Pentecostal 12.2%, Moravian 8.3%, Methodist 5.6%, Wesleyan Holiness 4.5%, Church of God 4.1%, Baptist 3.6%), Roman Catholic 8.2%, other 12.2%, unspecified 5.5%, none 5.9% (2011 est.)
References
{{Reflist}}
{{Antigua and Barbuda topics}}
{{Americas topic|Demographics of}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Demographics Of Antigua And Barbuda}}
Category:Society of Antigua and Barbuda | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.292982 |
1070 | Politics of Antigua and Barbuda | {{Short description|none}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2014}}
{{Politics of Antigua and Barbuda}}
The politics of Antigua and Barbuda takes place in a framework of a unitary parliamentary representative democratic monarchy, wherein the sovereign of Antigua and Barbuda is the head of state, appointing a governor-general to act as vice-regal representative in the nation. A prime minister is appointed by the governor-general as the head of government, and of a multi-party system; the prime minister advises the governor-general on the appointment of a Council of Ministers. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the Parliament. The bicameral Parliament consists of the Senate (seventeen-member body appointed by the governor-general) and the House of Representatives (seventeen seats; members are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms).
Antigua and Barbuda has a long history of free elections, three of which have resulted in peaceful changes of government. Since the 1951 general election, the party system has been dominated by the Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party (ABLP), for a long time was dominated by the Bird family, particularly Prime Ministers Vere and Lester Bird. The opposition claimed to be disadvantaged by the ABLP's longstanding monopoly on patronage and its control of the media, especially in the 1999 general election. The opposition United Progressive Party (UPP) won the 2004 election, and its leader Winston Baldwin Spencer was prime minister of Antigua and Barbuda from 2004 to 2014.<ref>{{cite web |titleCaribbean Elections Biography {{!}} Winston Baldwin Spencer |urlhttp://www.caribbeanelections.com/knowledge/biography/bios/spencer_baldwin.asp |website=www.caribbeanelections.com}}</ref>
The elections to the House of Representatives were held on 12 June 2014. The Antigua and Barbuda Labour Party government was elected with fourteen seats. The United Progressive Party had three seats in the House of Representatives.<ref>{{cite web |titleIFES Election Guide {{!}} Elections: Antigua and Barbuda House of Representatives 2014 |urlhttps://www.electionguide.org/elections/id/2469/ |websitewww.electionguide.org}}</ref> ABLP won 15 of the 17 seats in the 2018 snap election under the leadership of incumbent Prime Minister Gaston Browne.<ref>{{cite news |titleSpeculation about early election in Antigua |urlhttps://barbadostoday.bb/2021/06/12/speculation-about-early-election-in-antigua/ |workBarbados Today |date=12 June 2021}}</ref>
Constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech, press, worship, movement, and association. Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the eastern Caribbean court system. The Judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. Jurisprudence is based on English common law.
Executive branch
{{Main articles|Government of Antigua and Barbuda}}
Executive branch leadership
As head of state, King Charles III is represented in Antigua and Barbuda by a governor-general who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet.<ref>{{cite web |titleAntigua and Barbuda Country Profile |urlhttp://www.caribbeanelections.com/ag/education/country_profile.asp |website=www.caribbeanelections.com}}</ref>
{{multiple image
| align = center
| perrow | direction
| total_width = 500
| header = Main office-holders
| footer | caption_align center
| image1 = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg
| width1 | caption1 The King of Antigua and Barbuda:<br />Charles III<br />since<br />{{nowrap|8 September 2022}}
| image2 = Official portrait of Rodney Williams (cropped).png
| width2 | caption2 The Governor-General of Antigua and Barbuda:<br />Sir Rodney Williams<br />since<br />{{nowrap|14 August 2014}}
| image3 = Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting - 2018 (40666408505) (cropped).jpg
| width3 | caption3 The Prime Minister of Antigua and Barbuda:<br />Gaston Browne<br />since<br />{{nowrap|13 June 2014}}
}}
Legislative branch
{{Main articles|Parliament of Antigua and Barbuda}}
Antigua and Barbuda elects on national level a legislature. Parliament has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 19 members: 17 members elected for a five-year term in single-seat constituencies, and 2 ex officio members (president and speaker). The Senate has 17 appointed members. The prime minister is the leader of the majority party in the House and conducts affairs of state with the cabinet. The prime minister and the cabinet are responsible to the Parliament. Elections must be held at least every five years but may be called by the prime minister at any time.
There are special legislative provisions to account for Barbuda's low population relative to that of Antigua. Barbuda is guaranteed one member of the House of Representatives and two members of the Senate. In addition, there is a Barbuda Council to govern the internal affairs of the island.
Political parties and elections
{{Elect|List of political parties in Antigua and Barbuda|Elections in Antigua and Barbuda}}
Administrative divisions
{{Main articles|Parishes and dependencies of Antigua and Barbuda}}
The country is divided into six parishes, Saint George, John, Mary, Paul, Peter, and Phillip which are all on the island of Antigua. Additionally, the islands of Barbuda and Redonda are considered dependencies.
Judicial branch
{{Main articles|Judiciary of Antigua and Barbuda}}
Antigua and Barbuda is a member of the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court. This court is headquartered in Saint Lucia, but at least one judge of the Supreme Court resides in Antigua and Barbuda, and presides over the High Court. The current High Court judges are Nicola Byer, Ann-Marie Smith, Jan Drysdale, Rene Williams, and Tunde Bakre as of September 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |titleEastern Caribbean Supreme Court |urlhttps://www.eccourts.org/judicial-officers/high-court-judges |access-date2024-09-09 |websitewww.eccourts.org |language=en}}</ref>
Antigua is also a member of the Caribbean Court of Justice, although it has not yet acceded to Part III of the 2001 Agreement Establishing a Caribbean Court of Justice.<ref name"Agreement Establishing a Caribbean Court of Justice">[http://www.caricom.org/jsp/secretariat/legal_instruments/agreement_ccj.pdf Agreement Establishing a Caribbean Court of Justice] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101214032059/http://caricom.org/jsp/secretariat/legal_instruments/agreement_ccj.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://caricom.org/jsp/secretariat/legal_instruments/agreement_ccj.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |date14 December 2010 }}, available here.</ref> Its supreme appellate court therefore remains the British Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Indeed, of the signatories to the Agreement,<ref name="Agreement Establishing a Caribbean Court of Justice" /> as of December 2010, only Barbados has replaced appeals to Her Majesty in Council with the Caribbean Court of Justice.
In addition to the Eastern Caribbean Supreme Court, Antigua and Barbuda has a Magistrates' Court, which deals with lesser civil and criminal cases.<ref name"Antiguan and Barbudan criminal court system">{{usurped|1[https://web.archive.org/web/20110724223214/http://www.acclawyers.org/resources/antigua-and-barbuda/ Antiguan and Barbudan criminal court system diagram]}}</ref>
Movements
* Republicanism in Antigua and Barbuda
* Federalism in Antigua and Barbuda
* Barbudan independence movement
Political pressure groups and leaders
* Antigua Trades and Labour Union
* People's Democratic Movement
International organisation participation
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2015}}
* Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States
* ALBA
* Caribbean Community
* Caribbean Development Bank
* Community of Latin American and Caribbean States
* Commonwealth of Nations
* United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
* Food and Agriculture Organization
* Group of 77
* International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
* International Civil Aviation Organization
* International Criminal Court
* International Confederation of Free Trade Unions
* International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement
* International Fund for Agricultural Development
* International Finance Corporation
* International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies
* International Labour Organization
* International Monetary Fund
* International Maritime Organization
* Intelsat (nonsignatory user)
* Interpol
* International Olympic Committee
* International Telecommunication Union
* Non-Aligned Movement (observer)
* Organization of American States
* Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States
* OPANAL
* United Nations
* United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
* UNESCO
* Universal Postal Union
* World Confederation of Labour
* World Federation of Trade Unions
* World Health Organization
* World Meteorological Organization
* World Trade Organization
References
{{Reflist}}
{{Antigua and Barbuda topics}}
{{Americas topic|Politics of}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Politics Of Antigua And Barbuda}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.300112 |
1072 | Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda | Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda are via media in the telecommunications industry.
Telephone
Telephones – main lines in use: 37,500 (2006)
country comparison to the world: 168
Telephones – mobile cellular: 110,200 (2006) (APUA PCS, Cable & Wireless, Digicel)
country comparison to the world: 177
Telephone system:
domestic: good automatic telephone system
international: 3 fiber optic submarine cables (2 to Saint Kitts and 1 to Guadeloupe); satellite earth station – 1 Intelsat (Atlantic Ocean)
Radio
Radio broadcast stations: AM 4, FM 6, shortwave 0 (2002)
+ Radio Stations of Antigua and Barbuda Band / Freq. Call Sign Brand City of license Notes AM 620 V2C ABS Radio and TV Saint John's, Antigua ABS; 5 kW AM 1100 ZDK Radio ZDK Saint John's, Antigua Owner: Grenville Radio; 20 kW AM 1160 Unknown Radio Lighthouse Saint John's, Antigua 10 kW AM 1580 Unknown Unknown Judge Bay, Antigua 50 kW FM 88.5 Unknown Power FM Saint John's, Antigua FM 89.7 Unknown Catholic Radio Saint John's, Antigua 2 kW FM 90.5 V2C-FM ABS Radio and TV Saint John's, Antigua repeats AM 620 FM 91.1 Unknown Observer Radio Saint John's, Antigua FM 91.9 Unknown Hitz 91.9 Saint John's, Antigua FM 92.3 Unknown Radio Lighthouse Saint John's, Antigua repeats AM 1160 FM 92.9 VYBZ-FM Vybz FM Saint John's, Antigua FM 93.9 Unknown Caribbean SuperStation Saint John's, Antigua repeats Caribbean SuperStation from Trinidad FM 95.7 Unknown Zoom Radio Saint John's, Antigua FM 97.1 ZDK Radio ZDK Saint John's, Antigua repeats AM 1100 FM 98.5 Unknown Red Hot Radio Saint John's, Antigua FM 99.1 Unknown Hit Radio Music Power Saint John's, Antigua FM 100.1 Unknown (ZDKR-FM?) Sun FM Saint John's, Antigua FM 101.5 Unknown Second Advent Radio Saint John's, Antigua 20 watts FM 102.3 Unknown Variety Radio Saint John's, Antigua FM 103.1 Unknown Life FM Codrington, Barbuda 1 kW FM 103.9 Unknown Life FM Saint John's, Antigua repeats 103.1 Codrington FM 104.3 Unknown Nice FM Codrington, Barbuda FM 107.3 Unknown Crusader Radio Saint John's, Antigua SW 3.255 mHz V2C ABS Radio and TV Saint John's, Antigua Repeats AM 620
Radios: 36,000 (1997)
Television
Television broadcast stations: 2 (1997) (including ABS-TV)
Televisions: 31,000 (1997)
Internet
Internet Service Providers (ISPs): Cable & Wireless, Antigua Computer Technologies (ACT), Antigua Public Utilities Authority (APUA INET)
Internet hosts: 2,215 (2008)
country comparison to the world: 140
Internet users: 60,000 (2007)
country comparison to the world: 158
Country codes: AG
Demographics
+Internet Users by EthnicityQ48 EthnicQ55 Internet UseYesNoDon't know/Not statedAfrican descendent47.42%50.74%1.84%Caucasian/White83.27%16.03%0.70%East Indian/India58.66%40.08%1.26%Mixed (Black/White)64.34%33.35%2.31%Mixed (Other)61.22%37.62%1.16%Hispanic31.78%66.80%1.42%Syrian/Lebanese60.77%36.76%2.48%Other59.46%39.71%0.83%Don't know/Not stated20.58%70.61%8.81%Total48.35%49.81%1.84%
+Household internet access by ethnicityQ48 EthnicQ25 4 Internet accessNoYesDon't know/not declaredAfrican descendent51.99%38.20%9.81%Caucasian/White14.56%82.83%2.61%East Indian/India36.63%54.93%8.44%Mixed (Black/White)39.47%54.60%5.93%Mixed (Other)41.76%51.53%6.71%Hispanic67.68%20.56%11.76%Syrian/Lebanese29.48%69.39%1.13%Other34.02%58.96%7.02%Don't know/Not stated53.86%27.58%18.56%Total50.83%39.61%9.57%
See also
Antigua and Barbuda
History of telecommunication
List of telecommunications terminology
Outline of telecommunication
References
External links
Antigua and Barbuda, SubmarineCableMap.com
Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.316480 |
1074 | Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force | {{Short description|Armed forces of Antigua and Barbuda}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Use Antiguan and Barbudan English|date=December 2024}}
{{Infobox national military
| name = Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force
| native_name | image2 File:Flag of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force.svg
| alt2 | caption2 Flag of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force
| motto = Paratus ad serviendum (Ready to serve)
| founded {{start date and age|1956|06|01|dfy}}
| current_form {{start date and age|1995|12|20|dfy}}
| disbanded | branches {{ubl|Regiment|Coast Guard|Cadet Corps|Service and Support Unit|Air Wing}}
| headquarters = Camp Blizzard, Saint George
| flying_hours | website {{URL|http://abdf.gov.ag/|Official website}}
<!-- Leadership -->| commander-in-chief = Charles III, King of Antigua and Barbuda represented by Sir Rodney Williams, Governor General of Antigua and Barbuda
| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-Chief
| chief minister = {{Current prime minister of Antigua and Barbuda}}
| chief minister_title = Prime Minister
| minister | minister_title
| commander = Telbert Benjamin
| commander_title = Chief of Defence Staff
<!-- Manpower -->| age = 18
| conscription | manpower_data 1998
| manpower_age | available 18,952
| available_f = 18,360
| fit = 14,859
| fit_f = 14,947
| reaching = 507
| reaching_f = 494
| active = 240
| ranked | reserve 75
| deployed = <!-- Financial -->
| amount = £6,153,420.00 (2009)
| percent_GDP = 0.7%
<!-- Industrial -->| domestic_suppliers | foreign_suppliers
| imports | exports <!-- Related articles -->
| history | ranks Military ranks of Antigua and Barbuda
| image = File:Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force.svg
| caption = Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force emblem
}}
The Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force (ABDF) is the armed forces of Antigua and Barbuda. The ABDF has responsibility for several different roles: internal security, prevention of drug smuggling, the protection and support of fishing rights, prevention of marine pollution, search and rescue, ceremonial duties, assistance to government programs, provision of relief during natural disasters, assistance in the maintenance of essential services, and support of the police in maintaining law and order. The force entered its current form on 20 December 1995.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/No.-54-of-1995-Defence-Act-Formation-of-the-Force-into-Units-Order-1995.pdf |titleThe Defence Act (Formation of the Force into Units) Order 1995}}</ref>
The ABDF is one of the world's smallest militaries, consisting of 245 personnel. The first militia in Antigua was established in the 1600s, having fought against the French capture of the island in 1666. The governor oversaw the force,<ref>{{Cite book |lastLanaghan |titleAntigua and the Antiguans |pages12}}</ref> and by 1820 the island had a 945-man militia.<ref>{{Cite book |lastLanaghan |titleAntigua and the Antiguans |pages99}}</ref> The island continued to maintain this force for much of the colonial era, and by 1 September 1981 the Antigua Volunteer Defence Force was renamed to the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force preceding independence. The force has undergone various reforms, and the present force was reestablished on 1 June 1956.<ref name":3" />Organisation
The ABDF consists of five branches:
*Regiment – comprises four line companies and is the infantry unit and fighting arm of the defence force.
*Service and Support Unit – provides administrative, logistic and engineer support to the rest of the defence force.
*Coast Guard – the maritime element of the defence force.
*Air Wing – the aerial element of the defence force.
*Cadet Corps – voluntary youth organisation.
Defence Board
The Defence Board is in charge of overseeing the leadership, management, and discipline of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force as well as all other matters pertaining to it. The Defence Board has the authority to govern its work, how it will carry out its duties, and the responsibilities of its members. It can also assign any member of the Board any authority or duty, by publishing a notice in the Official Gazette; consult with non-members as appropriate, including officers commanding units of the Force, regarding matters pertaining to their units; and the officers are required to attend the meetings as the Board requests; decide on the protocol to be followed in conducting its business; and provide for any other matter that it deems necessary or desirable for achieving the better performance of its functions.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006-10.pdf |titleDefence Act |pages8–9}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> Officers A person cannot be appointed to the force unless they have received a recommendation from a board, known as the Commissions Board in the Defence Act. This board is made up of the chairman, who is appointed by the Chief of Defence Staff; the Chairman of the Public Service Commission, or in his absence, the Vice Chairman of the Public Service Commission; and an individual appointed by the Defence Board for a duration determined by the Board. His Majesty has the authority to appoint people to the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force, and the Governor-General may act in that capacity. A commission may be awarded for a predetermined amount of time or for an unlimited amount of time.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006-10.pdf |titleDefence Act |pages9–10}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
Reserve forces
There are two classes in the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force Reserve. The soldiers enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re-engaged in accordance with this Part for service in that class; the Reserve soldiers of the second class who have, upon written application to the appropriate military authority, been accepted by that authority for service in the first class; and the soldiers transferred to the first class in accordance with section 31 of the Defence Act comprise the first class. The soldiers who are members of the second class by virtue of Part IV of the Defence Act, the officers who are appointed or transferred to that class, and the soldiers who are enlisted, deemed to be enlisted, or re-engaged in accordance with Part IX of the Defence Act for service in that class are all included in the second class.<ref name":2">{{Cite book |urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006-10.pdf |titleDefence Act |pages109–116}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
Each officer and soldier in the first class of the Reserve is required to report for duty at the location and for the duration determined by the Defence Board. They are also required to meet all training-related requirements. Subject to any general directives from the Defence Board, the requirements of the related section may be disregarded in whole or in part with regard to any unit of the first class of the Reserve, as well as with regard to any individual officer or soldier of the first class of the Reserve, by his commanding officer. Nothing stops a Reserve officer or soldier from participating in optional training in addition to any mandated training.<ref name=":2" />
The first class of the Reserve, or as many officers and soldiers of that class as the Board deems necessary, may be called out on temporary duty by the Defence Board when needed. Under section 203, officers and soldiers who are called out for duty are not required to serve for more than ninety days at a time. Because the worker is a Reserve member who is called out in accordance with the section, no employer may fire or give notice of termination to any worker. When an employer violates, they are guilty of a crime and face a maximum fine of $5,000, a maximum sentence of two (2) years in jail, or both. This applies even in cases of summary conviction.<ref name=":2" />
The Governor-General may, on the advice of the Prime Minister, by proclamation order that the Reserve, or any class thereof, be called out on permanent service in the event of a state of war, insurrection, hostilities, or public emergency; the Defence Board will then take appropriate action. When called out on permanent duty, every Reserve officer and soldier is eligible to stay on permanent duty until told otherwise. Every officer and soldier belonging to such a class, as the case may be, to the part of any class so called out, shall attend in person at the designated location whenever the whole or any part of the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary or permanent service; or whenever the whole or any part of the second class of the Reserve is called out on permanent service. The Defence Board shall cause every officer or soldier subject to such call-out to be served with a notice requiring him to attend at the time and place specified in the notice in the event that the first class of the Reserve is called out on temporary service or the Reserve is called out on permanent service.<ref name=":2" />
An officer of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force may file a summarily complaint against a person who willfully takes away pawns, wrongfully destroys or damages, carelessly loses anything issued to him as an officer or soldier of the Reserve, or willfully refuses or fails to deliver up anything issued to him as an officer or soldier as a debt owed to the Crown. This applies even if the amount exceeds the normal monetary limit on a magistrate's jurisdiction.<ref name=":2" />
A Reserve soldier may be released at any point during the duration of their service in the Reserve by the appropriate military authority under the prescribed conditions.<ref name":2" /> Enlistment and terms of service A recruiting officer will not enlist anyone in the Force unless they are satisfied that the potential recruit has received, comprehended, and wishes to be enlisted after receiving a notice in the prescribed form from anyone who wants to join the regular Force. A recruiting officer is not allowed to enlist a minor under the age of eighteen into the regular force unless written consent has been obtained from at least one parent, from any parent who may have parental rights and powers over the minor, from any person whose whereabouts are known or can be determined with reasonable effort, or from any person who is in fact or legally responsible for the minor. For the purposes of the Defence Act, an individual who is willing to enlist will be considered to have reached, or not reached, the age of eighteen if the recruiting officer is satisfied—either through the production of a certified copy of an entry in the register of births, or by any other evidence that seems sufficient to them.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006-10.pdf |titleDefence Act |pages11}} {{PD-notice}}</ref> The period of time that an individual may enlist in the regular force is as follows: in the case of an individual who is 18 years of age or older at the time of enlistment, a term of colour service that does not exceed 12 years as prescribed; in this case, the term of service in the Reserve will apply to the portion of the term that is prescribed as a term of colour service, and the remaining portion will apply to a term of service. In the case of an individual who is younger at the time of enlistment, the period of time that is prescribed will begin on the date that the individual reaches the age of eighteen years or a term not to exceed 12 years, as specified, starting on the day he reaches that age and consisting of the portion of it that is prescribed as a term of colour service and the remaining portion as a term in the reserve.<ref name":0">{{Cite book |urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006-10.pdf |titleDefence Act |pages12–13}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
Any soldier of good character who has served their full term of colour service or who will be serving in the Reserve in two years may, with permission from the appropriate military authority, re-engage for an additional period of colour service and Reserve duty as prescribed; however, the additional period of colour service, when combined with the original period of colour service, may not exceed a total continuous period of 22 years colour service from the date of the soldier's original attestation or the date he became eighteen years old, whichever comes first. Any soldier who has completed 22 years of colour service may, if he so chooses and with the consent of the appropriate military authority, continue to serve in all capacities as if his colour service term had not yet expired. However, on the date that he notifies his commanding officer that he wishes to be discharged, he may be eligible for discharge at the end of the three-month period. Any soldier whose term of colour service expires during a public emergency, war, insurrection, hostilities, or other exigency of duty may be kept in the Force and have their service extended for an additional period of time as directed by the Defence Board and the appropriate military authority.<ref name=":0" />
Every regular force soldier who is eligible for discharge will be released as soon as possible, subject to the Defence Act. However, until they are released, they are subject to military law as stipulated by the Act. When a regular force soldier is serving outside of Antigua and Barbuda at the time of his discharge, he has two options: if he wants to be discharged in Antigua and Barbuda, he will be sent there at no cost as soon as possible, and he will be released either when he arrives in Antigua and Barbuda or, if he agrees to a delay in discharge, six months after arriving; else, he will be released where he is currently serving. Releasing a soldier from the regular force requires authorization from the appropriate military authority, unless they are being released in accordance with a court-martial sentence. Upon their release from active duty, all regular force soldiers will receive a certificate of discharge that includes the necessary information.<ref name":0" /> Every regular Force soldier who is scheduled to be transferred to the Reserve may do so in accordance with the Act, but they will remain subject to military law until they are transferred. When a regular Force soldier serving outside of Antigua and Barbuda is scheduled to be transferred to the Reserve, he will be sent there at no cost to him and will be transferred to the Reserve upon arrival, or within six months of his arrival if he agrees to a delay in transfer; he may, however, choose to be transferred to the Reserve without having to return to Antigua and Barbuda. When a regular Force soldier is being transferred to the Reserve, the appropriate military authority has the authority to immediately discharge him without providing a reason.<ref name":1">{{Cite book |urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006-10.pdf |titleDefence Act |pages=13–15}} {{PD-notice}}</ref>
A court-martial sentence, a Defence Board order, or an order from an officer not lower than Major or a corresponding rank who has been given permission by the commanding officer may be the only ways that a warrant officer or non-commissioned officer's rank may be lowered. If a regular force warrant officer is demoted to the ranks, he or she may request to be discharged, barring a state of war, insurrection, hostilities, or public emergency. Anytime during the duration of the soldier's term of engagement, the competent military authority may release a regular force soldier for the prescribed reasons. Regular Force soldiers have the right to request their discharge at any point within three months of the date of their first attestation. If they do so, they will be released as soon as possible after paying a sum not to exceed EC$500. However, they will still be subject to military law until their discharge under the Act. A soldier of the regular Force who was a member of a Commonwealth Force at any point within three months prior to the date of his first attestation is exempt from this.<ref name":1" />Former deployments* In 1983, fourteen men of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force were deployed to Grenada during the Operation Urgent Fury.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.open.uwi.edu/sites/default/files/bnccde/antigua/conference/papers/phillips.html|titleDion E. Phillips – Antigua and Barbuda Defense Force: A Preliminary Look|websiteopen.uwi.edu|access-date=2018-06-30}}</ref>
* In 1990, twelve soldiers were sent to Trinidad and Tobago after a failed coup attempt by a radical group against the constitutionally elected government headed by Prime Minister A.N.R. Robinson.
* In 1995, members of the Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force were deployed in Haiti as a part of Operation Uphold Democracy.<ref name":3">{{cite web|lastPhillips|firstDion E|titleAntigua and Barbuda Defense Force: A Preliminary Look|urlhttp://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/bnccde/antigua/conference/papers/phillips.html|workConference papers, 2004|publisherUniversity of the West Indies|access-date24 November 2013}}</ref>
Current deployments
* Multinational Security Support Mission in Haiti
Alliances
*{{GBR}} – Mercian Regiment
See also
* Regional Security System
References
{{reflist}}
{{Government of Antigua and Barbuda works}}
General and cited references
* {{Cite law|typeAct|date2006|titleDefence Act|urlhttps://laws.gov.ag/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/a2006-10.pdf}}
External links
*[http://abdf.gov.ag/ Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force official website] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200219215617/http://abdf.gov.ag/ |date19 February 2020 }}
*[https://www.facebook.com/ABDFparatus/ Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force on Facebook]
*[http://www.uwichill.edu.bb/bnccde/antigua/conference/papers/phillips.html Article on the ABDF by Dr Dion Phillips]
{{Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force}}
{{Military of the Americas}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Antigua And Barbuda Defence Force}}
Category:National security of Antigua and Barbuda
Category:Military units and formations established in 1981 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua_and_Barbuda_Defence_Force | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.341693 |
1078 | Antisemitism | {{short description|Hostility, prejudice, or discrimination against Jews}}
{{Distinguish|anti-Judaism}}
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{{Antisemitism}}{{Discrimination sidebar|expand-ethnic=yes}}{{Judaism}}
{{Status of religious freedom|persecution}}<!--Before making an edit to this article's definition of "antisemitism" to include prejudice against all Semitic people, please review the relevant discussions on the article's talk page and the related archives. If you still want to change the definition on this article, please discuss first on the talk page.-->
Antisemitism{{Efn|Also spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; The International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance has stated that the spelling without hyphenation is preferred, because the spelling with hyphenation implies that "Semitism" is a valid concept.<ref nameIHRA2 />}} or Jew-hatred<ref>{{Cite OED |termJew-hatred |id2854443694 |access-date2 September 2024}}</ref> is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against, Jews.<ref name"Oxford">{{cite web |urlhttps://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/anti-semitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180808034525/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/us/anti-semitism |url-statusdead |archive-date8 August 2018 |titleanti-Semitism |websiteOxford Dictionaries – English |access-date27 October 2018}}</ref><ref name"MWdef">{{cite web |titleanti-Semitism |urlhttps://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-Semitism |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181031195040/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/anti-Semitism |archive-date31 October 2018 |access-date27 October 2018 |workMerriam-Webster Dictionary}}</ref><ref>See, for example:
* {{cite encyclopedia |titleAnti-Semitism |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |year=2006}}
* {{harvp|Johnson|1987|p=133}}
* {{cite magazine |author-linkBernard Lewis |lastLewis |firstBernard |urlhttp://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html|titleThe New Anti-Semitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110908010822/http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html|archive-date8 September 2011 |url-statusdead |magazineThe American Scholar |volume75 |number1 |dateWinter 2006 |pages25–36}}</ref> Whether it is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought,{{Efn|See the {{section link||Eternalism–contextualism debate}} paragraph.}}<ref>{{cite web |date1 March 1999 |titleMeasures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance |urlhttps://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/770/59/PDF/N9977059.pdf?OpenElement#page4 |publisherUnited Nations |page4 |access-date27 August 2023 |archive-date27 August 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230827100852/https://documents-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N99/770/59/PDF/N9977059.pdf?OpenElement#page4 |url-statuslive}}{{void|comment|Fabrickator|following "UN doc" template is not resolving to a working url}}<!-- {{UN doc |docidA-RES-53-133 |bodyA |session53 |typeR |resolution_number133 |titleMeasures to combat contemporary forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance |page4 |date1 March 1999}}{{dl|dateApril 2023}} --></ref><ref>{{cite web |lastNathan |firstJulie |date9 November 2014 |title2014 Report on Antisemitism in Australia |urlhttp://www.ecaj.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2014_antisemitism_report.pdf |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150412202844/http://www.ecaj.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/2014_antisemitism_report.pdf |archive-date12 April 2015 |access-date27 October 2018 |publisherExecutive Council of Australian Jewry |page9}}</ref> and a person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Primarily, antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towards Jews as a people or by negative sentiment towards Jews with regard to Judaism. In the former case, usually presented as racial antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by the belief that Jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that person's society.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAntisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945 |urlhttps://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/antisemitism-in-history-racial-antisemitism-18751945 |access-date20 September 2023 |websiteUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum |quoteThese new 'antisemites,' as they called themselves, drew upon older stereotypes to maintain that the Jews behaved the way they did—and would not change—because of innate racial qualities inherited from the dawn of time. Drawing as well upon the pseudoscience of racial eugenics, they argued that the Jews spread their so-called pernicious influence to weaken nations in Central Europe not only by political, economic, and media methods, but also literally by 'polluting' so-called pure Aryan blood by intermarriage and sexual relations with non-Jews. They argued that Jewish 'racial intermixing,' by 'contaminating' and weakening the host nations, served as part of a conscious Jewish plan for world domination. |archive-date31 March 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200331191034/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId10007171 |url-statuslive}}</ref> In the latter case, known as religious antisemitism, a person's hostility is driven by their religion's perception of Jews and Judaism, typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand Jews to turn away from Judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as Judaism's successor faith—this is a common theme within the other Abrahamic religions.<ref>{{cite web |last1Novak |first1David |titleSupersessionism hard and soft |urlhttps://www.firstthings.com/article/2019/02/supersessionism-hard-and-soft |websitefirstthings.com |access-date24 September 2023 |dateFebruary 2019 |archive-date29 September 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230929133324/https://www.firstthings.com/article/2019/02/supersessionism-hard-and-soft |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-urlhttp://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004274761_014 |chapterRevisiting the Charge of Taḥrīf: The Question of Supersessionism in Early Islam and the Qurʾān |firstSandra Toenies |lastKeating |titleNicholas of Cusa and Islam |pages202–217|chapter-url-accesssubscription |publisherBrill |year2014 |doi10.1163/9789004274761_014 |isbn9789004274761 |s2cid170395646 |access-date24 September 2023 |archive-date29 November 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181129100206/http://booksandjournals.brillonline.com/content/books/b9789004274761_014 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by anti-Judaism,<ref>{{Cite web |date1 August 2017 |titleFrom Religious Prejudice to Antisemitism |urlhttps://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/religious-prejudice-antisemitism |access-date20 September 2023 |websiteFacing History and Ourselves |archive-date22 September 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230922224125/https://www.facinghistory.org/resource-library/religious-prejudice-antisemitism |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastZauzmer Weil |firstJulie |date22 August 2019 |titleHow anti-Semitic beliefs have taken hold among some evangelical Christians |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2019/08/22/how-anti-semitic-beliefs-have-quietly-taken-hold-among-some-evangelical-christians/ |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-date20 September 2023 |archive-date19 May 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210519162501/https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2019/08/22/how-anti-semitic-beliefs-have-quietly-taken-hold-among-some-evangelical-christians/ |url-statuslive}}</ref> which is distinct from antisemitism itself.<ref>{{Cite web |lastFreidenreich |firstDavid M. |date18 November 2022 |titleHow Christians Have Used Anti-Jewish and Anti-Muslim Rhetoric for Their Own Ends |urlhttps://www.ucpress.edu/blog/60853/how-christians-have-used-anti-jewish-and-anti-muslim-rhetoric-for-their-own-ends/ |access-date20 September 2023 |websiteUniversity of California Press |archive-date25 September 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230925160443/https://www.ucpress.edu/blog/60853/how-christians-have-used-anti-jewish-and-anti-muslim-rhetoric-for-their-own-ends/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
There are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested, ranging in the level of severity of Jewish persecution. On the more subtle end, it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual Jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence. On the most extreme end, it consists of pogroms or genocide, which may or may not be state-sponsored. Although the term "antisemitism" did not come into common usage until the 19th century, it is also applied to previous and later anti-Jewish incidents.{{efn|Notable instances of antisemitic persecution include the Rhineland massacres in 1096; the Edict of Expulsion in 1290; the European persecution of Jews during the Black Death, between 1348 and 1351; the massacre of Spanish Jews in 1391, the crackdown of the Spanish Inquisition, and the expulsion of Jews from Spain in 1492; the Cossack massacres in Ukraine, between 1648 and 1657; various anti-Jewish pogroms in the Russian Empire, between 1821 and 1906; the Dreyfus affair, between 1894 and 1906; the Holocaust by Nazi Germany during World War II; and various Soviet anti-Jewish policies.}} Historically, most of the world's violent antisemitic events have taken place in Europe, where modern antisemitism began to emerge from antisemitism in Christian communities during the Middle Ages. Since the early 20th century, there has been a sharp rise in antisemitic incidents across the Arab world, largely due to the advent of Arab antisemitic conspiracy theories, which were influenced by European antisemitic conspiracy theories.<ref name"Herf 2009">{{cite journal |lastHerf |firstJeffrey |author-linkJeffrey Herf |dateDecember 2009 |titleNazi Germany's Propaganda Aimed at Arabs and Muslims During World War II and the Holocaust: Old Themes, New Archival Findings |journalCentral European History |publisherCambridge University Press |volume42 |issue4 |pages709–736 |doi10.1017/S000893890999104X |jstor40600977 |s2cid145568807 |issn0008-9389}}</ref><ref name"JCPA 2020">{{cite journal |lastSpoerl |firstJoseph S.|dateJanuary 2020 |titleParallels between Nazi and Islamist Anti-Semitism |urlhttps://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/ |url-statuslive |journalJewish Political Studies Review |publisherJerusalem Center for Public Affairs |volume31 |issue1/2 |pages210–244 |issn0792-335X |jstor26870795 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200609120031/https://jcpa.org/article/parallels-between-nazi-and-islamist-anti-semitism/ |archive-date9 June 2020 |access-date14 October 2020}}</ref>
In recent times, the idea that there is a variation of antisemitism known as "new antisemitism" has emerged on several occasions. According to this view, since Israel is a Jewish state, expressions of anti-Zionist positions could harbour antisemitic sentiments, and criticism of Israel can serve as a vehicle for attacks against Jews in general.<ref>{{Cite news |date28 April 2016 |titleWhat's the difference between anti-Semitism and anti-Zionism?|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36160928 |access-date20 February 2024 |workBBC News |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241225145904/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-36160928 |archive-date25 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastMalik |firstKenan |date24 February 2019 |titleAntisemites use the language of anti-Zionism. The two are distinct |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/feb/24/antisemites-use-language-of-anti-zionism-the-two-are-distinct |access-date20 February 2024 |workThe Observer |issn0029-7712 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241225064555/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/feb/24/antisemites-use-language-of-anti-zionism-the-two-are-distinct |archive-date25 December 2024}}</ref><ref name":0"/>
{{TOC limit|3}}The compound word {{lang|de|antisemitismus}} was first used in print in Germany in 1879{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p=595}} as a "scientific-sounding term" for {{lang|de|Judenhass}} ({{Literal translation|Jew-hatred}}),<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{harvp|Lipstadt|2019|pp=22–25}}
|{{harvp|Chanes|2004|p=150}}
|{{harvp|Rattansi|2007|pp=4–5}}
|{{harvp|Johnston|1983|p=27}}
|{{harvp|Laqueur|2006|p[https://books.google.com/books?idIaloAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21]}}
}}</ref> and it has since been used to refer to anti-Jewish sentiment alone.{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp22–25}}{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p133}}<ref name="JustJews">{{bulleted list|
|{{cite web |firstBernard |lastLewis |author-linkBernard Lewis |urlhttp://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html |titleSemites and Anti-Semites |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110514133732/http://middleeastinfo.org/library/lewis_antisemitism.html |archive-date14 May 2011 |access-date27 October 2018}}. Extract from Islam in History: Ideas, Men and Events in the Middle East, The Library Press, 1973.
|{{cite magazine |author-linkBernard Lewis |lastLewis |firstBernard |urlhttps://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/21832 |titleThe New Anti-Semitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171108130056/http://historynewsnetwork.org/blog/21832 |archive-date8 November 2017 |url-statusdead |magazineThe American Scholar |volume75 |number1 |dateWinter 2006 |pages=25–36}}
}}</ref> Due to the root word Semite, the term is sometimes subject to an etymological fallacy whereby it is incorrectly assumed to apply to racist hatred directed at "Semitic people", in spite of this being an obsolete racial concept.<ref name"JustJews" />Origin and usageEtymology
{{Anchor|Etmyology and uses}}
The word "Semitic" was coined by German orientalist August Ludwig von Schlözer in 1781 to designate the Semitic group of languages—Aramaic, Arabic, Hebrew and others—allegedly spoken by the descendants of Biblical figure Shem, son of Noah.<ref name"Vermeulen 2015 p. 252">{{cite book |lastVermeulen |firstH. F. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idB1nxCQAAQBAJ&pgPT252 |titleBefore Boas: The Genesis of Ethnography and Ethnology in the German Enlightenment |publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press |year2015 |isbn978-0-8032-7738-0 |seriesCritical Studies in the History of Anthropology Series |quoteSchlözer 1781: p.161 "From the Mediterranean to the Euphrates, from Mesopotamia to Arabia ruled one language, as is well known. Thus Syrians, Babylonians, Hebrews, and Arabs were one people (ein Volk). Phoenicians (Hamites) also spoke this language, which I would like to call the Semitic (die Semitische). To the north and east of this Semitic language and national district (Semitische Sprach- und VölkerBezirke) begins a second one: With Moses and Leibniz I would like to call it the Japhetic." |access-date7 October 2022}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kiraz|2001|p25}}; {{harvp|Baasten|2003|p=67}}</ref>
The origin of "antisemitic" terminologies is found in the responses of orientalist Moritz Steinschneider to the views of orientalist Ernest Renan. Historian Alex Bein writes: "The compound anti-Semitism appears to have been used first by Steinschneider, who challenged Renan on account of his 'anti-Semitic prejudices' [i.e., his derogation of the "Semites" as a race]."{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p[https://books.google.com/books?idcQOn0y8ENg4C&pgPA594 594]}} Psychologist Avner Falk similarly writes: "The German word "{{lang|de|antisemitisch}}" was first used in 1860 by the Austrian Jewish scholar Moritz Steinschneider (1816–1907) in the phrase "{{lang|de|antisemitische Vorurteile}}" (antisemitic prejudices). Steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the French philosopher Ernest Renan's false ideas about how 'Semitic races' were inferior to 'Aryan races{{'"}}.{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p21}}
Pseudoscientific theories concerning race, civilization, and "progress" had become quite widespread in Europe in the second half of the 19th century, especially as Prussian nationalistic historian Heinrich von Treitschke did much to promote this form of racism. He coined the phrase "the Jews are our misfortune" which would later be widely used by Nazis.<ref>{{cite book |lastPoliakov |firstLéon |author-linkLéon Poliakov |titleThe History of Anti-Semitism |volume3: From Voltaire to Wagner |publisherUniversity of Pennsylvania Press |year2003 |page404 |isbn978-0-8122-1865-7}}</ref> According to Falk, Treitschke uses the term "Semitic" almost synonymously with "Jewish", in contrast to Renan's use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples,{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p[https://books.google.com/books?idVWL4ja2BbnEC&pgPA21 21]}} based generally on linguistic criteria.<ref>{{cite book |lastBrustein |firstWilliam I. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHc3HabBQsdsC&pgPA118 |titleRoots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |locationCambridge |publisherCambridge University Press |year2003 |page118 |access-date27 October 2018 |isbn9780521774789}}</ref>
According to philologist Jonathan M. Hess, the term was originally used by its authors to "stress the radical difference between their own 'antisemitism' and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism."<ref>{{cite journal |firstJonathan M. |lastHess |titleJohann David Michaelis and the Colonial Imaginary: Orientalism and the Emergence of Racial Antisemitism in Eighteenth-Century Germany |journalJewish Social Studies |volume6 |number2 |dateWinter 2000 |pages56–101 |doi10.1353/jss.2000.0003 |s2cid153434303 |quote=When the term "antisemitism" was first introduced in Germany in the late 1870s, those who used it did so in order to stress the radical difference between their own "antisemitism" and earlier forms of antagonism toward Jews and Judaism.}}</ref>
In 1879, German journalist Wilhelm Marr published a pamphlet, {{lang|de|Der Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet}} (The Victory of the Jewish Spirit over the Germanic Spirit. Observed from a non-religious perspective) in which he used the word "{{lang|de|Semitismus}}" interchangeably with the word "{{lang|de|Judentum}}" to denote both "Jewry" (the Jews as a collective) and "Jewishness" (the quality of being Jewish, or the Jewish spirit).<ref>{{cite book |lastJaspal |firstRusi |year2014 |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqS_jBAAAQBAJ&pgPT38 |titleAntisemitism and Anti-Zionism: Representation, Cognition and Everyday Talk |locationFarnham, Surrey |publisherAshgate Publishing |chapterAntisemitism: Conceptual Issues |isbn9781472407252 |access-date27 October 2018 |archive-date29 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231229235525/https://books.google.com/books?idqS_jBAAAQBAJ&pgPT38#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}} Jaspal erroneously gives the date of publication as 1873.</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-linkWilhelm Marr |lastMarr |firstWilhelm |urlhttps://archive.org/details/Marr-Wilhelm-Der-Sieg-des-Judenthums-ueber-das-Germanenthum-2-2 |titleDer Sieg des Judenthums über das Germanenthum. Vom nicht confessionellen Standpunkt aus betrachtet |languagede |trans-titleThe Victory of Judaism over Germanism. Viewed from a Non-Confessional Point of View |publisherRudolph Costenoble |date1879 |edition8th |viaInternet Archive}} Marr uses the word "{{lang|de|Semitismus}}" (Semitism) on pages 7, 11, 14, 30, 32, and 46; for example, one finds in the conclusion the following passage: "{{lang|de|Ja, ich bin überzeugt, ich habe ausgesprochen, was Millionen Juden im Stillen denken: Dem Semitismus gehört die Weltherrschaft!}}" (Yes, I am convinced that I have articulated what millions of Jews are quietly thinking: World domination belongs to Semitism!) (p. 46).</ref>{{sfnp|Levy|2010|pp123–129}} He accused the Jews of a worldwide conspiracy against non-Jews, called for resistance against "this foreign power", and claimed that "there will be absolutely no public office, even the highest one, which the Jews will not have usurped".<ref>{{Cite web |titleWilhelm Marr |urlhttps://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/wilhelm-marr |access-date29 July 2024 |websiteJewish Virtual Library}}</ref>{{better source needed|dateJanuary 2025}}
This followed his 1862 book "{{lang|de|Die Judenspiegel}}" (A Mirror to the Jews) in which he argued that "Judaism must cease to exist if humanity is to commence", demanding both that Judaism be dissolved as a "religious-denominational sect" but also subject to criticism "as a race, a civil and social entity".<ref name":5">{{Cite web |firstWerner |lastBergmann |titleWilhelm Marr's A Mirror to the Jews |urlhttps://keydocuments.net/article/bergmann-marr-mirror-jews |access-date29 July 2024 |websiteKey Documents of German-Jewish History |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240929082823/https://keydocuments.net/article/bergmann-marr-mirror-jews |archive-date29 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |lastLevy |firstRichard S. |author-linkRichard S. Levy |date1 April 1987 |titleWilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Anti-Semitism, by Moshe Zimmermann |urlhttps://www.commentary.org/articles/richard-levy/wilhelm-marr-the-patriarch-of-anti-semitism-by-moshe-zimmermann/ |access-date29 July 2024 |magazineCommentary Magazine |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250104044741/https://www.commentary.org/articles/richard-levy/wilhelm-marr-the-patriarch-of-anti-semitism-by-moshe-zimmermann/ |archive-date4 January 2025}}</ref> In the introductions to the first through fourth editions of "{{lang|de|Der Judenspiegel}}", Marr denied that he intended to preach Jew-hatred, but instead to help "the Jews reach their full human potential" which could happen only "through the downfall of Judaism, a phenomenon that negates everything purely human and noble."<ref name":5" />
This use of {{lang|de|Semitismus}} was followed by a coining of "{{lang|de|Antisemitismus}}" which was used to indicate opposition to the Jews as a people<ref>{{Cite book |lastBenz |firstWolfgang |author-linkWolfgang Benz |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idFaGpj0ORpwAC&dq%22Antisemitismus%22&pgPA7 |titleWas ist Antisemitismus? |trans-titleWhat is Antisemitism? |date2004 |publisherC. H. Beck |isbn978-3-406-52212-3 |languagede |access-date29 October 2023 |archive-date29 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231229235555/https://books.google.com/books?idFaGpj0ORpwAC&dq%22Antisemitismus%22&pgPA7#vonepage&q%22Antisemitismus%22&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref>{{sfnp|Williams|2024|p286}} and opposition to the Jewish spirit, which Marr interpreted as infiltrating German culture.
The pamphlet became very popular, and in the same year Marr founded the "{{lang|de|Antisemiten-Liga}}" (League of Antisemites),{{sfnp|Zimmermann|1987|p[https://books.google.com/books?idtYW013SjKM4C&pgPA71 71]}}{{sfnp|Troy|2024|p391}}{{sfnp|Levy|2010|pp123–129}} apparently named to follow the "{{lang|de|Anti-Kanzler-Liga}}" (Anti-Chancellor League).{{sfnp|Zimmermann|1987|p[https://books.google.com/books?idtYW013SjKM4C&pgPA112 112]|ps: "The term "anti-Semitism" was unsuitable from the beginning for the real essence of Jew-hatred, which remained anchored, more or less, in the Christian tradition even when it moved via the natural sciences, into racism. It is doubtful whether the term which was first publicized in an institutional context (the Anti-Semitic League) would have appeared at all if the "Anti-Chancellor League," which fought Bismarck's policy, had not been in existence since 1875. The founders of the new Organization adopted the elements of "anti" and "league," and searched for the proper term: Marr exchanged the term "Jew" for "Semite" which he already favored. It is possible that the shortened form "Sem" is used with such frequency and ease by Marr (and in his writings) due to its literary advantage and because it reminded Marr of Sem Biedermann, his Jewish employer from the Vienna period."}} The league was the first German organisation committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to Germany and German culture posed by the Jews and their influence and advocating their forced removal from the country.{{citation needed|dateJune 2024}}
So far as can be ascertained, the word was first widely printed in 1881, when Marr published {{lang|de|Zwanglose Antisemitische Hefte}}, and Wilhelm Scherer used the term {{lang|de|Antisemiten}} in the January issue of {{lang|de|Neue Freie Presse}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1Botsch |first1Gideon |author1-link:de:Gideon Botsch |last2Treß |first2Werner |date2020 |chapterModerner Antisemitismus und Sattelzeit: Das Beispiel Paul de Lagarde |trans-chapterModern Antisemitism and the Saddle Period: The Example of Paul de Lagarde |titleDer Nachlass Paul de Lagarde: Orientalistische Netzwerke und Antisemitische Verflechtungen |languagede |trans-titleThe Estate of Paul de Lagarde: Orientalist Networks and Antisemitic Entanglements |editor1-firstHeike |editor1-lastBehlmer |editor1-link:de:Heike Behlmer |editor2-firstThomas L. |editor2-lastGertzen |editor3-firstOrell |editor3-lastWitthuhn |seriesEuropäisch-jüdische Studien Beiträge |volume46 |publisherDe Gruyter |locationOldenburg |isbn978-3-11-061546-3 |page122}}</ref>{{sfnp|Levy|2010|pp=123–129}}
The Jewish Encyclopedia reports, "In February 1881, a correspondent of the "{{lang|de|Allgemeine Zeitung des Judentums}}" speaks of 'Anti-Semitism' as a designation which recently came into use ("Allg. Zeit. d. Jud." 1881, p.&nbsp;138). On 19 July 1882, the editor says, 'This quite recent Anti-Semitism is hardly three years old.{{'"}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |lastDeutsch |firstGotthard |author-linkGotthard Deutsch |year1901 |titleAnti-Semitism |urlhttps://archive.org/details/b29000488_0001/page/640/mode/2up |encyclopediaThe Jewish Encyclopedia |publisherFunk & Wagnalls |volume1 |page641 |access-date21 August 2023 |viaInternet Archive}}</ref>
The word "antisemitism" was borrowed into English from German in 1881. Oxford English Dictionary editor James Murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because "Anti-Semite and its family were then probably very new in English use, and not thought likely to be more than passing nonce-words... Would that anti-Semitism had had no more than a fleeting interest!"<ref name"toi">{{cite news |last1Mandel |first1Jonah |titleLetter shows first dictionary editor thought 'anti-Semite' wouldn't be used |urlhttps://www.timesofisrael.com/letter-shows-first-dictionary-editor-thought-anti-semite-wouldnt-be-used/ |access-date5 May 2020 |workThe Times of Israel |date4 May 2019 |archive-date5 May 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200505080418/https://www.timesofisrael.com/letter-shows-first-dictionary-editor-thought-anti-semite-wouldnt-be-used/ |url-statuslive}}</ref> The related term "philosemitism" was used by 1881.<ref name"philosemitism">{{cite magazine |titleThe Jews in Germany |magazineThe Eclectic Magazine of Foreign Literature, Science, and Art |publisherLeavitt, Trow & Company |volumeXXXIII |dateMarch 1881 |page350 |quote...the position of German Liberals in this matter of philo-Semitism.}}</ref>UsageFrom the outset the term anti-Semitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against Jews.<ref name"MWdef" />{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp22–25}}<ref name"JustJews" /> The term has been described as confusing, for in modern usage Semitic designates a language group, not a race. In this sense, the term is a misnomer, since there are many speakers of Semitic languages (e.g., Arabs, Ethiopians, and Assyrians) who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices, while there are many Jews who do not speak Hebrew, a Semitic language. Though antisemitism could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other Semitic languages, this is not how the term is commonly used.<Ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{harvp|Lewis|1999|p=117}}
|{{cite book |firstBenjamin |lastIsaac |author-linkIsaac Benjamin |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ideem1AQAAQBAJ&pgPA442 |titleThe Invention of Racism in Classical Antiquity |publisherPrinceton University Press |year2004 |page442 |access-date27 October 2018 |isbn9781400849567 |archive-date29 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231229235521/https://books.google.com/books?ideem1AQAAQBAJ&pgPA442#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-status=live}}
|{{cite book |author-linkDavid Matas |lastMatas |firstDavid |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDYR7SqcMe9gC&pgPA34 |titleAftershock: Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism |publisherDundurn Press |year2005 |page34 |access-date27 October 2018 |isbn9781550025538 |archive-date29 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231229235524/https://books.google.com/books?idDYR7SqcMe9gC&pgPA34#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-status=live}}
|{{cite web |urlhttps://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf |titleMemo on Spelling of Antisemitism |publisherInternational Holocaust Remembrance Alliance |dateApril 2015 |quote... the hyphenated spelling allows for the possibility of something called 'Semitism', which not only legitimizes a form of pseudo-scientific racial classification that was thoroughly discredited by association with Nazi ideology, but also divides the term, stripping it from its meaning of opposition and hatred toward Jews. |access-date24 May 2019 |archive-date31 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201031085825/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf |url-status=live}}
}}</ref>
The term may be spelled with or without a hyphen (antisemitism or anti-Semitism). Many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form.<ref name"IHRA2">{{cite web |titleMemo on Spelling of Antisemitism |urlhttps://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf |publisherInternational Holocaust Remembrance Alliance |dateApril 2015 |quoteThe unhyphenated spelling is favored by many scholars and institutions in order to dispel the idea that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes. |access-date24 May 2019 |archive-date31 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201031085825/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/memo-on-spelling-of-antisemitism_final-1.pdf |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite web |titleThe Power of Myth |urlhttps://www.facinghistory.org/campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/$FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf |websiteFacing History |access-date27 October 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090305002701/http://www2.facinghistory.org/Campus/reslib.nsf/99ca830bb4f483948525717f005abfc7/2820f36c177cc758852571860065e8c2/%24FILE/complete_antisemitism.pdf |archive-date5 March 2009 |url-status=dead}}
|{{cite web |last1Bauer |first1Yehuda |author-linkYehuda Bauer |titleProblems of Contemporary Antisemitism |urlhttp://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf |access-date27 October 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080307094003/http://humwww.ucsc.edu/jewishstudies/docs/YBauerLecture.pdf |archive-date7 March 2008}}
|{{cite book |lastBauer |firstYehuda |author-linkYehuda Bauer |titleA History of the Holocaust |urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofholocau00yehu |url-accessregistration |publisherFranklin Watts |year1982 |page[https://archive.org/details/historyofholocau00yehu/page/52 52] |isbn978-0-531-05641-7}}
}}</ref> Shmuel Almog argued, "If you use the hyphenated form, you consider the words 'Semitism', 'Semite', 'Semitic' as meaningful&nbsp;... [I]n antisemitic parlance, 'Semites' really stands for Jews, just that."<ref>{{Cite web |lastAlmog |firstShmuel |dateSummer 1989 |titleWhat's in a Hyphen? |urlhttp://sicsa.huji.ac.il/hyphen.htm |url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/19990428121824/http://sicsa.huji.ac.il/hyphen.htm|archive-date28 April 1999 |access-date3 April 2024 |websiteVidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism |postscript. Published in SICSA report: the newsletter of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism, the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Republished in 2014 by Alabama Holocaust Education Center: ahecinfo.org/wp-content/uploads/Why-antisemitism-with-no-hyphen.pdf}}</ref> Emil Fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling, in order to "[dispel] the notion that there is an entity 'Semitism' which 'anti-Semitism' opposes."{{sfnp|Prager|Telushkin|2003|p[https://books.google.com/books?idVK0llzUqQ2YC&pgPA199 199]}}
Others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance;<ref name"IHRA2"/> historian Deborah Lipstadt;{{sfnp|Lipstadt|2019|pp22–25}} Padraic O'Hare, professor of Religious and Theological Studies and Director of the Center for the Study of Jewish-Christian-Muslim Relations at Merrimack College; and historians Yehuda Bauer and James Carroll. According to Carroll, who first cites O'Hare and Bauer on "the existence of something called 'Semitism{{'"}}, "the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book |lastCarroll |firstJames |author-linkJames Carroll (author) |titleConstantine's Sword: The Church and the Jews |publisherMariner |locationNew York |year2002 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idn7EUdvSQs70C&pgPT421 |isbn978-0618219087|pages628–629 |access-date27 October 2018 |archive-date29 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231229235554/https://books.google.com/books?idn7EUdvSQs70C&pgPT421 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
The Associated Press and its accompanying AP Stylebook adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021.<ref>{{Cite news |lastBandler |firstAaron |date27 April 2021 |titleAP Changes Spelling of "Anti-Semitism" to "Antisemitism" |workJewish Journal |urlhttps://jewishjournal.com/news/united-states/336003/ap-changes-spelling-of-anti-semitism-to-antisemitism/ |access-date18 July 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241130063127/https://jewishjournal.com/news/united-states/336003/ap-changes-spelling-of-anti-semitism-to-antisemitism/ |archive-date30 November 2024}}</ref> Style guides for other news organizations such as the New York Times and Wall Street Journal later adopted this spelling as well.<ref>{{Cite news |lastHanau |firstShira |date8 December 2021 |titleThe New York Times updates style guide to 'antisemitism,' losing the hyphen |publisherJewish Telegraphic Agency |urlhttps://www.jta.org/2021/12/08/united-states/the-new-york-times-updates-style-guide-to-antisemitism-losing-the-hyphen |access-date18 July 2023 |archive-date19 July 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230719040045/https://www.jta.org/2021/12/08/united-states/the-new-york-times-updates-style-guide-to-antisemitism-losing-the-hyphen |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date15 December 2022|titleVol. 35, No. 11: Antisemitism |workThe Wall Street Journal|urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/vol-35-no-11-antisemitism-11671114285 |access-date19 July 2023 |issn0099-9660 |archive-date19 July 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230719040044/https://www.wsj.com/articles/vol-35-no-11-antisemitism-11671114285 |url-statuslive}}</ref> It has also been adopted by many Holocaust museums, such as the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and Yad Vashem.<ref>{{Cite news |lastJo Zerivitz |firstMarcia |date1 February 2021 |titleIn a word, it's antisemitism |workJewish Press of Tampa Bay |urlhttps://www.jewishpresstampa.com/articles/in-a-word-its-antisemitism/ |access-date18 July 2023 |archive-date19 July 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230719040045/https://www.jewishpresstampa.com/articles/in-a-word-its-antisemitism/ |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Definition
Though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against Jews, and, according to Olaf Blaschke, has become an "umbrella term for negative stereotypes about Jews",{{sfnp|Weinberg|2010|p[https://books.google.com/books?id0HDeEPouQm0C&pg=PA18 18]}} a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions.
Writing in 1987, Holocaust scholar and City University of New York professor Helen Fein defined it as "a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards Jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes, and in culture as myth, ideology, folklore and imagery, and in actions—social or legal discrimination, political mobilization against the Jews, and collective or state violence—which results in and/or is designed to distance, displace, or destroy Jews as Jews."<ref>{{Cite book |editor-lastFine |editor-firstHelen |titleThe persisting question: sociological perspectives and social contexts of modern antisemitism |date1987 |page67 |publisherDe Gruyter |isbn978-3-11-010170-6 |locationBerlin}}</ref>
Elaborating on Fein's definition, Dietz Bering of the University of Cologne writes that, to antisemites, "Jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature, that is, their bad traits are incorrigible. Because of this bad nature: (1) Jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective. (2) Jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies. (3) Jews bring disaster on their 'host societies' or on the whole world, they are doing it secretly, therefore the anti-Semites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial, bad Jewish character."{{sfnp|Falk|2008|p[https://books.google.com/books?idzL_0WOiZj0oC&pg=PA5 5]}}
For Swiss historian Sonja Weinberg, as distinct from economic and religious anti-Judaism, antisemitism in its specifically modern form shows conceptual innovation, a resort to "science" to defend itself, new functional forms, and organisational differences. It was anti-liberal, racialist and nationalist. It promoted the myth that Jews conspired to 'judaise' the world; it served to consolidate social identity; it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system; and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism.{{sfnp|Weinberg|2010|pp[https://books.google.com/books?id0HDeEPouQm0C&pg=PA18 18–19]}}
with the world in his hands]]
In 2003, Israeli politician Natan Sharansky developed what he called the "three D" test to distinguish antisemitism from criticism of Israel, giving delegitimization, demonization, and double standards as a litmus test for the former.<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite journal |titleSo what's new? Rethinking the 'new antisemitism' in a global age |firstJonathan |lastJudaken |author-linkJonathan Judaken |journalPatterns of Prejudice |volume42 |issue4–5 |pages531–560 |year2008 |doi10.1080/00313220802377453 |urlhttps://umdrive.memphis.edu/jjudaken/public/publications/PoP%20New%20Antisemitism.pdf?uniq-5aa3 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100618033045/https://umdrive.memphis.edu/jjudaken/public/publications/PoP%20New%20Antisemitism.pdf?uniq-5aa3 |archive-date18 June 2010}}
|{{cite journal |lastYounes |firstAnna-Esther |titleFighting Anti-Semitism in Contemporary Germany |journalIslamophobia Studies Journal |volume5 |issue2 |date1 October 2020|issn2325-8381 |doi10.13169/islastudj.5.2.0249 |doi-accessfree}}
|{{cite web |titleThe Louis D. Brandeis Center FAQs About Defining Anti-Semitism |websiteBrandeis Center - Advance the civil and human rights of the Jewish people and promote justice for all |date14 March 2022 |urlhttps://brandeiscenter.com/the-louis-d-brandeis-center-faqs-about-defining-anti-semitism-2/ |access-date16 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250106075541/https://brandeiscenter.com/the-louis-d-brandeis-center-faqs-about-defining-anti-semitism-2/ |archive-date=6 January 2025}}
}}</ref>
Bernard Lewis, writing in 2006, defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice, hatred, or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest. According to Lewis, antisemitism is marked by two distinct features: Jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others, and they are accused of "cosmic evil".{{sfnp|Lindemann|Levy|2010|p8}} Thus, "it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute Jews without necessarily being anti-Semitic" unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism.<ref>{{cite magazine |author-linkBernard Lewis |lastLewis |firstBernard |urlhttp://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html |titleThe New Anti-Semitism |magazineThe American Scholar |volume75 |number1 |dateWinter 2006 |pages25–36 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110908010822/http://hnn.us/blogs/entries/21832.html |archive-date=8 September 2011}}</ref>
There have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally. In 2005, the United States Department of State stated that "while there is no universally accepted definition, there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses." For the purposes of its 2005 Report on Global Anti-Semitism, the term was considered to mean "hatred toward Jews—individually and as a group—that can be attributed to the Jewish religion and/or ethnicity."<ref name"USDS">{{cite report |urlhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/40258.htm |titleReport on Global Anti-Semitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210125182906/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/40258.htm |archive-date25 January 2021 |publisherU.S. State Department |date=5 January 2005}}</ref>
In 2005, the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC, now the Fundamental Rights Agency), an agency of the European Union, developed a more detailed working definition, which stated: "Antisemitism is a certain perception of Jews, which may be expressed as hatred toward Jews. Rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward Jewish or non-Jewish individuals and/or their property, toward Jewish community institutions and religious facilities." It also adds that "such manifestations could also target the state of Israel, conceived as a Jewish collectivity," but that "criticism of Israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic."<ref name"antisemitic"/> It provided contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself, including promoting the harming of Jews in the name of an ideology or religion; promoting negative stereotypes of Jews; holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual Jewish person or group; denying the Holocaust or accusing Jews or Israel of exaggerating it; and accusing Jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to Israel than their own country. It also lists ways in which attacking Israel could be antisemitic, and states that denying the Jewish people their right to self-determination, e.g. by claiming that the existence of a state of Israel is a racist endeavor, can be a manifestation of antisemitism—as can applying double standards by requiring of Israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation, or holding Jews collectively responsible for the actions of the State of Israel.<ref name"antisemitic">{{cite web |urlhttp://fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf |titleWorking Definition of Antisemitism |publisherEuropean Union Agency for Fundamental Rights |access-date24 July 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110304162430/http://www.fra.europa.eu/fraWebsite/material/pub/AS/AS-WorkingDefinition-draft.pdf |archive-date4 March 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
: "The Jews are a different race, hostile to our own... Judaism, there is the enemy!" (see file for complete translation)]]
The EUMC working definition was adopted by the European Parliament Working Group on Antisemitism in 2010,{{sfn|Maizels|2023|pp14–15}}<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.antisem.eu/projects/eumc-working-definition-of-antisemitism/ |titleEUMC Working Definition of Antisemitism |websiteantisem.eu |access-date23 August 2016 |archive-date1 July 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160701214816/http://www.antisem.eu/projects/eumc-working-definition-of-antisemitism/ |url-statuslive}}</ref> by the United States Department of State in 2017,{{sfn|Maizels|2023|pp15–16}}<ref>{{cite web |titleDefining Anti-Semitism |urlhttps://www.state.gov/s/rga/resources/267538.htm |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170210041344/https://www.state.gov/s/rga/resources/267538.htm |url-statusdead |archive-date10 February 2017 |access-date5 August 2018}}</ref> in the Operational Hate Crime Guidance of the UK College of Policing in 2014<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/major-investigation-and-public-protection/hate-crime/ |titleHate crime |websiteapp.college.police.uk |access-date23 August 2016 |archive-date11 September 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160911161627/https://www.app.college.police.uk/app-content/major-investigation-and-public-protection/hate-crime/ |url-statusdead}}</ref>{{primary inline|dateSeptember 2024}} and by the UK's Campaign Against Antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://antisemitism.uk/definition/ |titleDefinition of antisemitism |date13 July 2015 |access-date23 August 2016 |archive-date24 September 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160924061521/https://antisemitism.uk/definition/ |url-statuslive}}</ref>{{primary inline|dateSeptember 2024}} In 2016, the working definition was adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance.{{sfn|Maizels|2023|pp15–17}}<ref>{{cite web |titleWorking Definition of Antisemitism {{!}} IHRA |websiteholocaustremembrance.com |urlhttps://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/press_release_document_antisemitism.pdf |access-date23 August 2016 |archive-date25 August 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180825032144/https://www.holocaustremembrance.com/sites/default/files/press_release_document_antisemitism.pdf |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.thejc.com/news/us-news/us-house-of-representatives-passes-motion-condemning-antisemitism-ilhan-omar-1.481185 |titleUS House of Representatives votes to condemn antisemitism after Ilhan Omar's 'Israel loyalty' remarks |quoteAccusing Jewish citizens of being more loyal to Israel than to their interests of their own nation is listed by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance as an example of contemporary antisemitism in public life |workThe Jewish Chronicle |access-date10 March 2019 |archive-date3 December 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201203163852/https://www.thejc.com/news/us-news/us-house-of-representatives-passes-motion-condemning-antisemitism-ilhan-omar-1.481185 |url-statuslive}}</ref> IHRA's Working definition of antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism, and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of Israel.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Ruth Gould |first1Rebecca |author1-linkRebecca Ruth Gould |titleThe IHRA Definition of Antisemitism: Defining Antisemitism by Erasing Palestinians |journalThe Political Quarterly |year2020 |volume91 |issue4 |pages825–831 |doi10.1111/1467-923X.12883 |s2cid225366096 |doi-access=free}}</ref> In response to the perceived lack of clarity in the IHRA definition, two new definitions of antisemitism were published in 2021, the Nexus Document in February 2021 and the Jerusalem Declaration on Antisemitism in March 2021.<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{harvnb|Maizels|2023|p=17}}
|{{Cite news |lastShamir |firstJonathan |date18 April 2021 |titleTwo Jews, Three Definitions: New Documents Challenge Mainstream View of Antisemitism |workHaaretz |urlhttps://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-04-18/ty-article/.highlight/two-jews-three-definitions-new-documents-challenge-mainstream-view-of-antisemitism/0000017f-db27-db22-a17f-ffb71c8f0000?lts1674173929738 |url-accesssubscription |access-date20 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20230630082911/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-04-18/ty-article/.highlight/two-jews-three-definitions-new-documents-challenge-mainstream-view-of-antisemitism/0000017f-db27-db22-a17f-ffb71c8f0000 |archive-date=30 June 2023}}
|{{Cite news |lastStarr |firstMichael |date22 April 2021 |titleWar of the words: The conflict between definitions of antisemitism |urlhttps://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/war-of-the-words-the-conflict-between-definitions-of-antisemitism-665935 |access-date19 January 2023 |workThe Jerusalem Post |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241226204831/https://www.jpost.com//diaspora/antisemitism/war-of-the-words-the-conflict-between-definitions-of-antisemitism-665935 |archive-date=26 December 2024}}
|{{Cite news |lastKampeas |firstRon |date17 March 2021 |titleA liberal definition of antisemitism that allows for Israel criticism |urlhttps://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/a-liberal-definition-of-antisemitism-that-allows-for-israel-criticism-662248 |access-date22 January 2023 |workThe Jerusalem Post |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210605005943/https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/a-liberal-definition-of-antisemitism-that-allows-for-israel-criticism-662248 |archive-date=5 June 2021}}
|{{Cite news |lastKampeas |firstRon |date17 March 2021 |titleUS Jewish scholars push anti-Semitism definition allowing more Israel criticism |urlhttps://www.timesofisrael.com/us-jewish-scholars-push-anti-semitism-definition-allowing-more-israel-criticism/ |access-date19 January 2023 |workThe Times of Israel |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210628094031/https://www.timesofisrael.com/us-jewish-scholars-push-anti-semitism-definition-allowing-more-israel-criticism/ |archive-date=28 June 2021}}
|{{Cite news |lastMcGreal |firstChris |date24 April 2023 |titleUN urged to reject antisemitism definition over 'misuse' to shield Israel |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/apr/24/un-ihra-antisemitism-definition-israel-criticism |access-date5 February 2024 |workThe Guardian |issn0261-3077 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231022130932/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/apr/24/un-ihra-antisemitism-definition-israel-criticism |archive-date22 October 2023}}
|{{Cite news |lastHofmann |firstSarah Judith |date17 June 2021 |titleA new definition for antisemitism? |urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/the-jerusalem-declaration-redefining-antisemitism/a-57895132 |access-date5 February 2024 |workDeutsche Welle |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241226153227/https://www.dw.com/en/the-jerusalem-declaration-redefining-antisemitism/a-57895132 |archive-date=26 December 2024}}
}}</ref>
Evolution of usage
In 1879, Wilhelm Marr founded the {{lang|de|Antisemiten-Liga}} (Anti-Semitic League).<ref>Richard S. Levy, "Marr, Wilhelm (1819–1904)" in {{harvp|Levy|2005|locvol. 2, pp. 445–446}}</ref> Identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in Europe during the late 19th century. For example, Karl Lueger, the popular mayor of fin de siècle Vienna, skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage.<ref>{{cite book |firstRichard S. |lastGeehr |titleKarl Lueger, Mayor of Fin-de-Siècle Vienna |publisherWayne State University Press |locationDetroit |date1989 |isbn0-8143-2055-4}}</ref>{{pn|dateFebruary 2025}} In its 1910 obituary of Lueger, The New York Times notes that Lueger was "Chairman of the Christian Social Union of the Parliament and of the Anti-Semitic Union of the Diet of Lower Austria.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1910/03/11/archives/dr-karl-lueger-dead-antisemitic-leader-and-mayor-of-vienna-was-66.html |titleDr. Karl Lueger Dead; Anti-Semitic Leader and Mayor of Vienna Was 66 Years Old |workThe New York Times |date11 March 1910 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210126110903/https://www.nytimes.com/1910/03/11/archives/dr-karl-lueger-dead-antisemitic-leader-and-mayor-of-vienna-was-66.html |archive-date26 January 2021}}</ref> In 1895, A. C. Cuza organized the {{lang|ro|Alianța Antisemită}} and the {{lang|ro|Liga Antisemită Universală}} in Bucharest.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |firstLeon |lastVolovici |titleAntisemitic Parties and Movements |translator-firstAnca |translator-lastMircea |urlhttps://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/3 |encyclopediaThe YIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe |access-date6 February 2025 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250121114739/https://encyclopedia.yivo.org/article/3 |archive-date21 January 2025}}</ref> In the period before World War II, when animosity towards Jews was far more commonplace, it was not uncommon for a person, an organization, or a political party to self-identify as an antisemite or antisemitic.{{cn|dateFebruary 2025}}
The early Zionist pioneer Leon Pinsker, a professional physician, preferred the clinical-sounding term Judeophobia to antisemitism, which he regarded as a misnomer. The word Judeophobia first appeared in his pamphlet "Auto-Emancipation", published anonymously in German in September 1882, where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of Jews.<ref>{{Cite book |lastSchoeps |firstJulius H. |date2013 |titlePioneers of Zionism: Hess, Pinsker, Rülf |chapterAuto-emancipation and self-help |urlhttps://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110314724.34/html?langde |publisherDe Gruyter |doi10.1515/9783110314724.34 |pages34–39 |isbn978-3-11-031472-4 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241212042301/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110314724.34/html |archive-date12 December 2024}}</ref> According to Pinsker, this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition.<ref name"Bartlett2005">{{cite book |lastBartlett |firstSteven J. |titleThe Pathology of Man: A Study of Human Evil |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idU5KQ0Yi76GMC&pgPA30 |year2005 |publisherCharles C. Thomas Publisher |isbn9780398075576 |page30}}</ref> {{blockquote|Judeophobia is a form of demonopathy, with the distinction that the Jewish ghost has become known to the whole race of mankind, not merely to certain races... Judeophobia is a psychic disorder. As a psychic disorder, it is hereditary, and as a disease transmitted for two thousand years it is incurable... Thus have Judaism and Jew-hatred passed through history for centuries as inseparable companions... Having analyzed Judeophobia as a hereditary form of demonopathy, peculiar to the human race, and represented Jew-hatred as based upon an inherited aberration of the human mind, we must draw the important conclusion, that we must give up contending against these hostile impulses, just as we give up contending against every other inherited predisposition.<ref>{{cite book |last1Pinsker |first1Leon |author1-linkLeon Pinsker |translator-lastBlondheim |translator-firstD. S. |titleAuto-Emancipation |seriesZionist publications |date1906 |publisherThe Maccabaean Publishing Company |locationNew York |pages3, 4 |urlhttps://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idhvd.hw5rcs;view1up;seq15 |access-date30 March 2018 |archive-date20 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210220161903/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idhvd.hw5rcs&view1up&seq15 |url-statuslive}}, English and [https://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94 Hebrew] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726052832/https://he.wikisource.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95-%D7%90%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%A4%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94 |date26 July 2020 }} translations.</ref>}}
In the aftermath of the Kristallnacht pogrom in 1938, German propaganda minister Goebbels announced: "The German people is anti-Semitic. It has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the Jewish race."<ref>Daily Telegraph, 12 November 1938. Cited in {{cite book |author-linkMartin Gilbert |lastGilbert |firstMartin |titleKristallnacht: Prelude to Destruction |publisherHarperCollins |date2006 |page=142}}</ref>
After 1945 victory of the Allies over Nazi Germany, and particularly after the full extent of the Nazi genocide against the Jews became known, the term antisemitism acquired pejorative connotations. This marked a full circle shift in usage, from an era just decades earlier when "Jew" was used as a pejorative term.<ref>{{cite book |firstJacob Rader |lastMarcus |titleUnited States Jewry, 1776–1985 |publisherWayne State University Press |date1989 |page286 |isbn0-8143-2186-0}}</ref>{{sfnp|Bein|1990|p580}} Yehuda Bauer wrote in 1984: "There are no anti-Semites in the world&nbsp;... Nobody says, 'I am anti-Semitic.' You cannot, after Hitler. The word has gone out of fashion."<ref>{{cite book |lastBauer |firstYehuda |author-linkYehuda Bauer |chapterThe Most Ancient Group Prejudice |editor-firstLeo |editor-lastEitinger |date1984 |titleThe Anti-Semitism of Our Time |locationOslo |publisherNansen Committee |page14}}, cited in: {{cite book |firstJocelyn |lastHellig |date2003 |titleThe Holocaust and Antisemitism: A Short History |publisherOneworld Publications |page73 |isbn1-85168-313-5}}</ref>
Eternalism–contextualism debate
The study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the Holocaust and the Israeli–Palestinian conflict.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp1123–1124}} There are two competing views of antisemitism, eternalism, and contextualism.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p25}} The eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist, transhistorical force teleologically culminating in the Holocaust.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p25}}{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|pp1123, 1130}} Hannah Arendt criticized this approach, writing that it provoked "the uncomfortable question: 'Why the Jews of all people?' ... with the question begging reply: Eternal hostility."{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p1130}} Zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of Jews; according to antisemites, it proves the inferiority of Jews, while for Zionists it means that Jews need their own state as a refuge.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p1135}}{{sfnp|Ury|2018|p1151}} Most Zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p1135}}
The contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of Jews emerges.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p27}} Some contextualists restrict the use of "antisemitism" to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism, treating anti-Judaism as a separate phenomenon.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p1132}} Historian David Engel has challenged the project to define antisemitism, arguing that it essentializes Jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination.{{sfnp|Consonni|2022|p26}} Engel argues that the term "antisemitism" is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between anti-Jewish prejudices expressed in different contexts, without evidence of such a connection.{{sfnp|Judaken|2018|p1130}}
Manifestations
and Jewish hat) being burned.]]
Antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways. René König mentions social antisemitism, economic antisemitism, religious antisemitism, and political antisemitism as examples. König points out that these different forms demonstrate that the "origins of anti-Semitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods." König asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create "serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite book |titleMaterialien zur Kriminalsoziologie |languagede |trans-titleMaterials on Criminal Sociology |firstRené |lastKönig |publisherVS Verlag |year2004 |page231 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN9oL2cljv8QC&pgPA231 |isbn978-3-8100-3306-2 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230000128/https://books.google.com/books?idN9oL2cljv8QC&pgPA231 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
These difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism. The forms identified are substantially the same; it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ. Bernard Lazare, writing in the 1890s, identified three forms of antisemitism: Christian antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and ethnologic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |titleAnti-Semitism: Its History and Causes |firstBernard |lastLazare |publisherCosimo, Inc. |year2006 |page224 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idVP81v2Y24HUC&pgPA224 |isbn978-1-59605-601-5 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230000042/https://books.google.com/books?idVP81v2Y24HUC&pgPA224#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref> William Brustein names four categories: religious, racial, economic, and political.<ref>{{cite book |titleRoots of hate: anti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |firstWilliam |lastBrustein |publisherCambridge University Press |year2003 |page46 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHc3HabBQsdsC&pgPA46 |isbn978-0-521-77478-9 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230000114/https://books.google.com/books?idHc3HabBQsdsC&pgPA46#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref> The Roman Catholic historian Edward Flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p{{page needed|dateJuly 2022}}}}
* Political and economic antisemitism, giving as examples Cicero{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p16}} and Charles Lindbergh;{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p260}}
* Theological or religious antisemitism, also called "traditional antisemitism"<ref>{{Cite news |last1Sherwood |first1Harriet |date11 April 2018 |titleTraditional antisemitism is back, global study finds |workThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds |access-date17 October 2023 |issn0261-3077 |archive-date17 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231017211114/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/11/traditional-antisemitism-is-back-global-study-finds |url-statuslive}}</ref> and sometimes known as anti-Judaism;{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p289}}
* Nationalistic antisemitism, citing Voltaire and other Enlightenment thinkers, who attacked Jews for supposedly having certain characteristics, such as greed and arrogance, and for observing customs such as kashrut and Shabbat;{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=176}}
* Racial antisemitism, with its extreme form resulting in the Holocaust by the Nazis.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p=179}}
{{Quote box
|quote=Europe has blamed the Jews for an encyclopedia of sins.<br/>The Church blamed the Jews for killing Jesus; Voltaire blamed the Jews for inventing Christianity. In the febrile minds of anti-Semites, Jews were usurers and well-poisoners and spreaders of disease. Jews were the creators of both communism and capitalism; they were clannish but also cosmopolitan; cowardly and warmongering; self-righteous moralists and defilers of culture.<br/>Ideologues and demagogues of many permutations have understood the Jews to be a singularly malevolent force standing between the world and its perfection.
|authorJeffrey Goldberg, 2015.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Goldberg |first1Jeffrey |author1-linkJeffrey Goldberg |titleIs It Time for the Jews to Leave Europe?|urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/ |magazineThe New Yorker |dateApril 2015 |access-date21 April 2023 |archive-date21 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230421112016/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2015/04/is-it-time-for-the-jews-to-leave-europe/386279/ |url-statuslive}}</ref>
|source|stylemax-width:30em
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Louis Harap, writing in the 1980s, separated "economic antisemitism" and merges "political" and "nationalistic" antisemitism into "ideological antisemitism". Harap also adds a category of "social antisemitism".<ref>{{cite book |titleCreative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature, 1900-1940s |firstLouis |lastHarap |publisherGreenwood Publishing Group |year1987 |page24 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmAPvam-n_DYC&pgPA24 |isbn978-0-313-25386-7 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230000143/https://books.google.com/books?idmAPvam-n_DYC&pgPA24 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
* Religious (Jew as Christ-killer),
* Economic (Jew as banker, usurer, money-obsessed),
* Social (Jew as social inferior, "pushy", vulgar, therefore excluded from personal contact),
* Racist (Jews as an inferior "race"),
* Ideological (Jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary),
* Cultural (Jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization).
Religious antisemitism
{{Main|Religious antisemitism}}
{{See also|Anti-Judaism|Antisemitism in Christianity|Antisemitism in Islam}}
(converted Jew), accused of a relapse into Judaism, Mexico City, 1601]]
Religious antisemitism, also known as anti-Judaism, is antipathy towards Jews because of their perceived religious beliefs. In theory, antisemitism and attacks against individual Jews would stop if Jews stopped practicing Judaism or changed their public faith, especially by conversion to the official or right religion. However, in some cases, discrimination continues after conversion, as in the case of Marranos (Christianized Jews in Spain and Portugal) in the late 15th century and 16th century, who were suspected of secretly practising Judaism or Jewish customs.{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|pp=135–141}}
Although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the Judeo-Christian conflict, other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times. Frederick Schweitzer asserts that "most scholars ignore the Christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism, cultural antisemitism, racism or racial antisemitism, economic antisemitism, and the like."<ref>{{cite book |titleA concise history of American antisemitism |firstRobert |lastMichael |publisherRowman & Littlefield |year2005 |pagevii |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5G3feplFBYUC&pgPR7 |isbn978-0-7425-4313-3 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001047/https://books.google.com/books?id5G3feplFBYUC&pgPR7#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref> William Nicholls draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds: "The dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion [...] a Jew ceased to be a Jew upon baptism." From the perspective of racial antisemitism, however, "the assimilated Jew was still a Jew, even after baptism.[...] From the Enlightenment onward, it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards Jews[...] Once Jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance, without leaving behind the old Christian hostility towards Jews, the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable, even before explicitly racist doctrines appear."<ref>{{cite book |lastNicholls |firstWilliam |author-link|date1993 |titleChristian Antisemitism: A History of Hate |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcg00E0gk9PQC |locationLanham, Maryland |publisherJason Aronson / Rowman & Littlefield |page314 |isbn=0-87668-398-7}}</ref>
Some Christians such as the Catholic priest Ernest Jouin, who published the first French translation of the Protocols, combined religious and racial antisemitism, as in his statement that "From the triple viewpoint of race, of nationality, and of religion, the Jew has become the enemy of humanity."{{sfnp|Michael|2008|p171}} The virulent antisemitism of Édouard Drumont, one of the most widely read Catholic writers in France during the Dreyfus Affair, likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism.<ref>{{cite book |last1Arnal |first1Oscar L. |titleAmbivalent Alliance: The Catholic Church and the Action Française, 1899–1939 |date1985 |publisherUniversity of Pittsburgh Press |page32 |isbn978-0822985631}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Rubenstein |first1Richard L. |titleApproaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy |date2003 |publisherWestminster John Knox Press |page81 |isbn978-0664223533}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Brustein |first1William |titleRoots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust |date2003 |publisherCambridge University Press |page60 |isbn978-0521774789}}</ref> Drumont founded the Antisemitic League of France.
Economic antisemitism
{{Main|Economic antisemitism}}
<!-- asserting Jewish control of banking and finance]]
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propaganda poster exhorts readers not to "be a servant to the Jew".]]
The underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that Jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by Jews.<ref nameMeyerBrenner220>{{cite book |first1Michael |last1Meyer |first2Michael |last2Brenner |titleGerman-Jewish History in Modern Times: Integration in dispute, 1871–1918 |publisherColumbia University Press |year1998 |page220 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHFFoSglsovoC&pgPA220 |isbn978-0-231-07476-6 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001150/https://books.google.com/books?idHFFoSglsovoC&pgPA220#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-status=live}}</ref>
Linking Jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting antisemitic canards.<ref>{{cite web |titleJews & Money – The story of a stereotype |urlhttp://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp |access-date18 April 2011 |websiteAnti-Defamation League |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110228220753/http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/jewsandmoney/default.asp |archive-date28 February 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Antisemites claim that Jews control the world finances, a theory promoted in the fraudulent The Protocols of the Elders of Zion and later repeated by Henry Ford and his The Dearborn Independent. In the modern era, such myths continue to be spread in books such as The Secret Relationship Between Blacks and Jews published by the Nation of Islam and on the internet.
Derek Penslar writes that there are two components to the financial canards:<ref>Penslar p. 5</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}
:a) Jews are savages that "are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor"
:b) Jews are "leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination"
Abraham Foxman describes six facets of the financial canards:
#All Jews are wealthy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=84}}
#Jews are stingy and greedy{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=89}}
#Powerful Jews control the business world{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=93}}
#Jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=98}}
#It is okay for Jews to cheat non-Jews{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=102}}
#Jews use their power to benefit "their own kind"{{sfnp|Foxman|2010|p=105}}
Gerald Krefetz summarizes the myth as "[Jews] control the banks, the money supply, the economy, and businesses—of the community, of the country, of the world".<ref>Krefetz p. 45</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|dateJuly 2022}} Krefetz gives, as illustrations, many slurs and proverbs (in several different languages) which suggest that Jews are stingy, or greedy, or miserly, or aggressive bargainers.<ref>Krefetz pp. 6–7</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|dateJuly 2022}} During the nineteenth century, Jews were described as "scurrilous, stupid, and tight-fisted", but after the Jewish Emancipation and the rise of Jews to the middle- or upper-class in Europe were portrayed as "clever, devious, and manipulative financiers out to dominate [world finances]".<ref>Krefetz p. 47</ref>{{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}
Léon Poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism, but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism (because, without the theological causes of economic antisemitism, there would be no economic antisemitism). In opposition to this view, Derek Penslar contends that in the modern era, economic antisemitism is "distinct and nearly constant" but theological antisemitism is "often subdued".<ref>Penslar p. 12 {{Incomplete short citation|date=July 2022}}</ref>
An academic study by Francesco D'Acunto, Marcel Prokopczuk, and Michael Weber showed that people who live in areas of Germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general. Therefore, they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions. The study concluded, "that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the long-term wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1D'Acunto |first1Francesco |first2Marcel |last2Prokopczuk |first3Michael |last3Weber |date2015 |urlhttp://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/francesco_dacunto/papers/AntisemFinW_Jun14.pdf |titleDistrust in Finance Lingers: Jewish Persecution and Households' Investments |journalMeeting Papers, Society for Economic Dynamics |number26 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141107191848/http://faculty.haas.berkeley.edu/francesco_dacunto/papers/AntisemFinW_Jun14.pdf |archive-date7 November 2014 |viaHaas School of Business |access-date20 October 2014}}</ref>Racial antisemitism
{{Main|Racial antisemitism}}
|year2017 |page42 |isbn9780190661137 |access-date14 October 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001159/https://books.google.com/books?idiDoqDwAAQBAJ&q50,000+red+army+Jewish+soldiers+were+shot&pgPA42#vsnippet&q50%2C000%20red%20army%20Jewish%20soldiers%20were%20shot&ffalse|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
Racial antisemitism is prejudice against Jews as a racial/ethnic group, rather than Judaism as a religion.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid1603&letterA&searchAnti-semitism |titleAnti-Semitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110921041255/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid1603&letterA&searchanti-semitism |archive-date21 September 2011 |encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia}}</ref>
Racial antisemitism is the idea that the Jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement, which categorized non-Europeans as inferior. It more specifically claimed that Northern Europeans, or "Aryans", were superior. Racial antisemites saw the Jews as part of a Semitic race and emphasized their non-European origins and culture. They saw Jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion.<ref>{{cite web |titleJesus – The Jewish religion in the 1st century |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century |websiteEncyclopædia Britannica |access-date31 August 2022 |archive-date11 December 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201211142824/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jesus/The-Jewish-religion-in-the-1st-century |url-status=live}}</ref>
Racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of Judaism with the hatred of Jews as a group. In the context of the Industrial Revolution, following the Jewish Emancipation, Jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility. With the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism, a combination of growing nationalism, the rise of eugenics, and resentment at the socio-economic success of the Jews led to the newer, and more virulent, racist antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId10007171 |titleAntisemitism in History: Racial Antisemitism, 1875–1945 |websiteUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date15 September 2017 |archive-date23 August 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170823210503/https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId10007171 |url-status=live}}</ref>
In the early 19th century, a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the Jews were enacted in Western European countries.<ref>{{cite book |firstPaul |lastWebster |date2001 |titlePetain's Crime: The Full Story of French Collaboration |locationLondon |publisherPan Books |isbn978-0330487856 |pages13, 15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |firstDan |lastCohn-Sherbok |author-linkDan Cohn-Sherbok |date2006 |titleThe Paradox of Anti-Semitism |publisherContinuum |isbn978-0826488961 |pages44–46}}</ref> The old laws restricting them to ghettos, as well as the many laws that limited their property rights, rights of worship and occupation, were rescinded. Despite this, traditional discrimination and hostility to Jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism, encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as Joseph Arthur de Gobineau and particularly his Essay on the Inequality of the Human Race of 1853–1855. Nationalist agendas based on ethnicity, known as ethnonationalism, usually excluded the Jews from the national community as an alien race.{{sfnp|Beller|2007|p64}} Allied to this were theories of Social Darwinism, which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings. Such theories, usually posited by northern Europeans, advocated the superiority of white Aryans to Semitic Jews.{{sfnp|Beller|2007|pp57–59}}
Political antisemitism
{{Quote box
|quote=The whole problem of the Jews exists only in nation states, for here their energy and higher intelligence, their accumulated capital of spirit and will, gathered from generation to generation through a long schooling in suffering, must become so preponderant as to arouse mass envy and hatred. In almost all contemporary nations, therefore – in direct proportion to the degree to which they act up nationalistically – the literary obscenity of leading the Jews to slaughter as scapegoats of every conceivable public and internal misfortune is spreading.
|author=Friedrich Nietzsche
|source1886, [MA 1 475]<ref>{{cite book |titleNietzsche, der Philosoph und Politiker |languagede |trans-titleNietzsche, the Philosopher and Politician |pages8, 63, et passim |firstAlfred |lastBaeumler |author-linkAlfred Baeumler |publisherReclam |year1931 |asin=B002803IJK}}</ref>
|style=max-width:30em
}}
William Brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward Jews based on the belief that Jews seek national or world power. Yisrael Gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to "lay responsibility on the Jews for defeats and political economic crises" while seeking to "exploit opposition and resistance to Jewish influence as elements in political party platforms."<ref>{{cite book |titleGenocide, critical issues of the Holocaust: a companion to the film, Genocide |publisherBehrman House, Inc |year1983 |page100 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDcdiVs9lwvcC&pgPA100 |isbn978-0-940646-04-9 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001125/https://books.google.com/books?idDcdiVs9lwvcC&pgPA100 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Derek J. Penslar wrote, "Political antisemitism identified the Jews as responsible for all the anxiety-provoking social forces that characterized modernity."<ref>{{cite book |author-linkDerek J. Penslar |lastPenslar |firstDerek J. |chapterIntroduction |titleContemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World |editor1-firstDerek J. |editor1-lastPenslar |editor2-firstMichael R. |editor2-lastMarrus |editor3-firstJanice Gross |editor3-lastStein |publisherUniversity of Toronto Press |date2005 |pages3–12 |doi10.3138/9781442673342 |isbn9781442673342}}</ref>
According to Viktor Karády, political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the Jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation.<ref>{{cite book |titleThe Jews of Europe in the modern era: a socio-historical outline |firstViktor |lastKarády |publisherCentral European University Press |year2004|page348 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4hGg9rMQpEEC&pgPA351 |isbn978-963-9241-52-7 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001153/https://books.google.com/books?id4hGg9rMQpEEC&pgPA351#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Cultural antisemitism
Louis Harap defines cultural antisemitism as "that species of anti-Semitism that charges the Jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform, crude, "Jewish" culture."<ref>{{cite book |titleCreative awakening: the Jewish presence in twentieth-century American literature |firstLouis |lastHarap |publisherGreenwood Publishing Group |year1987 |page76 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idmAPvam-n_DYC&pgPA76 |isbn978-0-313-25386-7 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230000109/https://books.google.com/books?idmAPvam-n_DYC&pgPA76 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Similarly, Eric Kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of "Jewishness" as a "religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning, through distinctive traditions and education." According to Kandel, this form of antisemitism views Jews as possessing "unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation."<ref nameKandel30>{{cite book |titleIn search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind |firstEric R. |lastKandel |publisherW. W. Norton & Company |year2007 |page30 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPFnRwWXzypgC&pgPA30 |isbn978-0-393-32937-7 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?idPFnRwWXzypgC&pgPA30#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref> Niewyk and Nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning "the Jews' aloofness from the societies in which they live."<ref>{{cite book |titleThe Columbia Guide to the Holocaust |first1Donald L. |last1Niewyk |first2Francis R. |last2Nicosia |publisherColumbia University Press |year2003 |page215 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idz-6vKBHggVwC&pgPA215 |isbn978-0-231-11201-7 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230000044/https://books.google.com/books?idz-6vKBHggVwC&pgPA215#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-status=live}}</ref>
An important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of Judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion.<ref nameKandel3031>{{cite book |titleIn search of memory: the emergence of a new science of mind |firstEric R. |lastKandel |publisherW. W. Norton & Company |year2007 |pages30–31 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idPFnRwWXzypgC&pgPA30 |isbn978-0-393-32937-7 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230000111/https://books.google.com/books?idPFnRwWXzypgC&pgPA30#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref>Conspiracy theories
{{See also|List of conspiracy theories#Antisemitic conspiracy theories}}
<!-- refs need sorting out -->
Holocaust denial and Jewish conspiracy theories are also considered forms of antisemitism.<ref name="antisemitic"/><ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{Cite web |lastMathis |firstAndrew E. |urlhttp://www.phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ |titleHolocaust Denial, a Definition |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210213171733/https://phdn.org/archives/holocaust-history.org/denial/abc-clio/ |archive-date13 February 2021 |websiteThe Holocaust History Project |date2 July 2004 |access-date=15 August 2016}}
|{{cite book |first1Michael |last1Shermer |first2Alex |last2Grobman |titleDenying History: who Says the Holocaust Never Happened and why Do They Say It? |publisherUniversity of California Press |date2000 |isbn0-520-23469-3 |page=106}}
|{{cite web |urlhttp://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm |titleAntisemitism and Racism Country Reports: United States |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110628184616/http://www.tau.ac.il/Anti-Semitism/asw2000-1/usa.htm |archive-date28 June 2011 |websiteStephen Roth Institute |date2000 |access-date=17 May 2007}}
|{{harvp|Lipstadt|1994|p=27}}
|{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |titleIntroduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110604020743/http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |archive-date4 June 2011 |seriesHolocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda |websiteAnti-Defamation League |date2001 |access-date12 June 2007}}
|{{cite book |firstLawrence N. |lastPowell |titleTroubled Memory: Anne Levy, the Holocaust, and David Duke's Louisiana |publisherUniversity of North Carolina Press |date2000 |isbn0-8078-5374-7 |page=445}}
}}</ref> Zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by Arab media and Arabic language websites, alleging a "Zionist plot" behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage.<ref>{{cite news |lastTait |firstRobert |date10 December 2012 |title'Vulture spying for Israel' caught in Sudan |newspaperThe Daily Telegraph |urlhttps://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html |access-date11 January 2014 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/9734674/Vulture-spying-for-Israel-caught-in-Sudan.html |archive-date10 January 2022}}{{cbignore}}</ref>New antisemitism
{{Main|New antisemitism}}
, Scotland, January 2009]]
Starting in the 1990s, some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism, coming simultaneously from the left, the right, and radical Islam, which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a Jewish homeland in the State of Israel,<ref name="New-AS-List">{{bulleted list|
|{{cite book |lastChesler |firstPhyllis |author-linkPhyllis Chesler |titleThe New Antisemitism: The Current Crisis and What We Must Do About It |publisherJossey-Bass |date2003 |pages=158–159, 181}}
|{{cite web |lastKinsella |firstWarren |author-linkWarren Kinsella |urlhttp://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm |titleThe New antisemitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120729171012/http://warrenkinsella.com/oldsite/old/words_extremism_nas.htm |archive-date29 July 2012 |access-date5 March 2006}}
|{{cite news |lastDoward |firstJamie |date8 August 2004 |urlhttp://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html |titleJews predict record level of hate attacks: Militant Islamic media accused of stirring up new wave of antisemitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080115132604/http://observer.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,6903,1278580,00.html |archive-date15 January 2008 |workThe Observer}}
|{{cite book |lastEndelman |firstTodd M. |author-linkTodd Endelman |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLmym8zUBCKcC&pgPA65 |chapterAntisemitism in Western Europe Today |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221117161939/https://books.google.com/books?idLmym8zUBCKcC&pgPA65 |archive-date17 November 2022 |titleContemporary Antisemitism: Canada and the World |publisherUniversity of Toronto Press |date2005 |pages65–79 |isbn978-0-8020-3931-6}}
|{{cite book |lastMatas |firstDavid |author-linkDavid Matas |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDYR7SqcMe9gC&pgPA30 |titleAftershock: Anti-Zionism and Antisemitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221117161942/https://books.google.com/books?idDYR7SqcMe9gC&pgPA30 |archive-date17 November 2022 |publisherDundurn Press |date2005 |pages30–31 |isbn=978-1-55002-553-8}}
|{{cite book |lastWistrich |firstRobert S. |author-linkRobert S. Wistrich |titleFrom Ambivalence to Betrayal: The Left, the Jews, and Israel |seriesStudies in Antisemitism |publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press |date2012}}{{pn|dateFebruary 2025}}
}}</ref> and they argue that the language of anti-Zionism and criticism of Israel are used to attack Jews more broadly. In this view, the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of Israel and Zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind, and they attribute this to antisemitism.<ref name":0">[https://web.archive.org/web/20031205153139/http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display.article?id2791 "Antiglobalism's Jewish Problem"] in Rosenbaum, Ron (ed.). Those who forget the past: The Question of Anti-Semitism, Random House 2004, p.&nbsp;272.</ref>
Jewish scholar Gustavo Perednik posited in 2004 that anti-Zionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against Jews, in that it singles out Jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor, and "proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of Jews".<ref name":0" /> Proponents of this theory assert that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs, including older motifs such as the blood libel.<ref name"New-AS-List"/>
Critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism, and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the State of Israel, and, by associating anti-Zionism with antisemitism, misusing it to taint anyone opposed to Israeli actions and policies.<ref>{{cite news |author-linkBrian Klug |lastKlug |firstBrian |urlhttp://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i20040202&sklug |titleThe Myth of the New Anti-Semitism |archive-urlhttp://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090701082702/http://www.thenation.com/doc.mhtml?i20040202&sklug |archive-date1 July 2009 |workThe Nation |date15 January 2004 |access-date9 January 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author-linkMichael Lerner (rabbi) |lastLerner |firstMichael |urlhttp://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml |titleThere Is No New Anti-Semitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110126094118/http://baltimorechronicle.com/2007/020207LERNER.shtml |archive-date26 January 2011 |date5 February 2007 |access-date6 February 2007}}</ref>History
{{Main|History of antisemitism}}
{{For timeline}}
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |History}}
Many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early Christianity. Jerome Chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism:{{sfnp|Chanes|2004}}
#Pre-Christian anti-Judaism in ancient Greece and Rome which was primarily ethnic in nature
#Christian antisemitism in antiquity and the Middle Ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times
#Traditional Muslim antisemitism which was—at least, in its classical form—nuanced in that Jews were a protected class
#Political, social and economic antisemitism of Enlightenment and post-Enlightenment Europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism
#Racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in Nazism in the 20th century
#Contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the New Antisemitism
Chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories: "ancient antisemitism, which was primarily ethnic in nature; Christian antisemitism, which was religious; and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries."{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|pp5–6}}Ancient worldThe first clear examples of anti-Jewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century BCE to Alexandria,{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|p11}} the home to the largest Jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, was produced. Manetho, an Egyptian priest and historian of that era, wrote scathingly of the Jews. His themes are repeated in the works of Chaeremon, Lysimachus, Poseidonius, Apollonius Molon, and in Apion and Tacitus.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p12}} Agatharchides of Cnidus ridiculed the practices of the Jews and the "absurdity of their Law", making a mocking reference to how Ptolemy Lagus was able to invade Jerusalem in 320 BCE because its inhabitants were observing the Shabbat.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p12}} One of the earliest anti-Jewish edicts, promulgated by Antiochus IV Epiphanes in about 170–167 BCE, sparked a revolt of the Maccabees in Judea.<ref name"gruen">{{cite encyclopedia |author-linkErich S. Gruen |firstErich S. |lastGruen |year1993|titleHellenism and Persecution: Antiochus IV and the Jews |encyclopediaHellenistic History and Culture |editor-firstPeter |editor-lastGreen |publisherUniversity of California Press |pages=250–252 [238]}}</ref>
In view of Manetho's anti-Jewish writings, antisemitism may have originated in Egypt and been spread by "the Greek retelling of Ancient Egyptian prejudices".<ref name"Schäfer">Schäfer, Peter. Judeophobia, Harvard University Press, 1997, p. 208.Peter Schäfer</ref> The ancient Jewish philosopher Philo of Alexandria describes an attack on Jews in Alexandria in 38 CE in which thousands of Jews died.<ref name"Barclay">{{cite book |lastBarclay |firstJohn M. G. |date1999 |titleJews in the Mediterranean Diaspora: From Alexander to Trajan (323 BCE–117 CE) |publisherUniversity of California |pages78–79}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |authorPhilo of Alexandria |author-linkPhilo of Alexandria |urlhttp://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html |titleFlaccus |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070804174650/http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/yonge/book36.html |archive-date4 August 2007}}</ref> The violence in Alexandria may have been caused by the Jews being portrayed as misanthropes.<ref name"vanderhorst">{{cite book |lastVan Der Horst |firstPieter Willem |date2003 |titlePhilo's Flaccus: The First Pogrom |seriesPhilo of Alexandria Commentary Series |publisherBrill |author-linkPieter Willem van der Horst}}</ref> Tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of Jews in the Hellenistic period was their separateness in the Greek cities, the poleis.<ref name"tcherikover">{{cite book |lastTcherikover |firstVictor |titleHellenistic Civilization and the Jews |locationNew York |publisherAtheneum |date1975}}</ref>{{pn|dateJanuary 2025}} Bohak has argued, however, that early animosity against the Jews cannot be regarded as being anti-Judaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the Jews alone, and that many Greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians.<ref name"Bohak">{{cite book |lastBohak |firstGideon |chapterThe Ibis and the Jewish Question: Ancient 'Antisemitism' in Historical Context |editor1-firstMenachem |editor1-lastMor |editor2-firstJack |editor2-lastPastor |editor3-firstAharon |editor3-lastOppenheimer |editor4-firstDaniel R. |editor4-lastSchwartz |titleJews and Gentiles in the Holy Land in the Days of the Second Temple, the Mishna and the Talmud |publisherYad Ben-Zvi Press |date2003 |pages27–43 |isbn=9652172057}}</ref>
Statements exhibiting prejudice against Jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan Greek and Roman writers.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor3265911 |lastDaniels |firstJ. L. |titleAnti-Semitism in the Hellenistic-Roman Period |journalJournal of Biblical Literature |volume98 |issue1 |year1979 |pages45–65 |doi10.2307/3265911}}</ref> Edward Flannery writes that it was the Jews' refusal to accept Greek religious and social standards that marked them out. Hecataetus of Abdera, a Greek historian of the early third century BCE, wrote that Moses "in remembrance of the exile of his people, instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life." Manetho wrote that the Jews were expelled Egyptian lepers who had been taught by Moses "not to adore the gods."{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|pp11–12}} Edward Flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially "cultural, taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings."{{sfnp|Flannery|1985|pp24–26}}
There are examples of Hellenistic rulers desecrating the Temple and banning Jewish religious practices, such as circumcision, Shabbat observance, the study of Jewish religious books, etc. Examples may also be found in anti-Jewish riots in Alexandria in the 3rd century BCE.
The Jewish diaspora on the Nile island Elephantine, which was founded by mercenaries, experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 BCE.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |lastColpe |firstCarsten |titleAnti-Semitism |encyclopediaBrill's New Pauly Online |editor1-firstHubert |editor1-lastCancik |editor2-firstHelmuth |editor2-lastSchneider |publisherBrill |date2008}}</ref>
Relationships between the Jewish people and the occupying Roman Empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions. According to Suetonius, the emperor Tiberius expelled from Rome Jews who had gone to live there. The 18th-century English historian Edward Gibbon identified a more tolerant period in Roman–Jewish relations beginning in about 160 CE.{{cn|dateFebruary 2025}} However, when Christianity became the state religion of the Roman Empire, the state's attitude towards the Jews gradually worsened.{{cn|dateJanuary 2025}}
James Carroll asserted: "Jews accounted for 10% of the total population of the Roman Empire. By that ratio, if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened, there would be 200 million Jews in the world today, instead of something like 13 million."<ref>{{cite book |lastCarroll |firstJames |titleConstantine's Sword |publisherHoughton Mifflin |date2001 |isbn0-395-77927-8 |page26}}</ref>Persecutions during the Middle Ages
{{Main|Jews in the Middle Ages}}
, a Jewish tribe in Medina, 627]]
In the late 6th century CE, the newly Catholicised Visigothic kingdom in Hispania issued a series of anti-Jewish edicts which forbade Jews from marrying Christians, practicing circumcision, and observing Jewish holy days.<ref>{{cite book |last1Lowney |first1Chris |titleA Vanished World: Muslims, Christians, and Jews in Medieval Spain |date1999 |publisherBrill |isbn9789004112063 |pages124–125}}</ref> Continuing throughout the 7th century, both Visigothic kings and the Church were active in creating social aggression and towards Jews with "civic and ecclesiastic punishments",<ref>{{cite book |editor-firstAlberto |editor-lastFerreiro |last1Gonzalez Salinero |first1Raul |titleThe Visigoths: Studies in Culture and Society |date1996 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn9780195311914 |pages29–31}}</ref> ranging between forced conversion, slavery, exile and death.<ref>{{cite book |last1Gorsky |first1Jeffrey |titleExiles in Sepharad: The Jewish Millennium in Spain |date2015 |publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press |isbn9780827612419 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id964eCAAAQBAJ&pgPT26 |access-date28 August 2016}}</ref>
From the 9th century, the medieval Islamic world classified Jews and Christians as dhimmis and allowed Jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval Christian Europe. Under Islamic rule, there was a Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain that lasted until at least the 11th century.<ref>{{Cite book |firstMaría Rosa |lastMenocal |author-linkMaría Rosa Menocal |titleThe Ornament of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture of Tolerance in Medieval Spain |dateApril 2003 |publisherBack Bay Books |isbn978-0-316-16871-7 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/ornamentofworldh00meno}}</ref> It ended when several Muslim pogroms against Jews took place on the Iberian Peninsula, including those that occurred in Córdoba in 1011 and in Granada in 1066.{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2002|pp267–268}}<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid412&letterG&searchGranada |titleGranada |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101224005745/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid412&letterG&searchGranada |archive-date24 December 2010 |first1Richard |last1Gottheil |first2Meyer |last2Kayserling |websiteJewish Encyclopedia |date1906}}</ref>{{sfnp|Harzig|Hoerder|Shubert|2003|p42}} Several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in Egypt, Syria, Iraq and Yemen from the 11th century. In addition, Jews were forced to convert to Islam or face death in some parts of Yemen, Morocco and Baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite book |firstBat |lastYe'or |year1985 |titleThe Dhimmi: Jews and Christians Under Islam |placeMadison, New Jersey |publisherFairleigh Dickinson University Press |page61 |isbn978-0838632628 |author-link=Bat Ye'or}}</ref>
The Almohads, who had taken control of the Almoravids' Maghribi and Andalusian territories by 1147,<ref name"islamicworldeb">{{cite encyclopedia |titleIslamic world |date2007 |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |access-date2 September 2007 |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071213154933/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-26925 |archive-date13 December 2007}}</ref> were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors, and they treated the dhimmis harshly. Faced with the choice of either death or conversion, many Jews and Christians emigrated.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp137–138}}<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm |titleThe Almohads |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090213223723/http://www.myjewishlearning.com/history_community/Medieval/IntergroupTO/JewishMuslim/Almohads.htm |archive-date13 February 2009 |websiteMyjewishlearning.com |access-date2 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id66&Itemid39 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070728230344/http://www.theforgottenrefugees.com/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id66&Itemid39 |archive-date28 July 2007 |titleHistorical Timeline |url-statusdead |access-date27 October 2018}}. The Forgotten Refugees</ref> Some, such as the family of Maimonides, fled east to more tolerant Muslim lands,{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp137–138}} while some others went northward to settle in the growing Christian kingdoms.{{sfnp|Frank|Leaman|2003|pp=137–138}}
in Europe from 1100 to 1600]]
In medieval Europe, Jews were persecuted with blood libels, expulsions, forced conversions and massacres. These persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the Crusades. In 1096, hundreds or thousands of Jews were killed during the First Crusade.<ref>{{cite web |lastChazan |firstRobert |author-linkRobert Chazan |titleIn the Year 1096: The First Crusade and the Jews |date1996 |urlhttps://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726053850/https://www.questia.com/library/5684490/in-the-year-1096-the-first-crusade-and-the-jews |archive-date26 July 2020}}</ref> This was the first major outbreak of anti-Jewish violence in Christian Europe outside Spain and was cited by Zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of Israel.<ref>{{cite book |firstCorliss K. |lastSlack |titleHistorical Dictionary of the Crusades |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iduX8e2zU_TG0C&pgPA108 |year2013 |publisherScarecrow Press |pages108–109 |isbn9780810878310 |access-date13 August 2015 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001632/https://books.google.com/books?iduX8e2zU_TG0C&pgPA108#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 1147, there were several massacres of Jews during the Second Crusade. The Shepherds' Crusades of 1251 and 1320 both involved attacks, as did the Rintfleisch massacres in 1298. Expulsions followed, such as the 1290 banishment of Jews from England, the expulsion of 100,000 Jews from France in 1394,<ref>History of the reign of Charles VI, titled {{lang|fr|Chronique de Religieux de Saint-Denys}}, encompasses the king's full reign in six volumes. Originally written in Latin, the work was translated to French in six volumes by L. Bellaguet between 1839 and 1852.</ref> and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of Jews from Austria. Many of the expelled Jews fled to Poland.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html |titleWhy the Jews? – Black Death |access-date22 November 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20031211173212/http://www.holocaustcenterpgh.net/2-3.html |archive-date11 December 2003}}</ref>
In medieval and Renaissance Europe, a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the Christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders, the Franciscans (especially Bernardino of Feltre) and Dominicans (especially Vincent Ferrer), who combed Europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery, emotional appeals.<ref>{{cite book |firstFranco |lastMormando |titleThe Preacher's Demons: Bernardino of Siena and the Social Underworld of Early Renaissance Italy |locationChicago |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |date1999 |chapter=2}}</ref>
As the Black Death epidemics devastated Europe in the mid-14th century, causing the death of a large part of the population, Jews were used as scapegoats. Rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed in numerous persecutions. Although Pope Clement VI tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348, the first on 6 July and an additional one several months later, 900 Jews were burned alive in Strasbourg, where the plague had not yet affected the city.<ref name"Black">{{cite magazine |first1Stéphane |last1Barry |first2Norbert |last2Gualde |titleLa plus grande épidémie de l'histoire |languagefr |trans-titleThe greatest epidemics in history |magazineL'Histoire |number310 |dateJune 2006 |page47}}</ref>
Reformation
{{Main|Martin Luther and antisemitism}}
Martin Luther, an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the Reformation, wrote antagonistically about Jews in his pamphlet On the Jews and their Lies, written in 1543. He portrays the Jews in extremely harsh terms, excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them, calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion. At one point he writes: "...we are at fault in not slaying them...", a passage that, according to historian Paul Johnson, "may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism, and a giant step forward on the road to the Holocaust."{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p242}}17th century
in 1614]]
During the mid-to-late 17th century the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts, in which the Commonwealth lost over a third of its population (over 3&nbsp;million people), and Jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands. The first of these conflicts was the Khmelnytsky Uprising, when Bohdan Khmelnytsky's supporters massacred tens of thousands of Jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled (today's Ukraine). The precise number of dead may never be known, but the decrease of the Jewish population during that period is estimated at 100,000 to 200,000, which also includes emigration, deaths from diseases, and captivity in the Ottoman Empire, called jasyr.<ref>{{cite news |quoteBogdan Chmelnitzki leads Cossack uprising against Polish rule; 100,000 Jews are killed and hundreds of Jewish communities are destroyed. |urlhttp://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |titleJudaism Timeline 1618–1770 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121020024503/http://www.cbsnews.com/htdocs/religion/judaism/timeline.html |archive-date20 October 2012 |workCBS News |access-date13 May 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |quote... as many as 100,000 Jews were murdered throughout the Ukraine by Bogdan Chmielnicki's soldiers on the rampage. |lastGilbert |firstMartin |author-linkMartin Gilbert |titleHolocaust Journey: Traveling in Search of the Past |publisherColumbia University Press |date1999 |isbn0-231-10965-2 |page219}}</ref>
European immigrants to the United States brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century. Peter Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor of New Amsterdam, implemented plans to prevent Jews from settling in the city. During the Colonial Era, the American government limited the political and economic rights of Jews. It was not until the American Revolutionary War that Jews gained legal rights, including the right to vote. However, even at their peak, the restrictions on Jews in the United States were never as stringent as they had been in Europe.<ref>{{cite book |editor-lastBoyer |editor-firstPaul S. |titleThe Oxford companion to United States history |year2006 |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford |isbn978-0-19-508209-8 |page[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/42 42] |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00paul_0/page/42}}</ref>
In the Zaydi imamate of Yemen, Jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century, which culminated in the general expulsion of all Jews from places in Yemen to the arid coastal plain of Tihamah and which became known as the Mawza Exile.<ref>Yosef Qafiḥ, Ketavim (Collected Papers), Vol. 2, Jerusalem 1989, pp. 714–716 (Hebrew)</ref>
Enlightenment
In 1744, Archduchess of Austria Maria Theresa ordered Jews out of Bohemia but soon reversed her position, on the condition that Jews pay for their readmission every ten years. This extortion was known among the Jews as {{lang|de|malke-geld}} ("queen's money" in Yiddish).<ref name"Singer et al. 1906, Under Maria Teresa">{{cite book |lastBüchler |firstAlexander |chapterHungary |editor1-lastSinger |editor1-firstIsidore |titleThe Jewish Encyclopedia |date1904 |publisherFunk and Wagnalls Co. |locationNew York and London |volume6 |pages[https://archive.org/details/TheJewishEncyclopediaVIGodIstria/page/n511 494–503]}}</ref> In 1752, she introduced the law limiting each Jewish family to one son.
In 1782, Joseph II abolished most of these persecution practices in his {{lang|de|Toleranzpatent}},{{sfnp|O'Brien|1969|p29}}<ref>{{cite book |lastIngrao |firstW. Charles |titleThe Habsburg Monarchy 1618-1815 |publisherCambridge University Press |date1994 |page199}}</ref> on the condition that Yiddish and Hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled.{{sfnp|O'Brien|1969|p30}} Moses Mendelssohn wrote that "Such a tolerance... is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution."
Voltaire
According to Arnold Ages, Voltaire's "Lettres philosophiques, Dictionnaire philosophique, and Candide, to name but a few of his better known works, are saturated with comments on Jews and Judaism and the vast majority are negative".<ref>Ages Arnold. "Tainted Greatness: The Case of Voltaire's Anti-Semitism: The Testimony of the Correspondence." Neohelicon 21.2 (Sept. 1994): 361.</ref> Paul H. Meyer adds: "There is no question but that Voltaire, particularly in his latter years, nursed a violent hatred of the Jews and it is equally certain that his animosity...did have a considerable impact on public opinion in France."<ref>Meyer, Paul H. "The Attitude of the Enlightenment Toward the Jew." Studies on Voltaire and the Eighteenth Century, 26 (1963): 1177.</ref> Thirty of the 118 articles in Voltaire's Dictionnaire Philosophique concerned Jews and described them in consistently negative ways.<ref>Poliakov, L. The History of Anti-Semitism: From Voltaire to Wagner. Routledge & Kegan Paul, Ltd., 1975 (translated). page 88-89.</ref>
Louis de Bonald and the Catholic Counter-Revolution
The counter-revolutionary Catholic royalist Louis de Bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of Jewish emancipation in the wake of the French Revolution.<ref name"Battini1">{{Cite book |titleSocialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism |lastBattini |firstMichele |publisherColumbia University Press |year2016 |pages2–7 and 30–37}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Katz |first1Jacob |titleFrom Prejudice to Destruction: Anti-Semitism, 1700–1933 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/fromprejudicetod00katz |url-accessregistration |date1980 |publisherHarvard University Press |pages[https://archive.org/details/fromprejudicetod00katz/page/112 112–115] |isbn9780674325050}}</ref> Bonald's attacks on the Jews are likely to have influenced Napoleon's decision to limit the civil rights of Alsatian Jews.<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{Cite book |titleSocialism of Fools: Capitalism and Modern Anti-Semitism |lastBattini |firstMichele |publisherColumbia University Press |year2016 |page164}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Garṭner |first1Aryeh |last2Gartner |first2Lloyd P. |titleHistory of the Jews in Modern Times |urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart |url-accessregistration |date2001 |publisherOxford University Press |page[https://archive.org/details/historyofjewsinm00gart/page/116 116] |isbn=978-0-19-289259-1}}
|{{cite book |last1Joskowicz |first1Ari |titleThe Modernity of Others: Jewish Anti-Catholicism in Germany and France |date2013 |publisherStanford University Press |page99}}
|{{cite book |last1Michael |first1Robert |last2Rosen |first2Philip |titleDictionary of Antisemitism from the Earliest Times to the Present |date2007 |publisherScarecrow Press |page67}}
}}</ref> Bonald's article {{lang|fr|Sur les juifs}} (1806) was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined anti-liberalism, a defense of a rural society, traditional Christian antisemitism, and the identification of Jews with bankers and finance capital, which would in turn influence many subsequent right-wing reactionaries such as Roger Gougenot des Mousseaux, Charles Maurras, and Édouard Drumont, nationalists such as Maurice Barrès and Paolo Orano, and antisemitic socialists such as Alphonse Toussenel.<ref name"Battini1" /><ref>{{cite book |last1Sanos |first1Sandrine |titleThe Aesthetics of Hate: Far-Right Intellectuals, Antisemitism, and Gender in 1930s France |date2012 |publisherStanford University Press |page47}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Laqueur |first1Walter |author1-linkWalter Laqueur |last2Baumel |first2Judith Tydor |titleThe Holocaust Encyclopedia |date2001 |publisherYale University Press |page20}}</ref> Bonald furthermore declared that the Jews were an "alien" people, a "state within a state", and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them.<ref name"Battini1" />{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages128–129}}
Under the French Second Empire, the popular counter-revolutionary Catholic journalist Louis Veuillot propagated Bonald's arguments against the Jewish "financial aristocracy" along with vicious attacks against the Talmud and the Jews as a "deicidal people" driven by hatred to "enslave" Christians.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages128–129}}<ref>{{cite book |last1Graetz |first1Michael |titleThe Jews in Nineteenth-century France: From the French Revolution to the Alliance Israélite Universelle |date1996 |publisherStanford University Press |page208}}</ref> Between 1882 and 1886 alone, French priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming France's ills on the Jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos, expel them, or hang them from the gallows.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages128–129}} Gougenot des Mousseaux's {{lang|fr|Le Juif, le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens}} (1869) has been called a "Bible of modern antisemitism" and was translated into German by Nazi ideologue Alfred Rosenberg.{{sfnp|Michael|2008|pages128–129}}Imperial Russia
in Yekaterinoslav, Russian Empire (modern-day Ukraine)]]
Thousands of Jews were slaughtered by Cossack Haidamaks in the 1768 massacre of Uman in the Kingdom of Poland. In 1772, the empress of Russia Catherine II forced the Jews into the Pale of Settlement &ndash; which was located primarily in present-day Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus &ndash; and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of Poland. From 1804, Jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns.{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p358}} A decree by emperor Nicholas I of Russia in 1827 conscripted Jews under 18 years of age into the cantonist schools for a 25-year military service in order to promote baptism.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia |titleMilitary Service in Russia |author1-linkYohanan Petrovsky-Shtern |lastPetrovsky-Shtern |firstYohanan |date8 June 2017 |websiteYIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe |access-date20 October 2017 |archive-date7 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210207052626/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Military_Service_in_Russia |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Policy towards Jews was liberalised somewhat under Czar Alexander II ({{reign|1855|1881}}).{{sfnp|Johnson|1987|p359}} However, his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the May Laws of 1882. Konstantin Pobedonostsev, nicknamed the "black czar" and tutor to the czarevitch, later crowned Czar Nicholas II, declared that "One-third of the Jews must die, one-third must emigrate, and one third be converted to Christianity".<ref>{{cite book |lastVan der Kriste |firstJohn |author-linkJohn Van der Kiste |titleThe Romanovs 1818–1959 |publisherSutton |date1998 |page104}}</ref>
Islamic antisemitism in the 19th century
Historian Martin Gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of Jews worsened in Muslim countries. Benny Morris writes that one symbol of Jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stone-throwing at Jews by Muslim children. Morris quotes a 19th-century traveler: "I have seen a little fellow of six years old, with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four, teaching [them] to throw stones at a Jew, and one little urchin would, with the greatest coolness, waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his Jewish gaberdine. To all this the Jew is obliged to submit; it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a Mahommedan."<ref name"Morris10">{{cite book |author-linkBenny Morris |lastMorris |firstBenny |titleRighteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001 |publisherVintage Books |date2001 |pages10–11}}</ref>
In the middle of the 19th century, J. J. Benjamin wrote about the life of Persian Jews, describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century: "…they are obliged to live in a separate part of town… Under the pretext of their being unclean, they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street, inhabited by Mussulmans, they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt…."<ref>{{cite book |firstBernard |lastLewis |author-linkBernard Lewis |titleThe Jews of Islam |publisherPrinceton University Press |locationPrinceton |year1984 |pages181–183 |isbn=978-0-691-00807-3}}</ref>
In Jerusalem at least, conditions for some Jews improved. Moses Montefiore, on his seventh visit in 1875, noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and, "surely we're approaching the time to witness God's hallowed promise unto Zion." Muslim and Christian Arabs participated in Purim and Passover; Arabs called the Sephardis 'Jews, sons of Arabs'; the Ulema and the Rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought.<ref>{{cite book |lastMontefiore |firstSimon Sebag |author-linkSimon Sebag Montefiore |titleJerusalem |publisherPhoenix |date2011 |pages=429–432}}</ref>
At the time of the Dreyfus trial in France, "Muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted Jew against his Christian persecutors".<ref>{{cite book |lastLewis |firstBernard |author-linkBernard Lewis |titleWhat Went Wrong? |publisherPhoenix |date2002 |page172}}</ref>Secular or racial antisemitism
]]
In 1850, the German composer Richard Wagner – who has been called "the inventor of modern antisemitism"<ref name"bismarck" /> – published {{lang|de|Das Judenthum in der Musik}} (roughly "Jewishness in Music")<ref name"bismarck">{{cite book |author-linkJonathan Steinberg (historian) |lastSteinberg |firstJonathan |date2011 |titleBismarck: A Life |locationNew York: Oxford |pages388–390 |isbn978-0-19-997539-6}}</ref> under a pseudonym in the Neue Zeitschrift für Musik. The essay began as an attack on Jewish composers, particularly Wagner's contemporaries, and rivals, Felix Mendelssohn and Giacomo Meyerbeer, but expanded to accuse Jews of being a harmful and alien element in German culture, who corrupted morals and were, in fact, parasites incapable of creating truly "German" art. The crux was the manipulation and control by the Jews of the money economy:<ref name="bismarck" />
{{blockquote|According to the present constitution of this world, the Jew in truth is already more than emancipated: he rules, and will rule, so long as Money remains the power before which all our doings and our dealings lose their force.<ref name="bismarck" />}}
Although originally published anonymously, when the essay was republished 19 years later, in 1869, the concept of the corrupting Jew had become so widely held that Wagner's name was affixed to it.<ref name="bismarck" />
Antisemitism can also be found in many of the Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm, published from 1812 to 1857. It is mainly characterized by Jews being the villain of a story, such as in "The Good Bargain" ("{{lang|de|Der gute Handel}}") and "The Jew Among Thorns" ("{{lang|de|Der Jude im Dorn}}").
The middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the Jews, especially in Eastern Europe under Czarist influence. For example, in 1846, 80 Jews approached the governor in Warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut, at their own expense.<ref nameBDE>{{cite bklyn |titleThe Despot of Russia... |image50249029 |date22 December 1846 |page=2}}</ref>
Even such influential figures as Walt Whitman tolerated bigotry toward the Jews in America. During his time as editor of the Brooklyn Eagle (1846–1848), the newspaper published historical sketches casting Jews in a bad light.<ref nameBDE-Whitman>{{cite bklyn |titleAnecdotes of Jews, and their peculiar traits |image50243090 |page2 |date=8 January 1847}}</ref>
The Dreyfus Affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century. Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish artillery captain in the French Army, was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the Germans. As a result of these charges, Dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island. The actual spy, Marie Charles Esterhazy, was acquitted. The event caused great uproar among the French, with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether Dreyfus was actually guilty or not. Émile Zola accused the army of corrupting the French justice system. However, general consensus held that Dreyfus was guilty: 80% of the press in France condemned him. This attitude among the majority of the French population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period.<ref>Rapport, Michael. (2005) Nineteenth Century Europe. New York: Palgrave MacMillan {{ISBN|0333652460}}.</ref>
Adolf Stoecker (1835–1909), the Lutheran court chaplain to Kaiser Wilhelm I, founded in 1878 an antisemitic, anti-liberal political party called the Christian Social Party.<ref>{{cite journal |firstHarold M. |lastGreen |year2003 |titleAdolf Stoecker: Portrait of a Demagogue |journalPolitics and Policy |volume31 |doi10.1111/j.1747-1346.2003.tb00889.x |issue1 |pages106–129}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |firstD. A. Jeremy |lastTelman |year1995 |titleAdolf Stoecker: Anti-Semite with a Christian Mission |jstor20101235 |journalJewish History |volume9 |issue2 |pages93–112 |doi10.1007/BF01668991 |s2cid162391831}}</ref> This party always remained small, and its support dwindled after Stoecker's death, with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the German National People's Party.
Some scholars view Karl Marx's essay "On The Jewish Question" as antisemitic, and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings.{{sfnp|Flannery|2004|p168}}<ref name"Jacobs2005">{{cite book |chapterMarx, Karl (1818–1883) |titleAntisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution |lastJacobs |firstJack |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstRichard S. |editor-linkRichard S. Levy |year2005 |publisherABC-CLIO |locationSanta Barbara, CA |isbn978-1-85109-439-4 |pages446–447}}</ref>{{sfnp|Lewis|1999|p112}} These scholars argue that Marx equated Judaism with capitalism in his essay, helping to spread that idea. Some further argue that the essay influenced National Socialist, as well as Soviet and Arab antisemites.{{sfnp|Perry|Schweitzer|2005|pp154–157}}<ref name"Stav2003">{{cite book |chapterIsraeli Anti-Semitism |titleIsrael and the Post-Zionists: A Nation at Risk |lastStav |firstArieh |editor-lastSharan |editor-firstShlomo |year2003 |publisherSussex Academic Press |locationBrighton |isbn978-1-903900-52-9 |page171 |quoteHitler simply copied Marx's own anti-Semitism.}}</ref><ref name"Muravchik2003">According to Joshua Muravchik Marx's aspiration for "the emancipation of society from Judaism" because "the practical Jewish spirit" of "huckstering" had taken over the Christian nations is not that far from the Nazi program's twenty-four-point: "combat[ing] the Jewish-materialist spirit within us and without us" in order "that our nation can […] achieve permanent health." See {{cite book |titleHeaven on Earth: The Rise and Fall of Socialism |lastMuravchik |firstJoshua |author-linkJoshua Muravchik |year2003 |publisherEncounter Books |locationSan Francisco |isbn978-1-893554-45-0 |page164}}</ref> Marx himself had Jewish ancestry, and Albert Lindemann and Hyam Maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it.<ref>{{cite book |lastLindemann |firstAlbert S. |titleModern Anti-Semitism and the Rise of the Jews |publisherCambridge University Press |date2000 |isbn978-0-521-79538-8 |page166}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |titleAntisemitism and Modernity: Innovation and Continuity |lastMaccoby |firstHyam |year2006 |publisherRoutledge |locationLondon |isbn978-0-415-31173-1 |pages64–66}}</ref>
Others argue that Marx consistently supported Prussian Jewish communities' struggles to achieve equal political rights. These scholars argue that "On the Jewish Question" is a critique of Bruno Bauer's arguments that Jews must convert to Christianity before being emancipated, and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism.{{sfnp|McLellan|1980|pp=141–142}}<ref>{{bulleted list|
|{{cite journal |firstY. |lastPeled |titleFrom theology to sociology: Bruno Bauer and Karl Marx on the question of Jewish emancipation |journalHistory of Political Thought |volume13 |issue3 |year1992 |pages463–485 |urlhttps://telaviv.academia.edu/YoavPeled/Papers/228344/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation |access-date2 November 2017 |archive-date20 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210220161924/https://www.academia.edu/280575/From_Theology_to_Sociology_Bruno_Bauer_and_Karl_Marx_on_the_Question_of_Jewish_Emancipation |url-status=live}}
|{{Cite book |lastBrown |firstWendy |author-linkWendy Brown (political scientist) |year1995 |contributionRights and Identity in Late Modernity: Revisiting the 'Jewish Question' |editor1-lastSarat |editor1-firstAustin |editor2-lastKearns |editor2-firstThomas |titleIdentities, Politics, and Rights |publisherUniversity of Michigan Press |pages85–130}}
|{{cite journal |firstRobert |lastFine |titleKarl Marx and the Radical Critique of Anti-Semitism |journalEngage |issue2 |dateMay 2006 |urlhttp://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id10&article_id33 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120224193202/http://www.engageonline.org.uk/journal/index.php?journal_id10 |archive-date=24 February 2012}}
}}</ref> Iain Hampsher-Monk wrote that "This work [On The Jewish Question] has been cited as evidence for Marx's supposed anti-Semitism, but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation."<ref>{{cite book |firstIain |lastHampsher-Monk |titleA History of Modern Political Thought |date1992 |publisherBlackwell Publishing |page496}}</ref>
David McLellan and Francis Wheen argue that readers should interpret On the Jewish Question in the deeper context of Marx's debates with Bruno Bauer, author of The Jewish Question, about Jewish emancipation in Germany. Wheen says that "Those critics, who see this as a foretaste of 'Mein Kampf', overlook one, essential point: in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping, the essay was actually written as a defense of the Jews. It was a retort to Bruno Bauer, who had argued that Jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as Christians".<ref>{{cite book |lastWheen |firstFrancis |author-linkFrancis Wheen |titleKarl Marx |date1999 |publisherFourth Estate |page56}}</ref> According to McLellan, Marx used the word {{lang|de|Judentum}} colloquially, as meaning commerce, arguing that Germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not Judaism or Jews in particular. McLellan concludes that readers should interpret the essay's second half as "an extended pun at Bauer's expense".{{sfnp|McLellan|1980|p142}}
20th century
{{See also|Jewish Bolshevism|Racial policy of Nazi Germany|Soviet anti-Semitism}}
, Worms, Germany, 1935]]
Between 1900 and 1924, approximately 1.75&nbsp;million Jews migrated to America, the bulk from Eastern Europe escaping the pogroms. This increase, combined with the upward social mobility of some Jews, contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism. In the first half of the 20th century, in the US, Jews were discriminated against in employment, access to residential and resort areas, membership in clubs and organizations, and in tightened quotas on Jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities. The lynching of Leo Frank by a mob of prominent citizens in Marietta, Georgia, in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the United States.{{sfnp|Chanes|2004|p[https://books.google.com/books?idju7U83nRDt8C&pgPA72 72]}} The case was also used to build support for the renewal of the Ku Klux Klan which had been inactive since 1870.{{sfnp|Levy|2005|loc[https://books.google.com/books?idTdn6FFZklkcC&pgPA243 vol. 1, p.&nbsp;72]}}
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Beilis Trial in Russia represented modern incidents of blood-libels in Europe. During the Russian Civil War, close to 50,000 Jews were killed in pogroms.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War |titleRussian Civil War |lastAbramson |firstHenry |websiteYIVO Encyclopedia of Jews in Eastern Europe |access-date6 February 2019 |archive-date15 January 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115175836/https://yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Russian_Civil_War |url-status=live}}</ref>
Antisemitism in America reached its peak during the interwar period. The pioneer automobile manufacturer Henry Ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper The Dearborn Independent'' (published by Ford from 1919 to 1927). The radio speeches of Father Coughlin in the late 1930s attacked Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal and promoted the notion of a Jewish financial conspiracy. Some prominent politicians shared such views: Louis T. McFadden, Chairman of the United States House Committee on Banking and Currency, blamed Jews for Roosevelt's decision to abandon the gold standard, and claimed that "in the United States today, the Gentiles have the slips of paper while the Jews have the lawful money".<ref>{{cite book |lastArad |firstGulie Ne'eman |titleAmerica, Its Jews, and the Rise of Nazism |year2000 |publisherIndiana University Press |locationIndianapolis |isbn978-0-253-33809-9 |page[https://archive.org/details/americaitsjewsri00arad/page/174 174] |url=https://archive.org/details/americaitsjewsri00arad/page/174}}</ref>
<!-- , May/June 1944. To be sent to the right meant slave labor; to the left, the gas chambers. This image shows the arrival of Hungarian Jews from Carpatho-Ruthenia, many of them from the Berehov ghetto. It was taken by Ernst Hofmann or Bernhard Walter of the SS. Courtesy of Yad Vashem.<ref nameAuschwitzAlbum>{{cite web |urlhttp://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/home_auschwitz_album.html |titleThe Auschwitz Album |websiteYad Vashem |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050401084652/http://www1.yadvashem.org/exhibitions/album_auschwitz/home_auschwitz_album.html |archive-date1 April 2005}}</ref> {{FFDC|1Selection Birkenau ramp.jpg|log2009 April 6|date=May 2012}}]] -->
, 1945]]
In Germany, shortly after Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party came to power in 1933, the government instituted repressive legislation which denied Jews basic civil rights.{{sfnp|Majer|2014|p=60}}<ref>see also Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service (7 April 1933)</ref>
In September 1935, the Nuremberg Laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between "Aryans" and Jews as {{lang|de|Rassenschande}} ("race disgrace") and stripped all German Jews, even quarter- and half-Jews, of their citizenship (their official title became "subjects of the state").{{sfnp|Majer|2014|pp113, 116, 118}} It instituted a pogrom on the night of 9–10 November 1938, dubbed Kristallnacht, in which Jews were killed, their property destroyed and their synagogues torched.<ref>{{cite book |firstIan |lastKershaw |author-linkIan Kershaw |date2008 |titleFateful Choices |pages441–444}}</ref>{{full citation needed|dateJanuary 2025}} Antisemitic laws, agitation and propaganda were extended to German-occupied Europe in the wake of conquest, often building on local antisemitic traditions.{{cn|date=January 2025}}
In 1940, the famous aviator Charles Lindbergh and many prominent Americans led the America First Committee in opposing any involvement in a European war. Lindbergh alleged that Jews were pushing America to go to war against Germany.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html |title'America First,' a phrase with a loaded anti-Semitic and isolationist history |lastBennett |firstBrian |workLos Angeles Times |date20 January 2017 |access-date23 November 2018 |archive-date7 November 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191107115008/https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-trump-america-first-20170120-story.html |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/ |titleA Short History of 'America First' |lastCalamur |firstKrishnadev |date21 January 2017 |magazineThe Atlantic |access-date23 November 2018 |archive-date3 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191203044351/https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2017/01/trump-america-first/514037/ |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9ZUniR1uQcUC&pgPA66 |title1940: FDR, Willkie, Lindbergh, Hitler-the Election amid the Storm |lastDunn |firstSusan |date4 June 2013 |publisherYale University Press |isbn978-0300195132 |pages66 |access-date26 November 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001721/https://books.google.com/books?id9ZUniR1uQcUC&pgPA66#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref> Lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic, and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings &ndash; his letters and diary &ndash; to Jewish control of the media being used to pressure the U.S. to get involved in the European war. In one diary entry in November 1938, he responded to {{lang|de|Kristallnacht}} by writing "I do not understand these riots on the part of the Germans. ... They have undoubtedly had a difficult Jewish problem, but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably?", acknowledgement on Lindbergh's part that he agreed with the Nazis that Germany had a "Jewish problem".<ref>{{Cite book |lastCole |firstWayne S. |date1974 |titleCharles Lindbergh and the Battle Against American Intervention in World War II |locationNew York |publisherHarcourt Brace Jovanovich |pages171–174 |isbn0-15-118168-3}}</ref> An article by Jonathan Marwil in Antisemitism, A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution claims that "no one who ever knew Lindbergh thought him antisemitic" and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech.<ref>Levy, Richard S. "Lindbergh, Charles (1902–1974)" in {{harvp|Levy|2005|loc=vol. 1, pp.423–424}}</ref>
In the east the Third Reich forced Jews into ghettos in Warsaw, in Kraków, in Lvov, in Lublin and in Radom.<ref>Martin Kitchen (2007) The Third Reich: A Concise History. Tempus.</ref>
After the beginning of the war between Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union in 1941, a campaign of mass murder, conducted by the Einsatzgruppen, culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide: the Holocaust.<ref name"saul1">Saul Friedländer (2008): The Years of Extermination: Nazi Germany and the Jews. London, Phoenix</ref> Eleven million Jews were targeted for extermination by the Nazis, and some six million were eventually killed.<ref name"saul1"/><ref>{{cite book |lastBenz |firstWolfgang |author-linkWolfgang Benz |titleDimension des Volksmords: Die Zahl der Jüdischen Opfer des Nationalsozialismus |languagede |trans-titleDimension of Genocide: The Number of Jewish Victims of National Socialism |locationMunich |orig-date1991 |editor-firstIsrael |editor-lastGutman |seriesEncyclopedia of the Holocaust |publisherMacmillan Reference Books: Deutscher Taschebuch Verlag |editionReference |date1 October 1995}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-linkLucy Dawidowicz |lastDawidowicz |firstLucy |titleThe War Against The Jews, 1933–1945 |locationNew York |publisherHolt, Rinehart and Winston |date1975}}</ref>{{pn|dateJanuary 2025}}
Contemporary antisemitism
Holocaust denial
{{main|Holocaust denial}}
Holocaust denial, the claim that the Nazi genocide of European Jews during the Second World War either never happened or is substantially exaggerated by historical accounts, is a form of antisemitism and conspiracy theory.<ref>{{cite book |last1Schweitzer |first1Frederick M. |last2Perry |first2Marvin |titleAnti-Semitism: myth and hate from antiquity to the present |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |date2002 |isbn0-312-16561-7 |page3 |quoteThis books treats several of the myths that have made antisemitism so lethal.... In addition to these historic myths, we also treat the new, maliciously manufactured myth of Holocaust denial, another groundless belief that is used to stir up Jew-hatred.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |titleIntroduction: Denial as Anti-Semitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110604020743/http://www.adl.org/holocaust/theory.asp |archive-date4 June 2011 |seriesHolocaust Denial: An Online Guide to Exposing and Combating Anti-Semitic Propaganda |websiteAnti-Defamation League |date2001 |access-date12 June 2007 |quoteWhile appearing on the surface as a rather arcane pseudo-scholarly challenge to the well-established record of Nazi genocide during the Second World War, Holocaust denial serves as a powerful conspiracy theory uniting otherwise disparate fringe groups....}}</ref> Political movements seeking to revive the ideologies of the Nazis and other states that participated in the Holocaust, like neo-Nazism and neofascism, practice Holocaust denial.<ref nameAtkins>{{cite book |firstStephen E. |lastAtkins |titleHolocaust Denial as an International Movement |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idM9Uj6u6b-ZIC |year2009 |publisherABC-CLIO |isbn978-0-313-34538-8 |quoteHolocaust denial has played an important role in the revitalization of the Neo-Nazi movement. There was a smaller but nonetheless vocal number of supporters in other Western European countries and the United States. These neo-Nazis realized that a Hitlerite regime was impossible, but a reasonable facsimile was possible in the future. These neo-Nazis and their allies realized that any rehabilitation of Nazism could be accomplished only by discrediting the Holocaust.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |lastBland |firstBenjamin |date2019 |titleHolocaust inversion, anti-Zionism and British neo-fascism: the Israel–Palestine conflict and the extreme right in post-war Britain |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0031322X.2018.1536347 |journalPatterns of Prejudice |languageen |volume53 |issue1 |pages86–97 |doi10.1080/0031322X.2018.1536347 |issn0031-322X |access-date11 May 2024 |archive-date11 May 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240511134816/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0031322X.2018.1536347 |url-status=live}}</ref>
There is significant debate about whether analogies between Israel's treatment of Palestinians and the Nazis' treatment of Jews are antisemitic.{{sfnp|Rosenfeld|2019|pp175–178, 186}} Those who say they are antisemitic have termed such analogies "Holocaust inversion"—a form of Holocaust trivialisation, in which the Holocaust is compared with other events in a way that downplays its severity.<ref name"marcus">{{cite book
|lastMarcus |firstKenneth L. |titleJewish Identity and Civil Rights in America |publisherCambridge University Press |year2010 |page56 |isbn978-1-139-49119-8 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idU3z7Fh7xOmcC&dqbrought+welcome+relief+to+many+who+had+long+borne+a+burden+of+guilt+for+the+role+which+they%2C+their+families%2C+their+nations%2C+or+their+churches+had+played+in+Hitler%27s+crimes+against+the+Jews%2C+whether+by+participation+or+complicity%2C+acquiescence+or+indifference&pgPA56}}</ref> Deborah Lipstadt describes Holocaust inversion as a type of Holocaust denial.<ref>{{Cite web |lastKlein |firstAmy |date19 April 2009 |titleDenying the deniers: Q & A with Deborah Lipstadt |urlhttps://www.jta.org/2009/04/19/lifestyle/denying-the-deniers-q-a-with-deborah-lipstadt |access-date20 January 2024 |websiteJewish Telegraphic Agency |languageen-US |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241203191549/https://www.jta.org/2009/04/19/lifestyle/denying-the-deniers-q-a-with-deborah-lipstadt |archive-date3 December 2024}}</ref>Soviet antisemitism
{{See also|Soviet anti-Zionism|Soviet anti-Semitism}}
There have continued to be antisemitic incidents since WWII, some of which had been state-sponsored. In the Soviet Union, antisemitism was even used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts, starting with the conflict between Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda. Antisemitism in the USSR reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the "rootless cosmopolitan" (euphemism for "Jew") in which numerous Yiddish-language poets, writers, painters, and sculptors were killed or arrested.<ref name"jcws">{{cite journal |first1Konstantin |last1Azadovskii |first2Boris |last2Egorov |titleFrom Anti-Westernism to Anti-Semitism |journalJournal of Cold War Studies |year2002 |volume4 |number1 |pages66–80 |doi10.1162/152039702753344834 |urlhttp://www.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31 |access-date1 December 2008 |archive-date20 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210220161918/https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~hpcws/egorov.htm#REF31 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"Myth">{{cite book |titleThe Myth of the Jewish Race |first1Raphael |last1Patai |first2Jennifer |last2Patai |year1989 |page178 |publisherWayne State University Press |isbn978-0-8143-1948-2}}</ref> This culminated in the antisemitic conspiracy theory of the 'Doctors' Plot' in 1952.{{cn|dateJanuary 2025}}
In the 20th century, Soviet and Russian antisemitism underwent significant transformations, shaped by political, social, and ideological shifts. During the early Soviet period, the Bolsheviks initially condemned antisemitism, seeing it as incompatible with Marxist ideology. However, under Joseph Stalin's regime, antisemitism reemerged, often cloaked in 'anti-Zionist' rhetoric. As early as 1943, Stalin and his propagandists intensified attacks against Jews as "rootless cosmopolitans".<ref name":7">{{Cite web |date25 January 2024 |titleMore than a Century of Antisemitism: How Successive Occupants of the Kremlin Have Used Antisemitism |urlhttps://www.state.gov/more-than-a-century-of-antisemitism-how-successive-occupants-of-the-kremlin-have-used-antisemitism/ |access-date29 July 2024 |websiteUnited States Department of State |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241228034546/https://www.state.gov/more-than-a-century-of-antisemitism-how-successive-occupants-of-the-kremlin-have-used-antisemitism/ |archive-date28 December 2024}}</ref> The Party issued confidential directives to fire Jews from positions of power, but state-controlled media did not openly attack Jews until the late 1940s.<ref name=":7" /> The Doctors' plot of 1952, a fabricated conspiracy accusing predominantly Jewish doctors of attempting to assassinate Soviet leaders, exemplified this resurgence. This campaign fostered widespread antisemitic sentiments and resulted in the arrest and execution of numerous Jewish professionals.
In that same year, the antisemitic Slánský show trial alleged the existence of an 'international Zionist conspiracy' to destroy Socialism. Izabella Tabarovsky, a scholar of the history of antisemitism, argues that, "Manufactured by the Soviet secret services, the trial tied together Zionism, Israel, Jewish leaders, and American imperialism, turning 'Zionism' and 'Zionist' into dangerous labels that could be used against one's political enemies."<ref name":02">{{Cite web |lastTabarovsky |firstIzabella |date1 May 2019 |titleSoviet Anti-Zionism and Contemporary Left Antisemitism |urlhttps://fathomjournal.org/soviet-anti-zionism-and-contemporary-left-antisemitism/ |access-date29 July 2024 |websiteFathom Journal |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241224092904/https://fathomjournal.org/soviet-anti-zionism-and-contemporary-left-antisemitism/ |archive-date24 December 2024}}</ref> In the post-Stalin era, state-sanctioned antisemitism persisted and intensified. In February 1953, the Soviet Union severed diplomatic relations with the State of Israel and "soon the state media was saturated with anti-Zionist propaganda, depicting bloated, hook-nosed Jewish bankers and all-consuming serpents embossed with the Star of David."<ref>{{Cite web |lastRyvchin |firstAlex |date10 September 2019 |titleRed Terror: How the Soviet Union Shaped the Modern Anti-Zionist Discourse |urlhttps://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/red-terror-how-the-soviet-union-shaped-the-modern-anti-zionist-discourse/ |access-date29 July 2024 |websiteAustralian Institute of International Affairs |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241226061534/https://www.internationalaffairs.org.au/australianoutlook/red-terror-how-the-soviet-union-shaped-the-modern-anti-zionist-discourse/ |archive-date26 December 2024}}</ref> The 1963 publication of the antisemitic book Judaism Without Embellishment, written under orders from the central Soviet government, echoed Nazi propaganda, alleging a global Jewish conspiracy to subvert the Soviet Union.<ref name":02" /> It was the beginning of a new wave of government-sponsored anti-Semitism.{{cn|date=February 2025}}
The Six-Day War in 1967 led to an intensification in Soviet anti-Zionist propaganda as the Soviets had backed the defeated Arab states.<ref name":02" /> This propaganda often blurred the lines with antisemitism, leading to discriminatory policies against Jews and restricting their emigration. By the end of the war, "the "corporate Jew", whether "cosmopolitan" or "Zionist", became identified as the enemy. Popular anti-Semitic stereotyping had been absorbed into official channels, generated by chauvinist needs and totalitarian requirements."<ref name":12">{{Cite journal |lastKorey |firstWilliam |author-linkWilliam Korey |year1972 |titleThe Origins and Development of Soviet Anti-Semitism: An Analysis |urlhttps://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/origins-and-development-of-soviet-antisemitism-an-analysis/99945786B60F74C869F8F1E36BE7280E |journalSlavic Review |volume31 |issue1 |pages111–135 |doi10.2307/2494148 |jstor2494148 |issn0037-6779 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250121191433/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/slavic-review/article/abs/origins-and-development-of-soviet-antisemitism-an-analysis/99945786B60F74C869F8F1E36BE7280E |archive-date21 January 2025}}</ref> The Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public shut down and expropriated synagogues, yeshivas, and Jewish civil organisations and prohibited the learning of Hebrew.{{cn|dateFebruary 2025}} It also engaged in a wide-scale propaganda campaign between 1967 and 1988 overseen by the KGB and published pamphlets featuring antisemitic conspiracy theories, for example falsely claiming that Zionist Jews collaborated with the Nazi regime in the Holocaust and of inflating the significance and scale of anti-Jewish persecution.<ref name=":02" />
Their propaganda frequently borrowed directly from the forged Protocols of the Elders of Zion and sometimes relied upon Adolf Hitler's Mein Kampf as a source of information about Zionism.<ref name":02" /> Antizionism helped Moscow "bond both with its Arab allies and the Western hard left of all shades. Having appointed Zionism as a scapegoat for humanity's greatest evils, Soviet propaganda could score points by equating it with racism in African radio broadcasts and with Ukrainian nationalism on Kyiv TV."<ref name":22">{{Cite journal |lastTabarovsky |firstIzabella |date1 March 2022 |titleDemonization Blueprints: Soviet Conspiracist Antizionism in Contemporary Left-Wing Discourse |journalJournal of Contemporary Antisemitism |volume5 |issue1 |pages1–20 |doi10.26613/jca/5.1.97 |issn2472-9906 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> The still-extant Novosti Press Agency, a key element in the Soviet propaganda machine, also participated in the spreading of antisemitic anti-Zionism. Its chairman, Ivan Udaltsov, published a memorandum on 27 January 1971, to the CPSU in which he claimed that "Zionists, by provoking antisemitism, recruit volunteers for the Israeli army", blaming Jews for antisemitism, and falsely alleged that Zionists were responsible for "subversive activities" during the 1968 Prague Spring.<ref name":22" /> According to historian William Korey, "Judaism was singled out for condemnation as prescribing 'racial exclusivism' and as justifying 'crimes against 'Gentiles.'"<ref name=":12" />
Similar antisemitic propaganda in Poland resulted in the flight of Polish Jewish survivors from the country.<ref name"Myth" /> After the war, the Kielce pogrom and the "March 1968 events" in communist Poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in Europe. The anti-Jewish violence in postwar Poland had a common theme of blood libel rumours.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id4Iiw0KB31rgC&pgPA233 |titleContested memories: Poles and Jews during the Holocaust and its aftermath |isbn978-0-8135-3158-8 |last1Zimmerman |first1Joshua D. |author1-linkJoshua D. Zimmerman |year2003 |publisherRutgers University Press |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001712/https://books.google.com/books?id4Iiw0KB31rgC&pgPA233#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pgPA74 |titleWorld without civilization: Mass murder and the Holocaust, history and analysis |isbn978-0-7618-2963-8 |last1Spector |first1Robert Melvin |year2005 |publisherUniversity Press of America |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001648/https://books.google.com/books?idxZ5Ceq6l0M0C&pgPA74#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref>
21st-century European antisemitism
{{Further|Antisemitism in Europe#21st century}}
Physical assaults against Jews in Europe have included beatings, stabbings, and other violence, which increased markedly, sometimes resulting in serious injury and death.<ref name "mgjmsp">{{cite journal |urlhttp://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-urban-f04.htm |titleAnti-Semitism in Germany Today: Its Roots and Tendencies |firstSusanne |lastUrban |journalJewish Political Studies Review |volume16 |issue3–4 |year2004 |page119 |access-date1 December 2008 |archive-date20 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210220161926/https://www.jcpa.org/phas/phas-urban-f04.htm |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4349519,00.html |titleAnti-Semitism up 30% in Belgium |newspaperYnetnews |access-date17 June 2015 |date27 February 2013 |archive-date27 March 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150327144035/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4349519,00.html |url-statuslive}}</ref> A 2015 report by the US State Department on religious freedom declared that "European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism."<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Washington-European-anti-Israel-sentiment-crossed-the-line-into-anti-Semitism-426080 |workThe Jerusalem Post |titleWashington: European anti-Israel sentiment crossed the line into anti-Semitism |date15 October 2015 |access-date16 April 2017 |archive-date28 July 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200728080500/https://www.jpost.com/Diaspora/Washington-European-anti-Israel-sentiment-crossed-the-line-into-anti-Semitism-426080 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
This rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both Muslim antisemitism and the rise of far-right political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008.<ref>{{cite news |workSBS |date24 February 2015 |urlhttps://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe |titleSpecial report: The rise of the right in Europe |access-date17 June 2015 |archive-date20 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210220160403/https://www.sbs.com.au/news/special-report-the-rise-of-the-right-in-europe |url-statuslive}}</ref> This rise in the support for far-right ideas in western and eastern Europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts, mostly attacks on Jewish memorials, synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against Jews.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://archive.adl.org/Anti_semitism/adl_anti-semitism_presentation_february_2012.pdf |titleAttitudes Toward Jews in Ten European Countries |dateMarch 2012 |authorFirst International Resources |publisherAnti-Defamation League |access-date20 April 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130512182655/http://archive.adl.org/Anti_semitism/adl_anti-semitism_presentation_february_2012.pdf |archive-date12 May 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
In Eastern Europe the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against Jews for the economic crisis, taking over the local economy and bribing the government, along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels. Writing on the rhetoric surrounding the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, Jason Stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives: "the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern Europe today is that Jews employ the Holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the 'real' victims of the Nazis, who are Russian Christians (or other non-Jewish eastern Europeans)".<ref name"Stanley 2022">{{Cite news |lastStanley |firstJason |date26 February 2022 |titleThe antisemitism animating Putin's claim to 'denazify' Ukraine |author-linkJason Stanley |workThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/vladimir-putin-ukraine-attack-antisemitism-denazify |access-date6 March 2022 |archive-date17 April 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220417105216/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/feb/25/vladimir-putin-ukraine-attack-antisemitism-denazify |url-statuslive}}</ref> He calls out the "myths of contemporary eastern European antisemitism – that a global cabal of Jews were (and are) the real agents of violence against Russian Christians and the real victims of the Nazis were not the Jews, but rather this group."<ref name="Stanley 2022" />
Most of the antisemitic incidents in Eastern Europe are against Jewish cemeteries and buildings (community centers and synagogues). Nevertheless, there were several violent attacks against Jews in Moscow in 2006 when a neo-Nazi stabbed 9 people at the Bolshaya Bronnaya Synagogue,<ref>{{cite news |titleRabbi's son foils bombing attempt at Moscow shul – j. the Jewish news weekly of Northern California |newspaperJ |date30 July 1999 |urlhttp://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/ |access-date17 June 2015 |archive-date6 July 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150706124450/http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/11250/rabbi-s-son-foils-bombing-attempt-at-moscow-shul/ |url-statuslive}}</ref> the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999,<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2006/01/12/international/12briefs.html |workThe New York Times |titleWorld Briefing: Asia, Europe, Americas and Africa |date12 January 2006}}</ref> the threats against Jewish pilgrims in Uman, Ukraine<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/national-political-hate/884-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-the-ukraine-threatens-jewish-pilgrimages-to-uman |titleRise of Anti-Semitism in the Ukraine threatens Jewish pilgrimages to Uman |date2 October 2011 |access-date26 May 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20130615170744/http://www.fighthatred.com/recent-events/national-political-hate/884-rise-of-anti-semitism-in-the-ukraine-threatens-jewish-pilgrimages-to-uman |archive-date15 June 2013}}</ref> and the attack against a menorah by extremist Christian organization in Moldova in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/134994 |titleVideo: Priest Attacks Menorah – Jewish World |publisherArutz Sheva |date14 December 2009 |access-date17 June 2015|archive-date17 June 2015 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150617125403/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/134994 |url-status=live}}</ref>
According to Paul Johnson, antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed.<ref>{{cite magazine |author-linkPaul Johnson (writer) |lastJohnson |firstPaul |urlhttps://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/the-anti-semitic-disease/ |titleThe Anti-Semitic Disease |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150817030629/https://www.commentarymagazine.com/article/the-anti-semitic-disease/ |archive-date17 August 2015 |magazineCommentary Magazine |date1 June 2005 |access-date26 January 2015}}</ref> While no European state currently has such policies, the Economist Intelligence Unit notes the rise in political uncertainty, notably populism and nationalism, as something that is particularly alarming for Jews.<ref name"Cohen">{{cite news |firstCohen |lastBen |urlhttp://www.algemeiner.com/2015/01/26/europe%E2%80%99s-jews-tied-to-a-declining-political-class/ |titleEurope's Jews Tied to a Declining Political Class |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200817195418/https://www.algemeiner.com/2015/01/26/europe%e2%80%99s-jews-tied-to-a-declining-political-class/ |archive-date17 August 2020 |workAlgemeiner |date26 January 2015}}</ref>21st-century Arab antisemitism
{{Main|Antisemitism in the Arab world}}
of a swastika on a building in the Palestinian city of Nablus, 2022]]
at Mosalla of Tehran, 6 January 2020]]
Robert Bernstein, founder of Human Rights Watch, says that antisemitism is "deeply ingrained and institutionalized" in "Arab nations in modern times".<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-do-human-rights-groups-ignore-palestinians-war-of-words/2011/09/26/gIQAWU5y2K_story.html |titleWhy do human rights groups ignore Palestinians' war of words? |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210211002401/https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/why-do-human-rights-groups-ignore-palestinians-war-of-words/2011/09/26/gIQAWU5y2K_story.html |archive-date11 February 2021 |newspaperThe Washington Post |date26 September 2011 |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref>
In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of Jews. In the questionnaire, only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a positive view of Jews. Muslim-majority countries outside the Middle East similarly held markedly negative views of Jews, with 4% of Turks and 9% of Indonesians viewing Jews favorably.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://pewglobal.org/2011/07/21/muslim-western-tensions-persist/3/ |websitePEW Global Attitudes Report |date21 July 2011 |titleMuslim-Western Tensions Persist |access-date19 September 2013 |archive-date21 September 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130921060113/http://www.pewglobal.org/2011/07/21/muslim-western-tensions-persist/3/ |url-statuslive}}</ref>
According to a 2011 exhibition at the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington, United States, some of the dialogue from Middle East media and commentators about Jews bear a striking resemblance to Nazi propaganda.<ref>{{cite news |authorUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/arts/design/24muse.html |titleNazis' 'Terrible Weapon,' Aimed at Minds and Hearts |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210125152303/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/arts/design/24muse.html |archive-date25 January 2021 |workThe New York Times |date23 February 2009 |access-date24 November 2010}}</ref> According to Josef Joffe of Newsweek, "anti-Semitism—the real stuff, not just bad-mouthing particular Israeli policies—is as much part of Arab life today as the hijab or the hookah. Whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the West, in the Arab world, Jew hatred remains culturally endemic."<ref>{{cite news |lastJoffe |firstJosef |urlhttp://www.newsweek.com/id/186974 |titleAnti-Semitism In Araby |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100328001627/http://www.newsweek.com/id/186974 |archive-date28 March 2010 |workNewsweek |date28 February 2009 |access-date=24 November 2010}}</ref>
Muslim clerics in the Middle East have frequently referred to Jews as descendants of apes and pigs, which are conventional epithets for Jews and Christians.<ref>{{cite book |author-linkBernard Lewis |lastLewis |firstBernard |date1984 |titleThe Jews of Islam |locationPrinceton |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn0-691-00807-8 |page33}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |firstAluma |lastSolnick |urlhttp://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Areasr&IDSR01102 |titleBased on Koranic Verses, Interpretations, and Traditions, Muslim Clerics State: The Jews Are the Descendants of Apes, Pigs, And Other Animals |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090905201355/http://www.memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Areasr&IDSR01102 |archive-date5 September 2009 |websiteMEMRI Special Report – No. 11 |date1 November 2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |firstNeil J. |lastKressel |urlhttp://chronicle.com/free/v50/i27/27b01401.htm |titleThe Urgent Need to Study Islamic Anti-Semitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090710020511/http://chronicle.com/free/v50/i27/27b01401.htm |archive-date10 July 2009 |websiteThe Chronicle of Higher Education, The Chronicle Review |date=12 March 2004}}</ref>
According to professor Robert Wistrich, director of the Vidal Sassoon International Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA), the calls for the destruction of Israel by Iran or by Hamas, Hezbollah, Islamic Jihad, or the Muslim Brotherhood, represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttp://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/ |titleHolocaust Remembrance Day — a somber anniversary |workThe Times of Israel |access-date27 January 2013 |archive-date30 January 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130130105240/http://blogs.timesofisrael.com/holocaust-remembrance-day-a-somber-anniversary/ |url-statuslive}}</ref>21st-century antisemitism at universities
{{Main|Universities and antisemitism}}
After the 2023 Hamas-led attack on Israel on 7 October, antisemitism and anti-Jewish hate crimes around the world increased significantly.<ref>{{Cite news |last1Abboud |first1Leila |last2Klasa |first2Adrienne |last3Chazan |first3Guy |date15 October 2023 |titleIsrael-Hamas war unleashes wave of antisemitism in Europe |workFinancial Times |urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912 |access-date19 October 2023 |archive-date18 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231018225127/https://www.ft.com/content/ed744535-d04f-4519-ac27-2be077cac912 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last1Chrisafis |first1Angelique |last2Kassam |first2Ashifa |last3Connolly |first3Kate |last4Giuffrida |first4Angela |date20 October 2023 |title'A lot of pain': Europe's Jews fear rising antisemitism after Hamas attack |workThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack |access-date21 October 2023 |issn0261-3077 |archive-date21 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231021041322/https://www.theguardian.com/news/2023/oct/20/a-lot-of-pain-europes-jews-fear-rising-antisemitism-after-hamas-attack |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastSforza |firstLauren |date6 May 2024 |titleAntisemitism surging worldwide since Oct. 7 attack: Report |urlhttps://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/4646435-antisemitism-surging-worldwide-since-october-7-attack-report/ |access-date17 July 2024 |workThe Hill |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240717164428/https://thehill.com/blogs/blog-briefing-room/4646435-antisemitism-surging-worldwide-since-october-7-attack-report/ |archive-date17 July 2024}}</ref> Multiple universities and university officials have been accused of systemic antisemitism.<ref>{{cite news |lastSaul |firstStephanie |date11 January 2024 |titleStudents sue Harvard, calling it a bastion of antisemitism |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/11/us/harvard-antisemitism-lawsuit.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240404085011/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/01/11/us/harvard-antisemitism-lawsuit.html |archive-date4 April 2024 |access-date23 January 2024 |workThe New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |titleHarvard president keeps her job after antisemitism backlash |urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/news/world/harvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism-1.7056381 |workCBC |date12 December 2023 |access-date23 January 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250124102806/https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/harvard-president-claudine-gay-antisemitism-1.7056381 |archive-date24 January 2025}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |first1Daniel |last1Cancel |first2Janet |last2Lorin |first3Biz |last3Carson |author4Bloomberg |titleStanford is the latest elite university to be slammed for its lack of 'moral resolve' in its response to Hamas' attack on Israel |urlhttps://fortune.com/2023/10/27/stanford-alumni-students-hamas-israel-response/ |access-date31 October 2023 |websiteFortune |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241224184116/https://fortune.com/2023/10/27/stanford-alumni-students-hamas-israel-response/ |archive-date24 December 2024}}</ref> On 1 May 2024, the United States House of Representatives voted 320–91 in favour of adopting a bill enshrining the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance definition of antisemitism into law.<ref>{{Cite news |lastAmiri |firstFarnoush |date1 May 2024 |titleHouse passes bill to expand definition of antisemitism amid growing campus protests over Gaza war |urlhttps://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinian-campus-protests-columbia-congress-df4ba95dae844b3a8559b4b3ad7e058a |access-date17 July 2024 |workAP News |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250127204728/https://apnews.com/article/israel-palestinian-campus-protests-columbia-congress-df4ba95dae844b3a8559b4b3ad7e058a |archive-date27 January 2025}}</ref> The bill was opposed by some who claimed it conflated criticism of Israel with antisemitism, while Jewish advocacy groups like the American Jewish Committee and World Jewish Congress generally supported it in response to the increase in antisemitic incidents on university campuses.<ref>{{Cite web |date15 October 2023 |titleConfronting Campus Antisemitism: An Action Plan for University Students |urlhttps://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240501032235/https://www.ajc.org/UniversityStudentsActionPlan |archive-date1 May 2024 |access-date17 July 2024 |websiteAmerican Jewish Committee}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date23 December 2023 |titleYear in Review 2023: Jewish Unity Amid Challenges |urlhttps://www.worldjewishcongress.org/en/news/year-in-review-2023-jewish-unity-amid-challenges |access-date17 July 2024 |websiteWorld Jewish Congress}}</ref> An open letter by 1,200 Jewish professors opposed the proposal.<ref>{{cite web |firstYonat |lastShimron |urlhttps://religionnews.com/2024/05/14/1200-jewish-professors-call-on-senate-to-reject-controversial-antisemitism-definition/ |title1,200 Jewish professors call on Senate to reject controversial antisemitism definition |websiteReligion News Service |date14 May 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241223132825/https://religionnews.com/2024/05/14/1200-jewish-professors-call-on-senate-to-reject-controversial-antisemitism-definition/ |archive-date23 December 2024}}</ref>Black Hebrew Israelite antisemitism
{{Further|Black Hebrew Israelites}}
in 2019.<ref name":3" /> Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.<ref name":1">{{cite web |titleSimon Wiesenthal Center Special Report: Extreme Black Hebrew Israelites |urlhttps://www.wiesenthal.com/assets/pdf/black_hebrew_israelite_movement-12-2022.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230104050826/https://www.wiesenthal.com/assets/pdf/black_hebrew_israelite_movement-12-2022.pdf |archive-date4 January 2023 |access-date4 January 2023 |websiteWiesenthal.com |publisherThe Simon Wiesenthal Center}}</ref>]]
Extremist groups of Black Hebrew Israelites believe that Jewish people are "imposters", who have "stolen" Black Americans' true racial and religious identity.<ref name":1" /><ref name"George Washington 2022" /> Some of these groups also promote the unsupported Khazar hypothesis of Ashkenazi ancestry.<ref name":1" /> In 2022, the American Jewish Committee stated that the Black Hebrew Israelite claim that "we are the real Jews" is a "troubling anti-Semitic trope with dangerous potential".<ref>{{cite news |first1Amanda |last1Woods |first2Mark |last2Lungariello |titleBlack Hebrew Israelites chant 'we are the real Jews' at pro-Kyrie Irving NYC march |urlhttps://nypost.com/2022/11/25/black-hebrew-israelites-descend-on-barclays-we-are-the-real-jews/ |access-date26 November 2022 |workThe New York Post |date25 November 2022 |archive-date26 November 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221126000155/https://nypost.com/2022/11/25/black-hebrew-israelites-descend-on-barclays-we-are-the-real-jews/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
The perpetrators of several antisemitic attacks in the United States have expressed interest in the Black Hebrew Israelites.<ref name"WaPoJersey">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/15/probe-jersey-city-shooting-leads-fbi-arrest-pawn-shop-owner-weapons-charges/ |titleProbe of Jersey City shooting leads FBI to arrest pawn shop owner on weapons charge |firstDerek |lastHawkins |newspaperThe Washington Post |date15 December 2019 |access-date26 November 2022 |archive-date27 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220927061617/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/15/probe-jersey-city-shooting-leads-fbi-arrest-pawn-shop-owner-weapons-charges/ |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"WaPoNY">{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/30/monsey-stabbing-grafton-thomas-suspect/ |titleHanukkah stabbing suspect searched 'why did Hitler hate the Jews,' prosecutors say |date30 December 2019 |first1Shayna |last1Jacobs |first2Deanna |last2Paul |first3Maria |last3Sacchetti |first4Hannah |last4Knowles |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-date26 November 2022 |archive-date30 March 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230330123630/https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/12/30/monsey-stabbing-grafton-thomas-suspect/ |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastBrown |firstJulie S. |date30 December 2019 |titleGrafton Thomas Complaint |urlhttps://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/press-release/file/1230906/dl |access-date3 March 2025 |websitewww.justice.gov |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250303142933/https://www.justice.gov/archives/opa/press-release/file/1230906/dl |archive-date3 March 2025}}</ref> Between 2019 and 2022, individuals motivated by Black Hebrew Israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders.<ref name":1" /> In September 2022, the Program on Extremism at George Washington University published a report which said the largest threat came from "individuals loosely affiliated with or inspired by the movement", rather than from formal members of Black Hebrew Israelite organizations.<ref name":3">{{cite news |last1Esensten |first1Andrew |date26 November 2022 |titleHow many Hebrew Israelites are there, and how worried should Jews be? |workThe Times of Israel |urlhttps://www.timesofisrael.com/how-many-hebrew-israelites-are-there-and-how-worried-should-jews-be/ |access-date3 January 2023 |archive-date3 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230103115838/https://www.timesofisrael.com/how-many-hebrew-israelites-are-there-and-how-worried-should-jews-be/ |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"George Washington 2022">Contemporary Violent Extremism and the Black Hebrew Israelite Movement. Program on Extremism. George Washington University. September 2022. https://extremism.gwu.edu/sites/g/files/zaxdzs5746/files/ContemporaryViolentExtremism-BlackHebrewIsraeliteMovement090722.pdf</ref>
Antisemitism on the internet
Antisemitism on the internet involves a complex interplay between social media dynamics, conspiracy theories, and the broader socio-political context. Social media platforms have proved fertile for breeding antisemitic rhetoric, particularly during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, during which a notable rise in antisemitic conspiracy theories emerged.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Sundberg |first1Kelly W. |last2Mitchell |first2Lauren M. |last3Levinson |first3Dan |date2022 |titleHealth, Religiosity and Hatred: A Study of the Impacts of COVID-19 on World Jewry |journalJournal of Religion & Health |volume62 |number1 |pages428–443 |doi10.1007/s10943-022-01692-5 |pmid36396910 |pmc9672556}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last1Garner |first1G. |last2McGrann |first2M. |last3Klug |first3D. |last4Kranson |first4R. |last5Yoder |first5M. |date2023 |titleThe relationship between antisemitism and covid-19 conspiracy on twitter}}</ref>{{full citation needed|dateJanuary 2025}}<ref>{{citation |last1Evanega |first1S. |last2Lynas |first2M. |last3Adams |first3J. |last4Smolenyak |first4K. |date2020 |titleCoronavirus misinformation: quantifying sources and themes in the covid-19 'infodemic'}}</ref>{{full citation needed|dateJanuary 2025}} The role of social media in amplifying these sentiments is underscored by analyses of comment sections on major media outlets, which reveal a significant presence of antisemitic discourse, often framed within the context of political events and international relations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Becker |first1M. |last2Ascone |first2L. |last3Troschke |first3H. |date2022 |titleAntisemitic comments on Facebook pages of leading British, French, and German media outlets |journalHumanities and Social Sciences Communications |volume9 |number1 |page339 |doi10.1057/s41599-022-01337-8 |pmid36193196 |pmc9520959}}</ref>{{pn|dateJanuary 2025}}<ref name"Subotić">{{cite journal |lastSubotić |firstJ. |date2021 |titleAntisemitism in the global populist international |journalBritish Journal of Politics and International Relations |volume24 |number3 |pages458–474 |doi10.1177/13691481211066970}}</ref> Furthermore, the emergence of TikTok as a new platform has raised concerns about the proliferation of antisemitic content, with studies highlighting the challenges of moderating such material effectively.<ref>{{cite journal |last1McMann |first1T. |last2Calac |first2A. |last3Nali |first3M. |last4Cuomo |first4R. |last5Maroulis |first5J. |last6Mackey |first6T. |date2022 |titleSynthetic cannabinoids in prisons: content analysis of tiktoks |journalJMIR Infodemiology |volume2 |number1 |pagee37632|doi10.2196/37632 |doi-accessfree |pmid37113804 |pmc9987188}}</ref>{{Verify source|dateJanuary 2025}}<ref>{{cite journal |lastNathanael |firstG. |date2023 |titleTiktok's spiral of antisemitism: a study case in Indonesia |journalEkspresi Dan Persepsi Jurnal Ilmu Komunikasi |volume6 |number3 |pages547–553 |doi10.33822/jep.v6i3.5612 |doi-accessfree}}</ref>{{Verify source|dateJanuary 2025}} The intersection of antisemitism with broader themes of populism and right-wing extremism is also evident, as these ideologies often utilize antisemitic narratives to galvanize support and create a sense of otherness.<ref name"Subotić"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1Ichau |first1E. |last2Frissen |first2T. |last3d'Haenens |first3L. |date2019 |titleFrom #selfie to #edgy. hashtag networks and images associated with the hashtag #jews on instagram |journalTelematics and Informatics |volume44 |page101275 |doi10.1016/j.tele.2019.101275 |urlhttps://cris.maastrichtuniversity.nl/en/publications/532fda65-f34a-40e0-b918-a8f480738699}}</ref> Additionally, the phenomenon of subtle hate speech has been identified, where antisemitic sentiments are recontextualized in ways that may evade direct detection yet still perpetuate harmful stereotypes.<ref>{{cite book |last1Serafis |first1Dimitris |last2Boukala |first2Salomi |date2023 |chapterSubtle hate speech and the recontextualisation of antisemitism online: Analysing argumentation on Facebook |titleDiscourse in the Digital Age: Social Media, Power, and Society |editor1-firstEleonora |editor1-lastEsposito |editor2-firstMajid |editor2-lastKhosraviNik |publisherRoutledge |pages143–167 |isbn9781003300786}}</ref> Antisemitic bias appears even in ostensibly neutral sources such as on the Wikipedia platform.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Grabowski |first1Jan |last2Klein |first2Shira |date2023 |titleWikipedia's Intentional Distortion of the History of the Holocaust |journalThe Journal of Holocaust Research |volume37 |number2 |pages133–190 |doi10.1080/25785648.2023.2168939 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> Overall, the digital landscape presents both challenges and opportunities for combating antisemitism, necessitating a multifaceted approach that includes community engagement and technological solutions to monitor and counteract hate speech effectively.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Ozalp |first1S. |last2Williams |first2M. |last3Burnap |first3P. |last4Liu |first4H. |last5Mostafa |first5M. |date2020 |titleAntisemitism on twitter: collective efficacy and the role of community organisations in challenging online hate speech |journalSocial Media + Society |volume6 |number2 |doi10.1177/2056305120916850}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |lastKahn-Harris |firstK. |date2020 |titleInundated with online antisemitism |journalJournal of Contemporary Antisemitism |volume3 |number1 |pages55–58 |doi10.26613/jca/3.1.43}}</ref>
Causes
{{Original research section|date=February 2025}}
Antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism, xenophobia, projected guilt, displaced aggression, conspiracy theory, and the search for a scapegoat.<ref>{{cite book |titleJews in the early modern world |firstDean Phillip |lastBell |publisherRowman & Littlefield |year2008 |page212 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5rJ85OyVWV0C&pgPA212 |isbn978-0-7425-4518-2 |access-date23 August 2020 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001601/https://books.google.com/books?id5rJ85OyVWV0C&pgPA212#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Antisemitism scholar Lars Fischer writes that "scholars distinguish between theories that assume an actual causal (rather than merely coincidental) correlation between what (some) Jews do and antisemitic perceptions (correspondence theories), on the one hand, and those predicated on the notion that no such causal correlation exists and that 'the Jews' serve as a foil for the projection of antisemitic assumptions, on the other."<ref name"u458">{{cite journal |lastFischer |firstLars |title"The word 'Jew' has several meanings in relation to commerce, but almost all negative": on the evolution of a projection |journalJewish Historical Studies |volume51 |issue1 |date27 April 2020 |issn2397-1290 |doi10.14324/111.444.jhs.2020v51.032}}</ref> The latter position is exemplified by Theodor W. Adorno, who wrote that "Anti-Semitism is the rumour about the Jews"; in other words, "a conspiratorial mentality that sees Jewish people as invisible and yet ubiquitous, as capable of pulling the strings of power from behind the scenes."<ref>{{cite web |authorschalomlibertad |titleAntisemitism and the (modern) critique of capitalism |date23 July 2009 |websitelibcom.org |quoteAdorno, T. (1951), Minima Moralia. Reflexionen aus dem beschädigten Leben, Suhrkamp, Frankfurt, p. 141. |urlhttps://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism |access-date5 December 2023 |archive-date7 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231207180431/https://libcom.org/library/antisemitism-modern-critique-capitalism |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |author-linkFrancesca Trivellato |lastTrivellato |firstFrancesca |titleThe rumour about the Jews |date28 January 2020 |magazineAeon |quoteTheodor Adorno in 1951 called 'the rumour about Jews'... |urlhttps://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism |access-date5 December 2023 |archive-date7 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231207180457/https://aeon.co/essays/what-is-the-link-between-medieval-and-modern-antisemitism |url-statuslive}}</ref>
As an example of the correspondence theory, an 1894 book by Bernard Lazare questions whether Jews themselves were to blame for some antisemitic stereotypes, for instance arguing that Jews traditionally keeping strictly to their own communities, with their own practices and laws, led to a perception of Jews as anti-social; he later abandoned this belief and the book is considered antisemitic today.<ref>{{cite book |titleAnti-Semitism: Its History and Causes |firstBernard |lastLazare |publisherCosimo, Inc. |year2006 |isbn9781596056015 |page[https://books.google.com/books?idVP81v2Y24HUC&pgPA9 9]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Brustein |first1William L. |last2Roberts |first2Louisa |titleThe Scialism of Fools: Leftist Origins of Modern Anti-Semitism |date2015 |publisherCambridge University Press |page55 |quoteLazare argued in his book that Jews, because of their exclusiveness, arrogance, and unsociability, were themselves responsible for anti-Semitism. Lazare blames the Jewish religion and laws for these negative traits. His bool was widely reviewed and is by many accounts a seminal anti-Semitic text. Lazare's authorship of such an anti-Semitic work is ironic, given the role he would soon play in the Dreyfus Affair.}}</ref><ref name"q406">{{cite journal |lastSwanson |firstJoel |titleWe Spring from that History: Bernard Lazare, between Universalism and Particularism |journalReligions |volume9 |issue10 |date21 October 2018 |issn2077-1444 |doi10.3390/rel9100322 |doi-accessfree |page322}}</ref> As another example, Walter Laqueur suggested that the antisemitic perception of Jewish people as greedy (as often used in stereotypes of Jews) probably evolved in Europe during medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by Jews.{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p154}} Among factors thought to contribute to this situation include that Jews were restricted from other professions,{{sfnp|Laqueur|2006|p154}} while the Christian Church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral "usury",<ref>{{cite journal |titleHawthorne's secret: an un-told tale |jstor41398742 |journalThe Georgia Review |volume38 |issue3 |pages664–666 |firstPhilip |lastYoung |year1984}}</ref> although recent scholarship, such as that of historian Julie Mell shows that Jews were not overrepresented in the sector and that the stereotype was founded in Christian projection of taboo behaviour on to the minority.<ref name"u458"/><ref name"s525">{{cite journal |lastCassen |firstFlora |titleJews and Money: Time for a New Story? |journalThe Jewish Quarterly Review |volume110 |issue2 |year2020 |issn1553-0604 |doi10.1353/jqr.2020.0007 |pages373–382}}</ref><ref name"a817">{{cite journal |lastMell |firstJulie L. |titleCultural Meanings of Money in Medieval Ashkenaz: On Gift, Profit, and Value in Medieval Judaism and Christianity |journalJewish History |publisherSpringer |volume28 |issue2 |year2014 |issn0334-701X |jstor24709715 |pages125–158 |doi10.1007/s10835-014-9212-3 |urlhttp://www.jstor.org/stable/24709715 |access-date11 July 2024}}</ref>
In Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition (2013), historian David Nirenberg traces the history of antisemitism, arguing that antisemitism should be understood not as a product of isolated historical events or cultural biases but is instead embedded within the very fabric of Western thought and society.<ref name":6">{{Cite book |lastNirenberg |firstDavid |author-linkDavid Nirenberg |titleAnti-Judaism: The Western Tradition |publisherNorton |year2014 |isbn978-0-393-34791-3 |locationNew York}}</ref>{{pn|dateJanuary 2024}} Its foundation lies in the early claim of Jewish deicide and depictions of Jews as 'Christ-killers'. Throughout Western history, Jews have since been used as a symbolic 'other' to define and articulate the values and boundaries of various cultures and intellectual traditions. In philosophy, literature, and politics, Jewishness has often been constructed as a counterpoint to what is considered normative or ideal. One of the key insights from Nirenberg's work is that antisemitism has proven to be remarkably adaptable.{{cn|dateFebruary 2025}} It changes form and adapts to different contexts and times, whether in medieval religious disputes, Enlightenment critiques, or modern racial theories. Philosophers and intellectuals have often used 'Jewishness' as a foil to explore and define their ideas. For instance, in the Enlightenment, figures like Voltaire critiqued Judaism as backward and superstitious to promote their visions of reason and progress. Similarly, the Soviet Union frequently portrayed Judaism as linked with capitalism and mercantilism, standing in opposition to the ideals of proletarian solidarity and communism. In each case, Judaism or the Jews are portrayed as standing in tension with prevailing moral norms.<ref name":6" />
Author and scholar Dara Horn published an article in The Atlantic reflecting on her previous published doubts about the effectiveness of Holocaust education pedagogy and the rising antisemitism in the wake of the October 7th Massacre in Israel by Palestinians.<ref name":8" /> In it, Horn argues that antisemitism functions by appropriating what has happened to Jews and recasting their experience as part of a broader, universal struggle, which always ends in ultimately redefining Jewish identity as incompatible with these ideals. She concludes that the attacks on Jews, often under the guise of anti-Zionism, follow the same ancient pattern of marginalization and vilification.<blockquote>This is the permission structure for anti-Semitism: claim whatever has happened to the Jews as one's own experience, announce a "universal" ideal that all good people must accept, and then redefine Jewish collective identity as lying beyond it. Hating Jews thus becomes a demonstration of righteousness. The key is to define, and redefine, and redefine again, the shiny new moral reasoning for why the Jews have failed the universal test of humanity.<ref name":8">{{Cite magazine |lastHorn |firstDara |author-linkDara Horn |date7 October 2024 |titleOctober 7 Created a Permission Structure for Anti-Semitism |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/10/october-7-anti-semitism-united-states/680176/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20241010011236/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2024/10/october-7-anti-semitism-united-states/680176/ |archive-date10 October 2024 |access-date15 October 2024 |magazineThe Atlantic |issn2151-9463}}</ref></blockquote>
Prevention through education
Education plays an important role in addressing and overcoming prejudice and countering social discrimination.<ref name":2">{{Cite book |urlhttps://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702 |titleAddressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers |publisherUNESCO |year2018 |isbn978-92-3-100274-8 |access-date9 March 2020 |archive-date17 January 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210117130019/https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702 |url-statuslive}}</ref> However, education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself; it is also about building a sense of global citizenship and solidarity, respect for, and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active, democratic citizens. Education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms, manifestations, and impact of antisemitism faced by Jews and Jewish communities.<ref name=":2" />
Some Jewish writers have argued that public education about antisemitism through the prism of the Holocaust is unhelpful at best or actively deepening antisemitism at worst. Dara Horn wrote in The Atlantic that "Auschwitz is not a metaphor", arguing "That the Holocaust drives home the importance of love is an idea, like the idea that Holocaust education prevents anti-Semitism, that seems entirely unobjectionable. It is entirely objectionable. The Holocaust didn't happen because of a lack of love. It happened because entire societies abdicated responsibility for their own problems, and instead blamed them on the people who represented—have always represented, since they first introduced the idea of commandedness to the world—the thing they were most afraid of: responsibility."<ref>{{Cite magazine |lastHorn |firstDara |author-linkDara Horn |date6 June 2019 |titleAuschwitz Is Not a Metaphor |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/auschwitz-not-long-ago-not-far-away/591082/ |url-accesssubscription |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190608100816/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2019/06/auschwitz-not-long-ago-not-far-away/591082/ |archive-date8 June 2019 |access-date29 July 2024 |magazineThe Atlantic |issn2151-9463}}{{void|Fabrickator|comment|the 8 June 2019 archive from the "ideas/archive" path is evidently a complete story, archive copies from other paths may not be complete}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
Instead, she argues that perhaps "a more effective way to address anti-Semitism might lie in cultivating a completely different quality, one that happens to be the key to education itself: curiosity. Why use Jews as a means to teach people that we're all the same, when the demand that Jews be just like their neighbors is exactly what embedded the mental virus of anti-Semitism in the Western mind in the first place? Why not instead encourage inquiry about the diversity, to borrow a de rigueur word, of the human experience?"<ref>{{Cite magazine |lastHorn |firstDara |author-linkDara Horn |date3 April 2023 |titleIs Holocaust Education Making Anti-Semitism Worse?|urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2023/05/holocaust-student-education-jewish-anti-semitism/673488/ |access-date29 July 2024 |magazineThe Atlantic |issn2151-9463 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240510075025/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2023/05/holocaust-student-education-jewish-anti-semitism/673488/ |archive-date10 May 2024}}</ref>Geographical variation
{{Main|Geography of antisemitism}}
A March 2008 report by the U.S. State Department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world, and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist.<ref>{{cite news |urlhttp://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html |titleReport: Anti-Semitism on the rise globally |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080315181305/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/03/14/anti-semitism/index.html |archive-date15 March 2008 |workCNN |date14 March 2008 |access-date24 November 2010}}</ref> A 2012 report by the U.S. Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism, and found that Holocaust denial and opposition to Israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism.<ref>{{cite web |titleInternational Religious Freedom Report for 2012 |urlhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper |access-date21 December 2013 |archive-date7 February 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170207121457/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/religiousfreedom/index.htm#wrapper |url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2014, the Anti-Defamation League conducted a study titled ADL Global 100: An Index of Anti-Semitism,<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://global100.adl.org/ |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160601015413/http://global100.adl.org/public/ADL-Global-100-Executive-Summary.pdf |archive-date1 June 2016 |titleADL Global 100: A Survey of Attitudes Toward Jews in Over 100 Countries Around the World |websiteAnti-Defamation League/Global 100 |access-date14 January 2024 |url-statusdead}}</ref> which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and, among other findings, that as many as "27% of people who have never met a Jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him".<ref name"TOI-ADL">{{cite news |lastGur |firstHaviv Rettig |author-linkHaviv Rettig Gur |titleHating the Jew you've never met |workThe Times of Israel |date18 May 2014 |urlhttp://www.timesofisrael.com/hating-the-jew-youve-never-met/ |access-date26 August 2018 |archive-date1 June 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190601140048/https://www.timesofisrael.com/hating-the-jew-youve-never-met/ |url-statuslive}}</ref>
In August 2024, the Israeli Ministry of the Diaspora announced a new antisemitism monitoring project.<ref nameDiaspora1>{{cite news |lastStarr |firstMichael |date19 August 2024 |titleCan Diaspora Ministry's new monitoring system help better understand antisemitism? |urlhttps://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815377 |workThe Jerusalem Post |access-date20 August 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241225084509/https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815377 |archive-date25 December 2024}}</ref><ref nameDiaspora2>{{cite news |date18 August 2024 |titleDiaspora Ministry unveils system for monitoring antisemitic discourse online |urlhttps://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815209 |workThe Jerusalem Post |access-date20 August 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241227112402/https://www.jpost.com/diaspora/antisemitism/article-815209 |archive-date27 December 2024}}</ref> The goal of the project is to measure levels of antisemitism in various countries, as well as identify instigators and trends.<ref nameDiaspora1 /> In the event that antisemitism in a given country gets bad, the Israeli government may reach out to the local government to try to rectify the situation.<ref nameDiaspora1 />
Antisemitica collections
{{Main|Antisemitica}}
There have been attempts to collect material deemed antisemitic, one of the most impotant being the Felix Posen Bibliographic Project on Antisemitism, an electronic version of the Antisemitism – An Annotated Bibliography published by De Gruyter Saur from 1984 to 2013 and which lists some 50,000 items including books, dissertations, and articles from periodicals and collections from a diverse range of disciplines as well items from visuals arts such as films and caricatures. Apart from antisemitic material, including those pertaining to "Jewish self-hate", the project also contains Jewish responses to such polemical works and also philosemitic works.<ref>{{Cite web |titleFelix Posen Bibliographic Project on Antisemitism |urlhttps://libraries.usc.edu/databases/felix-posen-bibliographic-project-antisemitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250330192640/https://libraries.usc.edu/databases/felix-posen-bibliographic-project-antisemitism |archive-date30 March 2025 |websiteUniversity of Southern California}}</ref>See also
{{Portal|Jewish|Judaism}}
{{Div col}}
* Anti-antisemitism
* Anti-Jewish violence in Central and Eastern Europe, 1944–1946
* Anti-Semite and Jew, an essay by Jean-Paul Sartre
* Anti-Semitism in the 21st Century: The Resurgence
* Antisemitism and the New Testament
* Babylonian captivity
* Calls for the destruction of Israel
* Centre for Research on Antisemitism
* Farhud, the 1941 Baghdad pogrom
* 1929 Hebron massacre
* Institutional racism
* Jacob Barnet affair
* Jewish exodus from the Muslim World
* Kingdom of Jerusalem
* Khaybar Khaybar ya yahud
* Martyrdom in Judaism
* Normalization of antisemitism
* Secondary antisemitism
* Tisha B'Av
{{div col end}}
Notes
{{Notelist}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Sources
{{refbegin|32em}}
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* {{Cite book |lastBaasten |firstMartin F. J. |titleHamlet on a Hill: Semitic and Greek Studies Presented to Professor T. Muraoka on the Occasion of His Sixty-fifth Birthday |date2003 |publisherPeeters |isbn90-429-1215-4 |editor1-lastBaasten |editor1-firstM. F. J. |pages57–73 |chapterA Note on the History of 'Semitic' |editor2-lastVan Peursen |editor2-firstW. Th. |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoIIvqaVaLacC&pg=PA58}}
* {{cite book |lastBein |firstAlex |author-linkAlex Bein |year1990 |titleThe Jewish Question: Biography of a World Problem |translator-firstHarry |translator-lastZohn |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcQOn0y8ENg4C |locationRutherford, NJ |publisherFairleigh Dickinson University Press |isbn978-0-8386-3252-9 |access-date13 August 2015 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001603/https://books.google.com/books?idcQOn0y8ENg4C |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |lastBeller |firstSteven |date2007 |titleAntisemitism: A Very Short Introduction |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0192892775}}
<!-- CCC -->
* {{cite journal |last1Consonni |first1Manuela |title'Upping the Antis': Addressing the Conceptual Ambiguities Surrounding 'Antisemitism' |journalSociety |year2022 |volume59|issue1 |pages25–33|doi10.1007/s12115-022-00665-4 |s2cid247172627}}
* {{cite book |lastChanes |firstJerome A. |year2004 |titleAntisemitism: a Reference Handbook |publisherABC-CLIO |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idju7U83nRDt8C |isbn978-1-57607-209-7 |access-date13 August 2015 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001716/https://books.google.com/books?idju7U83nRDt8C |url-status=live}}
<!-- FFF -->
* {{cite book |lastFalk |firstAvner |author-linkAvner Falk |year2008 |titleAnti-Semitism: a History and Psychoanalysis of Contemporary Hatred |publisherPraeger |locationWestport, CT |isbn978-0-313-35384-0}}
* {{cite book |lastFlannery |firstEdward H. |author-linkEdward Flannery |year1985 |titleThe Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-three Centuries of Antisemitism |publisherPaulist Press |isbn=978-0-8091-4324-5}}
* {{cite book |lastFlannery |firstEdward H. |author-linkEdward Flannery |year2004 |titleThe Anguish of the Jews: Twenty-Three Centuries of Antisemitism |publisherPaulist Press |edition2nd |locationMahwah, NY |isbn=978-0-8091-4324-5}}
* {{cite book |lastFoxman |firstAbraham |author-linkAbraham Foxman |year2010 |titleJews and Money: The Story of a Stereotype |publisherSt. Martin's Press |locationNew York |isbn978-0-230-11225-4}}
* {{cite book |last1Frank |first1Daniel H. |last2Leaman |first2Oliver |author2-linkOliver Leaman |titleThe Cambridge companion to medieval Jewish philosophy |date2003 |publisherCambridge University Press |locationCambridge |isbn0-521-65574-9}}
<!-- HHH-->
* {{cite book |last1Harzig |first1Christiane |last2Hoerder |first2Dirk |last3Shubert |first3Adrian |titleThe historical practice of diversity: transcultural interactions from the early modern Mediterranean to the postcolonial world |date2003 |publisherBerghahn Books |locationNew York |isbn=1-57181-377-2}}
<!-- JJJ -->
* {{cite book |lastJohnson |firstPaul |author-linkPaul Johnson (writer) |year1987 |titleA History of the Jews |locationNew York, NY |publisherHarperCollins Publishers |isbn978-0-06-091533-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofjews00john}}
* {{cite book |lastJohnston |firstWilliam |author-linkWill Johnston |titleThe Austrian Mind: An Intellectual and Social History, 1848–1938|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id-dmH7FjxassC&pgPA27 |year1983 |publisherUniversity of California Press |isbn978-0-520-04955-0 |access-date13 August 2015 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001702/https://books.google.com/books?id-dmH7FjxassC&pgPA27#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite journal |last1Judaken |first1Jonathan |author-linkJonathan Judaken |titleIntroduction |journalThe American Historical Review |year2018 |volume123 |issue4 |pages1122–1138 |doi10.1093/ahr/rhy024}}
<!-- KKK -->
* {{cite book |lastKiraz |firstGeorge Anton |author-linkGeorge Kiraz |titleComputational Nonlinear Morphology: With Emphasis on Semitic Languages |year2001 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn9780521631969 |page25 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDpl3dHMjVZcC |quote=The term "Semitic" is borrowed from the Bible (Gene. x.21 and xi.10–26). It was first used by the Orientalist A. L. Schlözer in 1781 to designate the languages spoken by the Aramæans, Hebrews, Arabs, and other peoples of the Near East (Moscati et al., 1969, Sect. 1.2). Before Schlözer, these languages and dialects were known as Oriental languages.}}
<!-- LLL -->
* {{cite book |lastLaqueur |firstWalter |author-linkWalter Laqueur |year2006 |titleThe Changing Face of Antisemitism: From Ancient Times to the Present Day |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-530429-9 |edition1st |url=https://archive.org/details/changingfaceofan00laqu}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastLevy |editor-firstRichard S. |editor-linkRichard S. Levy |year2005 |titleAntisemitism: a Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution |locationSanta Barbara, CA |publisherABC-CLIO |isbn978-1-85109-439-4}}
* {{cite book |lastLevy |firstRichard S. |author-linkRichard S. Levy |chapterPolitical Antisemitism in Germany and Austria, 1848–1914 |titleAntisemitism: A History |editor1-firstAlbert S. |editor1-lastLindemann |editor1-linkAlbert Lindemann |editor2-firstRichard S. |editor2-lastLevy |editor2-linkRichard S. Levy |date2010 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-923502-5 |pages=121–135}}
* {{cite book |lastLewis |firstBernard |year1999 |author-linkBernard Lewis |titleSemites and Anti-Semites: an Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice |publisherW. W. Norton & Company |isbn978-0-393-31839-5 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/semitesantisemit0000lewi_n3m3/mode/2up}}
* {{cite book |last1Lindemann |first1Albert S. |author1-linkAlbert Lindemann |last2Levy |first2Richard S. |author2-linkRichard S. Levy |chapterIntroduction |titleAntisemitism: A History |editor1-firstAlbert S. |editor1-lastLindemann |editor1-linkAlbert Lindemann |editor2-firstRichard S. |editor2-lastLevy |editor2-linkRichard S. Levy |date2010 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-923502-5 |pages1–16}}
* {{cite book |lastLipstadt |firstDeborah |author-linkDeborah Lipstadt |year2019 |titleAntisemitism: Here and Now |publisherSchocken Books |isbn=978-0-80524337-6}}
* {{cite book |lastLipstadt |firstDeborah |author-linkDeborah Lipstadt |year1994 |titleDenying the Holocaust: the Growing Assault on Truth and Memory |publisherPenguin Books |isbn978-0-452-27274-3 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/denyingholocaust00lips}}
<!-- MMM -->
* {{cite book |lastMaizels |firstLinda |date2023 |titleWhat is Antisemitism?: A Contemporary Introduction |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-003-02182-7}}
* {{cite book |lastMajer |firstDiemut |year2014 |title"Non-Germans" Under The Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and Occupied Eastern Europe, with Special Regard to Occupied Poland, 1939–1945 |publisherTexas Tech University Press |isbn978-0896728370}}
* {{cite book |last1McLellan |first1David |author1-linkDavid McLellan (political scientist) |titleMarx before Marxism |date1980 |publisherMacmillan |locationLondon |isbn978-0-333-27883-3 |edition2d |urlhttps://thecharnelhouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/David-McClellan-Marx-before-Marxism.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://thecharnelhouse.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/David-McClellan-Marx-before-Marxism.pdf |archive-date9 October 2022 |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |lastMichael |firstRobert |titleA History of Catholic Antisemitism: The Dark Side of the Church |year2008 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-0-230-61117-7 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8ZnFAAAAQBAJ |access-date15 March 2021 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001702/https://books.google.com/books?id8ZnFAAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}
<!-- OOO -->
* {{cite journal |lastO'Brien |firstCharles H. |date1969 |titleIdeas of Religious Toleration at the time of Joseph II |journalTransactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume59 |number7 |doi10.2307/1006062 |jstor=1006062}}
<!-- PPP -->
* {{cite book |last1Perry |first1Marvin |last2Schweitzer |first2Frederick M. |year2002 |titleAntisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id9yQmyXeNEMQC&pgPA53 |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |isbn978-0-312-16561-1 |access-date13 August 2015 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001722/https://books.google.com/books?id9yQmyXeNEMQC&pgPA53#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-status=live}}
* {{cite book |last1Perry |first1Marvin |last2Schweitzer |first2Frederick M. |year2005 |titleAntisemitism: Myth and Hate from Antiquity to the Present |publisherPalgrave |locationNew York, NY |isbn=978-0-312-16561-1}}
* {{cite book |last1Prager |first1Dennis |author1-linkDennis Prager |last2Telushkin |first2Joseph |author2-linkJoseph Telushkin |year2003 |orig-year1985 |titleWhy the Jews? The Reason for Antisemitism |publisherTouchstone |editionreprint |isbn978-0-7432-4620-0}}
<!-- RRR -->
* {{cite book |lastRattansi |firstAli |titleRacism: A Very Short Introduction |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idYVOb3MDBmBEC&pgPA4 |year2007 |publisherOxford University Press |locationOxford, England |isbn978-0-19-280590-4 |access-date13 August 2015 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001645/https://books.google.com/books?idYVOb3MDBmBEC&pgPA4 |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite book |lastRosenfeld |firstAlvin H. |author-linkAlvin Hirsch Rosenfeld |date9 January 2019 |titleAnti-Zionism and Antisemitism: The Dynamics of Delegitimization |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEYuFDwAAQBAJ&pgPA195 |publisherIndiana University Press |isbn978-0-253-03872-2}}
* {{cite book |last1Rubenstein |first1Richard L. |author1-linkRichard L. Rubenstein |last2Roth |first2John K. |author2-linkJohn K. Roth |titleApproaches to Auschwitz: The Holocaust and Its Legacy |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIfoBx6skMCkC&pgPA30 |year2003 |publisherWestminster John Knox Press |isbn978-0-664-22353-3 |access-date13 August 2015 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230001710/https://books.google.com/books?idIfoBx6skMCkC&pgPA30#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-status=live}}
<!-- SSS -->
* {{cite book |lastSachar |firstHoward Morley |author-linkHoward Sachar |year1961 |titleAliyah: The People of Israel |publisherWorld Publishing Company}}
<!-- TTT -->
* {{cite book |lastTroy |firstGil |date2024 |chapterZionism: A Response to Antisemitism? |titleThe Routledge History of Antisemitism |editor1-firstMark |editor1-lastWeitzman |editor2-firstRobert J. |editor2-lastWilliams |editor3-firstJames |editor3-lastWald |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1138369443 |pages390–398}}
<!-- UUU -->
* {{cite journal |last1Ury |first1Scott |titleStrange Bedfellows? Anti-Semitism, Zionism, and the Fate of "the Jews" |journalThe American Historical Review |year2018 |volume123 |issue4 |pages1151–1171 |doi=10.1093/ahr/rhy030}}
<!-- WWW -->
* {{cite book |lastWeinberg |firstSonja |year2010 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0HDeEPouQm0C |titlePogroms and Riots: German Press Responses to Anti-Jewish Violence in Germany and Russia (1881–1882) |publisherPeter Lang |access-date27 October 2018 |isbn9783631602140 |archive-date29 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231229235557/https://books.google.com/books?id0HDeEPouQm0C&pgPA18#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite book |lastWilliams |firstRobert J. |date2024 |chapterAntisemitism and Diseases, Pandemics, and Public Health Crises |titleThe Routledge History of Antisemitism |editor1-firstMark |editor1-lastWeitzman |editor2-firstRobert J. |editor2-lastWilliams |editor3-firstJames |editor3-lastWald |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1138369443 |pages284–297}}
<!-- ZZZ -->
* {{cite book |lastZimmermann |firstMoshe |author-linkMoshe Zimmermann |year1987 |titleWilhelm Marr: The Patriarch of Antisemitism |locationNew York and Oxford |publisherOxford University |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtYW013SjKM4C |isbn978-0-19-536495-8 |archive-date29 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231229235552/https://books.google.com/books?idtYW013SjKM4C&pgPA112#vonepage&q&ffalse |url-status=live}}
{{refend}}
Attribution
{{refbegin}}
* {{Free-content attribution
| title = Addressing anti-semitism through education: guidelines for policymakers
|publisher=UNESCO
| page numbers | source UNESCO
| documentURL = https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000263702
| license statement URL | license CC BY-SA 3.0 IGO
}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
{{refbegin|32em}}
* {{Cite web |year2022 |titleAdoption of the Working Definition |urlhttps://www.ajc.org/adoption-of-the-working-definition |access-date17 July 2022 |websiteAmerican Jewish Committee |archive-date23 June 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220623215205/https://www.ajc.org/adoption-of-the-working-definition |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite journal |last1Brustein |first1William I. |last2King |first2Ryan D. |titleAnti-semitism in Europe before the Holocaust |journalInternational Political Science Review |volume25 |number1 |date2004 |pages35–53 |doi10.1177/0192512104038166 |urlhttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0192512104038166 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220407035009/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0192512104038166 |archive-date7 April 2022}}
* {{cite book |lastBitton |firstIsrael B. |titleA Brief and Visual History of Antisemitism |locationJerusalem |publisherGefen Publishing |date2022}}
* {{cite book |lastCarr |firstSteven Alan |titleHollywood and anti-Semitism: A cultural history up to World War II |publisherCambridge University Press |date=2001}}
* {{cite book |lastCohn |firstNorman |titleWarrant for Genocide |publisherEyre & Spottiswoode; Serif |orig-date1967 |date1996}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |lastDeutsch |firstGotthard |author-linkGotthard Deutsch |urlhttps://archive.org/details/b29000488_0001/page/640/mode/2up |titleAnti-Semitism |encyclopediaJewish Encyclopedia |volume1 |pages641–649 |locationNew York |publisherFunk & Wagnalls |date1901 |viaInternet Archive}}
* {{cite book |lastFischer |firstKlaus P. |titleThe History of an Obsession: German Judeophobia and the Holocaust |publisherContinuum Publishing Company |date=1998}}
* {{cite book |lastFreudmann |firstLillian C. |titleAntisemitism in the New Testament |publisherUniversity Press of America |date=1994}}
* {{cite book |lastGerber |firstJane S. |author-linkJane Gerber |date1986 |chapterAnti-Semitism and the Muslim World |titleHistory and Hate: The Dimensions of Anti-Semitism |editor-firstDavid |editor-lastBerger |publisherJewish Publications Society |isbn0-8276-0267-7}}
* {{cite book |editor1-lastGoldberg |editor1-firstSol |editor2-lastUry |editor2-firstScott |editor3-lastWeiser |editor3-firstKalman |titleKey Concepts in the Study of Antisemitism |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |date2021}} [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id56840 online review] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211005142905/https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id56840 |date=5 October 2021}}
* {{cite book |lastHanebrink |firstPaul |titleA Specter Haunting Europe: The Myth of Judeo-Bolshevism |publisherHarvard University Press |date2018 |isbn9780674047686}}
* {{cite book |lastHilberg |firstRaul |author-linkRaul Hilberg |titleThe Destruction of the European Jews |publisherHolmes & Meier |date1985}}. 3 volumes.
* {{cite book |lastIsser |firstNatalie |titleAntisemitism during the French Second Empire |date1991}}
* {{cite book |lastKertzer |firstDavid I. |author-linkDavid Kertzer |titleThe Pope and Mussolini: The Secret History of Pius XI and the Rise of Fascism in Europe |year2014 |publisherOxford University Press |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXc3QAgAAQBAJ |isbn9780198716167 |access-date21 August 2017 |archive-date12 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230112150430/https://books.google.com/books?idXc3QAgAAQBAJ |url-statuslive}}
* {{cite book |lastLaurens |firstHenry |author-linkHenry Laurens (scholar) |titleLa Question de Palestine |languagefr |trans-titleThe Question of Palestine |volumeII |year2002 |publisher=Fayard}}
* {{cite magazine |urlhttps://newint.org/issues/2004/10/01 |titleJudeophobia: The scourge of antisemitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231102213414/https://newint.org/issues/2004/10/01 |archive-date2 November 2023 |magazineNew Internationalist |issue372 |date=October 2004}}
* {{cite book |lastMcKain |firstMark |titleAnti-Semitism: At Issue |publisherGreenhaven Press |date8 April 2005 |isbn978-0737723571}}
* {{cite book |lastMarcus |firstIvan G. |titleHow the West Became Antisemitic: Jews and the Formation of Europe, 800–1500 |publisherPrinceton University Press |date2024}} [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id60963 online review of this book]
* {{cite book |lastMarcus |firstKenneth L. |titleThe Definition of Anti-Semitism |publisherOxford University Press |date=2015}}
* {{cite book |last1Michael |first1Robert |last2Rosen |first2Philip |urlhttp://www.scarecrowpress.com/ISBN/0810858622 |titleDictionary of Antisemitism |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210220162613/https://rowman.com/ISBN/0810858622 |archive-date20 February 2021 |publisherScarecrow Press |date2007}}
* {{cite book |lastMichael |firstRobert |date2006 |titleHoly Hatred: Christianity, Antisemitism, and the Holocaust |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |isbn978-1403974723}}
* Nirenberg, David. Anti-Judaism: The Western Tradition (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2013) 610 pp. {{ISBN|978-0-393-05824-6}}
*Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 1: From the Time of Christ to the Court Jews, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
*Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 2: From Mohammad to the Marranos, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
*Poliakov, Léon. The History of Anti-Semitism, Volume 4: Suicidal Europe 1870–1933, University of Pennsylvania Press: 2003
*Poliakov, Léon (1997). "Anti-Semitism". Encyclopaedia Judaica (CD-ROM Edition Version 1.0). Ed. Cecil Roth. Keter Publishing House. {{ISBN|965-07-0665-8}}
* Porat, Dina. [https://web.archive.org/web/20081228192541/http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/818365.html "What makes an anti-Semite?"], Haaretz, 27 January 2007. Retrieved 24 November 2010.
* {{cite book |lastRichardson |firstPeter |year1986 |titleAnti-Judaism in Early Christianity |publisherWilfrid Laurier University Press |isbn978-0-88920-167-5}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastSelzer |editor-firstMichael |title"Kike!": A Documentary History of Anti-Semitism in America |locationNew York |date1972 |isbn978-0529044716}}
* Small, Charles Asher ed. The Yale Papers: Antisemitism In Comparative Perspective (Institute For the Study of Global Antisemitism and Policy, 2015). [https://isgap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Yale-Papers-Complete-071315-Reprinted.pdf#page417 online] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211003014435/https://isgap.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Yale-Papers-Complete-071315-Reprinted.pdf#page417 |date3 October 2021 }}, scholarly studies.
* Stav, Arieh (1999). Peace: The Arabian Caricature – A Study of Anti-semitic Imagery. Gefen Publishing House. {{ISBN|965-229-215-X}}.
* Steinweis, Alan E. Studying the Jew: Scholarly Antisemitism in Nazi Germany. Harvard University Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-674-02205-X}}.
* Stillman, Norman. The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. 1979). {{ISBN|0-8276-0198-0}}
* Stillman, N.A. (2006). "Yahud". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Eds.: P.J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzel and W.P. Heinrichs. Brill. Brill Online
* Tausch, Arno (2014). The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data (14 January 2015). Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Fall 2014). Available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract2549654 SSRN] or [https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2549654 The New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221117161945/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id2549654 |date17 November 2022 }}
* {{cite journal |lastTausch |firstArno |author-linkArno Tausch |doi10.2139/ssrn.2549654 |titleThe New Global Antisemitism: Implications from the Recent ADL-100 Data |journalMiddle East Review of International Affairs |ssrn2549654 |volume18 |issue3 |dateFall 2014 |s2cid=59022284}}
* Tausch, Arno (14 August 2015). Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data. Available at [https://ssrn.com/abstract2600825 SSRN] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210220161159/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id2600825 |date20 February 2021 }} or [https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2600825 Islamism and Antisemitism. Preliminary Evidence on Their Relationship from Cross-National Opinion Data] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221117161944/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id2600825 |date=17 November 2022 }}
* {{cite SSRN |last1Tausch |first1Arno |author1-linkArno Tausch |titleThe Effects of 'Nostra Aetate:' Comparative Analyses of Catholic Antisemitism More Than Five Decades after the Second Vatican Council |year2018 |ssrn3098079}}
* {{cite SSRN |last1Tausch |first1Arno |author1-linkArno Tausch |titleThe Return of Religious Antisemitism? The Evidence from World Values Survey Data |date17 November 2018 |ssrn3286326}}
* {{cite web|urlhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/102301.pdf|titleContemporary Global Anti-Semitism: A Report Provided to the United States Congress|access-date21 May 2019|archive-date21 January 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170121171610/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/102301.pdf|url-statuslive}}&nbsp;{{small|(7.4&nbsp;MB)}}, United States Department of State, 2008. Retrieved 25 November 2010. See [https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/102406.htm HTML version] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190804184602/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/102406.htm |date4 August 2019 }}.
* Vital, David. People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789–1939 (1999); 930pp highly detailed
*Yehoshua, A.B., [http://www.azure.org.il/article.php?id18&pageall An Attempt to Identify the Root Cause of Antisemitism] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721141312/http://www.azure.org.il/article.php?id18&pageall |date21 July 2011 }}, [http://www.azure.org.il Azure] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090107014155/http://azure.org.il/ |date7 January 2009 }}, Spring 2008.
* Antisemitism on Social Media.&nbsp;United Kingdom,&nbsp;Taylor & Francis,&nbsp;2022. (Editors: Monika Hübscher, Sabine von Mering {{ISBN|9781000554298}})
{{refend}}
Bibliographies, calendars, etc.
{{refbegin|32em}}
*Anti-Defamation League [http://www.adl.org/main_Arab_World/default.htm Arab Antisemitism] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130120080724/http://www.adl.org/main_Arab_World/default.htm |date20 January 2013 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041012090431/https://har2.huji.ac.il:83/ALEPH/ENG/SAS/BAS/BAS/START Annotated bibliography of anti-Semitism] hosted by the Hebrew University of Jerusalem's Center for the Study of Antisemitism (SICSA)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050904114449/http://www.coe.int/T/E/human_rights/Ecri/1-ECRI/2-Country-by-country_approach/ Council of Europe, ECRI Country-by-Country Reports]
{{refend}}
External links
{{Library resources box |byno |onlinebooksno |othersyes lcheadingAntisemitism}}
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Category:Prejudice and discrimination by type
Category:Racism
Category:Orientalism | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.492126 |
1081 | Economy of Azerbaijan | {{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Infobox economy
| country = Azerbaijan
| image = Port Baku.jpg
| image_size = 310px
| caption = Baku, the financial capital of Azerbaijan
| currency = Azerbaijani manat (AZN, ₼)
| fixed exchange | year Calendar year
| organs = CIS, ECO, GUAM, WTO&nbsp;(observer)
| group = {{plainlist|
*Developing/Emerging
*Upper-middle income economy <ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups|titleWorld Bank Country and Lending Groups |publisherWorld Bank |websitedatahelpdesk.worldbank.org |access-date=21 April 2024}}</ref>}}
| population {{increaseNeutral}} 10,153,958 (2023)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.POP.TOTL?locationsAZ | titleWorld Bank Open Data }}</ref>
| gdp = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $75.649 billion (nominal, 2024)<ref name"IMFWEO.AZ">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c912,&sNGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PCPIPCH,&sy2022&ey2029&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |titleWorld Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Azerbaijan) |publisherInternational Monetary Fund |dateApril 2024 |access-date=21 April 2024}}</ref>
*{{increase}} $253.12 billion (PPP, 2024 est.)<ref name="IMFWEO.AZ" />}}
| gdp rank = {{plainlist|
*83rd (nominal, 2024)
*71st (PPP, 2024)}}
| growth = {{plainlist|
*1.1%&nbsp;(2023)
*3.2%&nbsp;(2024e)
*2.5%&nbsp;(2025f)<ref name="IMFWEO.AZ" />}}
| per capita = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $7,381 (nominal, 2024)<ref name="IMFWEO.AZ" />
*{{increase}} $24,698 (PPP, 2024 est.)<ref name="IMFWEO.AZ" />}}
| per capita rank = {{plainlist|
*96th (nominal, 2024)
*77th (PPP, 2024)}}
| sectors = {{plainlist|
*agriculture: 6.93%
*industry: 41.38%
*services: 42.52%
*(2020 est.)<ref name="CIAWFAJ"/>}}
| components | inflation {{decreasePositive}} 2.1% (2024)<ref name="IMFWEO.AZ" />
| poverty = {{plainlist|
*4.9% (2015 est.)<ref name="CIAWFAJ"/> }}
| hdi = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} 0.760 {{color|green|high}} (2022)<ref name"hdi">{{cite web |urlhttps://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/AZE |titleHuman Development Index (HDI) |publisherHDRO (Human Development Report Office) United Nations Development Programme |websitehdr.undp.org |access-date17 November 2022}}</ref> (89th)
*{{increase}} 0.707 {{color|green|high}} IHDI (2022)<ref name="hdi"/>}}
| gini 33.7 {{color|darkorange|medium}} (2021)<ref name"CIAWFAJ"/>
| cpi = {{steady}} 23 out of 100 points (2023, 154th rank)
| labor = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} 5,536,769 (2023)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locationsAZ |titleLabor force, total{{Snd}} Azerbaijan |publisherWorld Bank |websitedata.worldbank.org |access-date3 November 2019}}</ref>
*{{increase}} 62.0% employment rate (2022)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.NE.ZS?locationsAZ&most_recent_value_desctrue |titleEmployment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (national estimate){{Snd}} Azerbaijan |publisherWorld Bank |websitedata.worldbank.org |access-date=3 November 2019}}</ref>}}
| occupations = {{plainlist|
*agriculture: 37%
*industry: 14.3%
*services: 48.9%
*(2014)<ref name"CIAWFAJ">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|countryAzerbaijan|access-date16 August 2019|year2019}}</ref>}}
| unemployment = {{plainlist|
*{{decreasePositive}} 5.4% (2024 est.)<ref name"2020/01">{{cite web |titleWorld Economic Outlook Database, April 2022|urlhttps://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2020/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x50&pr.y10&sy2017&ey2021&scsm1&ssd1&sortcountry&ds.&br1&c912&sNGDP_RPCH%2CPPPGDP%2CPCPIPCH%2CLUR&grp0&a |websiteIMF.org |publisherInternational Monetary Fund |access-date=20 April 2020}}</ref>
*{{decreasePositive}} 13.6% youth unemployment (2022)<ref>{{cite web |titleUnemployment, youth total (% of total labor force ages 15-24) (national estimate){{Snd}} Azerbaijan |urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.1524.NE.ZS?locationsAZ |websitedata.worldbank.org |publisherWorld Bank |access-date6 March 2020}}</ref>}}
| average gross salary = AZN 839 / €466 monthly (December, 2022)
| average net salary = AZN 720 / €400 monthly (December, 2022)
| industries = petroleum and natural gas; petroleum products; oilfield equipment; steel; iron ore; cement; chemicals; petrochemicals; textiles; machinery; cotton; foodstuffs
| edbr {{decrease}} 34th (very easy, 2020)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/azerbaijan |titleEase of Doing Business in Azerbaijan |publisherDoingbusiness.org |access-date=2017-01-25 }}</ref>
| exports = {{increase}} $38.1
billion (2022 Dec.)<ref name"Azərbaycan Dövlət Gömrük Komitəsi">{{cite web | urlhttps://customs.gov.az/az/faydali/gomruk-statistikasi/xarici-ticaretin-veziyyeti-haqqinda | title=Azərbaycan Dövlət Gömrük Komitəsi }}</ref>
| export-goods = oil and gas, machinery, foodstuffs, cotton
| export-partners = {{plainlist|
*{{flag|Italy}} 46.6%
*{{flag|Turkey}} 9.29%
*{{flag|Israel}} 4.41%
*{{flag|India}} 4.36%
*{{flag|Greece}} 3.65%
*{{flag|Spain}} 2.65%
*{{flag|Russia}} 2.56%
*{{flag|Croatia}} 2.50%
*{{flag|Czech Republic}} 2.42%
*{{flag|United Kingdom}} 2.04% (2022)<ref name"ARDGK">{{cite web |titleForeign trade partners of Azerbaijan |urlhttps://customs.gov.az/az/faydali/gomruk-statistikasi/xarici-ticaretin-veziyyeti-haqqinda |publisherThe States Customs Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan |access-date=31 Dec 2022}}</ref>}}
| imports {{increase}} $14.5 billion (2022 Dec.)<ref name"Azərbaycan Dövlət Gömrük Komitəsi"/>
| import-goods = machinery and equipment, foodstuffs, metals, chemicals
| import-partners = {{plainlist|
*{{flag|Russia}} 18.81%
*{{flag|Turkey}} 15.8%
*{{flag|China}} 14.35%
*{{flag|Germany}} 4.56%
*{{flag|Turkmenistan}} 3.51%
*{{flag|United States}} 3.3%
*{{flag|Iran}} 3.28%
*{{flag|Italy}} 2.34%
*{{flag|Japan}} 2%
*{{flag|South Korea}} 1.85% (2022 Dec.)<ref name="ARDGK"/>}}
| current account {{increase}} $4.65 billion (2024 est.)<ref name"IMFWEO.AZ" />
| FDI = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $79.53 billion (31 December 2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFAJ"/>
*{{increase}} Abroad: $19.6 billion (31 December 2017 est.)<ref name="CIAWFAJ"/>}}
| gross external debt {{increaseNegative}} $15.51 billion (2024 est.)<ref name"IMFWEO.AZ" />
| debt {{decreasePositive}} 20.5% of GDP (2024 est.)<ref name"IMFWEO.AZ" />
| revenue 17.175 billion (2022 est.)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://report.az/ru/finansy/dohody-i-rashody-gosbyudzheta-azerbajdzhana-na-2022-god-uvelichivayutsya/ | titleДоходы и расходы госбюджета Азербайджана на 2022 год увеличиваются | date20 June 2022 }}</ref>
| expenses 19.002 billion (2022 est.)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://report.az/ru/finansy/dohody-i-rashody-gosbyudzheta-azerbajdzhana-na-2022-god-uvelichivayutsya/ | titleДоходы и расходы госбюджета Азербайджана на 2022 год увеличиваются | date20 June 2022 }}</ref>
| balance 5.55% (of GDP) (2019 est.)<ref name"CIAWFAJ"/>
| aid | credit {{plainlist|
*Fitch:<ref>{{cite news|titleAzerbaijan at BBB- according to Fitch Ratings. |urlhttp://www.socartrading.ch/en/azerbaijan-at-bbb-according-to-fitch-ratings-249.html |date27 January 2012 |locationLondon |languagetr |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131231000104/http://www.socartrading.ch/en/azerbaijan-at-bbb-according-to-fitch-ratings-249.html |archive-date31 December 2013 }}</ref>
*BB+
*Outlook: Negative
*Moody's:<ref>{{cite web|titleMoody's changes outlook on Azerbaijan's sovereign ratings to positive from stable|date8 March 2011 |url=http://www.moodys.com/research/Moodys-changes-outlook-on-Azerbaijans-sovereign-ratings-to-positive-from--PR_215309}}</ref>
*Ba2
*Outlook: Stable
*Standard & Poor's:<ref>{{cite web|titleSovereigns Ratings List|urlhttp://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/us/?subSectorCode=39}}</ref>
*BB+
*AAA (T&C Assessment)
*Outlook: Stable<ref>{{cite web|titleAzerbaijan Rating Stable|urlhttp://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/us/?subSectorCode39&ffFixyes|locationLondon|date13 January 2012|access-date1 April 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150130202445/http://www.standardandpoors.com/ratings/sovereigns/ratings-list/en/us/?subSectorCode39&ffFixyes|archive-date30 January 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref>}}
| reserves {{increase}} $70,1 billion (2024 est.)<ref name"CIAWFAJ"/>
| cianame = azerbaijan
| spelling =
}}
The economy of Azerbaijan is highly dependent on oil and gas exports, in particular since the completion of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline. The transition to oil production in the late 1990s led to rapid economic growth over the period 1995–2014.<ref name":2">{{Cite news |lastLevine |firstJoshua |date2012-08-15 |titleBig in Baku |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/15/t-magazine/big-in-baku.html |issn0362-4331}}</ref><ref name":3">{{Cite web |dateSeptember 2022 |titleAzerbaijan: Country economic memorandum |urlhttps://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099100009222236784/pdf/P17532606988e2056084e603c9c48ddc618.pdf |websiteWorld Bank}}</ref> Since 2014, GDP growth has slowed down substantially.<ref name=":3" />
Large oil reserves are a major contributor to Azerbaijan's economy. Gas and oil make up two-thirds of Azerbaijan's GDP, making it one of the top ten most fossil fuel-dependent economies in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |lastLo |firstJoe |date2023-12-09 |titleOil-reliant Azerbaijan chosen to host Cop29 climate talks |urlhttps://www.climatechangenews.com/2023/12/09/oil-reliant-azerbaijan-chosen-to-host-cop29-climate-talks/ |access-date2023-12-09 |websiteClimate Home News |languageen}}</ref> Gas and oil make up 90% of Azerbaijan's export revenues and 60% of its finances.<ref>{{Cite web |date2024 |titleOil-rich nations 'pushback' against fossil fuel phaseout |urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/c1e13d08-9917-44d3-bd63-5916a320e451 |websitewww.ft.com}}</ref>
Azerbaijan's economy is characterized by corruption and inequality.<ref name":2" /> The country's oil wealth has significantly strengthened the stability of Ilham Aliyev's regime and enriched ruling elites in Azerbaijan.<ref name":12">{{Cite book |lastAltstadt |firstAudrey L. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idRgbRDgAAQBAJ |titleFrustrated Democracy in Post-Soviet Azerbaijan |date2017 |publisherColumbia University Press |isbn978-0-231-80141-6 |pages114–120 |languageen}}</ref><ref name":22">{{Cite book |lastWaal |firstThomas de |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id8dp1DwAAQBAJ |titleThe Caucasus: An Introduction |date2018-11-02 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-068311-5 |pages185–186, 226–229 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastRoss |firstMichael |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idjUuSO0F9oIMC |titleThe Oil Curse: How Petroleum Wealth Shapes the Development of Nations |date2012 |publisherPrinceton University Press |isbn978-0-691-14545-7 |pages60 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastCornell |firstSvante E. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTaZzCQAAQBAJ |titleAzerbaijan Since Independence |date2015 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-317-47621-4 |pages210–211, 235 |languageen}}</ref> The country's oil wealth has enabled the state to host lavish international events, as well as engage in extensive lobbying efforts abroad.<ref name":02">{{Cite web |lastProject |firstOrganized Crime and Corruption Reporting |titleThe Azerbaijani Laundromat |urlhttps://www.occrp.org/en/azerbaijanilaundromat/ |websiteOCCRP}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1Harding |first1Luke |last2Barr |first2Caelainn |last3Nagapetyants |first3Dina |dateSeptember 4, 2017 |titleEverything you need to know about the Azerbaijani Laundromat |workThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/04/everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-azerbaijani-laundromat |viawww.theguardian.com}}</ref>
The national currency is the Azerbaijani manat. The private sector is weak in Azerbaijan, as the economy is dominated by state-owned enterprises.<ref name":3" /> More than half of the formal labor force works for the government in Azerbaijan.<ref name":3" />
Economic history of Azerbaijan
{{main|Economic history of Azerbaijan}}
Republic era
Oil and gas are the most prominent products of Azerbaijan's economy. More than $60 billion was invested into Azerbaijan's oil by major international oil companies in AIOC consortium operated by BP. Oil production under the first of these PSAs, with the Azerbaijan International Operating Company, began in November 1997 and was about 500,000 barrels per day in 2006. People visit petroleum spas (or "oil spas") to bathe in the local crude in Naftalan.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/11/28/news/journal.php Azerbaijani answer to oil glut: Bathe in it – Asia – Pacific – International Herald Tribune<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061128193000/http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/11/28/news/journal.php |date28 November 2006 }}</ref> A leading caviar producer and exporter in the past, Azerbaijan's fishing industry today is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga in the Caspian Sea.
Azerbaijan shares all the problems of the former Soviet republics in making the transition from a command to a market economy, but its energy resources brighten its long-term prospects. Azerbaijan has begun making progress on economic reform, and old economic ties and structures are slowly being replaced. An obstacle to economic progress, including foreign investment, is the continuing conflict with Armenia over the Nagorno-Karabakh region.<ref>{{cite web|last1Zhalko-Tytarenko|first1Andrew|titleIran's other side: the South Caucasus|urlhttp://diplomatonline.com/mag/2014/04/irans-other-side-the-south-caucasus/|websitediplomatonline.com|access-date14 August 2014}}</ref>
In 1992 Azerbaijan became a member of the Economic Cooperation Organization.<ref>{{cite web|titleBrief Introduction of ECO's history|urlhttp://www.ecosecretariat.org/detail_info/about_eco_d.htm|websiteecosecretariat.org|access-date14 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131022070355/http://www.ecosecretariat.org/Detail_info/About_ECO_D.htm|archive-date22 October 2013|url-statususurped}}</ref> In 2002, the Azerbaijani merchant marine had 54 ships.<ref>{{cite web| titleAzerbaijan Transportation | publisher NationsEncyclopedia.com| url http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Azerbaijan-TRANSPORTATION.html| access-date = 24 May 2007}}</ref>
In 2010 Azerbaijan entered into the top eight biggest oil suppliers to EU countries with €9.46 billion.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://today.az/news/business/82397.html |titleAzerbaijan among top 8 biggest oil suppliers to EU countries |websiteToday.AZ |access-date3 March 2015 |archive-date23 September 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160923134549/http://today.az/news/business/82397.html |url-statusdead }}</ref> In 2011, the amount of foreign investments in Azerbaijan was $20 billion, a 61% increase from 2010. According to Minister of Economic Development of Azerbaijan, Shahin Mustafayev, in 2011, "$15.7 billion was invested in the non-oil sector, while the rest{{Snd}}in the oil sector".<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/azerbaijan-investment-idUSL6E8CH3QF20120117 |titleAzerbaijan investment up 61 pct to $20 bln in 2011 |workReuters |authorLada Yevgrashina |date17 January 2012 |access-date=17 January 2012}}</ref>
In 2012, because of its economic performance after the Soviet breakup, Azerbaijan was predicted to become "Tiger of Caucasus".<ref>{{cite web|titleIs Azerbaijan the new "Caucasus tiger"?|urlhttp://www.agccommunication.eu/geopolitica/366-is-azerbaijan-the-new-caucasus-tiger|websiteagccommunication.eu|access-date14 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1Safarov|first1Fuad|titleMuhammad Asif Noor: "Tiger of Caucasus" pose as an opportunity for Pakistan to get involved in mutually beneficial cooperative engagements"|urlhttp://vestnikkavkaza.net/interviews/politics/42900.html|websitevestnikkavkaza.net|access-date14 August 2014|archive-date14 August 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140814213930/http://vestnikkavkaza.net/interviews/politics/42900.html|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1Afag|first1Aliyeva|script-titleru:Известное СМИ Германии: Азербайджан{{Snd}} "тигр Кавказа"|urlhttp://aze.az/news_izvestnoe_smi_germanii_75709.html|websiteaze.az|date14 April 2012 |access-date14 August 2014|languageru}}</ref> In 2012, Globalization and World Cities Research Network study ranked Baku as a Gamma-level global city.<ref>{{cite web|titleThe World According to GAWC 2012|urlhttp://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2012t.html|publisherGAWC|access-date7 April 2014|archive-date20 March 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140320212149/http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2012t.html|url-statusdead}}</ref>
In 2015, Turkey and Azerbaijan agreed to boost mutual trade to US$15 billion by 2023.<ref>{{cite news|titleTurkey, Azerbaijan intend to boost mutual trade to $15 billion by 2023|urlhttp://itar-tass.com/en/economy/771401|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20150118152136/http://itar-tass.com/en/economy/771401|url-statusdead|archive-date18 January 2015|access-date16 January 2015|date15 January 2015}}</ref>Macroeconomic trendThe following is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of Azerbaijan at market prices<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/02/weodata/index.aspx estimated] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170113113412/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2016/02/weodata/weoselgr.aspx |date=2017-01-13 }} by the International Monetary Fund</ref> with figures in USD.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year || Gross domestic product PPP || Per capita income<br /> (as % of USA)
|-
| 1995 || 19,497,000,000 || 8.78
|-
| 2000 || 29,683,000,000 || 10.01
|-
| 2005 || 59,087,000,000 || 15.52
|-
| 2010 || 138,947,000,000 || 31.78
|-
| 2015 || 169,789,000,000 || 32.15
|-
|}
For purchasing power parity comparisons, the US dollar was exchanged at 1,565.88 Manats only. Currently, the new Manat is in use, with an exchange rate of about 1 manat = $0.59. Mean graduate pay was $5.76 per man-hour in 2010.
The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2017.
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align: center;"
!Year
!GDP (in bil. US$ PPP)
!GDP per capita (in US$ PPP)
!GDP
(in bil. US$ nominal)
!GDP growth (real)
!Inflation (in Percent)
!Government debt (in % of GDP)
|-
!1993
|27.4
|3,658
|1.3
|−27.4%
|1,129.7%
|...
|-
!1995
|20.0
|2,610
|2.4
|−13.0%
|411.8%
|19%
|-
!2000
|30.4
|3,781
|5.3
|6.2%
|1.8%
|23%
|-
!2005
|61.3
|7,252
|13.3
|28.0%
|9.6%
|14%
|-
!2006
|84.9
|9,927
|21.0
|34.5%
|8.2%
|11%
|-
!2007
|109.3
|12,619
|33.1
|25.5%
|16.7%
|8%
|-
!2008
|123.3
|14,046
|49.0
|10.6%
|20.8%
|7%
|-
!2009
|135.9
|15,231
|44.3
|9.4%
|1.5%
|12%
|-
!2010
|143.9
|15,995
|52.9
|4.6%
|5.7%
|13%
|-
!2011
|144.5
|15,861
|66.0
|−1.6%
|7.8%
|11%
|-
!2012
|150.2
|16,271
|69.7
|2.1%
|1.1%
|14%
|-
!2013
|161.6
|17,277
|74.2
|5.9%
|2.5%
|13%
|-
!2014
|168.9
|17,824
|75.2
|2.7%
|1.5%
|14%
|-
!2015
|171.8
|17,915
|50.8
|0.6%
|4.1%
|35%
|-
!2016
|168.6
|17,378
|37.8
|−3.1%
|12.6%
|51%
|-
!2017
|171.8
|17,492
|41.4
|0.1%
|13.0%
|55%
|}
Source: IMF<ref>{{cite web|titleReport for Selected Countries and Subjects|urlhttps://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2018/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy1992&ey2023&scsm1&ssd1&sortcountry&ds.&br1&c912&sNGDP_RPCH,PPPGDP,PPPPC,PCPIPCH,GGXWDG_NGDP&grp0&a&pr.x70&pr.y9|access-date2018-08-28|language=en-US}}</ref>
For more than a century the backbone of the Azerbaijani economy has been petroleum, which represented 50 percent of Azerbaijan's GDP in 2005, and is projected to double to almost 125 percent of GDP in 2007.<ref>[http://www.energypublisher.com/article.asp?id13024 Azerbaijan: Energy profile] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081004122202/http://www.energypublisher.com/article.asp?id13024 |date4 October 2008 }} (Enerpub, 13 December 2007)</ref> Now that Western oil companies are able to tap deep-water oilfields untouched by the Soviets because of poor technology, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important areas in the world for oil exploration and development. Proven oil reserves in the Caspian Basin, which Azerbaijan shares with Russia, Kazakhstan, Iran, and Turkmenistan, are comparable in size to the North Sea, although exploration is still in the early stages.
Sectors of the economy
Agriculture
{{Main|Agriculture in Azerbaijan}}
Azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region. About 54.9 percent of Azerbaijan is agricultural lands. At the beginning of 2007 there were {{Convert|4.76|e6ha|e6acre|sigfig3|abbroff}} of utilized agricultural area.<ref name"AG">{{cite web|titleNatural resources |publisherThe State Statistical Committee of the Republic of Azerbaijan |urlhttp://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2007/en/003.shtml |access-date2007-05-26 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070610085820/http://www.azstat.org/publications/azfigures/2007/en/003.shtml |archive-date10 June 2007 |url-statusdead }}</ref> In the same year, the total wood resources counted {{Convert|136|e6m3|e6yd3|sigfig3|abbroff}}.<ref name"AG"/> Azerbaijan's agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows and pastures, horticulture and subtropical crops, leaf vegetables, viticulture and wine-making, cotton growing and medicinal plants.<ref>{{cite web|titleAzerbaijan: Status of Database |publisherCentral Asia and Caucasus Institute |urlhttp://www.cac-biodiversity.org/aze/aze_database.htm |access-date28 May 2007 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070320100930/http://www.cac-biodiversity.org/aze/aze_database.htm |archive-date20 March 2007 }}</ref> In some lands, it is profitable to grow grain, potatoes, sugar beets, cotton and tobacco. Livestock, dairy products, and wine and spirits are also important farm products. The Caspian fishing industry is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga.
Some portions of most products that were previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally (among them are Coca-Cola by Coca-Cola Bottlers LTD, beer by Baki-Kastel, parquet by Nehir and oil pipes by EUPEC Pipe Coating Azerbaijan).<ref>{{cite web|titleIndustry |publisherStatistical Yearbook of Azerbaijan 2004 |urlhttp://www.azstat.org/publications/yearbook/SYA2004/Pdf/18en.pdf |access-date2007-05-26 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070202100114/http://www.azstat.org/publications/yearbook/SYA2004/Pdf/18en.pdf |archive-date2 February 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
A new program which is prepared by the European Union is aimed to supporting the economic diversification of Azerbaijan.<ref>https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/news_corner/news/eu4lankaran-%E2%80%93-new-eu-action-boost-rural-and-regional-competitiveness-azerbaijan_en {{Dead link|dateJanuary 2022}}</ref>Manufacturing
is manufactured in Azerbaijan.]]
In 2007, mining and hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 95 percent of the Azerbaijani economy. Diversification of the economy into manufacturing industries remains a long-term issue.<ref>{{cite web|last1Snow|first1Nick|titleAzerbaijan looks beyond energy successes for economic growth|urlhttp://www.ogj.com/articles/2014/04/azerbaijan-looks-beyond-energy-successes-for-economic-growth.html|websiteogj.com|date30 April 2014 |publisherOil & Gas Journal|access-date14 August 2014}}</ref>
As of the late 2000s, the defense industry of Azerbaijan has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing defense production capability. The ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of Ukraine, Belarus and Pakistan.<ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite news|urlhttp://www.rferl.org/featuresarticle/2007/02/2b0bdd2d-49a6-4bff-826d-05edefe4dbdb.html|titleAzerbaijan: Baku Signals New Determination For Defense Reform|workRadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|date2 February 2012 |access-date3 March 2015|last1Giragosian |first1Richard }}</ref> Along with other contracts, Azerbaijani defense industries and Turkish companies, Azerbaijan will produce 40&nbsp;mm revolver grenade launchers, 107&nbsp;mm and 122&nbsp;mm MLRS systems, Cobra 4×4 vehicles and joint modernization of BTR vehicles in Baku.<ref name"brothership1">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.news.az/articles/politics/26065 |titleAzerbaijan, Turkey to produce revolver grenade launchers |websiteToday.AZ |access-date3 March 2015}}</ref><ref name"brothership2">[http://en.apa.az/news.php?id136785 Azerbaijan’s Ministry of Defense Industry plans to assume several projects on technical modernization of Armed Forces] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120402090426/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id136785 |date2 April 2012 }}</ref><ref name"brothership3">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.news.az/articles/politics/25988|titleNews.Az{{Snd}} Azerbaijan, Turkey sign contract on joint rocket production|access-date3 March 2015|archive-date8 November 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101108063414/http://www.news.az/articles/politics/25988|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref name"brothership4">[http://en.apa.az/news.php?id136603 Azerbaijani Defense Industry Ministry conducts negotiations with Turkish "Otokar" Company on production of armored vehicles] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120325182937/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id136603 |date25 March 2012 }}</ref>
Financial and business services
{{Main|Banking in Azerbaijan}}
The banking sector remains small in relation to the size of the Azerbaijani economy.
Telecommunications
{{Main|Communications in Azerbaijan}}
The Azerbaijan telecommunications sector is embroiled in corruption. Azerbaijan President Ilham Aliyev and his family own two of Azerbaijan's largest mobile providers (Azerfon and Azercell) through offshore companies and potentially control three-quarters of the mobile market in Azerbaijan.<ref name":4">{{Cite news |lastIsmayilova |firstKhadija |date2014-07-15 |titleTeliaSonera's Behind-The-Scenes Connection To Azerbaijani President's Daughters |languageen |workRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |urlhttps://www.rferl.org/a/teliasonera-azerbaijan-aliyev-corruption-investigation-occrp/25457907.html}}</ref> The third large mobile provider is Bakcell, which is registered as a company in an offshore tax haven and whose owners are unknown.<ref name":4" /> Ownership of the mobile providers in Azerbaijan enables the ruling Aliyev family to monitor phone calls and internet activity.<ref name":4" />
Investigative reporting revealed that Azerbaijani President Ilham Aliyev and his family made more than $1 billion when state shares of mobile operators were transferred to a purportedly "local partner" which was in reality owned by the Aliyev family's offshore companies.<ref>{{Cite web |date2015 |titleOffshores Close to President Paid Nothing for State Share of Telecom - Corruptistan |urlhttps://www.occrp.org/en/corruptistan/azerbaijan/azerbaijan-telecom/offshores-paid-nothing-for-share-of-state-telecom |websiteOCCRP |languageen |access-date2 January 2024 |archive-date2 January 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240102163914/https://www.occrp.org/en/corruptistan/azerbaijan/azerbaijan-telecom/offshores-paid-nothing-for-share-of-state-telecom |url-status=dead }}</ref>
Azerbaijan has relatively expensive call rates relative to comparable countries. The high prices are possibly due to consolidated control of the mobile market and a lack of competition.<ref name=":4" />
The Azerbaijan government has stated that it wants to create a high-tech sector in Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite web|titleAzerbaijan aims for hi-tech state|workeuronews |urlhttp://www.euronews.net/2010/11/26/azerbaijan-aims-for-hi-tech-state/|publisherEuronews|access-date19 December 2010}}</ref>Tourism
{{See also|Tourism in Azerbaijan}}
in Gobustan dating back to 10,000&nbsp;BC indicating a thriving culture. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered to be of "outstanding universal value".]]
Tourism is an important part of the economy of Azerbaijan. The country was a well-known tourist spot in the 1980s. However, the fall of the Soviet Union, and the First Nagorno-Karabakh War during the 1988–1994 period, damaged the tourist industry and the image of Azerbaijan as a tourist destination.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.osce.org/baku/27857 |titleRapid Tourism Assessment for the Azerbaijan Tourism Sector Development Program |websiteOrganization for Security and Cooperation in Europe |access-date2013-09-09 }}</ref>
It was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover, and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays.<ref>[http://www.azadliq.org/content/article/388501.html Azərbaycan Qarabağın turizm imkanlarını təbliğ edir] {{in lang|az}}</ref> In recent years, Azerbaijan has also become a popular destination for religious, spa, and health care tourism.<ref name"Baku Boom Has Yet to Hit Regions">{{cite web|lastIsmayilov |firstRovshan |titleAzerbaijan: Baku Boom Has Yet to Hit Regions |publisherEurasiaNet |urlhttp://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav081307.shtml |access-date12 August 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070819211953/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav081307.shtml |archive-date19 August 2007 |url-statuslive }}</ref> During winter, the Shahdag Winter Complex offers skiing.
The government of Azerbaijan has set the development of Azerbaijan as an elite tourist destination a top priority.<ref>{{cite web|last1Cree |first1Richard |titleAzerbaijan on Director magazine |urlhttp://www.director.co.uk/magazine/2010/7_July_August/azerbaijan_63_11.html |websitedirector.co.uk |access-date14 August 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140702121348/http://director.co.uk/MAGAZINE/2010/7_July_August/azerbaijan_63_11.html |archive-date2 July 2014 }}</ref> It is a national strategy to make tourism a major, if not the single largest, contributor to the Azerbaijani economy.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.tourism.az/?menu1&submenu12&langeng |titleMinistry of Culture and Tourism of Azerbaijan: Goals |publisherTourism.az |date6 February 2004 |access-date4 January 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101128233315/http://tourism.az/?menu1&submenu12&langeng |archive-date28 November 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> These activities are regulated by the State Tourism Agency and the Ministry of Culture.
The Formula One Grand Prix is held in Baku, the capital city, and has been held here for years.
Currency system
{{See also|Azerbaijani manat}}
The Azerbaijani manat is the currency of Azerbaijani, denominated as the manat, subdivided into 100 qapik. The manat is issued by the Central Bank of Azerbaijan, the monetary authority of Azerbaijan. The ISO 4217 abbreviation is AZN. The Latinised symbol is ().
The manat is held in a floating exchange-rate system, managed primarily against the US dollar. The rate of exchange (Azerbaijani manat per US$1) for 28 January 2016, was AZN 1.60.
There is a complex relationship between Azerbaijan's balance of trade, inflation, measured by the consumer price index and the value of its currency. Despite allowing the value of the manat to "float", Azerbaijan's central bank has decisive ability to control its value in relationship to other currencies.
Infrastructure
Energy
{{main|Energy in Azerbaijan}} {{Further|Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan}}
(green) is one of several pipelines running from Baku.]]
Two-thirds of Azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas.<ref name"AZ">{{cite web|titleAzerbaijan{{Snd}} General Information |publisherHeydar Aliyev Foundation |urlhttp://www.azerbaijan.az/_Geography/_GeneralInfo/_generalInfo_e.html |access-date2007-05-22 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070528033940/http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Geography/_GeneralInfo/_generalInfo_e.html |archive-date28 May 2007 |url-statuslive }}</ref> The region of the Lesser Caucasus accounts for most of the country's gold, silver, iron, copper, titanium, chromium, manganese, cobalt, molybdenum, complex ore and antimony.<ref name"AZ"/> In September 1994, a 30-year contract was signed between the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic (SOCAR) and 13&nbsp;oil companies, among them Amoco, BP, ExxonMobil, Lukoil and Statoil.<ref name"AZE">{{cite web|titleAzerbaijan{{Snd}} General Information |publisherHeydar Aliyev Foundation |urlhttp://www.azerbaijan.az/_Economy/_GeneralInfo/_generalInfo_e.html |access-date2007-05-22 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070505020428/http://www.azerbaijan.az/_Economy/_GeneralInfo/_generalInfo_e.html |archive-date5 May 2007 |url-statuslive }}</ref> As Western oil companies are able to tap deep-water oilfields untouched by the Soviet exploitation, Azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for oil exploration and development.<ref>{{cite web| title Azerbaijan: Economy| publisher globalEDGE| url http://globaledge.msu.edu/countryInsights/economy.asp?countryID11&regionID3| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071012194537/http://globaledge.msu.edu/countryInsights/economy.asp?countryID11&regionID3| url-status dead| archive-date 12 October 2007| access-date 29 May 2007}}</ref> Azeriqaz, a sub-company of SOCAR, intends to ensure full gasification of the country by 2021.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://abc.az/eng/news_13_02_2010_42618.html |titleSOCAR plans to completed full gasification of Azerbaijan only by 2021 |publisherAzerbaijan Business Center |access-date6 June 2010}}</ref>
Transportation
{{Main|Transportation in Azerbaijan}}
The convenient location of Azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries, such as the Silk Road and the south–north corridor, highlights the strategic importance of the transportation sector for the country's economy.<ref>{{cite web | last Ziyadov | firstTaleh | author-link Taleh Ziyadov | titleThe New Silk Roads | publisher Central Asia-Caucasus Institute Silk Road Studies Program | urlhttp://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/publications/GCA/GCAPUB-10.pdf | url-status dead | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130725084438/http://www.silkroadstudies.org/new/docs/publications/GCA/GCAPUB-10.pdf | archive-date =25 July 2013 }}</ref> The transport sector in the country includes roads, railways, aviation, and maritime transport.
Azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials. The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline (BTC) became operational in May 2006 and extends more than 1,774&nbsp;kilometers through the territories of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey. The BTC is designed to transport up to 50&nbsp;million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the Caspian Sea oilfields to global markets.<ref>{{cite journal
|publisher=The Central Asia-Caucasus Institute, Silk Road Studies Program
|author=Zeyno Baran
|author-link=Zeyno Baran
|title=The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline: Implications for Turkey
|url=http://www.silkroadstudies.org/BTC_6.pdf
|journal=The Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan Pipeline: Oil Window to the West
|pages=103–118
|year=2005
|access-date=30 December 2007
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080227022300/http://www.silkroadstudies.org/BTC_6.pdf
|archive-date=27 February 2008
}}
</ref> The South Caucasus Pipeline, also stretching through the territory of Azerbaijan, Georgia and Turkey, became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the European market from the Shah Deniz gas field. Shah Deniz is expected to produce up to 296&nbsp;billion cubic meters of natural gas per year.<ref>{{cite press release|titleSCP Commissioning Commences |publisherBP |urlhttp://www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId9006615&contentId7018471 |date1 June 2006 |access-date4 June 2008 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011104709/http://www.bp.com/genericarticle.do?categoryId9006615&contentId7018471 |archive-date11 October 2007 }}</ref> Azerbaijan also plays a major role in the EU-sponsored Silk Road Project.
In 2012, the construction of Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway expected to provide transportation between Asia and Europe through connecting the railways of China and Kazakhstan in the east with Turkey's Marmaray to the European railway system in the west. Broad gauge railways in 2010 stretched for {{convert|2918|km|0|abbron}} and electrified railways numbered {{convert|1278|km|0|abbron}}. By 2010, there were 35 airports and one heliport.<ref name"CIAWFAJ"/>RegulationSingle window system shares needed information through a single gateway with all organizations serving in trade field, as well as abolishes useless processes and raises the effectiveness of cooperation among different parties. 73 economies implement single window system in the world. Azerbaijan started to implement this system in 2009.<ref name":0">{{Cite book|urlhttps://www.doingbusiness.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/media/Annual-Reports/English/DB14-Full-Report.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.doingbusiness.org/content/dam/doingBusiness/media/Annual-Reports/English/DB14-Full-Report.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |edition11th |titleDoing Business 2014 |publisherThe World Bank |date29 October 2013 |isbn978-0-8213-9983-5 |pages60–65 |doi10.1596/978-0-8213-9984-2 |hdl10986/16204 }}</ref> It implemented an E-Government portal as well.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://president.az/articles/564|title2010-2012 State Program on Development of Communication and Information Technologies in the Republic of Azerbaijan (Electronic Azerbaijan)|websitepresident.az|languageaz|access-date2017-10-06}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.e-gov.az/en/content/read/7|titleService providers|websitee-gov.az|languageen|access-date2017-10-06|archive-date6 October 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171006162839/https://www.e-gov.az/en/content/read/7|url-status=dead}}</ref>
A single-window system was established by a decree of the Azerbaijani President issued in 2007, 30 April, in order to simplify export-import procedures, innovate customs services, and improve the trade environment.<ref name":0" /> The president appointed the State Customs Committee as the leading body of controlling goods and transportation passing through the borders of the country in 2008.<ref name":1">{{Cite web |titleSingle-window: Decree of the President of Azerbaijan (11 November 2008) |urlhttp://customs.gov.az/az/faydali/innovativ-layiheler/bir-pencere/ |access-date2017-10-04 |websitecustoms.gov.az |language=az}}</ref>
The State Migration Service issues appropriate permits for foreigners and stateless persons coming to Azerbaijan to live and work. The "single window" principle has been applied on migration management processes starting from 1 July 2009 according to the Decree.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://mfa.gov.az/files/file/32_32.pdf|titleDecree of the President of Azerbaijan on Implementation of the "single window" principle in the management of migration processes|websitemfa.gov.az|access-date2017-10-04|archive-date17 October 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121017073141/http://mfa.gov.az/files/file/32_32.pdf|url-statusdead}}</ref>Poverty{{excerpt|Poverty in Azerbaijan}}Other economic indicators:Data from CIA World Factbook<ref name"CIAWFAJ"/> unless noted otherwise
;Investment (gross fixed):
17% of GDP (2011 est.)
;Household income or consumption by percentage share:
* lowest 10%: 3.4%
* highest 10%: 27.4% (2008)
;Inflation rate (consumer prices):
1.1% (2012 est.)
;Agriculture:
* utilized agricultural land: {{convert|47584|km2}} (2011)<ref name="AG"/>
* total wood resources: 144,2 million cubic meters
* crops: cotton, rice and other grains, grapes, fruit, vegetables, tea, tobacco
* livestock products: beef, mutton, poultry, milk, eggs
;Industrial production growth rate:
-3% (2011 est.)
;Electricity:
* production: 22,55 billion kWh (2008)
* consumption: 18,8 billion kWh (2008)
* exports: 812 million kWh (2008)
* imports: 596 million kWh (2008)
;Current account balance:
* $11,12 billion (2011 est.)
;Exports{{Snd}} commodities:
* petroleum and natural gas, petroleum products, oilfield equipment; steel, iron ore, cement; chemicals, petrochemicals, textiles, machinery, cotton, foodstuffs.
;Reserves of foreign exchange and gold:
* $7,146 billion (2011 est.)
;Debt{{Snd}} external:
* $3.89 billion (2011 est.)
;Currency:
* 1 Manat = 100 gepik
;Exchange rates:
* Azerbaijani manat per US dollar{{Snd}} 1.7 (for 22 November 2020)<ref name"autogenerated2">http://www.cbar.az/ {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100314050016/http://www.cbar.az/ |date=14 March 2010 }} Central Bank of the Azerbaijan Republic, accessed 24 July 2015</ref>
* Azerbaijani manat per Euro{{Snd}} 2.01 (for 22 November 2020)<ref name="autogenerated2"/>
;Fiscal year:
* Calendar year
See also
{{Portal|Money}}
* Azerbaijan and the International Monetary Fund
* List of companies of Azerbaijan
* Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline
* State Oil Company of Azerbaijan
* Petroleum industry in Azerbaijan
* Agriculture in Azerbaijan
* Tourism in Azerbaijan
* Sheep farming in Azerbaijan
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* Habibov, Nazim: "Poverty in Azerbaijan" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest34.pdf Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 34]
* {{cite book|lastKüpeli|firstIsmail|titleAserbaidschan{{Snd}} ein autoritärer Rentierstaat? Politik und Ökonomie unter dem Aliyev-Regime|publisherOptimus Verlag|locationGöttingen|year2013|isbn978-3-86376-042-7}}External links
* Hübner, Gerald: "As If Nothing Happened? How Azerbaijan's Economy Manages to Sail Through Stormy Weather" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest18.pdf Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 18]
{{Azerbaijan topics}}
{{Asia in topic|Economy of}}
{{Economy of Europe}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Economy of Azerbaijan}}
Azerbaijan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Azerbaijan | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.523836 |
1082 | Geography of Azerbaijan | {{Short description|none}}
<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
{{Infobox country geography
| name = Azerbaijan
| map = Satellite_image_of_Azerbaijan_in_March_2003.jpg
| map_alt | continent Europe and Asia
| region = Caucasus
| coordinates = {{Coord|40|30|N|47|30|E|type:country_region:AZ|}}
| area ranking = 112th
| km area = 86,600
| percent land = 99.87
| km coastline = 713
| exclusive economic zone = None, the Caspian Sea is a lake
| borders | highest point Bazardüzü <br> {{convert|4,466|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
| lowest point Caspian Sea <br> {{convert|-28|m|ft|0|abbron}}
| longest river Kura River <br> {{convert|1,514|km|mi|0|abbron}}
| largest lake Mingachevir reservoir <br> {{convert|605|km2|mi2|0|abbron}}
| climate = subtropical and humid in the southeast, subtropical and dry in the center and east, continental and humid in the mountains, and continental and dry in Nakhchivan
| terrain = mountainous and lowlands
| natural resources = Petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nonferrous metals, bauxite
| natural hazards = Droughts and floods, rising levels of the Caspian Sea
| environmental issues = air pollution, water pollution, desertification, hazardous wastes, marine dumping, ship pollution
}}
Azerbaijan is a country in the Caucasus region, situated at the juncture of Eastern Europe and West Asia. Three physical features dominate Azerbaijan: the Caspian Sea, whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east; the Greater Caucasus mountain range to the north; and the extensive flatlands at the country's center.<ref name":0">{{citation-attribution|1{{Cite book|lastCurtis|firstGlenn E.|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/item/94045459/|titleArmenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia : country studies|date1995|publisherFederal Research Division|isbn0-8444-0848-4|edition1st|locationWashington, D.C.|pages99–101|oclc31709972}} }}</ref> About the size of Portugal or the US state of Maine, Azerbaijan has a total land area of approximately 86,600&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>, less than 1% of the land area of the former Soviet Union.<ref name":0" /> Of the three Transcaucasian states, Azerbaijan has the greatest land area.<ref name":0" /> Special administrative subdivisions are the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, which is separated from the rest of Azerbaijan by a strip of Armenian territory, and the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region, entirely within Azerbaijan.<ref name":0" /> The status of Nagorno-Karabakh is disputed by Armenia, but is internationally recognized as territory of Azerbaijan.
Located in the region of the southern Caucasus Mountains, Azerbaijan borders the Caspian Sea to the east, Georgia and Russia to the north, Iran to the south, and Armenia to the southwest and west.<ref name":0" /> A small part of Nakhchivan also borders Turkey to the northwest.<ref name":0" /> The capital of Azerbaijan is the ancient city of Baku, which has the largest and best harbor on the Caspian Sea and has long been the center of the republic's oil industry.<ref name":0" /><ref name"auto">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20001017121654/http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/aj.html|url-statusdead|archive-dateOctober 17, 2000|titleCIA Site Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency|websitewww.cia.gov|languageen|access-date2018-03-07}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2096.html|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070613004344/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2096.html|url-statusdead|archive-dateJune 13, 2007|titleThe World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency|websitewww.cia.gov|languageen|access-date2018-03-07}}</ref>
Topography and drainage
The elevation changes over a relatively short distance from lowlands to highlands; nearly half the country is considered mountainous.<ref name":0" /> Notable physical features are the gently undulating hills of the subtropical southeastern coast, which are covered with tea plantations, orange groves, and lemon groves; numerous mud volcanoes and mineral springs in the ravines of Kobustan Mountain near Baku; and coastal terrain that lies as much as twenty-eight meters below sea level.<ref name":0" />
Except for its eastern Caspian shoreline and some areas bordering Georgia and Iran, Azerbaijan is ringed by mountains.<ref name":0" /> To the northeast, bordering Russia's Dagestan Autonomous Republic, is the Greater Caucasus range; to the west, bordering Armenia, is the Lesser Caucasus range.<ref name":0" /> To the extreme southeast, the Talysh Mountains form part of the border with Iran.<ref name":0" /> The highest elevations occur in the Greater Caucasus, where Mount Bazardüzü rises 4,466 meters above sea level.<ref name":0" /> Eight large rivers flow down from the Caucasus ranges into the central Kura-Aras Lowlands, alluvial flatlands and low delta areas along the seacoast designated by the Azerbaijani name for the Mtkvari River (Kura) and its main tributary, the Aras.<ref name":0" /> The Mtkvari, the longest river in the Caucasus region, forms the delta and drains into the Caspian a short distance downstream from the confluence with the Aras.<ref name":0" /> The Mingechaur Reservoir, with an area of 605 square kilometers that makes it the largest body of water in Azerbaijan, was formed by damming the Kura in western Azerbaijan.<ref name":0" /> The waters of the reservoir provide hydroelectric power and irrigation of the Kura-Aras plain.<ref name":0" /> Most of the country's rivers are not navigable.<ref name":0" /> About 15% of the land in Azerbaijan is arable.<ref name":0" />
{{Location map+ |Azerbaijan |width300 |floatright |captionMap of Azerbaijan |places
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat40.39528 |long49.88223 |label=Baku }}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat40.68278 |long46.36056 |labelGanja |positionleft}}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat40.58972|long49.66861 |labelSumqayit |positionleft}}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat40.77000|long47.04889 |labelMingachevir |positiontop}}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat40.39667|long49.97361 |labelQaraçuxur|positionbottom }}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat39.93194|long48.92028 |label=Shirvan }}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat39.20889|long45.41222 |labelNakhchivan&nbsp;City |positionbottom}}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat40.42167|long49.96444 |labelBakıxanov|positionright}}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat41.19194|long47.17056 |label=Shaki }}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat40.61722|long47.15000 |label=Yevlakh }}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat39.81528|long46.75194 |labelKhankedi |positionleft}}
{{Location map~ |Azerbaijan |lat38.75361|long48.85111 |label=Lankaran }}
}}
Mountains
The country's highest peak, Bazardüzü, rises to 4,485 m in this range at the Azerbaijan-Russia border.
Climate
Temperature
The climate varies from subtropical and humid in the southeast to subtropical and dry in central and eastern Azerbaijan, continental and humid in the mountains, and continental and dry in Nakhchivan. Baku, on the Caspian, enjoys mild weather that averages {{convert|4|°C|1}} in January and {{convert|25|°C}} in July.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azerbaijans.com/content_457_fr.html|titleAzərbaycan :: Baş səhifə|websitewww.azerbaijans.com|languageaz|access-date2018-03-07}}</ref>PrecipitationPhysiographic conditions and different atmosphere circulations admit 8 types of air currents including continental, sea, arctic, tropical currents of air that formulates the climate of the Republic. The maximum annual precipitation falls in Lenkeran (1,600 to 1,800&nbsp;mm.) and the minimum in Absheron (200 to 350&nbsp;mm.). The maximum daily precipitation of 334&nbsp;mm was observed at the Bilieser Station in 1955.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azhydromet.com/SRIH/Water%20Resurs.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070524005453/http://www.azhydromet.com/SRIH/Water%20Resurs.html |url-statusdead |archive-date2007-05-24 |titleHydromet Azerbaijan |access-date2018-10-02}}</ref> Environmental problems <span class"anchor" id"Environmental issues"></span>
{{main|Environmental issues in Azerbaijan}}
) can be seen along this coastline.]]
Air and water pollution are widespread and pose great challenges to economic development.<ref name":0" /> Major sources of pollution include oil refineries and chemical and metallurgical industries, which in the early 1990s continued to operate as inefficiently as they had in the Soviet era.<ref name":0" /> Air quality is extremely poor in Baku, the center of oil refining.<ref name":0" /> Some reports have described Baku's air as the most polluted in the former Soviet Union, and other industrial centers suffer similar problems.<ref name":0" />
The Caspian Sea, including Baku Bay, has been polluted by oil leakages and the dumping of raw or inadequately treated sewage, reducing the yield of caviar and fish.<ref name":0" /> In the Soviet period, Azerbaijan was pressed to use extremely heavy applications of pesticides to improve its output of scarce subtropical crops for the rest of the Soviet Union.<ref name":0" /> The continued regular use of the pesticide DDT in the 1970s and 1980s was an egregious lapse, although that chemical was officially banned in the Soviet Union because of its toxicity to humans.<ref name":0" /> Excessive application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers has caused extensive groundwater pollution and has been linked by Azerbaijani scientists to birth defects and illnesses.<ref name":0" /> Rising water levels in the Caspian Sea, mainly caused by natural factors exacerbated by man-made structures, have reversed the decades-long drying trend and now threaten coastal areas; the average level rose 1.5 meters between 1978 and 1993.<ref name":0" /> Because of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, large numbers of trees were felled, roads were built through pristine areas, and large expanses of agricultural land were occupied by military forces.<ref name":0" />
Like other former Soviet republics, Azerbaijan faces a gigantic environmental cleanup complicated by the economic uncertainties left in the wake of the Moscow-centered planning system.<ref name":0" /> The Committee for the Protection of the Natural Environment is part of the Azerbaijani government, but in the early 1990s it was ineffective at targeting critical applications of limited funds, establishing pollution standards, or monitoring compliance with environmental regulations.<ref name":0" /> Early in 1994, plans called for Azerbaijan to participate in the international Caspian Sea Forum, sponsored by the European Union (EU).<ref name=":0" />
; Natural hazards:
: Droughts and floods; some lowland areas threatened by rising levels of the Caspian Sea
; Environment—current issues:
: Local scientists consider the Abseron Yasaqligi (Apsheron Peninsula) (including Baky and Sumqayit) and the Caspian Sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air, water, and soil pollution; soil pollution results from the use of DDT as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton.
; Environment - international agreements
:* Party to: Air Pollution, Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
Area and boundaries
; Area:
:* Total: 86,600 km²
:**country rank in the world: 113rd
:* Land: 82,629 km²
:* Water: 3,971 km²
:* Note: Includes the exclave of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic and the Nagorno-Karabakh region; the region's autonomy was abolished by Azerbaijani Supreme Soviet on November 26, 1991.
; Area comparative
:* Australia comparative: approximately {{sfrac|2|7}} larger than Tasmania
:* Canada comparative: approximately {{sfrac|1|5}} larger than New Brunswick
:* United Kingdom comparative: slightly larger than Scotland
:* United States comparative: slightly smaller than Maine
:* EU comparative: slightly smaller than Portugal
; Land boundaries:
:* Total: 2,468 km
:* Border countries: Armenia (with Azerbaijan-proper) 566 km, Armenia (with Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave) 221 km, Georgia 428 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-proper) 432 km, Iran (with Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave) 700 km, Russia 338 km, Turkey 17 km
; Coastline:
: Mostly landlocked, but has a 713 km coastline with the Caspian Sea.
; Maritime claims:
: None
; Terrain
:* large, flat lowland (much of it below sea-level) with Great Caucasus Mountains to the north, uplands in the west
; Elevation extremes
:* Lowest point: Caspian Sea -28 m
:* Highest point: Bazardüzü 4,466 m (on the border with Russia)
:* Highest peak entirely within Azeri territory: Shah Dagi 4,243 m
Islands
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*Bulla
*Çikil
*Çilov
*Gil
*Glinyaniy
*Nargin
*Pirallahı
*Qara Su
*Qum
*Səngi Muğan
*Vulf
*Zənbil
}}
Resources and land use
{{Main|Natural resources of Azerbaijan|Geology of Azerbaijan}}
; Natural resources:
: Petroleum, natural gas, iron ore, nonferrous metals, bauxite
; Land use:
:* Arable land: 22.95%
:* Permanent crops: 2.79%
:* Other: 74.26% (2012 est.)
; Irrigated land:
:* 14,250 km² (2010)
; Total renewable water resources:
:* 34.68 km<sup>3</sup> (2011)
; Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural)
:* Total: 12.21 km<sup>3</sup>/yr (4%/18%/78%)
:* Per capita: 1,384 cu m/yr (2010)
See also
*List of volcanoes in Azerbaijan
*{{wikiatlas|Azerbaijan}}
References
{{reflist}}
General references
*{{CIA World Factbook}}
{{Azerbaijan topics}}
{{Geography of Asia}}
{{Asia topic|Climate of}}
{{Geography of Europe}}
{{Europe topic|Climate of}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Azerbaijan | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.533466 |
1087 | Foreign relations of Azerbaijan | {{Short description|none}} {{External links|date=November 2024}}
<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{Politics of Azerbaijan}}
The Republic of Azerbaijan is a member of the United Nations, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, NATO's Partnership for Peace, the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, the World Health Organization, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development; the Council of Europe, CFE Treaty, the Community of Democracies; the International Monetary Fund; and the World Bank.
List
List of countries which Azerbaijan maintains diplomatic relations with:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="3" |
|-
!#
!Country
!Date<ref>{{Cite web |titleForeign policy - bilateral relations |urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/category/bilateral-relations |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241128102317/https://mfa.gov.az/en/category/bilateral-relations |archive-date28 November 2024 |access-date29 December 2024}}</ref>
|-
|1
|{{flag|Turkey}}
|{{dts|14 January 1992}}
|-
|2
|{{flag|Liechtenstein}}
|{{dts|21 January 1992}}
|-
|3
|{{flag|Switzerland}}
|{{dts|21 January 1992}}
|-
|4
|{{flag|North Korea}}
|{{dts|30 January 1992}}
|-
|5
|{{flag|Ukraine}}
|{{dts|6 February 1992}}
|-
|6
|{{flag|Mexico}}
|{{dts|10 February 1992}}
|-
|7
|{{flag|Spain}}
|{{dts|11 February 1992}}
|-
|8
|{{flag|Austria}}
|{{dts|20 February 1992}}
|-
|9
|{{flag|Germany}}
|{{dts|20 February 1992}}
|-
|10
|{{flag|France}}
|{{dts|21 February 1992}}
|-
|11
|{{flag|Poland}}
|{{dts|21 February 1992}}
|-
|12
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|{{dts|24 February 1992}}
|-
|13
|{{flag|Yemen}}
|{{dts|25 February 1992}}
|-
|14
|{{flag|Bangladesh}}
|{{dts|26 February 1992}}
|-
|15
|{{flag|India}}
|{{dts|28 February 1992}}
|-
|16
|{{flag|United States}}
|{{dts|28 February 1992}}
|-
|17
|{{flag|Guinea}}
|{{dts|11 March 1992}}
|-
|18
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|{{dts|11 March 1992}}
|-
|19
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|{{dts|11 March 1992}}
|-
|20
|{{flag|Iran}}
|{{dts|12 March 1992}}
|-
|21
|{{flag|Libya}}
|{{dts|16 March 1992}}
|-
|22
|{{flag|South Korea}}
|{{dts|23 March 1992}}
|-
|23
|{{flag|Finland}}
|{{dts|24 March 1992}}
|-
|24
|{{flag|Cuba}}
|{{dts|27 March 1992}}
|-
|25
|{{flag|Egypt}}
|{{dts|27 March 1992}}
|-
|26
|{{flag|Philippines}}
|{{dts|27 March 1992}}
|-
|27
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Syrian revolution.svg}} Syria
|{{dts|28 March 1992}}
|-
|28
|{{flag|Iraq}}
|{{dts|30 March 1992}}
|-
|29
|{{flag|Netherlands}}
|{{dts|1 April 1992}}
|-
|30
|{{flag|China}}
|{{dts|2 April 1992}}
|-
|31
|{{flag|Denmark}}
|{{dts|2 April 1992}}
|-
|32
|{{flag|Greece}}
|{{dts|2 April 1992}}
|-
|33
|{{flag|Russia}}
|{{dts|4 April 1992}}
|-
|34
|{{flag|Israel}}
|{{dts|7 April 1992}}
|-
|—
|{{flag|State of Palestine}}
|{{dts|15 April 1992}}
|-
|35
|{{flag|Mongolia}}
|{{dts|16 April 1992}}
|-
|36
|{{flag|Estonia}}
|{{dts|20 April 1992}}
|-
|37
|{{flag|Hungary}}
|{{dts|27 April 1992}}
|-
|38
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|{{dts|29 April 1992}}
|-
|39
|{{flag|Sweden}}
|{{dts|8 May 1992}}
|-
|40
|{{flag|Italy}}
|{{dts|8 May 1992}}
|-
|—
|{{flag|Holy See}}
|{{dts|23 May 1992}}
|-
|41
|{{flag|Moldova}}
|{{dts|29 May 1992}}
|-
|42
|{{flag|Tajikistan}}
|{{dts|29 May 1992}}
|-
|43
|{{flag|Luxembourg}}
|{{dts|1 June 1992}}
|-
|44
|{{flag|Norway}}
|{{dts|5 June 1992}}
|-
|45
|{{flag|Bulgaria}}
|{{dts|5 June 1992}}
|-
|46
|{{flag|Portugal}}
|{{dts|5 June 1992}}
|-
|47
|{{flag|Pakistan}}
|{{dts|9 June 1992}}
|-
|48
|{{flag|Turkmenistan}}
|{{dts|9 June 1992}}
|-
|49
|{{flag|Belgium}}
|{{dts|17 June 1992}}
|-
|50
|{{flag|Australia}}
|{{dts|19 June 1992}}
|-
|51
|{{flag|Romania}}
|{{dts|19 June 1992}}
|-
|52
|{{flag|New Zealand}}
|{{dts|29 June 1992}}
|-
|53
|{{flag|Thailand}}
|{{dts|7 July 1992}}
|-
|54
|{{flag|Canada}}
|{{dts|10 July 1992}}
|-
|55
|{{flag|Oman}}
|{{dts|13 July 1992}}
|-
|56
|{{flag|Sudan}}
|{{dts|25 July 1992}}
|-
|57
|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
|{{dts|4 August 1992}}
|-
|58
|{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
|{{dts|27 August 1992}}
|-
|59
|{{flag|Morocco}}
|{{dts|28 August 1992}}
|-
|60
|{{flag|Kazakhstan}}
|{{dts|30 August 1992}}
|-
|61
|{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|{{dts|1 September 1992}}
|-
|62
|{{flag|Japan}}
|{{dts|7 September 1992}}
|-
|63
|{{flag|Ghana}}
|{{dts|11 September 1992}}
|-
|64
|{{flag|Vietnam}}
|{{dts|23 September 1992}}
|-
|65
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|{{dts|24 September 1992}}
|-
|66
|{{flag|Lebanon}}
|{{dts|28 September 1992}}
|-
|67
|{{flag|Brazil}}
|{{dts|23 October 1992}}
|-
|68
|{{flag|Ethiopia}}
|{{dts|2 November 1992}}
|-
|69
|{{flag|Georgia}}
|{{dts|18 November 1992}}
|-
|70
|{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
|{{dts|19 January 1993}}
|-
|71
|{{flag|Czech Republic}}
|{{dts|29 January 1993}}
|-
|72
|{{flag|Jordan}}
|{{dts|13 February 1993}}
|-
|73
|{{flag|Malaysia}}
|{{dts|5 April 1993}}
|-
|74
|{{flag|Madagascar}}
|{{dts|26 May 1993}}
|-
|75
|{{flag|Belarus}}
|{{dts|11 June 1993}}
|-
|76
|{{flag|Albania}}
|{{dts|23 September 1993}}
|-
|77
|{{flag|Argentina}}
|{{dts|8 November 1993}}
|-
|78
|{{flag|Zambia}}
|{{dts|18 November 1993}}
|-
|79
|{{flag|Latvia}}
|{{dts|11 January 1994}}
|-
|80
|{{flag|Algeria}}
|{{dts|22 April 1994}}
|-
|81
|{{flag|Singapore}}
|{{dts|15 August 1994}}
|-
|82
|{{flag|Comoros}}
|{{dts|6 September 1994}}
|-
|83
|{{flag|Qatar}}
|{{dts|14 September 1994}}
|-
|84
|{{flag|Kuwait}}
|{{dts|10 October 1994}}
|-
|85
|{{flag|Mauritania}}
|{{dts|29 October 1994}}
|-
|86
|{{flag|Guatemala}}
|{{dts|1 November 1994}}
|-
|87
|{{flag|Seychelles}}
|{{dts|2 November 1994}}
|-
|88
|{{flag|Chile}}
|{{dts|3 November 1994}}
|-
|89
|{{flag|Gambia}}
|{{dts|11 November 1994}}
|-
|90
|{{flag|Afghanistan|2013}}
|{{dts|16 November 1994}}
|-
|91
|{{flag|Nicaragua}}
|{{dts|23 November 1994}}
|-
|92
|{{flag|Angola}}
|{{dts|1 December 1994}}
|-
|93
|{{flag|Colombia}}
|{{dts|12 December 1994}}
|-
|94
|{{flag|Honduras}}
|{{dts|22 December 1994}}
|-
|95
|{{flag|Cambodia}}
|{{dts|28 December 1994}}
|-
|96
|{{flag|Malta}}
|{{dts|9 January 1995}}
|-
|97
|{{flag|Uruguay}}
|{{dts|11 January 1995}}
|-
|98
|{{flag|Croatia}}
|{{dts|26 January 1995}}
|-
|99
|{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
|{{dts|9 February 1995}}
|-
|100
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|{{dts|24 February 1995}}
|-
|101
|{{flag|Nepal}}
|{{dts|28 February 1995}}
|-
|102
|{{flag|Burundi}}
|{{dts|2 March 1995}}
|-
|103
|{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
|{{dts|13 March 1995}}
|-
|104
|{{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
|{{dts|22 March 1995}}<ref name":02">{{cite web |titleDiplomatic Relations |urlhttps://www.foreign.gov.kn/2906-2/ |access-date1 April 2021 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Saint Kitts and Nevis}}</ref>
|-
|105
|{{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
|{{dts|5 April 1995}}<ref name":03">{{cite web |authorGovernment of Antigua and Barbuda |titleChronology of Antigua and Barbudas Bilateral relations |urlhttp://www.un.int/antigua/bilachro.htm |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120117180614/http://www.un.int/antigua/bilachro.htm |archive-date17 January 2012 |access-date24 February 2011}}</ref>
|-
|106
|{{flag|Panama}}
|{{dts|6 April 1995}}
|-
|107
|{{flag|Venezuela}}
|{{dts|12 May 1995}}
|-
|108
|{{flag|Laos}}
|{{dts|22 May 1995}}
|-
|109
|{{flag|Mozambique}}
|{{dts|20 June 1995}}
|-
|110
|{{flag|North Macedonia}}
|{{dts|28 June 1995}}
|-
|111
|{{flag|Uganda}}
|{{dts|19 August 1995}}
|-
|112
|{{flag|Guyana}}
|{{dts|1 September 1995}}<ref name"relations">{{cite web |titleDiplomatic relations |urlhttp://www.minfor.gov.gy/diplomatic-relations/ |access-date21 April 2021 |archive-date24 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191224073504/http://www.minfor.gov.gy/diplomatic-relations/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
|113
|{{flag|Uzbekistan}}
|{{dts|2 October 1995}}
|-
|114
|{{flag|Niger}}
|{{dts|10 October 1995}}
|-
|115
|{{flag|Lithuania}}
|{{dts|20 November 1995}}
|-
|116
|{{flag|Jamaica}}
|{{dts|22 November 1995}}
|-
|117
|{{flag|Brunei}}
|{{dts|24 November 1995}}
|-
|118
|{{flag|Slovenia}}
|{{dts|20 February 1996}}
|-
|119
|{{flag|Senegal}}
|{{dts|14 March 1996}}
|-
|120
|{{flag|Andorra}}
|{{dts|30 April 1996}}
|-
|121
|{{flag|Liberia}}
|{{dts|22 May 1996}}
|-
|122
|{{flag|Peru}}
|{{dts|25 June 1996}}
|-
|123
|{{flag|Ireland}}
|{{dts|1 July 1996}}
|-
|124
|{{flag|Bolivia}}
|{{dts|8 July 1996}}
|-
|125
|{{flag|Mauritius}}
|{{dts|19 July 1996}}
|-
|126
|{{flag|Gabon}}
|{{dts|1 October 1996}}
|-
|127
|{{flag|Djibouti}}
|{{dts|22 October 1996}}
|-
|128
|{{flag|Bahrain}}
|{{dts|6 November 1996}}
|-
|129
|{{flag|Ivory Coast}}
|{{dts|19 November 1996}}
|-
|130
|{{flag|Slovakia}}
|{{dts|23 November 1996}}
|-
|131
|{{flag|Mali}}
|{{dts|26 November 1996}}
|-
|132
|{{flag|Costa Rica}}
|{{dts|15 January 1997}}
|-
|133
|{{flag|Serbia}}
|{{dts|21 August 1997}}
|-
|134
|{{flag|Iceland}}
|{{dts|27 February 1998}}
|-
|135
|{{flag|Tunisia}}
|{{dts|1 July 1998}}
|-
|136
|{{flag|El Salvador}}
|{{dts|23 March 1999}}
|-
|137
|{{flag|Myanmar}}
|{{dts|3 August 1999}}
|-
|138
|{{flag|Benin}}
|{{dts|14 October 1999}}
|-
|139
|{{flag|Suriname}}
|{{dts|11 February 2000}}<ref name":UN">{{Cite web |titleDiplomatic relations between Azerbaijan and ... |urlhttps://digitallibrary.un.org/search?lnen&as1&m1p&p1Diplomatic+relations+between+Azerbaijan+and+...&f1series&op1a&m2a&p2&f2&op2a&m3a&p3&f3&dt&d1d&d1m&d1y&d2d&d2m&d2y&rm&action_searchSearch&sfyear&soa&rg50&cUnited+Nations+Digital+Library+System&ofhb&fti0&fti0 |access-date13 March 2025 |websiteUnited Nations Digital Library}}</ref>
|-
|140
|{{flag|San Marino}}
|{{dts|19 April 2002}}
|-
|141
|{{flag|Belize}}
|{{dts|24 June 2002}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|142
|{{flag|Haiti}}
|{{dts|9 May 2003}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|143
|{{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
|{{dts|23 May 2003}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|144
|{{flag|Cape Verde}}
|{{dts|22 March 2004}}
|-
|145
|{{flag|Ecuador}}
|{{dts|22 March 2004}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|146
|{{flag|Somalia}}
|{{dts|22 March 2004}}
|-
|147
|{{flag|Chad}}
|{{dts|5 April 2004}}
|-
|148
|{{flag|Timor-Leste}}
|{{dts|5 April 2004}}
|-
|149
|{{flag|Eritrea}}
|{{dts|20 April 2004}}
|-
|150
|{{flag|Paraguay}}
|{{dts|20 April 2004}}
|-
|151
|{{flag|Malawi}}
|{{dts|21 May 2004}}
|-
|152
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
|{{dts|28 May 2004}}
|-
|153
|{{flag|Kenya}}
|{{dts|28 May 2004}}
|-
|154
|{{flag|Rwanda}}
|{{dts|28 May 2004}}
|-
|155
|{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
|{{dts|11 November 2004}}
|-
|156
|{{flag|Nauru}}
|{{dts|11 November 2004}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|157
|{{Flag|Maldives}}
|{{dts|15 June 2006}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|158
|{{flag|Dominican Republic}}
|{{dts|27 November 2007}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|159
|{{flag|Monaco}}
|{{dts|19 December 2007}}
|-
|160
|{{flag|Montenegro}}
|{{dts|24 April 2008}}
|-
|161
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
|{{dts|24 October 2008}}
|-
|162
|{{flag|Tuvalu}}
|{{dts|9 September 2009}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|163
|{{flag|Eswatini}}
|{{dts|7 January 2010}}
|-
|164
|{{flag|Marshall Islands}}
|{{dts|10 March 2010}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|165
|{{flag|Saint Lucia}}
|{{dts|11 March 2010}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|166
|{{flag|Fiji}}
|{{dts|18 March 2010}}
|-
|167
|{{flag|Grenada}}
|{{dts|23 September 2010}}<ref>{{Cite web |titleGrenada and Azerbaijan established diplomatic relations |urlhttps://grenadaembassyusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Grenada-and-Azerbaijan-Establish-Diplomatic-Relations.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://grenadaembassyusa.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/09/Grenada-and-Azerbaijan-Establish-Diplomatic-Relations.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date3 August 2022}}</ref>
|-
|168
|{{flag|Togo}}
|{{dts|28 December 2010}}
|-
|169
|{{flag|Solomon Islands}}
|{{dts|8 February 2011}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|170
|{{flag|Dominica}}
|{{dts|4 March 2011}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|171
|{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
|{{dts|11 April 2011}}<ref>{{Cite news |date12 April 2011 |titleАзербайджан установил дипломатические отношения с Тринидадом и Тобаго |languageru |urlhttps://www.trend.az/azerbaijan/politics/1859593.html |access-date=3 August 2022}}</ref>
|-
|172
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|{{dts|23 September 2011}}
|-
|173
|{{flag|Lesotho}}
|{{dts|28 September 2012}}
|-
|174
|{{flag|South Sudan}}
|{{dts|23 October 2012}}
|-
|175
|{{flag|Bhutan}}
|{{dts|7 February 2013}}
|-
|176
|{{flag|Bahamas}}
|{{dts|2 May 2017}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|177
|{{flag|Vanuatu}}
|{{dts|22 September 2017}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|178
|{{flag|Samoa}}
|{{dts|19 January 2018}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|179
|{{flag|Palau}}
|{{dts|1 February 2018}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|180
|{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
|{{dts|19 March 2018}}
|-
|181
|{{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
|{{dts|25 September 2018}}
|-
|182
|{{flag|Tanzania}}
|{{dts|7 February 2019}}
|-
|183
|{{flag|Barbados}}
|{{dts|2 August 2019}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|184
|{{flag|Namibia}}
|{{dts|17 October 2019}}
|-
|185
|{{flag|Papua New Guinea}}
|{{dts|5 May 2023}}<ref name=":UN" />
|-
|186
|{{flag|Botswana}}
|{{dts|December 2023}}
|}
Information on some of the countries with which Azerbaijan maintains formal relations
Multilateral
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
!width="15%"| Organization
!width="12%"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|--valign="top"
|{{Flag|Council of Europe}}||<!--Start date-->
|See Azerbaijan in the Council of Europe
* Azerbaijan joined the Council of Europe as a full member on 25 January 2001.
* The Azerbaijani Permanent Mission to the Council of Europe is based in Strasbourg, France.
* The Council of Europe maintains an Office in Baku, Azerbaijan.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flag|European Union}}||1996<ref>{{Cite web|titleEU relations with Azerbaijan|urlhttps://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/policies/eastern-partnership/azerbaijan/|access-date2021-05-07|websiteconsilium.europa.eu|language=en}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–European Union relations
* Azerbaijan is not a member of the European Union.
* The Mission of Azerbaijan to the European Union is located in Brussels, Belgium.
* The Delegation of the European Union to Azerbaijan Office is located in Baku, Azerbaijan.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flag|NATO}}||1992<ref>{{Cite web|lastNATO|titleRelations with Azerbaijan|urlhttp://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_49111.htm|access-date2021-05-07|websiteNATO|languageen}}</ref>
| See Azerbaijan–NATO relations
* Azerbaijan is not a member of NATO.
* Azerbaijan joined the NATO Partnership for Peace on 4 May 1994.
* The Azerbaijani Permanent Mission to the NATO is based in Brussels, Belgium.
|--valign="top"
|{{flagcountry|Organization of Turkic States}}||2009<ref>{{Cite web |titleNakhchivan Agreement on the establishment of the Cooperation Council of Turkic Speaking States |urlhttps://international.vlex.com/vid/nakhchivan-agreement-on-the-851195705 |access-date2022-08-03 |websitevLex |language=en}}</ref>
| See Azerbaijan–Turkic Council relations
|}
Africa
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
!width="15%"| Country
!width="12%"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Burkina Faso}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|31 May 2004}}<ref name"Dip">[http://fun.online.ru/news/misc/newssng/04/05/31_005.htm Азербайджан установил дипломатические отношения с Буркина-Фасо, Руандой и Кенией] "Рол" 31 мая 2004 г.</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Burkina Faso relations
|-- valign="top"
|{{Flagu|DR Congo}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|23 October 2011}}<ref name"mfalist">{{Cite web |titleArchived copy |urlhttp://mfa.gov.az/files/media/AR%20AZERY%20BOOK%202017%20sayt%20ucun%20(1).doc |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180324164104/http://mfa.gov.az/files/media/AR%20AZERY%20BOOK%202017%20sayt%20ucun%20(1).doc |archive-date24 March 2018 |access-date18 March 2018}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–DR Congo relations
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Djibouti}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|22 October 1996}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://addisababa.mfa.gov.az/content/41|titleAzərbaycan – Cibuti münasibətləri|websiteaddisababa.mfa.gov.az|languageaz|access-date16 March 2018|archive-date16 March 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180316214446/http://addisababa.mfa.gov.az/content/41|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Djibouti relations
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Ethiopia}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|2 November 1992}}<ref>[http://www.1news.az/news/azerbaydzhan-otkryvaet-posol-stvo-v-efiopii Азербайджан открывает посольство в Эфиопии]. 1news.az. 28 December 2012.</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Ethiopia relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Addis Ababa since 2013.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Gambia}}|| style"text-align:center" | 11 November 1994<ref>{{Cite web|titleQambiya|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/267/qambiya|access-date2021-01-19|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date19 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210119144525/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/267/qambiya|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Gambia relations
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Kenya}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|31 May 2004}}<ref name"Dip"/>
|See Azerbaijan–Kenya relations
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Libya}}|| style"text-align:center" | 16 March 1992<ref>{{Cite web|titleLibya|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/content/303/libya|access-date2021-06-24|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date24 June 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210624205624/https://mfa.gov.az/en/content/303/libya|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Libya relations
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Morocco}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|25 December 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://rabat.mfa.gov.az/content/3|titleAzərbaycan Respublikasının Mərakeş Krallığındakı Səfirliyinin kurasiyasında olan ölkələrlə ikitərəfli münasibətlər|websiterabat.mfa.gov.az|languageaz|access-date18 March 2018|archive-date19 March 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180319003939/http://rabat.mfa.gov.az/content/3|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Morocco relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Rabat since 2005.
* Morocco has an embassy in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Senegal}}|| style"text-align:center" | 14 March 1996<ref>{{Cite web|titleSeneqal|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/275/seneqal|access-date2021-01-19|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date15 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115135158/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/275/seneqal|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan—Senegal relations
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|South Africa}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|29 April 1992}}<ref>[http://vesti.az/news/135380 Посол Азербайджана в ЮАР встретился с преподавателями и студентами Преторийского университета] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180316214350/http://vesti.az/news/135380 |date=16 March 2018 }} Vesti.Az 1 November 2012.</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–South Africa relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Pretoria.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Tunisia}}|| style"text-align:center" | 1 July 1998<ref>{{Cite web|titleTunis|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/327/tunis|access-date2021-01-19|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date15 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115152648/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/327/tunis|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Tunisia relations
|}
Americas
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
!width="15%"| Country
!width="12%"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Argentina}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|8 November 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://buenosaires.mfa.gov.az/content/47|titleBilateral relations between Argentina and Azerbaijan|websitebuenosaires.mfa.gov.az|access-date2 August 2017|archive-date2 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170802085954/http://buenosaires.mfa.gov.az/content/47|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|See Argentina–Azerbaijan relations
* Argentina has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://esalv.cancilleria.gob.ar/representaciones/repre/1022|titleRepresentaciones argentinas en el exterior {{pipe}} Embajada en El Salvador|websiteesalv.cancilleria.gob.ar|access-date10 July 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190710072444/https://esalv.cancilleria.gob.ar/representaciones/repre/1022|archive-date10 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Buenos Aires.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://buenosaires.mfa.gov.az/es|titleEmbassy of Azerbaijan in Argentina|websitebuenosaires.mfa.gov.az|languagees}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Brazil}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|21 October 1993}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://brasilia.mfa.gov.az/content/37|titleBilateral relations between Azerbaijan and Brazil|websitebrasilia.mfa.gov.az|languageaz|access-date2 August 2017|archive-date2 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170802081946/http://brasilia.mfa.gov.az/content/37|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Brazil relations
*Azerbaijan has an embassy in Brasília.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://brasilia.mfa.gov.az/en|titleEmbassy of Azerbaijan in Brasília|websitebrasilia.mfa.gov.az|access-date2 August 2017|archive-date10 February 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170210115928/http://brasilia.mfa.gov.az/en|url-status=dead}}</ref>
*Brazil has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://baku.itamaraty.gov.br/pt-br/|titleEmbassy of Brazil in Baku|website=baku.itamaraty.gov.br}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Canada}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|10 July 1992}}<ref name"azembassy.ca">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azembassy.ca/azerbaijan_canada.php |titleEmbassy of Azerbaijan |access-date20 February 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150205200306/http://azembassy.ca/azerbaijan_canada.php |archive-date5 February 2015 }}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Canada relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Ottawa.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://ottawa.mfa.gov.az/|titleEmbassy of Azerbaijan in Ottawa|website=ottawa.mfa.gov.az}}</ref>
* Canada is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.canadainternational.gc.ca/turkey-turquie/bilateral_relations_bilaterales/canada_azerbaijan-azerbaidjan.aspx?menu_id50&langeng|titleCanada – Azerbaijan Relations|firstForeign Affairs Trade and Development Canada|lastGovernment of Canada|websitecanadainternational.gc.ca|dateJune 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Colombia}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|13 December 1994}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.cancilleria.gov.co/republica-azerbaiyan|titleBilateral relations between Azerbaijan and Colombia|date20 March 2012|website=Cancillería}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Colombia relations
*Azerbaijan has an embassy in Bogotá.
*Colombia has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://azerbaiyan.embajada.gov.co/|titleEmbassy of Colombia in Baku|website=azerbaiyan.embajada.gov.co}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Cuba}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|27 March 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan-Cuba_2016.pdf|titleThe relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Cuba|access-date15 July 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180716025423/http://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan-Cuba_2016.pdf|archive-date16 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Cuba relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Havana.
* Cuba has an embassy in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Ecuador}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|22 March 2004}}<ref>{{Cite web|last|first|date|titleAzerbaijan-Ecuador relations|urlhttps://azertag.az/ru/xeber/22_MARTA-937276|access-date|website}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Ecuador relations
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Mexico}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|14 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://mexico.mfa.gov.az/content/3|titleEmbassy of Azerbaijan in Mexico City|websitemexico.mfa.gov.az|access-date2 August 2017|archive-date2 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170802123355/http://mexico.mfa.gov.az/content/3|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Mexico relations
*Azerbaijan has an embassy in Mexico City.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://mexico.mfa.gov.az/|titleAzərbaycan Respublikasının Meksika Birləşmiş Ştatlarındakı Səfirliyi|website=mexico.mfa.gov.az}}</ref>
*Mexico has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://directorio.sre.gob.mx/index.php/embajadas-de-mexico-en-el-exterior/azerbaiyan|titleAzerbaiyán|websitedirectorio.sre.gob.mx|access-date2 August 2017|archive-date2 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170802085810/https://directorio.sre.gob.mx/index.php/embajadas-de-mexico-en-el-exterior/azerbaiyan|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Nicaragua}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|10 February 1994}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.elpueblopresidente.com/noticias/ver/titulo:7311-nicaragua-fortalece-relaciones-con-la-republica-de-azerbaiyan|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140812221958/http://www.elpueblopresidente.com/noticias/ver/titulo:7311-nicaragua-fortalece-relaciones-con-la-republica-de-azerbaiyan|url-statususurped|archive-date12 August 2014|titleNicaragua fortalece relaciones con la República de Azerbaiyán|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Nicaragua relations
*Azerbaijan is represented in Nicaragua through its embassy in Havana, Cuba.
*Nicaragua is represented in Azerbaijan through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.cancilleria.gob.ni/embajadas/index.shtml|titleMinisterio de Relaciones Exteriores de Nicaragua|access-date20 February 2015|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150219073228/http://www.cancilleria.gob.ni/embajadas/index.shtml|archive-date19 February 2015}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Paraguay}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|20 April 2004}}<ref name"Day">[http://www1.day.az/print/news/politics/6972.html Азербайджан установил дипотношения с Эритреей и Парагваем]{{dead link|dateJuly 2017 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Day.Az 28 Апреля 2004</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Paraguay relations
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Peru}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|25 June 1996}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan-Peru_2016.pdf|titleBilateral relations between Azerbaijan and Peru|access-date2 August 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170803013124/http://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan-Peru_2016.pdf|archive-date3 August 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Peru relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Lima.
* Peru has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.rree.gob.pe/SitePages/embajadas.aspx| title Peruvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|United States}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|1919}},<br> {{dts|28 February 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–United States relations
On 25 December 1991 President George H. W. Bush announced that the United States recognized the independence of all 12 former Soviet republics, including Azerbaijan.<ref name="nichol150"/>
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Washington, DC and has a consulate-general in Los Angeles.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://washington.mfa.gov.az/|titleEmbassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan to the United States of America|website=washington.mfa.gov.az}}</ref>
* United States has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://az.usembassy.gov/|titleU.S. Embassy in Azerbaijan |date31 July 2019|websiteDepartment of State|language=en}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Uruguay}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|12 January 1995}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.montevideo.com.uy/Noticias/Parlamentarios-de-Azerbaiyan-visitaron-Uruguay-uc264648|titleParlamentarios de Azerbaiyán visitaron Uruguay|websiteMontevideo Portal}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Uruguay relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Montevideo.
* Uruguay is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Tehran, Iran.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Venezuela}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|12 May 1995}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.azerbaijans.com/content_1004_es.html|titleAzərbaycan :: Baş səhifə|websiteazerbaijans.com}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Venezuela relations
* Azerbaijan does not have an accreditation to Venezuela.
* Venezuela has an embassy in Baku.
|}
Asia
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
!width="15%"| Country
!width="12%"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Armenia}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->1918–1921
Armenia and Azerbaijan do not have formal relations since that time
|See Armenia–Azerbaijan relations, First Nagorno-Karabakh War, Second Nagorno-Karabakh war
The neighboring nations of Armenia and Azerbaijan have had formal governmental relations between 1918 and 1921, when both countries were briefly independent. The two nations have fought three wars in the 1918–20 (Armenian–Azerbaijani War), the 1988–94 (Nagorno-Karabakh War), and the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war, with the last two ending in ceasefire agreements - the Bishkek Protocol and the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement respectively. There are no formal diplomatic relations between the two countries, because of the ongoing Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and dispute. In 2008, Azerbaijani president Ilham Aliyev declared, "Nagorno Karabakh will never be independent; the position is backed by international mediators as well; Armenia has to accept the reality," and "in 1918, Yerevan was granted to the Armenians. It was a great mistake. The khanate of Iravan was the Azerbaijani territory, the Armenians were guests here."<ref>[http://www.regnum.ru/english/943595.html Azerbaijani president: Armenians are guests in Yerevan] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090612043901/http://www.regnum.ru/english/943595.html |date12 June 2009 }}, REGNUM News Agency, 17 January 2008</ref>
During the Soviet period, many Armenians and Azerbaijanis lived side by side in peace. However, when Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the policies of Glasnost and Perestroika, the majority of Armenians from the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) of the Azerbaijan SSR began a movement to unify with the Armenian SSR. In 1988, the Armenians of Karabakh voted to secede and join Armenia. This, along with mutual massacres in Azerbaijan and Armenia resulted in the conflict that became known as the Nagorno-Karabakh War. The violence resulted in de facto Armenian control of former NKAO and seven surrounding Azerbaijani regions, which was effectively halted when both sides agrees to observe a cease-fire, which has since been in effect since May 1994, and in late 1995 both also agreed to mediation of the OSCE Minsk Group. The Minsk Group is currently co-chaired by the U.S., France, and Russia and comprises Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, and several Western European nations. Despite the cease fire, up to 40 clashes are reported along the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict lines of control each year.{{Citation needed|date=April 2010}}
The two countries are still technically at war. Citizens of the Republic of Armenia, as well as citizens of any other country who are of Armenian descent, are forbidden entry to the Republic of Azerbaijan.
If a person's passport shows any evidence of travel to Nagorno-Karabakh, they are forbidden entry to the Republic of Azerbaijan.<ref>[http://www.ncsj.org/Azerbaijan.shtml Azerbaijan Country Page] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090308021931/http://www.ncsj.org/Azerbaijan.shtml |date8 March 2009 }}. NCSJ: Advocates on Behalf of Jews in Russia, Ukraine, the Baltic States & Eurasia. Accessed 23 May 2010.</ref>
In 2008, in what became known as the 2008 Mardakert Skirmishes, Armenia and Azerbaijan clashed over Nagorno-Karabakh. The fighting between the two sides was brief, with few casualties on either side.<ref name"regnum.ru">{{cite news|urlhttp://www.regnum.ru/english/943595.html |titleAzerbaijani president: Armenians are guests in Yerevan |agencyREGNUM News Agency |date17 January 2008 |access-date21 April 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090612043901/http://www.regnum.ru/english/943595.html |archive-date=12 June 2009 }}</ref>
As of July 2020, the new round of military escalation along the border between Armenia and Azerbaijan continued, thus making it one of the most explosive regions in Eurasia.<ref>[https://valdaiclub.com/a/highlights/just-another-incident-or-a-breakdown-of-the-status/ Expert Opinion: Neither Peace Nor War: Why Clashes on the Armenia-Azerbaijan Border Didn't Change the Status Quo], Valdai Club, 21 August 2020</ref>
On 27 September 2020, a new military conflict emerged between Azerbaijan and Armenia.<ref>[https://www.euronews.com/2020/09/27/azerbaijan-armenia-trade-blows-over-nagorno-karabakh New flare up of violence breaks out between Azerbaijan and Armenia], Euronews, 28 September 2020</ref> The following day, on 28 September 2020, Azerbaijan's President Ilham Aliyev signed a decree declaring a partial military mobilisation following clashes with Armenian forces over the Nagorno-Karabakh region.<ref>[https://in.reuters.com/article/armenia-azerbaijan/azerbaijan-declares-partial-military-mobilisation-presidents-decree-idINL8N2GP17O Azerbaijan declares partial military mobilisation – president's decree] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201002173346/https://in.reuters.com/article/armenia-azerbaijan/azerbaijan-declares-partial-military-mobilisation-presidents-decree-idINL8N2GP17O |date2 October 2020 }}, Reuters, 28 September 2020</ref> An armistice agreement between the two countries was signed on 10 November 2020, returning control of the territories surrounding Nagorno-Karabakh to Azerbaijan.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Bangladesh}}||style"text-align:center" | 30 December 1991<ref>{{Cite web|titleBanqladeş|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/335/banqlades|access-date2021-01-20|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date15 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115134703/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/335/banqlades|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Bangladesh relations
* On 30 December 1991, Bangladesh recognized the independence of Azerbaijan.
* Diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on 26 February 1992.
* Azerbaijan is accredited to Bangladesh from its embassy in New Delhi, India.
* Bangladesh has a consulate in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|China}}||style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started--> {{dts|2 April 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–China relations
* The PRC recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 27 December 1992.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Beijing.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azerbembassy.org.cn/|titleEmbassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan to the People's Republic of China|access-date20 February 2015|archive-date4 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150204060937/http://www.azerbembassy.org.cn/|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* The People's Republic of China has an embassy in Baku.
* [http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/dozys/gjlb/3135/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the PRC: Relations with Azerbaijan]
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|India}}||style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|28 February 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan-India relations
* India recognized the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan on 26 December 1991.
* Diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on 28 February 1992.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in New Delhi.
* India has an embassy in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Indonesia}}||style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|24 September 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan-Indonesia relations
* On 28 September 1991, the Republic of Indonesia recognized the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
* On 24 September 1992, diplomatic relations were established between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Indonesia.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Jakarta.
* Indonesia has an embassy in Baku.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Iran}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|1918}},<br> {{dts|12 March 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Iran relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Tehran. and a consulate general in Tabriz.
* Iran has an embassy in Baku. and a consulate general in Nakhchivan.
* Both countries are full members of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).
* Iran recognized Azerbaijan on 4 January 1992, upgraded its consulate in Baku to establish full diplomatic relations.<ref name"nichol150">James P. Nichol. Diplomacy in the Former Soviet Republics, Praeger/Greenwood, 1995, {{ISBN|0-275-95192-8}}, p. 150</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleCountry Studies/Azerbaijan/The Foreign Policy Establishment |websitecountrystudies.us |urlhttp://countrystudies.us/azerbaijan/36.htm |access-date=18 January 2008}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Iraq}}|| style="text-align:center" | 2 January 1992<!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
||See Azerbaijan–Iraq relations
* On 2 January 1992, Iraq recognized the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan.
* On 30 March 1992, diplomatic relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Republic of Iraq were established.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Baghdad.
* Iraq has an embassy in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Israel}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started--> {{dts|7 April 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Israel relations
* Azerbaijan is one of the few majority Muslim countries to develop bilateral strategic and economic relations with Israel.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.caucaz.com/home_eng/depeches.php?idp1141&PHPSESSIDcf432b6e421297d3e359d081f2bd5899|titlecaucaz.com|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
* Israel was one of the first countries to recognize Azerbaijan on 25 December 1991.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://baku.mfa.gov.il/mfm/Data/113213.pdf|title15th anniversary of Israel-Azerbaijan diplomatic relations|access-date2008-03-21|lastLenk|firstArthur |dateApril 7, 2007|publisherMinistry of Foreign Affairs of Israel|archive-dateJuly 21, 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721141347/http://baku.mfa.gov.il/mfm/Data/113213.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Japan}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|7 September 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Japan relations
* Japan recognized Azerbaijan on 28 December 1991.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Tokyo since 12 October 2005.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azembassy.jp/English/inside/az_jp/index.htm|titleWelcome to Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan in Japan!|access-date20 February 2015|archive-date23 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150723051527/http://www.azembassy.jp/English/inside/az_jp/index.htm|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Japan has an embassy in Baku since 21 January 2000.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.az.emb-japan.go.jp/home.htm|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090615174407/http://www.az.emb-japan.go.jp/home.htm|url-statusdead|titleEmbassy of Japan in Azerbaijan|archive-date=15 June 2009}}</ref>
* Azerbaijan is a full member of the Council of Europe (CoE) and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), Japan is an observer member of the CoE and a partner for co-operation of the OSCE.
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|{{Flagu|Jordan}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|13 February 1993}}<ref>[http://amman.mfa.gov.az/content/3 AZERBAIJAN – JORDAN RELATIONS] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180317164734/http://amman.mfa.gov.az/content/3 |date17 March 2018 }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.azernews.az/business/113728.html|titleAzerbaijan, Jordan keen on strengthening economic, trade ties|date2017-05-24|websiteAzerNews.az|languageen|access-date=2019-08-30}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Jordan relations
* On 28 December 1991, Jordan recognized the independence of Azerbaijan.
* On 13 February 1993, a protocol on establishing diplomatic relations between the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan was signed.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Amman.
* Jordan has an embassy in Baku.
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|{{Flagu|Kazakhstan}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|27 August 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Kazakhstan relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Astana.
* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Baku since 16 December 1994.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Kyrgyzstan}}||style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|19 January 1993}}
|See Azerbaijan-Kyrgyzstan relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Bishkek.
* Kyrgyzstan has an embassy in Baku.
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|{{Flagu|Laos}}||style="text-align:center" | 22 May 1995<!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Laos relations
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|{{Flagu|Lebanon}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|18 September 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://beirut.mfa.gov.az/content/3|titleİKİTƏRƏFLİ MÜNASİBƏTLƏR|websitebeirut.mfa.gov.az|access-date16 March 2018|archive-date16 March 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180316214537/http://beirut.mfa.gov.az/content/3|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Lebanon relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Beirut.
* Lebanon is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Tehran, Iran.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Malaysia}}||style="text-align:center" | 31 December 1991<!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Malaysia relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Kuala Lumpur, and Malaysia has an embassy in Baku<ref>{{Cite web|lastMinistry of Foreign Affairs|firstMalaysia|titleEmbassy of Malaysia, Baku|urlhttps://www.kln.gov.my/web/aze_baku/home}}</ref>
* Malaysia recognizes the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan on 31 December 1991 and on 5 April 1993 diplomatic relations were established.
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|{{Flagu|Qatar}}|| style="text-align:center" | 14 September 1994<!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
||See Azerbaijan–Qatar relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Doha.
* Qatar has an embassy in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Pakistan}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|9 June 1992}}||See Azerbaijan–Pakistan relations
* Pakistan was the second country to recognize Azerbaijan after Turkey following the dissolution of the USSR.
* Pakistan is among the first countries to open an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://pakistan.visahq.com/embassy/Azerbaijan/|titleEmbassy of Pakistan in Azerbaijan|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Islamabad.<ref>[http://www.azembassy.com.pk/en/index.php Embassy of Azerbaijan in Pakistan] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090508121906/http://www.azembassy.com.pk/en/index.php |date8 May 2009 }}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC).
* Due to its support of Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Pakistan does not recognize Armenia as a state.<ref>Harut Sassounian. [https://armenianweekly.com/2016/11/29/armenia-pakistan/ Armenia Finally Counters Pakistan's Anti-Armenian Policies]. The Armenian Weekly. 29 November 2016</ref>
* Azerbaijan has also expressed its support for Pakistan's stand on Kashmir.<ref>[http://www.pml.org.pk/details.aspx?id617211e6-d6eb-4fbd-bacd-0009516c19fa&cha1&cat1&subcat1] {{dead link|dateAugust 2016|botmedic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
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|{{Flagu|Palestine}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|15 April 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Palestine relations
*Palestine has an embassy in Baku since 2011.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Philippines}}|| style"text-align:center" | 27 March 1992<ref>{{Cite web|titleFilippin|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/165/filippin|access-date2021-01-20|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date19 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210119150937/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/165/filippin|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
||See Azerbaijan–Philippines relations
* Azerbaijan has a consulate in Manila.
* Philippines is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Ankara.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Saudi Arabia}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|24 February 1992}}<ref>[https://www.azernews.az/nation/126730.html Azerbaijan, Saudi Arabia discuss prospects of military cooperation]. Azernews. 7 February 2018</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Saudi Arabia relations
*Azerbaijan has an embassy in Riyadh since 1994.
*Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Baku since 1999.
*Due to its support of Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Saudi Arabia refuses to establish diplomatic relations with Armenia.<ref>Lusine Musayelian. [https://www.azatutyun.am/a/28915717.html Armenia No Friend To Muslim States, Says Aliyev]. Azatutyun. 13 December 2017.</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|South Korea}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|23 March 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–South Korea relations
*Azerbaijani embassy in Seoul.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://seoul.mfa.gov.az/az|titleAzərbaycan Respublikasının Koreya Respublikasındakı səfirliyi|website=seoul.mfa.gov.az}}</ref>
*South Korean embassy in Baku.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://overseas.mofa.go.kr/az-ko/index.do|title주 아제르바이잔공화국 대한민국 대사관|websiteoverseas.mofa.go.kr|languageko}}</ref>
* Bilateral Trade agreement was signed in 2014
** Exports US$269.5 million.
** Imports US$0.54 million.
|-- valign="top"
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Syrian revolution.svg}} Syria|| style"text-align:center" |<!--Date Started-->{{dts|28 March 1992}}<ref>[http://eurasiadiary.com/ru/news/library/15224-28] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180316214812/http://eurasiadiary.com/ru/news/library/15224-28|date=16 March 2018}}. Eurasia Diary. 28 March 2016</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Syria relations
Syria is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Tehran, Iran.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Thailand}}||style"text-align:center" | 7 July 1992<ref>{{Cite web|titleThailand|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/content/157/thailand|access-date2021-06-24|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date24 June 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210624205349/https://mfa.gov.az/en/content/157/thailand|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Thailand relations
* Azerbaijan is accredited to Thailand from its embassy in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
* Thailand has a consulate in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Turkey}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->14 Jan. 1992<ref name"Ministry of Foreign Affairs">{{Cite web | urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.tr/relations-between-turkey-and-azerbaijan.en.mfa| titleRelations between Turkey and Azerbaijan|publisherMinistry of Foreign Affairs |access-date2020-10-06}}</ref>||See Azerbaijan–Turkey relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Ankara and Consulates General in Istanbul and Kars and Consular Mission in Iğdır.<ref name="Ministry of Foreign Affairs"/>
* Turkey has an embassy in Baku and Consulates General in Nakhchivan and Ganja.<ref name="Ministry of Foreign Affairs"/>
*Both countries are members of&nbsp;Asia Cooperation Dialogue, Council of Europe, Economic Cooperation Organization, International Organization of Turkic Culture, OIC, TAKM, Organization of Turkic States, TURKPA, Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation and OSCE.
*Trade volume between the two countries was US$4.18 billion in 2019 (Azerbaijani exports/imports: 2.55/1.63 billion USD.<ref>{{Cite web | urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.tr/economic-relations-between-turkey-and-azerbaijan.en.mfa |titleEconomic Relations between Turkey and Azerbaijan|publisherMinistry of Foreign Affairs |access-date2020-10-06}}</ref>
*Azerbaijan-Turkey relations have been described as "one nation with two states" due to a common culture and the mutual intelligibility of Turkish and Azerbaijani.
*Turkey became the first state to recognize the Republic of Azerbaijan in November 1991.<ref name="Ministry of Foreign Affairs"/>
*Yunus Emre Institute has a local headquarters in Baku.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Turkmenistan}}||style"text-align:center" | 9 June 1992<ref>{{Cite web|titleTürkmənistan|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/362/turkmenistan|access-date2021-01-20|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date15 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115143534/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/362/turkmenistan|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Turkmenistan relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Ashgabat.
* Turkmenistan has an embassy in Baku.
* The Azerbaijan-Turkmenistan inter-parliamentary friendship group functions in the Milli Majlis (Parliament) of the Republic of Azerbaijan and the Turkmenistan-Azerbaijan inter-parliamentary friendship group works in the Majlis of Turkmenistan.<ref>{{Cite web|titleTurkmenistan|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/content/362/turkmenistan|access-date2021-01-28|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date2 February 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210202013629/https://mfa.gov.az/en/content/362/turkmenistan|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Uzbekistan}}||style"text-align:center" | 2 October 1995<ref>{{Cite web|titleÖzbəkistan|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/372/ozbekistan|access-date2021-01-20|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date19 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210119151118/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/372/ozbekistan|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Uzbekistan relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Tashkent.
* Uzbekistan has an embassy in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Vietnam}}|| style"text-align:center" | 23 September 1992<ref>{{Cite web|titleVyetnam|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/159/vyetnam|access-date2021-01-20|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date15 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115140245/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/159/vyetnam|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
||See Azerbaijan–Vietnam relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Hanoi.
* Vietnam is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Moscow.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Yemen}}||style"text-align:center" | 25 February 1992<ref>{{Cite web|titleYemen|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/content/292/yemen|access-date2021-06-24|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date24 June 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210624203033/https://mfa.gov.az/en/content/292/yemen|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Yemen relations
* Yemen is accredited to Azerbaijan via its embassy in Ankara.
|}
Europe
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
!width="15%"| Country
!width="12%"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Albania}}||style"text-align:center"|<!--Date Started-->{{dts|23 September 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan_-_Albania_relations_08.09.2014.pdf |titleArchived copy |access-date5 March 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170305194123/http://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan_-_Albania_relations_08.09.2014.pdf |archive-date5 March 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> ||See Albania–Azerbaijan relations
* Both countries are members of Organisation of Islamic Cooperation and of Council of Europe.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Austria}}||style="text-align:center"|<!--Date Started-->{{dts|20 February 1992}}
|See Austria–Azerbaijan relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Vienna.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azembvienna.at/|titleAzemb Vienna|access-date20 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150201054316/http://www.azembvienna.at/|archive-date1 February 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Austria opened an embassy in Baku in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.bmeia.gv.at/botschaft/baku.html|titleAußenministerium Österreich – Botschaft – Baku|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Belarus}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|11 June 1993}}
| See Azerbaijan–Belarus relations
* Before 1918, they were part of the Russian Empire and before 1991, they were part of the Soviet Union.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Minsk.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://azerbaijan.visahq.com/embassy/Belarus/|titleEmbassy of Azerbaijan in Belarus|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
* Belarus has an embassy in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS).
* Also Azerbaijan is a full member of the Council of Europe, Belarus is a candidate.
* Belarus is a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), Azerbaijan is an observer member.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Belgium}}||style="text-align:center"|<!--Date Started-->{{dts|17 June 1992}}
| See Azerbaijan–Belgium relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Brussels.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azembassy.be/|titleAZEMBASSY BELGIUM|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
* Belgium has an embassy in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}||style"text-align:center"|19 February 1995<ref>{{Cite web|titleBosniya və Herseqovina|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/183/bosniya-ve-herseqovina|access-date2021-01-20|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date19 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210119152801/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/183/bosniya-ve-herseqovina|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
| See Azerbaijan–Bosnia and Herzegovina relations
* Bosnia and Herzegovina recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 9 February 1995. Diplomatic relations were established between the two countries on the same day.<ref>{{Cite web|titleBosnia and Herzegovina|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/content/183/bosnia-and-herzegovina|access-date2021-01-28|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date7 February 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210207115745/https://mfa.gov.az/en/content/183/bosnia-and-herzegovina|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
* Bosnia and Herzegovina is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Ankara.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Bulgaria}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started--> {{dts|5 June 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan—Bulgaria relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Sofia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azerembsof.com/|title専業主婦の借り入れ｜すぐ審査の通る今日中に|access-date20 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150220213712/http://www.azerembsof.com/|archive-date20 February 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Bulgaria has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://bulgaria.visahq.com/embassy/Azerbaijan/|titleEmbassy of Bulgaria in Azerbaijan|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).
* Bulgaria recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 14 January 1992.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Croatia}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|26 January 1995}}
| See Azerbaijan–Croatia relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Zagreb<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.mvep.hr/MVP.asp?pcpid1160&dmid55/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130115060644/http://www.mvep.hr/MVP.asp?pcpid1160|url-statusdead|titleEmbassy of Azerbaijan in Croatia|archive-date15 January 2013}}</ref>
* Croatia is represented in Azerbaijan through a non-resident ambassador based in Baku (in the Foreign Ministry).
* Croatia is represented in Azerbaijan through its embassy in Ankara (Turkey).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100927005750/http://mfa.gov.az/eng/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id309&Itemid68 Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Croatia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110719031743/http://www.mvpei.hr/CustomPages/Static/HRV//templates/_frt_bilateralni_odnosi_po_drzavama_en.asp?id=55 Croatian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration: list of bilateral treaties with Azerbaijan]
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
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|{{Flagu|Cyprus}}||<!--Date Started-->
|Azerbaijan formally recognizes the government of the Republic of Cyprus as the sole representative of the island, but has not yet established diplomatic relations with Cyprus. The parliament of Azerbaijan's Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic issued a resolution recognizing the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus as a sovereign state. While this recognition is not regarded by Azerbaijan and internationally as 'official state-to-state', Azerbaijan itself maintained cordial unofficial relations with the TRNC. In 2004, Azerbaijan threatened to formally recognize the TRNC if the Annan Plan was voted down by the Greek Cypriots (who rejected the plan in one of twin referendums held 24 April 2004 in both the Greek and Turkish zones simultaneously), but backed off the threat when it was pointed out by Cyprus that doing so would be hypocritical, as a portion of its territory just like that of Cyprus itself is under occupation and would probably result in negative impact on its ongoing dispute with Armenia over Nagorno-Karabakh.<ref>[http://www.turkishpolicy.com/images/stories/2005-04-neighbors/TPQ2005-4-ismailzade.pdf Turkey and Azerbaijan: The Honeymoon is Over] by Fariz Ismailzade. Turkishpolicy.com</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Czech Republic}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started--> {{dts|29 January 1993}}
|See Azerbaijan–Czech Republic relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Prague, opened on 15 August 2007.<ref>[http://www.azembassyprague.az/ Embassy of Azerbaijan in the Czech Republic] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090605235356/http://www.azembassyprague.az/ |date5 June 2009 }}</ref>
* The Czech Republic has an embassy in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
* The Czech Republic recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 8 January 1992.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Denmark}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|2 April 1992}}<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://mfa.gov.az/eng/downloads/bilaterial/Denmark.pdf |titleBilateral relations between Azerbaijan and Denmark |publisherMinistry of Foreign Affairs of Azerbaijan |access-date11 December 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706130747/http://mfa.gov.az/eng/downloads/bilaterial/Denmark.pdf |archive-date6 July 2011 }}</ref>
||See Azerbaijan-Denmark relations
* The Kingdom of Denmark recognized the independence of the Republic of Azerbaijan on 31 December 1991.
* Diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on 2 April 1992.<ref>{{Cite web|titleDenmark|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/content/224/denmark|access-date2021-01-28|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date2 February 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210202012152/https://mfa.gov.az/en/content/224/denmark|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Denmark has a consulate in Baku.
* Azerbaijan is accredited to Denmark from its embassy in London.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Estonia}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|20 April 1992}}
| See Azerbaijan-Estonia relations
* Estonia recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 20 February 1992.
* Diplomatic relations between Azerbaijan and Estonia have been established since 20 April 1992.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Tallinn.
* Estonia has an embassy in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Finland}}||style="text-align:center"|<!--Date Started-->{{dts|24 March 1992}}
|
* The Republic of Finland recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 30 December 1991.<ref name":0">{{Cite web|titleFinland|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/content/194/finland|access-date2021-01-28|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date7 February 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210207064526/https://mfa.gov.az/en/content/194/finland|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on 24 March 1992.<ref name=":0" />
* Azerbaijan is accredited to Finland from its embassy in Stockholm.
* Finland has a consulate in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|France}}||style="text-align:center"|<!--Date Started-->{{dts|21 February 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan—France relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Paris.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://paris.mfa.gov.az/|titleAzerbaijani embassy in Paris|website=paris.mfa.gov.az}}</ref>
* France has an embassy in Baku.<ref>[http://www.ambafrance.az/ French embassy in Baku] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090216164940/http://ambafrance.az/ |date16 February 2009 }}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Georgia}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started--> {{dts|1918}},<br> {{dts|18 November 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Georgia relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Tbilisi. and a general consulate in Batumi.
* Georgia has an embassy in Baku. and a general consulate in Ganja.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Germany}}||<!--Date Started-->{{dts|20 February 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://berlin.mfa.gov.az/en/content/49|titleInformation on history of bilateral relations|websiteberlin.mfa.gov.az|access-date2018-01-26|archive-date28 December 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171228232159/http://berlin.mfa.gov.az/en/content/49|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Germany relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Berlin.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azembassy.de/|titleWillkommen auf der Startseite|access-date20 February 2015|archive-date28 February 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090228161304/http://azembassy.de/|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Germany has an embassy in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Greece}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|2 April 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Greece relations
* Greece recognized Azerbaijan's independence on 31 December 1991.
* The Greek embassy in Baku. was opened in the spring of 1993.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/en-US/Policy/Geographic+Regions/Russia+-+Eastern+Europe+-+Central+Asia/Bilateral+Relations/Azerbaijan/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060716055636/http://www.mfa.gr/www.mfa.gr/en-US/Policy/Geographic%2BRegions/Russia%2B-%2BEastern%2BEurope%2B-%2BCentral%2BAsia/Bilateral%2BRelations/Azerbaijan/|url-statusdead|titleGreek Ministry of Foreign Affairs about the relation with Azerbaijan|archive-date=16 July 2006}}</ref>
* The embassy of Azerbaijan in Athens. was opened in August 2004.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azembassy.gr/|titleEmbassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan to the Hellenic Republic – Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan|access-date20 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150220212730/http://www.azembassy.gr/|archive-date20 February 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).
* [http://www.mfa.gov.az/eng/foreign_policy/bilat.shtml#39 Azerbaijani Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Greece] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070504074309/http://www.mfa.gov.az/eng/foreign_policy/bilat.shtml#39 |date4 May 2007 }}
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Holy See}}||style="text-align:center"|23 May 1992<!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
| See Azerbaijan–Holy See relations
* Diplomatic relations with the Holy See were established on 23 May 1992.<ref name":1">{{Cite web|titleThe Holy See|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/content/241/the-holy-see|access-date2021-01-28|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date29 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210129124321/https://mfa.gov.az/en/content/241/the-holy-see|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Azerbaijan is accredited to the Holy See through its embassy in Paris, France.<ref name=":1" />
* The Holy See is accredited to Azerbaijan through its nunciature in Ankara, Turkey.<ref name=":1" />
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagicon|HUN}} Hungary|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|27 April 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Hungary relations
* Hungary recognized Azerbaijan's independence on 26 December 1991.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://azerbajdzsan.com/azerbaijan-hungary/ |titleAzerbaijan & Hungary |workAzerbaijan |access-date20 February 2015 |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150106021649/http://azerbajdzsan.com/azerbaijan-hungary/ |archive-date=6 January 2015 }}</ref>
* Azerbaijan has en embassy in Budapest. since September 2004.
* Hungary has an embassy in Baku. since 12 January 2009.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150106021554/http://mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan_-_Hungary_relations_26.09.2014.pdf Azerbaijani Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Hungary]
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|{{Flagu|Iceland}}||style"text-align:center" | 27 February 1998<ref name":2">{{Cite web |titleIceland |urlhttps://bilateralnavigator.com/Azerbaijan-Iceland |access-date2021-01-28 |websitemfa.gov.az}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
|See Azerbaijan–Iceland relations
* Iceland recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 19 January 1992.<ref name=":2" />
* Diplomatic relations were established between the two countries on 27 February 1998.<ref name=":2" />
* Iceland is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Moscow.
* Azerbaijan is accredited to Iceland from its embassy in London.
|--valign="top"
|{{flagicon|Ireland}} Ireland|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Start date-->{{dts|1 July 1996}}
|See Azerbaijan–Ireland relations
* Azerbaijan is represented in Ireland through its embassy in London (United Kingdom).<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.dfa.ie/uploads/documents/Protocol/diplomatic%20list%20november%202012.pdf | titleMissions and representations accredited to Ireland | publisherDepartment of Foreign Affairs | access-date27 January 2013 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130115221918/http://www.dfa.ie/uploads/documents/Protocol/diplomatic%20list%20november%202012.pdf | archive-date15 January 2013 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Ireland is represented in Azerbaijan through its embassy in Ankara (Turkey).
|- valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Italy}}||style="text-align:center"|<!--Date Started-->{{dts|8 May 1992}}
| See Azerbaijan–Italy relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Rome.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azembassy.it/index.php?langeng|titleAmbasciata della Repubblica dell'Azerbaigian|access-date20 February 2015|archive-date16 March 2013|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130316045840/http://www.azembassy.it/index.php?langeng|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Italy has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.ambbaku.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Baku| title Italian embassy in Azerbaijan| access-date 26 May 2009| archive-date 10 December 2008| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20081210191810/http://www.ambbaku.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Baku| url-status dead}}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Latvia}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|11 January 1994}}
|See Azerbaijan—Latvia relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Riga.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.azembassy.lv/index.php?langeng |titleAzerbaijani embassy in Riga |access-date21 June 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091010212003/http://www.azembassy.lv/index.php?langeng |archive-date10 October 2009 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
* Latvia has an embassy in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). Both countries were former republics of the Soviet Union.
* Azerbaijan recognized the independence of Latvia on 30 August 1991.
* Latvia recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 8 January 1992.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080621120713/http://www.am.gov.lv/en/policy/bilateral-relations/4542/Azerbaijan/ Latvian Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Azerbaijan ]
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Lithuania}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|27 November 1995}}
|See Azerbaijan—Lithuania relations
* Azerbaijan recognized the independence of Lithuania on 10 September 1991.
* Lithuania recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 20 December 1991.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Vilnius.
* Lithuania has an embassy in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
*[http://www.urm.lt/index.php?-1183769761 Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: Cooperation with Azerbaijan] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110930133845/http://www.urm.lt/index.php?-1183769761 |date30 September 2011 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120225202330/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id=99893 Foreign Minister of Lithuania to pay official visit to Azerbaijan]
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|{{Flagu|Moldova}}||style"text-align:center"|21 December 1991<ref>{{Cite web|titleMoldova|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/227/moldova|access-date2021-01-20|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date15 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115145117/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/227/moldova|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
| See Azerbaijan–Moldova relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Chișinău.
* Moldova has an embassy in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|-
|{{Flagu|Montenegro}}
|{{dts|24 April 2008}}
|See Azerbaijan–Montenegro relations
Azerbaijan recognized the independence of Montenegro on 24 July 2006. On 24 April 2008, diplomatic relations between these two countries were established.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Netherlands}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|1 April 1992}}
| See Azerbaijan–Netherlands relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in The Hague.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azembassy.nl/|titleEmbassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan to the Kingdom of the Netherlands|authorFlexible Solution|access-date20 February 2015|archive-date8 June 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230608145856/https://azembassy.nl/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The Netherlands has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://azerbeidzjan.nlambassade.org/|titleNederlandse Ambassade in Bakoe, Azerbeidzjan|access-date20 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131219112333/http://azerbeidzjan.nlambassade.org/|archive-date19 December 2013|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|North Macedonia}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|28 June 1995}}<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan_-_Macedonia_relations_17.09.2014.pdf |titleArchived copy |access-date26 February 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170227062347/http://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan_-_Macedonia_relations_17.09.2014.pdf |archive-date27 February 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| See Azerbaijan—North Macedonia relations
* North Macedonia has an economic office in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Poland}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|21 February 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan-Poland relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Warsaw.
* Poland has an embassy in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|-
|{{Flagu|Portugal}}
|5 June 1992<ref name":3">{{Cite web|titlePortugal|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/en/content/231/portugal|access-date2021-01-28|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date7 February 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210207023459/https://mfa.gov.az/en/content/231/portugal|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan–Portugal relations
* Portugal recognized the independence of Azerbaijan on 7 January 1992.<ref name=":3" />
* Diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on 5 June 1992.<ref name=":3" />
* Azerbaijan is accredited to Portugal from its embassy in Rabat, Morocco.
* Portugal is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Romania}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|21 June 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Romania relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Bucharest.
* Romania has an embassy in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Russia}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|4 April 1992}}
||See Azerbaijan–Russia relations
* Russia has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://embrus-az.com/biografiya.html|titleПосол Российской Федерации в Азербайджанской Республике » Посольство Российской Федерации в Азербайджанской Республике|access-date20 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150208205800/http://embrus-az.com/biografiya.html|archive-date8 February 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Moscow and consulate-general in Saint Petersburg. Azerbaijan also announced that it will open another consulate-general in Yekaterinburg.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Serbia}}||style="text-align:center"|<!--Date Started-->{{dts|21 August 1997}}
||See Azerbaijan–Serbia relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Belgrade.
* Serbia has an embassy in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Slovakia}}||style"text-align:center"|23 November 1993<ref>{{Cite web|titleSlovakiya|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/234/slovakiya|access-date2021-01-20|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date15 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210115135416/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/234/slovakiya|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
| See Azerbaijan–Slovakia relations
* Azerbaijan has a consulate in Bratislava.
* Slovakia has an embassy in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Slovenia}}||style"text-align:center"|20 February 1996<ref>{{Cite web|titleSloveniya|urlhttps://mfa.gov.az/az/content/236/sloveniya|access-date2021-01-20|websitemfa.gov.az|archive-date19 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210119140724/https://mfa.gov.az/az/content/236/sloveniya|url-statusdead}}</ref><!--Date Started-->{{dts|}}
| See Azerbaijan–Slovenia relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Ljubljana.
* Slovenia has a consulate in Baku.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Spain}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|11 February 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan%20-%20Spain.pdf|titleAzerbaijan – Spain relations|access-date15 July 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180716025448/http://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan%20-%20Spain.pdf|archive-date16 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|| See Azerbaijan–Spain relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Madrid.
* Spain has an embassy office in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Sweden}}||style="text-align:center"|<!--Date Started-->{{dts|8 May 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Sweden relations
* The embassy of Sweden in Baku opened in 2014.{{citation needed|date=December 2020}}
* Azerbaijan opened an embassy in Stockholm
* Currently, approximately 10 thousand Azerbaijanis live in Sweden, and in addition about 30 thousand Azerbaijanis from Iran.{{vague|date=January 2021}}
* In 2006, a diaspora organization called «Odlar yurdu» was established in Sweden.<ref>{{Cite web|lastMedia.Az|titleКак азербайджанцы-мигранты адаптируются в Швеции? Media.Az поговорила с Конгрессом азербайджанцев Швеции|urlhttps://media.az/society/1067722709/azerbaydzhancev-v-shvecii-privlekaet-vysokiy-uroven-zhizni/|access-date2020-12-17|websitemedia.az|languageru}}</ref>
* In 2010, the Congress of Swedish Azerbaijanis was established.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAzerbaijan-Sweden relations|urlhttps://minval.az/news/123681171|access-date17 December 2020|archive-date26 January 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190126035512/https://minval.az/news/123681171|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Sweden has an honorary in Baku.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Switzerland}}||style="text-align:center"|<!--Date Started-->{{dts|21 January 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan–Switzerland relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Bern.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azembassy.ch/|titleSwitzerland|access-date20 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160109174359/http://azembassy.ch/|archive-date9 January 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Switzerland has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/reps/eur/vaze/osebak.html| title Swiss embassy in Baku}}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE).
* Switzerland considers Azerbaijan an important country for economic development cooperation.<ref>State Secretariat for Economic Affairs SECO, Economic Cooperation and Development [http://www.seco-cooperation.admin.ch/laender/00627/index.html?langen Azerbaijan] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070717020727/http://www.seco-cooperation.admin.ch/laender/00627/index.html?langen |date17 July 2007 }}</ref>
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Ukraine}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|1919}},<br> {{dts|6 February 1992}}
| See Azerbaijan–Ukraine relations
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Kyiv.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://azerbaijan.visahq.com/embassy/Ukraine/|titleEmbassy of Azerbaijan in Ukraine|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
* Ukraine has an embassy in Baku.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://ukraine.visahq.com/embassy/Azerbaijan/|titleEmbassy of Ukraine in Azerbaijan|access-date=20 February 2015}}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), the Organization for Democracy and Economic Development (GUAM) and the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC).
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|United Kingdom}}|| style="text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|1918}},<br> {{dts|11 March 1992}}
|See Azerbaijan – United Kingdom relations
Azerbaijan established diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom on 11 March 1992.
*Azerbaijan maintains an embassy in London.
* The United Kingdom is accredited to Azerbaijan through its embassy in Baku.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-embassy-baku|titleBritish Embassy Baku|access-date17 January 2025|websiteGOV.UK|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250115090632/https://www.gov.uk/world/organisations/british-embassy-baku|archive-date15 January 2025|url-status=live}}</ref>
Both countries share common membership of the Council of Europe, European Court of Human Rights, and the OSCE. Bilaterally the two countries have a Double Taxation Agreement,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://orbitax.com/taxhub/taxtreaties/GB/United%20Kingdom/AZ/Azerbaijan/6566e3f4-c4ed-4aea-a2a4-4325b550bc73/-Capital-Gains_ARTICLE-13|titleUnited Kingdom - Azerbaijan Tax Treaty (1994)|websiteOrbitax|access-date17 January 2025|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250117005210/https://orbitax.com/taxhub/taxtreaties/GB/United%20Kingdom/AZ/Azerbaijan/6566e3f4-c4ed-4aea-a2a4-4325b550bc73/-Capital-Gains_ARTICLE-13|archive-date17 January 2025|url-statuslive}}</ref> and an Investment Agreement.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements/treaties/bit/331/azerbaijan---united-kingdom-bit-1996-|titleAzerbaijan - United Kingdom BIT (1996)|websiteUN Trade and Development|access-date17 January 2025|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210501224215/https://investmentpolicy.unctad.org/international-investment-agreements/treaties/bit/331/azerbaijan---united-kingdom-bit-1996-|archive-date1 May 2021|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|}
Oceania
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
!width="15%"| Country
!width="12%"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|Australia}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|19 June 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan_-_Australia_relation_13.08.2014.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180716025322/http://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan_-_Australia_relation_13.08.2014.pdf|url-statusdead|archive-date2018-07-16|titleAzerbaijan – Australia Relations}}</ref>
|See Australia–Azerbaijan relations
* Australia is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Ankara, Turkey.
* Azerbaijan has an embassy in Canberra.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flagu|New Zealand}}|| style"text-align:center" | <!--Date Started-->{{dts|29 June 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan_-_New_Zealand_relations_13.08.2014.pdf|titleAzerbaijan – New Zealand Relations|access-date15 July 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612232530/http://www.mfa.gov.az/files/file/Azerbaijan_-_New_Zealand_relations_13.08.2014.pdf|archive-date12 June 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|See Azerbaijan—New Zealand relations
* Azerbaijan is accredited to New Zealand from its embassy in Canberra, Australia.
* New Zealand is accredited to Azerbaijan from its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
|}
International organizations
* AsDB
* BSEC
* CE
* CIS
* DAC (participant)
* EAPC
* EBRD
* ECE
* ECO
* ESCAP
* FAO
* GUAM
* IAEA
* IBRD
* ICAO
* ICRM
* IDA
* IDB
* IFAD
* IFC
* IFRCS
* ILO
* IMF
* IMO
* Interpol
* IOC, IOM
* ISO (correspondent)
* ITU
* ITUC
* OAS (observer)
* OIC
* OPCW
* OSCE
* PFP (NATO)
* UN
* UNCTAD
* UNESCO
* UNIDO
* UPU
* WCO
* WFTU
* WHO
* WIPO
* WMO
* WToO
* WTO (observer)
Other entities
* Sovereign Military Order of Malta – there are no relations
* States with limited recognition
Disputes
Nagorno-Karabakh/Azerbaijan
{{see also|Nagorno-Karabakh conflict}}
The frozen conflict over currently largely Armenian-populated region of Nagorno-Karabakh within the Republic of Azerbaijan began when in 1988 the Armenian majority of Nagorno-Karabakh demanded autonomy with demonstrations and persecutions against ethnic Azeris following in Armenia. This led to anti-Armenian rioting in Azerbaijan, with Azerbaijani militias beginning their effort to expel Armenians from the enclave. In 1992, a war broke out and pogroms of Armenians and Azeris forced both groups to flee their homes. In 1994, a Russian-brokered ceasefire ended the war but more than 1 million ethnic Armenians and Azeris are still not able to return. In 2023, an Azerbaijani offensive into Nagorno-Karabakh ended the conflict, with the self-proclaimed Republic of Artsakh conceding sovereignty to the government of Azerbaijan on January 1, 2024.
Caviar diplomacy
{{main|Caviar diplomacy}}
The European Stability Initiative (ESI) has revealed in a report from 2012 with the title "Caviar diplomacy: How Azerbaijan silenced the Council of Europe", that since Azerbaijan's entry into the Council of Europe, each year 30 to 40 deputies are invited to Azerbaijan and generously paid with expensive gifts, including caviar (worth up to 1,400 euro), silk carpets, gold, silver and large amounts of money.<ref>[http://www.tagesspiegel.de/politik/aserbaidschan-die-kaviar-diplomatie/7280930.html Aserbaidschan: Die Kaviar-Diplomatie] (German). Der Tagesspiegel. Retrieved 3 August 2013</ref><ref>{{Cite report|urlhttp://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_document_id_131.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_document_id_131.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleESI Caviar Diplomacy: How Azerbaijan silenced the Council of Europe Part 1}}</ref> In return they become lobbyists for Azerbaijan. This practice has been widely referred to as "Caviar diplomacy".<ref nameeuobserver>[http://euobserver.com/opinion/118320 Europe's caviar diplomacy with Azerbaijan must end]. EUobserver. Retrieved 6 April 2014</ref>
ESI also published a report on 2013 Presidential elections in Azerbaijan titled "Disgraced: Azerbaijan and the end of election monitoring as we know it". The report revealed the ties between Azerbaijani government and the members of certain observation missions who praised the elections.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_document_id_145.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.esiweb.org/pdf/esi_document_id_145.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|title"Disgraced. Azerbaijan and the end of election monitoring as we know it." 5 November 2013, Berlin}}</ref> Azerbaijan's "Caviar diplomacy" at 2013 presidential elections sparked a major international scandal, as the reports of two authoritative organizations Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe/European Parliament and OSCE/ODIHR completely contradicted one another in their assessments of elections.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.rferl.org/content/shadowy-western-observers-election-azerbaijan-aliyev/25132176.html|titleWho Are The Shadowy Western Observers Weighing in on Azerbaijan's Election?|workRadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|date10 October 2013 |access-date20 February 2015 |last1Solash |first1Richard |last2Aliyev |first2Kenan }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Regions-and-countries/Azerbaijan/Europe-Azerbaijan-and-caviar-144030|titleEurope, Azerbaijan, and caviar|authorOsservatorio Balcani e Caucaso|workOsservatorio Balcani e Caucaso|access-date20 February 2015}}</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24573024 European MPs' praise for Azerbaijan election sparks row] BBC News, 17 October 2013</ref><ref nameguardian>[https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/nov/24/azerbaijan-caviar-diplomacy-for-mps ''Plush hotels and caviar diplomacy: how Azerbaijan's elite wooed MPs''] The Guardian 24 November 2013</ref>
Non-governmental anti-corruption organization Transparency International has regularly judged Azerbaijan to be one of the most corrupt countries in the world<ref nameguardian/><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.transparency.org/country#AZE|titleTransparency International – Country Profiles|authorTransparency International e.V.|access-date20 February 2015|archive-date12 May 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200512190640/https://www.transparency.org/country#AZE|url-statusdead}}</ref> and has also criticized Azerbaijan for the "Caviar diplomacy".<ref nameeuobserver/><ref>[http://www.demdigest.net/blog/2012/05/how-bakus-caviar-diplomacy-neutered-europes-rights-standards/ How Baku's 'caviar diplomacy' neutered Europe's rights standards] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131205041127/http://www.demdigest.net/blog/2012/05/how-bakus-caviar-diplomacy-neutered-europes-rights-standards/ |date=5 December 2013 }}. Democracy Digest. Retrieved 4 August 2013</ref>
At June 2016 the public prosecutor of Milan has accused the former leader of the (Christian) Union of the center and of the European People's Party of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe Luca Volonte of accepting large bribes from representatives of the Azerbaijani government.<ref>[http://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2016/06/25/corruzione-tangente-da-due-milioni-dallazerbaijan-indagato-a-milano-ex-udc-volonte/2859414/ Corruzione, "tangente da due milioni dall'Azerbaijan": indagato a Milano ex Udc Volontè] // Corriere della Sera, 25 June 2016</ref> Two people with high-level experience of the Council of Europe's parliamentary assembly (Pace) have told the Guardian they believe its members have been offered bribes for votes by Azerbaijan. Former Azerbaijani diplomat, Arif Mammadov, alleged that a member of Azerbaijan's delegation at the Council of Europe had €30m (£25m) to spend on lobbying its institutions, including the Council of Europe assembly.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/law/2017/apr/20/council-of-europe-urged-to-investigate-azerbaijan-bribery-allegations Fresh claims of Azerbaijan vote-rigging at European human rights body] // The Guardian. 20 April 2017</ref> PACE ratified the terms of reference of an independent external investigation body to carry out a detailed independent inquiry into the allegations of corruption at the council involving Azerbaijan.<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40092451 Corruption inquiry at Council of Europe over Azerbaijan] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211114001110/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-40092451 |date14 November 2021 }} // BBC, 30 May 2017</ref>
ESISC report
{{main|European strategic intelligence and security center}}
On 6 March 2017, ESISC (European Strategic Intelligence and Security Center) published a scandalous report called "The Armenian Connection" where it veraciously attacked human rights NGOs and research organisations criticising human rights violations and corruption in Azerbaijan, Turkey, and Russia.<ref name="FFAC">[https://civicsolidarity.org/sites/default/files/az_lobbying_corruption_report_10_march_2017_public_version_color_1.pdf AN EXPLORATION INTO AZERBAIJAN'S SOPHISTICATED SYSTEM OF PROJECTING ITS INTERNATIONAL INFLUENCE, BUYING WESTERN POLITICIANS AND CAPTURING INTERGOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS] // Freedom Files Analytical Centre (Civic Solidarity Platform), March 2017</ref>
ESISC in that report asserted that "Caviar diplomacy" report elaborated by ESI aimed to create climate of suspicion based on slander to form a network of MPs that would engage in a political war against Azerbaijan.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.esisc.org/publications/analyses/11791|titleThe Armenian Connection: How a secret caucus of MPs and NGOs, since 2012, created a network within the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe to hide violations of international law|websiteesisc.org|access-date2017-04-26}}</ref> In the Second Chapter of the report called "The Armenian Connection: «Mr X», Nils Muižnieks, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights" that was published on 18 April 2017 ESISC asserted that the network composed of European PMs, Armenian officials and some NGOs: Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, "Human Rights House Foundation", "Open Dialog", European Stability Initiative, and Helsinki Committee for Human Rights, was financed by the Soros Foundation. According to ESISC the key figure of the network since 2012 has been Nils Muižnieks, Commissioner for Human Rights of the Council of Europe and the network has served to the interests of George Soros and the Republic of Armenia.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.esisc.org/publications/analyses/the-armenian-connection-chapter-2--mr-x--nils-muinieks-council-of-europe-commissioner-for-human-rights|titleThe Armenian Connection. Chapter 2: " Mr X ", Nils Muižnieks, Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights|websiteesisc.org|access-date2017-04-26}}</ref>
"The report is written in the worst traditions of authoritarian propaganda, makes absurd claims, and is clearly aimed at deflecting the wave of criticism against cover-up of unethical lobbying and corruption in PACE and demands for change in the Assembly", said Freedom Files Analytical Centre.<ref name="FFAC" />
According Robert Coalson (Radio Free Europe), ESISC is a part of Baku's lobbying efforts to extend to the use of front think tanks to shift public opinion.<ref>[https://www.rferl.org/a/azerbaijan-baku-caviar-oil/25162410.html Baku Smooths Over Its Rights Record With A Thick Layer Of Caviar] // Radio Free Europe, 8 November 2013</ref>
European Stability Initiative said that "ESISC report is full of lies (such as claiming that German PACE member Strasser holds pro-Armenian views and citing as evidence that he went to Yerevan in 2015 to commemorate the Armenian genocide, when Strasser has never in his life been to independent Armenia)".<ref>[http://www.esiweb.org/index.php?langfr&id67&newsletter_ID114 Merchants of Doubt or investigating Corruption] // ESI, 21 April 2017</ref>See also
*Azerbaijan–European Union relations
*Azerbaijan–NATO relations
*Azerbaijan and the International Monetary Fund
*List of diplomatic missions in Azerbaijan
*List of diplomatic missions of Azerbaijan
*Visa requirements for Azerbaijani citizens
References
*CIA World Factbook 2000 and the 2003 U.S. Department of State website
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* Valiyev, Anar: "Azerbaijan and the North Caucasus: A Pragmatic Relationship" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest27.pdf Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 27]
* Hübner, Gerald: "Foreign Direct Investment in Azerbaijan—the Quality of Quantity" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest28.pdf Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 28]
* Abbasov, Shahin: "Azerbaijan's Eurovision Story: Great Chances to Improve, But No Political Will" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest32.pdf Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 32]
*Mazziotti, Marius; Sauerborn, Djan; Scianna, Bastian Matteo: "Multipolarity is key: Assessing Azerbaijan's foreign policy"[http://cesd.az/new/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Paper_Multipolarity_is-key_Assessing_Azerbaijans_Foreign_Policy.pdf]
External links
* [http://www.usembassybaku.org U.S. Embassy in Azerbaijan in Baku]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20031014153033/http://www.azembassy.com/ Embassy of the Republic of Azerbaijan in Washington]
* [http://www.today.az/news/politics/31315.html Tajikistan & Kyrgyzstan relations] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160314082454/http://today.az/news/politics/31315.html |date14 March 2016 }}
{{Foreign relations of Azerbaijan}}
{{Azerbaijan topics}}
{{Foreign relations of Asia}}
{{Foreign relations of Europe}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Azerbaijan | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.916267 |
1088 | Azerbaijani Armed Forces | {{Short description|Military forces of Azerbaijan}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox national military
| name = Azerbaijani Armed Forces
| native_name = {{lang|az|Azərbaycan Silahlı Qüvvələri}}
| image = Azerbaijani Armed Forces logo.svg
| image_size = 150px
| alt | caption Coat of arms of the Azerbaijan Armed Forces
| image2 | alt2
| caption2 | motto
| founded = 26 June 1918
| current_form = 9 October 1991{{sfn|Azerbaijan}}
| disbanded | branches {{army|Azerbaijan}}<br>{{navy|Azerbaijan}}<br>{{air force|Azerbaijan}}
| headquarters = Baku
| flying_hours = <!-- Leadership -->
| commander-in-chief = {{flagicon image|Flag of the President of Azerbaijan.svg}} President Ilham Aliyev
| commander-in-chief_title | chief minister
| chief minister_title | minister {{flagicon image|Azerbaijan MOD badge.svg}} Colonel General Zakir Hasanov
| minister_title = Defence Minister
| commander = {{flagicon image|Azerbaijan MOD badge.svg}} Colonel General Karim Valiyev
| commander_title = Chief of General Staff
<!-- Manpower -->| age = 18 years
| conscription 12–18 months for ground forces<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ebco-beoc.org/azerbaijan|titleAzerbaijan - European Bureau for Conscientious Objection|websitewww.ebco-beoc.org|access-date15 January 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150115213842/http://www.ebco-beoc.org/azerbaijan|archive-date15 January 2015|url-statuslive}}</ref>
| manpower_data | manpower_age 18–49
| available = 3,000,000
| available_f | fit
| fit_f | reaching
| reaching_f | active 128.000 <ref>{{cite book |lastIISS |titleThe Military Balance 2024|year2024 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0367466398 |page180}}</ref>
| ranked | reserve 306.000
| deployed 122<ref name"IISS 2019">{{cite book |titleThe Military Balance 2019 |year2019 |page=185}}</ref>
<!-- Financial -->| amount $5.0 billion (2025)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://armeniatoday.news/region-ru/489661/ | titleАзербайджан в текущем году планирует увеличить военные расходы | date18 June 2022 }}</ref>
| percent_GDP = 5.26%
<!-- Industrial -->| domestic_suppliers = Azerbaijan Defense Industry <br> State Border Service Naval Shipyard
| foreign_suppliers = see text
| imports | exports <!-- Related articles -->
| history = Military history of Azerbaijan<br>Azerbaijan Democratic Republic<br>Armenian–Azerbaijani War (1918–1920)<br>Battle of Baku (1918)<br>Azerbaijan during World War II<br>First Nagorno-Karabakh War<br>2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict<br>Second Nagorno-Karabakh War (Operation Iron Fist)
| ranks = Military ranks of Azerbaijan
| website = {{URL|https://mod.gov.az/en}}
}}
The Azerbaijani Armed Forces ({{langx|az|Azərbaycan Silahlı Qüvvələri}}) is the military of the Republic of Azerbaijan. It was re-established according to the country's Law of the Armed Forces on 9 October 1991.{{sfn|Azerbaijan}} The original Azerbaijan Democratic Republic's armed forces were dissolved after Azerbaijan was absorbed into the Soviet Union as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic from 28 April 1920. After the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991–92, Azerbaijan's armed forces were reformed based on Soviet bases and equipment left on Azerbaijani soil.
The armed forces have three branches: the Azerbaijani Land Forces, the Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force, and the Azerbaijani Navy.<ref name=JSSA-MT /> Associated forces include the Azerbaijani National Guard, the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, and the State Border Service, which can be involved in state defense under certain circumstances.
According to the Azerbaijani media sources, the military expenditures of Azerbaijan for 2009 were set at US$2.46&nbsp;billion,<ref>{{cite news |titleGov't allots over $2bn for 2009 defense spending |url http://www.azernews.az/site/shownews.php?news_id8601 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20110706130859/http://www.azernews.az/site/shownews.php?news_id8601 |url-status dead |archive-date6 July 2011 |publisher AzerNEWS |date12 November 2008 |access-date 12 November 2008}}</ref> however according to Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, only $1.473&nbsp;billion was spent that year.<ref name"SIPRI">Stockholm International Peace Research Institute [http://milexdata.sipri.org/ The SIPRI Military Expenditure Database] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110725213004/http://milexdata.sipri.org/ |date25 July 2011 }}</ref> IISS also suggests that the defence budget in 2009 was $1.5&nbsp;billion.<ref name"IISS 2015">{{cite book |titleThe Military Balance 2010 |year2010 |publisherRoutledge for the IISS |locationLondon|isbn978-1-85743-557-3 |page176}}</ref> The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan supervises the design, manufacturing, regulation and maintenance of military equipment. In the future, Azerbaijan hopes to start building tanks, armored vehicles, military planes and military helicopters.<ref name"unaz">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.un-az.org/undp/bulnews55/en3.php|titleAzerbaijan manufacturing arms|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120530024100/http://www.un-az.org/undp/bulnews55/en3.php|archive-date30 May 2012|date26 January 2008}}{{cbignore|botmedic}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.topix.com/world/azerbaijan/2008/09/azerbaijan-gearing-for-manufacturing-aircraft-and-helicopter|titleAzerbaijan to manufacture its own aircraft and helicopters|access-date25 September 2008|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090323215731/http://www.topix.com/world/azerbaijan/2008/09/azerbaijan-gearing-for-manufacturing-aircraft-and-helicopter|archive-date23 March 2009|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.today.az/news/business/47845.html|titleAzerbaijan will be unable to produce competitive military technology in the next five years|access-date26 September 2008|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090323051051/http://www.today.az/news/business/47845.html|archive-date23 March 2009|url-statuslive}} and {{cite web|urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/28011|titleAzerbaijan to produce tanks, aviation bombs and pilotless vehicles in 2009|access-date7 June 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100919004012/http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/28011|archive-date19 September 2010|url-statuslive}}</ref>OverviewSince the fall of the Soviet Union, Azerbaijan has been trying to further develop its armed forces into a professional, well trained, and mobile military. Azerbaijan has been undergoing extensive modernization and capacity expanding programs, with the military budget increasing from around $300&nbsp;million in 2005 to $2.46&nbsp;billion in 2009.<ref name"reuters.com">{{cite news | urlhttps://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL1597375 | workReuters | titleAzerbaijan announces 53 pct rise in army spending | date15 April 2008 | access-date30 June 2017 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090726120651/http://www.reuters.com/article/latestCrisis/idUSL1597375 | archive-date26 July 2009 | url-statuslive}}</ref> The total armed forces number 56,840 personnel in the land forces, 7,900 personnel in the air force and air defence force, and 2,200 personnel in the navy.<ref name"IISS 2015" /> There are also 19,500 personnel in the National Guard, State Border Service, and Internal Troops.<ref nameBlandy12>C. W. Blandy [http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/arag/document-listings/caucasus/08(17)CWB.pdf Azerbaijan: Is War Over Nagornyy Karabakh a Realistic Option? Advanced Research and Assessment Group. Caucasus Series 08/17. — Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, 2008, p.12] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110510000120/http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/arag/document-listings/caucasus/08(17)CWB.pdf |date10 May 2011 }}</ref> In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years.<ref nameIISS157>{{cite book |titleThe Military Balance 2007 |lastIISS |year2007 |publisherRoutledge for the IISS |locationLondon|isbn978-1-85743-437-8 |page157}}</ref> The military hardware of Azerbaijan consists of 220 main battle tanks, an additional 162 T-80 battle tanks were acquired between 2005 and 2010,<ref>{{cite web|authorApa.az |titleAzerbaijan is second big purchaser of tanks from Russia, Ukraine and Belarus in 2005–2010 |urlhttp://en.apa.az/news.php?id160316 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120407091017/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id160316 |archive-date7 April 2012}}</ref> 595 armored combat vehicles and 270 artillery systems. The air force has about 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters.<ref nameIISS158>{{cite book |titleThe Military Balance 2007 |lastIISS |year2007 |publisherRoutledge for the IISS |locationLondon|isbn978-1-85743-437-8 |page=158}} The IISS list 37 fighter aircraft, 15 fighter-ground attack aircraft, four transport aircraft, 50 training aircraft (including five combat capable trainers), 15 attack helicopters, and 20 transport helicopters</ref>
Azerbaijan has acceded to the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state. Azerbaijan participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace. Azerbaijan joined the multi-national force in 2003. It sent 150 troops to Iraq, and later troops to Kosovo. Azerbaijani troops have also served in Afghanistan.
Despite the rise in Azerbaijan's defence budget,<ref>Blandy, 'Azerbaijan: Is War Over Nagornyy Karabakh a Realistic Option?, 2008, p.6, quoting http://nvo.ng.ru/wars/2007-02-09/2_poroh.html {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120203063219/http://nvo.ng.ru/wars/2007-02-09/2_poroh.html |date3 February 2012 }} Nezavisimoye Voyennoye Obozreniye 9 February 2007.</ref> the armed forces were assessed in 2008 as not having a high state of battle readiness and being ill-prepared for wide scale combat operations.<ref name"Blandy, 2008, p.7">Blandy, 2008, p.7</ref> Azeri victory in the Second Karabakh War in late 2020 demonstrated how significantly Azerbaijan's military capabilities had grown.History of the Azerbaijani armed forces{{Main|Military history of Azerbaijan}}Azerbaijan Democratic RepublicThe history of the modern Azerbaijan army dates back to Azerbaijan Democratic Republic (ADR) in 1918, when the Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan were created on 26 June 1918. First de facto Minister of Defense of ADR was Dr. Khosrov bey Sultanov. When the Ministry was formally established, Gen. Samedbey Mehmandarov became the minister, and Lt-Gen. Ali-Agha Shikhlinski his deputy. Chiefs of Staff of ADR Army were Lt-Gen. Maciej Sulkiewicz (March 1919 – 10 December 1919) and Maj-Gen. Abdulhamid bey Gaitabashi (10 December 1919 – April 1920).<ref name"Azerbaijani Army marks 91 years">[http://en.apa.az/print.php?id104326 Azerbaijani Army marks 91 years] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120225202625/http://en.apa.az/print.php?id104326 |date25 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.today.az/news/politics/53397.html|titleAzerbaijan marks Day of Armed Forces|access-date27 June 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090629185253/http://www.today.az/news/politics/53397.html|archive-date29 June 2009|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The Red Army invaded Azerbaijan on 28 April 1920. Although the bulk of the newly formed Azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an Armenian revolt that had just broken out in Karabakh, the Azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence of 1918–20 quickly or easily. As many as 20,000 of the total 30,000 soldiers died resisting what was effectively a Russian reconquest.<ref>
Hugh Pope, "Sons of the conquerors: the rise of the Turkic world", New York: The Overlook Press, 2006, p. 116, {{ISBN|1-58567-804-X}}</ref> The national Army of Azerbaijan was abolished by the Bolshevik government, 15 of the 21 army generals were executed by the Bolsheviks.<ref name"Azerbaijani Army marks 91 years"/> Russian Civil War After the Sovietisation of Azerbaijan, the newly formed Azerbaijani Red Army replaced the previous army, taking part in the Russian Civil War, and the invasion of Georgia.<ref>{{Cite journal |firstAlexey B. |lastStepanov |titleАзербайджанская Красная Армия. 1920—1924 |urlhttp://savash-az.com/rasskazi/AzRedArmy.htm |journalСтарый Цейхгауз |issue25 |year2008 |volume1 |languageru |page32 |access-date16 January 2021 |archive-date9 November 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201109153736/http://savash-az.com/rasskazi/AzRedArmy.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastZeynalov |firstR. |titleВоенное строительство — военно-патриотическая и оборонно-массовая работа в Азербайджанской ССР в период строительства социализма (1920—июнь 1941 г.) |locationBaku |publisherElm |year1990 |languageru |pages16–17 }}</ref> World War II
during a parade in Baku in 1960]]
During World War II, Azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of Soviet Union. Much of the Soviet Union's oil on the Eastern Front was supplied by Baku. By a decree of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR in February 1942, the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of Azerbaijan was recognised with orders and medals.
Operation Edelweiss carried out by the German Wehrmacht targeted Baku because of the importance of its oil fields to the USSR.<ref>Swietochowski, Tadeusz(1995) Russia and Azerbaijan: A Borderland in Transition, Columbia University, p. 133.</ref> Some 800,000 Azerbaijanis fought within the ranks of the Soviet Army of which 400,000 died. Azerbaijani national formations of the Red Army included the 223rd, 227th, 396th, 402nd, and 416th Rifle Divisions. Azerbaijani Major-General Hazi Aslanov was awarded a second Hero of the Soviet Union after a long post-war fight for recognition of his accomplishments.
Dissolution of the Soviet armed forces
During the Cold War, Azerbaijan had been the deployment area of units of the Soviet 4th Army whose principal formations in 1988 included four motor rifle divisions (23rd Guards, 60th, 75th, and 295th).<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ww2.dk/new/army/armies/4oa.htm|title4th Combined Arms Army|websitewww.ww2.dk|access-date2016-08-08|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161211115719/http://www.ww2.dk/new/army/armies/4oa.htm|archive-date11 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> The 75th Motor Rifle Division was isolated in Nakhchivan. The 4th Army also included missile and air defense brigades and artillery and rocket regiments. The 75th Division's stores and equipment were apparently transferred to the Nakhchivan authorities.<ref>See reference at 7th Guards Army article.</ref> Azerbaijan also hosted the 49th Arsenal of the Soviet Main Agency of Missiles and Artillery, which contained over 7,000 train-car loads of ammunition to the excess of one billion units.
The first president of Azerbaijan, Ayaz Mutallibov, did not wish to build an independent army, wanting to rely instead largely on Soviet troops. Even when the Parliament decided that an army should be formed in September 1991, disagreements between the government and the opposition Azerbaijani Popular Front Party impeded creation of a unified force.<ref>International Crisis Group, Azerbaijan: Defence Sector Management and Reform Crisis Group Europe Briefing N°50, 29 October 2008, p.3</ref> Around this time, the first unit of the new army was formed on the basis of the 18–110 military unit of mechanized infantry of the Soviet Ground Forces (probably part of the 4th Army) located in Shikhov, south of Baku.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://dejure.az/index.php/cra-hakimiyyti/70-nazirliklr/99-azrbaycan-respublikas-muedafi-nazirliyi |titleAzərbaycan Respublikası Müdafiə Nazirliyi. 1991-dən sonra |trans-titleMinistry of Defense of Azerbaijan Republic. Events after 1991 |access-date1 July 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100705150847/http://dejure.az/index.php/cra-hakimiyyti/70-nazirliklr/99-azrbaycan-respublikas-muedafi-nazirliyi |archive-date5 July 2010 |url-statusdead}}</ref> At the time of the parliamentary decision, Lieutenant-General Valeh Barshadli became the first Minister of Defense of Azerbaijan, from 5 September to 11 December 1991.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://e-qanun.az/print.php?internalview&target1&docid6648&doctype0 |titleAzərbaycan Respublikası Müdafiə Nazirliyinin yaradılması haqqında AZƏRBAYCAN RESPUBLİKASI PREZİDENTİNİN FƏRMANI |trans-titleOrder of President of Azerbaijan Republic on establishment of Ministry of Defense of Azerbaijan Republic |access-date5 January 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111009183615/http://e-qanun.az/print.php?internalview&target1&docid6648&doctype0 |archive-date9 October 2011 }}</ref> Later from May to 4 September 1992 he served as Chief of General Staff of Azerbaijani Armed Forces.
Newly formed military
In summer 1992, the nascent Defense Ministry received a resolution by the Azerbaijani president on the takeover of units and formations in Azerbaijani territory. It then forwarded an ultimatum to Moscow demanding control over vehicles and armaments of the 135th and 139th Motor Rifle Regiments of the 295th Motor Rifle Division.<ref>Vladimir Petrov, [http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/4-2002/dp/hscwa/?formprint How South Caucasus was armed] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071024014020/http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/4-2002/dp/hscwa/?formprint |date24 October 2007 }}, Centre for Analysis of Strategies and Technologies (Moscow, Russia)</ref> In July 1992, Azerbaijan ratified the Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE), which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment.
The transfer of the property of the 4th Army (except for part of the property of the 366th Motor Rifle Regiment of the 23rd Guards Motor Rifle Division captured by Armenian armed formations in 1992 during the regiment's withdrawal from Stepanakert) and the 49th arsenal was completed in 1992. Thus, by the end of 1992, Azerbaijan received arms and military hardware sufficient for approximately four motor rifle divisions with prescribed army units. It also inherited naval ships. There are also reports that 50 combat aircraft from the disbanded 19th Army of the Soviet Air Defence Forces came under Azerbaijani control.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}
“Full-fledged work on the creation of a national army in Azerbaijan began only in November 1993, when the ..situation.. began to stabilize.”<ref>JPRS Report. Central Eurasia: Military Affairs, 1995</ref> Articles for draft evasion and desertion were introduced.
The Azerbaijani armed forces took a series of devastating defeats by Armenian forces<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eur/rls/or/13508.htm |title1993 UN Security Council Resolutions on Nagorno-Karabakh |access-date25 May 2019 |archive-date24 December 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201224204733/https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/eur/rls/or/13508.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> during the 1992–1994 Nagorno-Karabakh War, which resulted in the loss of control of Nagorno-Karabakh proper and seven surrounding rayons, comprising roughly 20%<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Azerbaijan/IDPs-in-Azerbaijan-48091|titleIDPs in Azerbaijan|lastCaucaso|firstOsservatorio Balcani e|workOsservatorio Balcani e Caucaso|access-date2017-09-26|languageit|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170920142918/https://www.balcanicaucaso.org/eng/Areas/Azerbaijan/IDPs-in-Azerbaijan-48091|archive-date20 September 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.un.org/press/en/2008/ga10693.doc.htm|titleGENERAL ASSEMBLY ADOPTS RESOLUTION REAFFIRMING TERRITORIAL INTEGRITY OF AZERBAIJAN, DEMANDING WITHDRAWAL OF ALL ARMENIAN FORCES {{!}} Meetings Coverage and Press Releases|websitewww.un.org|languageen|access-date2017-09-26|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150818000902/http://www.un.org/press/en/2008/ga10693.doc.htm|archive-date18 August 2015|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.angloasianmining.com/azerbaijan/history/|titleAnglo Asian Mining PLC|websitewww.angloasianmining.com|access-date2017-09-26|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170920141823/http://www.angloasianmining.com/azerbaijan/history/|archive-date20 September 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2014/12/02/the-ever-thorny-azerbaijani-armenian-dossier-a-territorial-dispute-with-broad-regional-implications/|titleThe Ever-Thorny Azerbaijani-Armenian Dossier: A Territorial Dispute With Broad Regional Implications {{!}} Foreign Policy Journal|date2014-12-02|workForeign Policy Journal|access-date2017-09-26|languageen-US|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170920190636/https://www.foreignpolicyjournal.com/2014/12/02/the-ever-thorny-azerbaijani-armenian-dossier-a-territorial-dispute-with-broad-regional-implications/|archive-date20 September 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref> of the territory of Azerbaijan. Azerbaijani sources insist that Armenian victory was largely due to military help from Russia and the wealthy Armenian diaspora. Armenians partially deny the allegation, claiming that Russian side was equally supplying Armenian and Azerbaijani sides with weapons and mercenaries. During the war, the Azerbaijani armed forces were also aided by Turkish military advisers, and Russian, Ukrainian, Chechen and Afghan mercenaries.
Azerbaijan approved the CFE flank agreement in May 1997.
21st century
A number of Azerbaijani human rights groups have been tracking non-combat deaths and have noted an upward trend in early 2010s. Based on Defense Ministry statistics that had not been released to the public, the Group of Monitoring Compliance with Human Rights in the Army (GMCHRA) has recorded the deaths of 76 soldiers to date in non-combat incidents for 2011, and the injury of 91 others. In comparison, there were 62 non-combat deaths and 71 cases of injury in 2010. The string of non-combat deaths raises questions about the reform progress of the military. Factors behind the deaths include bullying, hazing, and the systemic corruption within the Azerbaijani Armed Forces (see Corruption in Azerbaijan).<ref>{{cite news | titleAzerbaijan: Non-Combat Deaths Put Military Reforms in Spotlight | urlhttp://www.eurasianet.org/node/64508 | publisherEurasiaNet | date14 November 2011 | access-date2 February 2012 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120128182004/http://www.eurasianet.org/node/64508 | archive-date28 January 2012 | url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2017, Azerbaijani authorities used large scale torture (the Tartar Case) on Azerbaijani military personnel accused of treason.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAzerbaijan: Light slowly being shed on notorious torture case {{!}} Eurasianet |urlhttps://eurasianet.org/azerbaijan-light-slowly-being-shed-on-notorious-torture-case |access-date2022-10-16 |websiteeurasianet.org |languageen}}</ref> Generals Nacmeddin Sadikhov and Hikmet Hasanov were accused of torturing Azerbaijani officers and soldiers and according to the authorities and human rights defenders, more than 400 people were subjected to torture in the course of the case. The Azerbaijani authorities claimed one person was killed as a result, while human rights defenders say the number is about 13, and many were wrongfully convicted and given hefty prison sentences. Second Karabakh War The Second Karabakh War (also known in Azerbaijan as "The Patriotic War"<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-09-30|titleVətən Müharibəsində dövlətimizin və ordumuzun yanındayıq|urlhttp://www.science.gov.az/news/open/14376|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20210115042528/http://www.science.gov.az/news/open/14376|archive-date2021-01-15|access-date2021-01-15|publisherAzerbaijan National Academy of Sciences|languageaz}}</ref> or "Operation Iron Fist"<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-12-10|titleAzərbaycan Ordusu düşmənə qarşı əməliyyatları "Dəmir yumruq" adı altında keçirib|urlhttps://report.az/qarabag/azerbaycan-ordusu-dusmene-qarsi-emeliyyatlari-demir-yumruq-adi-altinda-kecirib/|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20210115042429/https://report.az/qarabag/azerbaycan-ordusu-dusmene-qarsi-emeliyyatlari-demir-yumruq-adi-altinda-kecirib/|archive-date2021-01-15|access-date2021-01-15|workReport Information Agency|languageaz}}</ref>) began on the morning of 27 September 2020 when Azerbaijan launched an offensive along the Line of Contact.<ref>{{Cite web|lastEnglish|firstDuvar|date2021-08-16|titleAliyev admits Azerbaijan started the Nagorno-Karabakh war|urlhttps://www.duvarenglish.com/aliyev-admits-azerbaijan-started-the-nagorno-karabakh-war-news-58502|access-date2021-10-05|websitewww.duvarenglish.com |languagetr-TR}}</ref> On the seventh day of the war, a major offensive was launched by the ground forces, advancing in the north, making some territorial gains while the fighting gradually shifted to the south. Following the capture of Shusha, the second-largest settlement in Nagorno-Karabakh, by Azerbaijani forces, a ceasefire agreement was signed between Azerbaijan, and Armenia, ending all hostilities in the area.<ref name":3">{{cite news|date2020-11-10|titleNagorno-Karabakh: Russia deploys peacekeeping troops to region|workBBC News|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-54885906|access-date2020-11-11}}</ref> Under the agreement, Armenia returned the surrounding territories it occupied in 1994 to Azerbaijan while Azerbaijan gained land access to its Nakhchivan exclave.<ref>{{Cite news|lastKramer|firstAndrew E.|date2020-11-10|titleFacing Military Debacle, Armenia Accepts a Deal in Nagorno-Karabakh War|newspaperThe New York Times|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/11/09/world/middleeast/armenia-settlement-nagorno-karabakh-azerbaijan.html}}</ref> Total casualties were in the low thousands.<ref name":2">{{cite web|date2020-10-24|titleCoronavirus thrives in Karabakh's bomb shelters|urlhttps://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/coronavirus-thrives-in-karabakh-s-bomb-shelters-1.5159270|websitectvnews.ca|publisherCTV News|access-date30 March 2021|archive-date9 December 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201209154039/https://www.ctvnews.ca/health/coronavirus/coronavirus-thrives-in-karabakh-s-bomb-shelters-1.5159270|url-status=dead}}</ref>
During the war, the Azerbaijani army was widely accused of committing war crimes against Armenian soldiers and civilians.<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-12-10|titleArmenia/Azerbaijan: Decapitation and war crimes in gruesome videos must be urgently investigated|urlhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2020/12/armenia-azerbaijan-decapitation-and-war-crimes-in-gruesome-videos-must-be-urgently-investigated/|access-date2021-10-05|websiteAmnesty International|languageen}}</ref> Human Rights Watch and Amnesty International both condemned Azerbaijan's “indiscriminate” shelling of Armenian civilians, including the use of cluster munitions.<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-12-11|titleAzerbaijan: Unlawful Strikes in Nagorno-Karabakh|urlhttps://www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/11/azerbaijan-unlawful-strikes-nagorno-karabakh|access-date2021-10-05|websiteHuman Rights Watch|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date2020-10-05|titleArmenia/Azerbaijan: Civilians must be protected from use of banned cluster bombs|urlhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/press-release/2020/10/armenia-azerbaijan-civilians-must-be-protected-from-use-of-banned-cluster-bombs/|access-date2021-10-05|websiteAmnesty International|languageen}}</ref> In addition, videos of Azerbaijani soldiers mistreating or executing captive Armenians were circulated online and received widespread condemnation.<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-12-15|titleTwo men beheaded in videos from Nagorno-Karabakh war identified|urlhttp://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/dec/15/two-men-beheaded-in-videos-from-nagorno-karabakh-war-identified|access-date2021-10-05|websitethe Guardian|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date2020-10-24|titleNagorno-Karabakh conflict: 'Execution' video prompts war crime probe|languageen-GB|workBBC News|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-54645254|access-date2021-10-05}}</ref>
On 10 December, a victory parade was held in honor of the Azerbaijani Army on Azadliq Square,<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-12-03|titleBaku preparing for grandiose Victory Parade – VIDEO|urlhttps://www.azerbaycan24.com/en/baku-preparing-for-grandiose-victory-parade-ndash-video/|access-date2020-12-04|websitewww.azerbaycan24.com}}</ref> with 3,000 soldiers marching alongside military equipment, unmanned aerial vehicles and aircraft.<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-12-10|titleZəfər paradında əsgərlərin marşı, yeni silah və hərbi texnika – şəkillərdə|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/azeri/azerbaijan-55260110|access-date2020-12-10|workBBC Azerbaijani Service|language=az}}</ref>
In August 2022, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination expressed deep concern regarding "severe and grave human rights violations committed during 2020 hostilities and beyond by the Azerbaijani military forces against prisoners of war and other protected persons of Armenian ethnic or national origin, including extrajudicial killings, torture and other ill-treatment and arbitrary detention as well as the destruction of houses, schools, and other civilian facilities."<ref>{{Cite web|date2022-08-30|titleConcluding observations on the combined tenth to twelfth reports of Azerbaijan|urlhttps://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CERD/Shared%20Documents/AZE/CERD_C_AZE_CO_10-12_49770_E.pdf|access-date2022-10-02|websiteUN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination|languageen|archive-date3 October 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221003055825/https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CERD/Shared%20Documents/AZE/CERD_C_AZE_CO_10-12_49770_E.pdf|url-statusdead}}</ref> Structure Command
{{Main|Minister of Defense (Azerbaijan)|General Staff of Azerbaijani Armed Forces}}
Since the fall of the Soviet Union, there have been attempts in the defence ministry to reform the military to be more in line with the Turkish/NATO model, resulting in Soviet-legacy officers such as Rovshan Akbarov and Najmeddin Sadikov being removed from power.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAzerbaijan national hero, lieutenant general arrested on 20-year-old murder charges {{!}} Eurasianet|urlhttps://eurasianet.org/azerbaijan-national-hero-lieutenant-general-arrested-on-20-year-old-murder-charges|access-date2021-03-28|websiteeurasianet.org|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date2021-03-19|titleAzerbaijani 'hero general' arrested over 2001 murder|urlhttps://oc-media.org/azerbaijani-hero-general-arrested-over-2001-murder/|access-date2021-03-28|websiteOC Media|language=en-US}}</ref>
Azerbaijan periodically holds drills to improve interaction and combat coordination between the servicemen during operations, its military personnel's combat readiness, as well as to develop commanders' military decision-making and unit management skills.<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-07-13 |titleAzerbaijani army's mechanized units hold practical training drills to boost combat readiness [VIDEO] |urlhttps://www.azernews.az/nation/196681.html |access-date2022-07-24 |websiteAzernews.Az |languageen}}</ref>
Land Forces
The Azerbaijani Land Forces number 85,000 strong, according to UK Advanced Research and Assessment Group estimates.<ref nameBlandy12 /> The 2,500 men of the National Guard are also part of the ground forces. In addition, there are 300,000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years.<ref name"IISS157"/> Other paramilitary agencies consist of Interior Ministry Internal Troops of Azerbaijan, 12,000 strong, and the land component of the State Border Service, 5,000 strong.<ref name=Blandy12 />
Azerbaijan has signed numerous contracts to strengthen its armed forces and to train its military with Turkey's assistance. Over the last 15 years, Azerbaijan has been preparing its military for possible action against Armenian forces in Nagorno-Karabakh. order of battle]]
The Land Forces consist of five army corps:<ref name=Blandy12 />
*1st Army Corps also known as Barda Army Corps (concentrated near Ganja)
*2nd Army Corps also known as Beylagan Army Corps (concentrated against Armenian occupied territories and part is deployed on the Azerbaijan-Iranian border)
*3rd Army Corps also known as Shamkir Army Corps (concentrated against Armenian occupied territories)
*4th Army Corps also known as Baku Army Corps (covers Absheron Peninsula and the coast)
*Nakhchivan Separate Combined Arms Army (deployed in Nakhchivan)
The Land Forces include 23 motor rifle brigades, an artillery brigade, a multiple rocket launcher brigade, and an anti-tank regiment.<ref name=Blandy12 /> The IISS Military Balance reported in 2007 that the Land Forces had an estimated 40 SA-13 Gopher, SA-4 Ganef, and SA-8 Gecko air defence missile systems, with '80–240 eff.' to support the army in the battlefield. (IISS 2007, p.&nbsp;157)
The peacekeeping forces of Azerbaijan are mostly supplied from the Land Forces, though the Internal Troops of Azerbaijan do also supply some. As of March 2011, 94 peacekeepers were deployed with the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.isaf.nato.int/images/stories/File/Placemats/PLACEMAT.MARCH%2004..pdf |titleArchived copy |access-date2011-04-13 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110406003726/http://www.isaf.nato.int/images/stories/File/Placemats/PLACEMAT.MARCH%2004..pdf |archive-date6 April 2011}}</ref> In the past, it also actively supported the peacekeeping operation in Kosovo and Iraq.
The Azerbaijani peacekeeping unit deployed in Iraq consisted of 14 officers, 16 sergeants and 120 privates, a total of 150 troops. The unit secured the hydroelectric power station and reservoir in Al Haditha from August 2003. In December 2008, Azerbaijan withdrew the unit from Iraq.
Reportedly in December 2014 Azerbaijan created the Separate Combined Arms Army in Nakhchivan. Karam Mustafayev became commander of the corps. The army was created based on the Nakhchivan 5th Army Corps to strengthen defense capability of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, increase of combat capability of military units and formations of the Armed Forces, improve central control, reports quoting the Defence Ministry said.
Air forces
The Azerbaijani Air and Air Defence Force is a single unified service branch.<ref nameJSSA-MT>Jane's Sentinel Security Assessments – Russia and the CIS: Air Force, dated 18 June 2009, and {{cite journal |year2008 |titleWorld Defence Almanac |journalMilitary Technology |volumeXXXII |issue 1 |pages244–245|publisherMonch Publishing Group |locationBonn, Germany |issn0722-3226}}</ref> Some 8,000 men serve in the air force and air defence force.<ref nameBlandy12 /> The Air and Air Defence Force has around 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters.<ref name"IISS158" /> The country has four major airbases. Nasosnaya (air base) has fighters, Kyurdamir Air Base a bomber regiment, Ganja Air Base transports, and Baku Kala Air Base the helicopter unit. There are also four other airbases which do not appear to have aircraft based there. These are Dollyar Air Base, Nakhchivan Airport, Sanqacal Air Base, and Sitalcay Air Base.
The Azerbaijani Air Force using MiG-21, Su-24 and Su-25 aircraft, as well as the MiG-29 purchased from Ukraine in 2006 and Il-76 transport aircraft. The MiG-29 have been designated as the standard aircraft for the AzAF.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.today.az/news/politics/38475.html|titleAzerbaijan shows MIG-29 fighter jets|access-date3 April 2007|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070929094243/http://www.today.az/news/politics/38475.html|archive-date29 September 2007|url-statuslive}}</ref> Azerbaijan is holding talks with either the People's Republic of China or Pakistan to purchase JF-17 Thunder aircraft.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://news.am/eng/news/8954.html|titleChina supplies FC-1 multipurpose fighters to Azerbaijan|websitenews.am|access-date28 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402124131/http://news.am/eng/news/8954.html|archive-date2 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> MiG-25s previously in service have been retired seemingly in the 2007–09 period.
Azerbaijan's helicopter force is concentrated at Baku Kala Air Base and according to the IISS consists of a single regiment with around 14–15 Mi-24, 12–13 Mi-8 and 7 Mi-2. Jane's Information Group and the IISS give figures which agree with only a single aircraft's difference.<ref>[http://www8.brinkster.com/vad777/sng/azerb/azerb.htm] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110928131441/http://www8.brinkster.com/vad777/sng/azerb/azerb.htm|date28 September 2011}}</ref> Recently, end of 2010 Russian Rosvertol announced that Azerbaijan armed forces signed a deal for 24 pieces of Mi-35M (Hind-E) gunships what would further enhance the Azerbaijani ground attack formations.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Azerbaijan-Orders-24-Mi-35M-Helicopter-Gunships-06789/|titleAzerbaijan Orders 24 Mi-35M Helicopter Gunships|access-date25 March 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110305072531/http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/Azerbaijan-Orders-24-Mi-35M-Helicopter-Gunships-06789/|archive-date5 March 2011|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.helihub.com/2011/02/25/azerbaijan-buys-24-mi-35m-attack-helicopters/|titleHeliHub.com Azerbaijan buys 24 Mi-35M attack helicopters|websitewww.helihub.com|access-date25 March 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110722041858/http://www.helihub.com/2011/02/25/azerbaijan-buys-24-mi-35m-attack-helicopters/|archive-date22 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The Air Force has L-39 advanced training aircraft in store. The Azerbaijan Border Guard and Voluntary Society of Defense, Patriotism and Sport have Yakovlev light training aircraft.
Azerbaijan has missile and radar systems intended to defend Azerbaijani airspace. There are at least 2 divisions of S-300PMU2.<ref name"azers300">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.historyoftruth.com/news/latest/7654-russian-defense-ministry-confirms-readiness-to-sell-s-300-to-azerbaijan|titleHistoryofTruth.com - Armenian Allegations|access-date2 March 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120611052059/http://www.historyoftruth.com/news/latest/7654-russian-defense-ministry-confirms-readiness-to-sell-s-300-to-azerbaijan|archive-date11 June 2012|url-statusdead}}</ref> Thereby the country has one of the most capable SAM surface-to-air missile system in the region.<ref name"IMINT & Analysis">{{Cite web|urlhttps://drive.google.com/file/d/0B8JEdtKWzL0WNjcyOTMzMGQtNjgxNi00NTgwLThkNTEtODcxY2NkOGJhNWM1/view?uspembed_facebook|titleV1N7 August 2011.pdf|websiteGoogle Docs}}</ref><ref name"eurasianet s300">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.eurasianet.org/node/64085|titleRussia's Credibility And Its Military Sales To Azerbaijan|access-date23 August 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110919064745/http://www.eurasianet.org/node/64085|archive-date19 September 2011|url-statuslive}}</ref> Azerbaijan also operates two S-200 (SA-5 GAMMON) batteries near Baku and Mingachevir; the S-300PMU-2 represents a logical replacement for these systems offering coverage of the majority of the nation.<ref name"eurasianet s300" /> The country also has about 100 NATO designated SA-2 Guideline (original name S-75), SA-3 Goa (S-125 Pechora-2M), and the SA-5 Gammon (S-200) are in static installations.<ref>IISS Military Balance 2007, p.&nbsp;158</ref> These may be around Baku and the central part to cover the whole Azerbaijani aerospace.
However, August 2011 investigations shows that after purchase of S-300 surface-to-air missiles, the largest apparent gap in Azerbaijan's air defense system may have been filled.<ref>{{cite web|lastKuchera|firstJoshua|titleAnalysis: Azerbaijan, Karabakh Well-Protected Against Air Attack; Armenia Less So|urlhttp://www.eurasianet.org/node/63989|publisherEurasia.net|access-date4 August 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110807124709/http://www.eurasianet.org/node/63989|archive-date7 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>
Also in Azerbaijan there was a former Soviet early warning radar. The Gabala Radar Station was a bistatic phased-array installation, operated by the Russian Space Forces. The contract was signed in 2002 and was due to expire in 2012 where it was to be given back to the Azerbaijani government. The contract costed Russia $7&nbsp;million per year. The radar station had a range of up to {{convert|6000|km|mi|abbroff}}, and was designed to detect intercontinental ballistic missile launches as far as from the Indian Ocean. In December 2012 Russia announced that negotiations had been unsuccessful and that they had stopped using the radar station.<ref name"rbth">{{cite news
| url = http://rbth.ru/news/2013/01/23/russias_decision_to_close_down_gabala_radar_station_is_final_-_lavrov_pa_22129.html
| title = Russia's decision to close down Gabala radar station is final - Lavrov
| access-date = 2013-04-14
| date = 2013-01-23
| newspaper = Russia Beyond the Headlines
| archive-date = 4 February 2021
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210204055838/https://www.rbth.com/news/2013/01/23/russias_decision_to_close_down_gabala_radar_station_is_final_-_lavrov_pa_22129.html
| url-status = live
}}</ref> The site was given back to Azerbaijan<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ng.ru/news/445507.html|titleГабалинская РЛС теперь находится под контролем азербайджанских военных|websitewww.ng.ru|access-date28 December 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151231191654/http://www.ng.ru/news/445507.html|archive-date31 December 2015|url-statuslive}}</ref> and all the equipment dismantled and transported to Russia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.ng.ru/columnist/2013-10-09/4_gabala.html|titleГабалу завлекают в турбизнес|access-date28 December 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131010054839/http://www.ng.ru/columnist/2013-10-09/4_gabala.html|archive-date10 October 2013|url-statuslive}}</ref> Nowadays, Russia covers the area from the Armavir Radar Station.NavyThe main naval base of the Soviet Union in the Caspian Sea was based in Baku. When the Soviet Union collapsed, Azerbaijan inherited the naval base and parts of the Caspian Sea Flotilla.<ref name"nvo.ng">{{cite web |urlhttp://nvo.ng.ru/forces/2007-08-31/3_nato.html |titleВ фарватере НАТО |authorКонстантин Чуприн |date31 August 2007 |publisherNVO NG |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120112135754/http://nvo.ng.ru/forces/2007-08-31/3_nato.html |archive-date12 January 2012 |url-statuslive}}</ref> The Azerbaijan Navy has about 2,200 personnel.<ref>Jane's Fighting Ships, 2010, accessed February 2010. IISS 2007 attributes 2,000 personnel.</ref> In 2010, the navy had a Petya class light frigate, Qusar (G 121), and a number of patrol craft, including one Turk class, Araz, P 223, one Brya (Project 722) class, P 218, one Shelon (Project 1388M) class, P 212, one Poluchat class (Project 368), P 219, one Luga class (Project 888), T 710, and four Petrushka (Polish UK-3 class), P 213, P 214, P 215, and P 216. There are four minesweepers consisting of 2 Sonya class minesweeper and 2 Yevgenya class minesweepers. (Jane's Fighting Ships 2010)
The Navy is also attributed with 5 landing craft, 3 Polnochny and 2 Vydra (IISS 2007), plus three research ships, 1 Project 10470, A 671, ex Svyaga, 1 Balerian Uryvayev class survey vessel (AG) and one Vadim Popov class survey vessel (AG).
The U.S. Navy has helped train the Azerbaijani Navy. There is also an agreement to provide US support to refurbish Azerbaijani warships in the Caspian Sea. In 2006, the US Government donated 3 motorboats to the Azerbaijani Navy. In 2007, an agreement between the Azerbaijani Navy and a US military company was concluded, which stated that a part of the Azerbaijani Navy would be equipped with advanced laser marksmanship systems. The US company specialists were also to give training on the use of the new equipment.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.today.az/news/politics/40483.html|titleAzerbaijan Navy to be equipped with laser devices|access-date4 May 2007|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070929111534/http://www.today.az/news/politics/40483.html|archive-date29 September 2007|url-statuslive}}</ref> A number of separate U.S. programmes are underway under the Caspian Guard Initiative, focused mostly on enhancing Azerbaijani and Kazakh maritime border security.
In May 2011, the president of the State Oil Company of Azerbaijan Republic Rovnag Abdullayev stated that Azerbaijan would start production of national warships after 2013.<ref>{{cite web|titleAzerbaijan to produce warships |urlhttp://en.apa.az/news.php?id146812 |access-date9 May 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111120063342/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id146812 |archive-date20 November 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleAzerbaijan to produce ships|urlhttp://www.news.az/articles/economy/33686|access-date9 May 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110410163713/http://news.az/articles/economy/33686|archive-date10 April 2011|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The Naval Intelligence of Azerbaijan maintains the 641st Special Warfare Naval Unit. The special forces were trained by the U.S. Navy SEALs<ref>{{cite press release |urlhttp://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id26294 |titleNavy Special Ops Demos Training in Azerbaijan |authorDonna Miles |date10 June 2004 |workAmerican Forces Press Service |publisherU.S. Department of Defense |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170930014831/http://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id26294 |archive-date30 September 2017 |url-statuslive}}</ref> Unit 641 has several midget submarines such as Triton-1M and Triton 2 at their disposal as well as underwater tool motion for individual divers. The special unit is composed of 3 reconnaissance groups, 2 groups for mountainous warfare, and one diving group. Obligatory training includes parachute jumping day and night, on land and on water.<ref name"nvo.ng" /><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://specnazopedia.narod.ru/spnazerbai.html |titleСпецподразделения Азербайджана |date14 March 2010 |publisherSpecnazopedia.Narod |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120425063530/http://specnazopedia.narod.ru/spnazerbai.html |archive-date25 April 2012 }}</ref>Special forcesThe Special Forces of Azerbaijan are part of the Ministry of Defence. It was established in April 1999 with officers and warrant officers who had participated in the First Nagorno-Karabakh War of 1991–1994.<ref name"Azvision">{{Cite journal|dateApril 2019|titleXüsusi Təyinatlı Qüvvələrin 20 ili|urlhttps://azvision.az/news/177000/xususi-teyinatli-quvvelerin-20-ili--fotolar+video--.html|languageaz|editionAzvision|quote30}}</ref> The Turkish Special Forces Command played a role in the formation of the unit. During the 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh War, personnel of the Special Forces reclaimed the city of Jebrayil and nine surrounding villages from the Armenian Army. On November 8, Aliyev congratulated the commander of the Special Forces on their "liberation of Shusha".<ref>{{cite web|titleRelease of the Press Service of the President|urlhttps://en.president.az/articles/45757|access-date16 February 2021|websitepresident.az|languageaz}}</ref> The war was considered to be first time Azerbaijan has actively used all of its special forces units.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.rferl.org/amp/technology-tactics-and-turkish-advice-lead-azerbaijan-to-victory-in-nagorno-karabakh/30949158.html|title Technology, Tactics, and Turkish Advice Lead Azerbaijan to Victory in Nagorno-Karabakh}}</ref>Defense industry'' is a South African MRAP manufactured under license in Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.paramountgroup.biz/index.php/about-us/press-room/53-paramount-group-vehicles-now-manufactured-in-azerbaijan|titleParamount Group|websitewww.paramountgroup.biz|access-date16 March 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100327180712/http://www.paramountgroup.biz/index.php/about-us/press-room/53-paramount-group-vehicles-now-manufactured-in-azerbaijan|archive-date27 March 2010|url-statuslive}}</ref>]]
The Ministry of Defence Industry of Azerbaijan directs domestic military supplies for Azerbaijan. It was established in 2005. The Defence Industries Ministry subsumed the State Department for Military Industry and for Armaments and the Military Science Center, each of which was formerly a separate agency within the Azerbaijani Defense Ministry.
The defense industry has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing production capability. The ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of Ukraine, Belarus and Pakistan.<ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.rferl.org/a/1074435.html|titleAzerbaijan: Baku Signals New Determination For Defense Reform|newspaperRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty|date2 February 2012 |access-date10 April 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180410202302/https://www.rferl.org/a/1074435.html|archive-date10 April 2018|url-statuslive |last1Giragosian |first1Richard }}</ref> Along with other contracts, Azerbaijani defence industries and Turkish companies, Azerbaijan will produce 40mm revolver grenade launchers, 107mm and 122mm MLRS systems, Cobra 4×4 vehicles and joint modernization of BTR vehicles in Baku.<ref name"brothership1">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.news.az/articles/politics/26065|titleNews.Az - Azerbaijan, Turkey to produce revolver grenade launchers|websitewww.news.az|access-date29 December 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101107195656/http://news.az/articles/politics/26065|archive-date7 November 2010|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"brothership2">[http://en.apa.az/news.php?id136785 Azerbaijan’s Ministry of Defense Industry plans to assume several projects on technical modernization of Armed Forces] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120402090426/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id136785 |date2 April 2012 }}</ref><ref name"brothership3">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.news.az/articles/politics/25988|titleNews.Az - Azerbaijan, Turkey sign contract on joint rocket production|websitewww.news.az|access-date29 December 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101108063414/http://www.news.az/articles/politics/25988|archive-date8 November 2010|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"brothership4">[http://en.apa.az/news.php?id136603 Azerbaijani Defense Industry Ministry conducts negotiations with Turkish "Otokar" Company on production of armored vehicles] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120325182937/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id136603 |date=25 March 2012 }}</ref>
The major military companies of Azerbaijan are:
* RPE Iglim, aviation and shipbuilding
* Radiogurashdirma, communication means and radio-electronic
* RPE Neftgazavtomat, devices and automation systems for monitoring technological processes
* RPE Automatic Lines, non-standard equipment and products for application in electrotechnical and machine engineering
* Avia-Agregat, multi-purpose aviation equipment, various airdrome conditioners, universal container of board conductor, air-to-air radiators, fuel-oil, air-to-air heat exchangers and ventilators<ref>[http://en.apa.az/news.php?id97410 Aircraft Repair Plant of Azerbaijan to be reconstructed] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120215042025/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id97410 |date15 February 2012 }}</ref>
In early 2008, reports indicated that an agreement with Turkey had been signed which would lead to Azerbaijan producing armoured personnel carriers, infantry fighting vehicles, and small calibre artillery pieces.<ref name"unaz"/>International cooperationAzerbaijan cooperates with about 60 countries in the military-technical sphere and has an agreement on military-technical cooperation with more than 30 countries.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://today.az/news/politics/54894.html|titleCzech defense minister to visit Azerbaijan|access-date22 August 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706131316/http://today.az/news/politics/54894.html|archive-date6 July 2011|url-statuslive}}</ref>Turkey
]]
In December 2009, an agreement on military assistance was signed by Turkey and Azerbaijan. The agreement envisions Ankara supplying Azerbaijan with weapons, military equipment, and, if necessary, soldiers in case war with Armenia over Karabakh resumes.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.azernews.az/site/shownews.php?news_id17085|titleAzerNEWS|date6 July 2011|url-statusbot: unknown|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706131014/http://www.azernews.az/site/shownews.php?news_id17085|archive-date6 July 2011}}</ref>
Turkey has provided Azerbaijan with infantry weapons, tactical vehicles (jeeps, trucks, etc.) professional training, military organization, technology transfer, licensed military hardware production, and other services. Due to help from Turkish specialists and instructors, thousands of Azerbaijani officers have been trained to western standards.<ref>NATO, [http://www.nato.int/KFOR/chronicle/2002/chronicle_10/01.htm Azerbaijani troops part of the KFOR family] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070621142228/http://www.nato.int/kfor/chronicle/2002/chronicle_10/01.htm |date21 June 2007 }}</ref>
The military position as an area of international importance of Azerbaijan increased with an agreement between Azerbaijan and Turkey on the participation of an Azerbaijani peacekeeping platoon in the staff of the Turkish battalion in Kosovo.<ref>Azerbaijan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, [http://www.mfa.gov.az/eng/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id348&Itemid68 List of the military documents signed between the Republic of Turkey and Republic of Azerbaijan ] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120310123016/http://www.mfa.gov.az/eng/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id348&Itemid68 |date10 March 2012 }}</ref>
Since 1992, Azerbaijan and Turkey have signed more than 100 military protocols, some of the major protocols include:<ref>[http://www.interesclub.org/index.php/main-subjects/turkish-foreign-policy/310-military-relations-between-azerbaijan-and-turkey.html List of the military documents signed between the Republic of Turkey and Republic of Azerbaijan]{{dead link|dateJuly 2017 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* Cooperation of staff members
* National security cooperation in the topographical area
* Forming and training of professional school of forces in Baku
* Carrying out of the material and technical purchasing
* Military industry cooperation
* Development of the 5th Army Corps also known as Nakhchivan Army Corps in Nakhchivan<ref>[http://www.interesclub.org/index.php/main-subjects/turkish-foreign-policy/310-military-relations-between-azerbaijan-and-turkey.html In 2001, between the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Azerbaijan and the General Staff of the Republic of Turkey on development of Nakhchivan 5th army protocol]{{dead link|dateJuly 2017 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* Cooperation in the area of military history, military archives and museum work and military publication
* Assistance on training, material and technical between the Azerbaijan Border Guard and the Turkish Armed Forces.
* Long-term economical and military cooperation and application of the financial aid
* Application of material and technical provision
In May 2011, Azerbaijan had discussed the purchase of long-range rockets from two Chinese companies, the minister of the defence industry has said. Other arms deals were signed with Turkey. Turkish Defence Minister Vecdi Gonul and Yaver Jamalov signed a protocol of intent on future joint production of two types of output – 107-mm rockets and the national rifle, possibly the Mehmetçik-1. A protocol of intent was signed the same day with the Mechanical and Chemical Industry Corporation MKEK on the joint production of 120-mm mortar launchers. This project will come into force in a few months time. Agreement has also been reached with Turkish company Aselsan on the production of some types of defence output in Azerbaijan, specifically the latest types of weapons' sights. These projects will probably happen in the near future too.<ref>{{cite web|titleAzerbaijan to buy long-range rockets|urlhttp://www.news.az/articles/politics/36243|access-date9 May 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110515072316/http://news.az/articles/politics/36243|archive-date15 May 2011|url-statuslive}}</ref> Recently, Turkish defense industries secretariat told that an export version of the T-155 Firtina self-propelled howitser is almost done and could start production. T-155 has been powered by a German MTU power pack, which restricts the sale to some countries like Azerbaijan. The Turkish manufacturer MKEK, has announced that they have found an alternate supplier for the power pack where Azerbaijan showed interest to buy the high tech, more capable 155mm 52 caliber from Turkish authorities.
United States
in Azerbaijan. Gen. Tom Hobbins, U.S. Air Forces in Europe commander, and Chief Master Sgt. Gary Coleman, USAFE command chief, Lt. Col. Elmar Hüseynov.]]
Section 907 of the United States Freedom Support Act bans any kind of direct United States aid to the Azerbaijani government. Since a waiver was made in 2001 there has been extensive U.S. military cooperation with Azerbaijan. This has included Special Forces and naval aid, consultations with United States European Command, and linkages through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program.
On 19 May 2006, Azerbaijani Defense Minister Safar Abiyev and the then commander of United States Air Forces in Europe General Tom Hobbins met in Baku to discuss military cooperation. He said the objective of his visit was to become familiar with the state of Azerbaijani armed forces.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://azernews.net/eng/gizli/view.php?d14940|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060601083626/http://www.azernews.net/eng/gizli/view.php?d14940|url-statusdead|titleNATO & Azerbaijan relations|archive-date1 June 2006}}</ref> Hobbins pointed to the progress made in the NATO-Azerbaijan relations, saying that the successful implementation of the NATO Partnership for Peace program in Azerbaijan has brought the country even closer to the alliance. He said that the two countries' air forces will expand cooperation.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://today.az/news/politics/26307.html|titleAzerbaijan, USA discuss military cooperation|access-date19 May 2006|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070929104947/http://today.az/news/politics/26307.html|archive-date29 September 2007|url-status=live}}</ref>
The U.S. state of Oklahoma is linked with Azerbaijan through the U.S. National Guard State Partnership Program (SPP). Oklahoma National Guard troops have been sent on training and humanitarian missions to Baku.
Russia
Russia is one of Azerbaijan's main suppliers of arms. "As of today, military and technical cooperation with Russia is measured at $4 billion and it tends to grow further," President Ilham Aliyev said after meeting with Russian President Vladimir Putin in Baku in 2013.<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-08-13/azeri-russian-arms-trade-4-billion-amid-tension-with-armenia.html Azeri-Russian Arms Trade $4 Billion Amid Tension With Armenia] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150119232310/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-08-13/azeri-russian-arms-trade-4-billion-amid-tension-with-armenia.html |date19 January 2015 }} By Zulfugar Agayev 13 August 2013</ref>
Israel
Azerbaijan and Israel cooperate on numerous areas of the defense industry. Israel was Azerbaijan's largest weapon supplier with $4.85 billion in sales during 2016 alone. As of 2023, Turkey was Azerbaijan's largest weapon supplier.<ref>{{cite web |last1GUILLAUME |first1LAVALLÉE |titleExperts believe Israel unlikely to drop lucrative arms sales to Azerbaijan |urlhttps://www.timesofisrael.com/experts-believe-israel-unlikely-to-drop-lucrative-arms-sales-to-azerbaijan/ |websiteTimes of Israel |access-date21 December 2020 |archive-date4 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210204055855/https://www.timesofisrael.com/experts-believe-israel-unlikely-to-drop-lucrative-arms-sales-to-azerbaijan/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Azerbaijan has shown great interest in Israeli technology over the years. In particular, an agreement was reached over the construction of the factory of intelligence and combat drones in Azerbaijan.<ref name"panarmenian.net">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/33537|titleIsrael rearms Azerbaijani army|access-date7 June 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100728070342/http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/33537|archive-date28 July 2010|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>[http://www.armenianreporter.am/go/article/2009-07-03-israel-azerbaijan-to-step-up-military-cooperation Washington briefing: Israel, Azerbaijan to step up military cooperation] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110624025123/http://www.armenianreporter.am/go/article/2009-07-03-israel-azerbaijan-to-step-up-military-cooperation |date24 June 2011 }}</ref>
The Israeli defense company Elta Systems Ltd has had cooperation from Azerbaijan in building the TecSAR reconnaissance satellite system, which can take high-definition photos of ground surfaces in all weather conditions.<ref name"EurAsiaNet">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav081709a.shtml|titleEurasianet|websitewww.eurasianet.org|access-date30 November 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120505082450/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav081709a.shtml|archive-date5 May 2012|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>Ninan Koshy, "[http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/4959 India and Israel Eye Iran] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091012235242/http://www.fpif.org/fpiftxt/4959 |date12 October 2009 }}", Foreign Policy in Focus, 13 February 2008.</ref> According to Azerbaijani military experts, the TecSAR system will be indispensable for military operations in the mountainous terrains of Azerbaijan.<ref name="panarmenian.net" />
As of June 2009, Israel and Azerbaijan had been negotiating on the production of Namer armoured infantry fighting vehicles in Azerbaijan.<ref>Panarmenian.net [http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/33537 panarmenian – Israel rearms Azerbaijani army] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100728070342/http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/33537 |date28 July 2010 }}, 30 June 2009</ref> There is no further information as to whether any agreement has been made.
NATO
{{Main|Azerbaijan–NATO relations}}
.]]
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and Azerbaijan cooperate. Azerbaijan's Individual Partnership Action Plan (IPAP) and its Partnership for Peace (PfP) linkages lay out the programme of cooperation between Azerbaijan and NATO.
The Azerbaijani government has however delayed implementing IPAP-recommended reforms, however, in part at least because no decision had been taken to seek NATO membership. This is because Azerbaijan's foreign policy 'seeks to balance interests with the U.S., EU, Russia and Iran.'<ref>International Crisis Group, Azerbaijan: Defence Sector Reform and Management, Europe Briefing No.50, Baku/Tbilisi/Brussels, 29 October 2008, p.1</ref>
According to a NATO diplomatic source some key officials at NATO headquarters in Brussels were pushing hard for engaging Azerbaijan on the membership question. "Turkey, Romania, Italy, Poland, the United Kingdom and the Baltic states," are among the member-states also backing a fast track for Azerbaijan's NATO membership.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav060409.shtml|titleEurasianet|websitewww.eurasianet.org|access-date9 August 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090606053322/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav060409.shtml|archive-date6 June 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>
However, Azerbaijan made its policy of not being aligned with a geopolitical/military structure official when it became a full member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 2011.
There is also a limited amount of military cooperation with the other countries of GUAM: Georgia, Ukraine, Azerbaijan, and Moldova.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.perspektivy.info/rus/konturi/vojennoje_sotrudnichestvo_mezhdu_postsovetskimi_gosudarstvami_2008-09-25.htm|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721230818/http://www.perspektivy.info/rus/konturi/vojennoje_sotrudnichestvo_mezhdu_postsovetskimi_gosudarstvami_2008-09-25.htm|url-statusdead|titleВоенное сотрудничество между постсоветскими государствами - Перспективы|archive-date21 July 2011|websitewww.perspektivy.info}}</ref>
Personnel
Educational system
of the Jamshid Nakhchivanski Military Lyceum]]
The purpose of Azerbaijani military education and training is to train soldiers, officers, and non-commissioned officers to have independent and creative thinking and commitment to the Azerbaijani people and the government. Military education in the Azerbaijani Armed Forces have been described as either being secondary education, further education, or higher education.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://mod.gov.az/en/the-military-education-system-of-azerbaijan-armed-forces-326/ |titleMinistry of Defense of the Republic of Azerbaijan |access-date11 June 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612143255/https://mod.gov.az/en/the-military-education-system-of-azerbaijan-armed-forces-326/ |archive-date12 June 2018 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Azerbaijani pilots were formerly trained in the Azerbaijan Air Force School, where they would then develop their skills in operational units. Azerbaijan has an experience exchange with Turkey, Ukraine, the United States and a number of NATO countries. The Turkish Air Force School has a great role in the training of Azerbaijani military pilots. Azerbaijani pilots are also trained in Ukraine's Pilot Training School.<ref>[http://en.apa.az/news.php?id97127 Azerbaijan’s military aviation opportunities] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120319233114/http://en.apa.az/news.php?id97127 |date19 March 2012 }}</ref>
The following is a list of educational institutions in the armed forces, under the auspices of the National Defense University:
* Military academies
** War College of the Armed Forces
** Training and Education Center of the Armed Forces
** Azerbaijan Higher Military Academy
*** Azerbaijan Higher Naval Academy (former independent institution)
*** Azerbaijan High Military Aviation School (former independent institution)
* Other educational institutions
** Secondary Military Medical School of Azerbaijan
** Military Medical Faculty of Azerbaijan Medical University
* Military lyceums
** Jamshid Nakhchivanski Military Lyceum
** Heydar Aliyev Military Lyceum
Conscription
{{Main|State Service for Mobilization and Conscription of Azerbaijan}}
Military Justice
{{See also|Judiciary of Azerbaijan}}
Military Courts act as courts of first instance deals. The Military Court is composed of a President and judges. The following military courts exist in Azerbaijan:<ref>{{Cite web|titleСуды - ЕДИНЫЙ СУДЕБНЫЙ ПОРТАЛ АЗЕРБАЙДЖАНСКОЙ РЕСПУБЛИКИ|urlhttps://courts.gov.az/ru/courts/Voennye-sudy_4|access-date3 April 2021|archive-date12 April 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210412115650/https://courts.gov.az/ru/courts/Voennye-sudy_4|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Military Court of Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic
* Baku Military Court (formed in August 1992)<ref>{{Cite web|titleMəhkəmə haqqında - Bakı Hərbi Məhkəməsi|urlhttps://courts.gov.az/az/bakumilitary|access-date3 April 2021|archive-date12 April 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210412121640/https://courts.gov.az/az/bakumilitary|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Ganja Military Court
* Lankaran Military Court
* Fuzuli-Gubadli Military Court
* Tartar Military Court
* Agdam Military Court
* Gazakh Military Court
* Sumgait Military Court
Women and ethnic minorities in the armed forces
During the first war, Russians, who were a large minority in Azerbaijan at the time, served in the units of the Azerbaijani Army, many of whom formerly served in the Soviet Army. According to the Russian Ministry of Defence more than 300 officers of the 7th Army, based in the capital of Baku, refused to leave Azerbaijan at the outset of the war.<ref>{{Cite web|titleЕльцин Центр|urlhttps://www.yeltsin.ru/|access-date2021-03-30|websiteЕльцин Центр|languageru|archive-date11 June 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190611072252/https://yeltsin.ru/|url-statusdead}}</ref> During the Second Karabakh War, the death of an ethnic Russian Azerbaijani soldier, Dmitry Solntsev, was reported.<ref>[https://menafn.com/1101014940/Ethnic-Russian-soldier-dies-in-battle-to-liberate-Azerbaijani-lands-from-Armenian-occupation Ethnic Russian soldier dies in the battle to liberate Azerbaijani lands from Armenian occupation]</ref> There was also Denis Aliyev (born as Denis Pronin) from the Xətai raion, who was killed in Jabrayil.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://ordu.az/az/news/175206/gence-terroru-rusiya-metbuatinda--vandalizme-son-qoymagin-vaxti-catib-|title Gəncə terroru Rusiya mətbuatında: "Vandalizmə son qoymağın vaxtı çatıb"}}</ref> He was later posthumously awarded the Medal "For the Liberation of Jabrayil" in December.<ref name":CM">{{cite news|titleAzərbaycan Silahlı Qüvvələrinin hərbi qulluqçularının "Cəbrayılın azad olunmasına görə" medalı ilə təltif edilməsi haqqında Azərbaycan Prezidentinin 24.12.2020-ci il tarixli Sərəncamı|authorAzərbaycan Prezidentinin saytı|newspaperwww.president.az|date24 December 2020|urlhttps://president.az/articles/49462|access-date24 December 2020|languageaz|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20210119094156/https://president.az/articles/49462|archive-date19 January 2021|url-statuslive}}</ref> Cossacks, associated with the Association of Cossacks of Azerbaijan, often join the Azerbaijani Armed Forces.<ref>{{Cite web|titleКазаки Азербайджана: Мы с нетерпением ждем отправки на фронт, чтобы присоединиться к нашим азербайджанским солдатам {{!}} Общественная жизнь|urlhttps://moscow-baku.ru/news/society/rukovoditel_molodezhi_zemlyachestva_kazakov_azerbaydzhana_ruslan_sleptsov_my_s_neterpeniem_zhdem_otp/|access-date2021-05-18|website=moscow-baku.ru}}</ref>
Female military personnel in the military are generally involved in education, office work, medical care, and the development of international cooperation. They also serve in the rear, signal troops, and intelligence forces. Women are exempt from conscription, which means that female service is purely on a voluntary basis. There are currently 1,000 female personnel in the Azerbaijani military, accounting for 3% of the armed forces.<ref>{{Cite web|date2014-08-12|titleЖенщины в Азербайджанской Армии – ФОТО|urlhttps://ru.oxu.az/society/37328|access-date2021-03-30|websiteOxu.Az|languageru}}</ref> During the Karabakh Conflict, 2,000 of the 74,000 Azerbaijani soldiers were women, and 600 of them directly took part in military operations, with a women's battalion being established in 1992.<ref name":0">{{Cite web|titleAzərbaycan ordusu və zərif əsgərlər...|urlhttps://modern.az/az/news/15043/azerbaycan-ordusu-ve-zerif-esgerler|access-date2021-03-30|websitemodern.az}}</ref> The enrollment of females in Azerbaijani higher military schools began in 1999.<ref name":0" /> According to soldier Tehrana Bahruzi in her book, “Zakir Hasanov: the Ideal Minister", Defence Minister Zakir Hasanov was responsible for launching the first female unit in the Special Forces of Azerbaijan.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAzerbaijan's Model Soldier: Pinup, Writer and Fighter {{!}} Eurasianet|urlhttps://eurasianet.org/azerbaijans-model-soldier-pinup-writer-and-fighter|access-date2021-03-12|websiteeurasianet.org|languageen}}</ref> In October 2020, the first female military casualty was reported, a combat medic who died while taking wounded soldiers from the battlefield.<ref>{{cite web|date27 October 2020|title2-ci Qarabağ müharibəsinin ilk qadın şəhidi|urlhttps://www.bakupost.az/2-ci-qarabag-muharibesinin-ilk-qadin-sehidi-foto|access-date27 October 2020|publisherBaku Post|languageaz|archive-date31 October 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201031132841/https://www.bakupost.az/2-ci-qarabag-muharibesinin-ilk-qadin-sehidi-foto|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Personnel medals and awards
* Medal "For Bravery"
* Medal "For Fatherland"
* Medal "For Faultless Service"
* Medal "For blameless service"
* Medal "For distinction in military service"
* Medal "For distinction in the border"
* Medal "For merit in military collaboration"
* Medal "For military merit"
* Veteran of the Armed Forces Medal
*Brave Warrior Medal
* For Distinction in Battle Medal
* For Heroism Medal
*For military services medal
*Herbi Xidmlete Gore Medal
*Anniversary medals
**"10th Anniversary of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan (1991–2001)" Medal
** "90th Anniversary of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan (1918–2008)" Medal
** "95th Anniversary of the Armed Forces of Azerbaijan (1918–2013)" Medal
**Azerbaijani Army 100th anniversary medal
* Battle/war awards
**Hero of the Patriotic War
** Hero of the Patriotic War Medal
** Participant of the Patriotic War Medal
**For Services in the Rear in the Patriotic War Medal
** For the Liberation of Aghdam Medal
** For the Liberation of Fuzuli Medal
** For the Liberation of Gubadly Medal
** For the Liberation of Jabrayil Medal
** For the Liberation of Kalbajar Medal
** For the Liberation of Khojavend Medal
** For the Liberation of Lachin Medal
** For the Liberation of Shusha Medal
** For the Liberation of Sugovushan Medal
** For the Liberation of Zangilan Medal
Today 'National Hero of Azerbaijan' is the highest national title in the country, awarded for outstanding services of national importance to Azerbaijan in defense, as well as other deeds in other spheres.
Traditions and military institutions
Military oath
The military oath ({{Langx|az|Hərbi and}}) is taken by conscripts as a legal basis of the beginning of their military service.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAZƏRBAYCAN RESPUBLİKASI MÜDAFİƏ NAZİRLİYİ|urlhttps://mod.gov.az/az/herbi-and-012/|access-date2020-12-19|websiteAZƏRBAYCAN RESPUBLİKASI MÜDAFİƏ NAZİRLİYİ|languageaz}}</ref> The oath is administered by the commanding officer of the unit. The following is the text for the current version of the oath:<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.lex.uz/docs/-86952?otherlang1 |title648-XII-сон 03.07.1992. Harbiy qasamyod to'g'risida |access-date19 December 2020 |archive-date4 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210204055838/https://www.lex.uz/docs/-86952?otherlang1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Blockquote|I am a citizen of the Republic of Azerbaijan, and I swear that I will be loyal to my homeland, Azerbaijan and its people, when I join the Azerbaijani Armed Forces.
I solemnly swear:
I will honorably protect the interests of the Republic of Azerbaijan, its sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence, for which I will spare no blood and soul. I will be sincere, brave, disciplined, will not give military secrets, will fulfill the requirements of military regulations, and will unconditionally obey the orders of commanders and chiefs.
I will study the military work in good faith, continue and develop the military traditions of my ancestors with honor, and I will be ready to stand up for the Motherland at any moment with a weapon in hand.
If I break my oath, I am ready to take responsibility with the full seriousness of the laws of the Republic of Azerbaijan.}}
Battle flags and pennants
A battle flag for a military unit is a symbol of honor which remains forever in the unit unless it is dissolved. By military law, if the battle flag is lost in battle, the commander of the military unit and the servicemen under its command are brought to court, and the unit is abolished. Battle flags have the color of the State Flag, with the slogan "For Azerbaijan" being embroidered with golden silk on a blue stripe along the upper edge of the fabric.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://mod.gov.az//images/pdf/e92b7e725323696cec9868cdf009c675.pdf |titleArchived copy |access-date20 December 2020 |archive-date13 October 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171013192521/http://mod.gov.az/images/pdf/e92b7e725323696cec9868cdf009c675.pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref> Outside the battle flag, the Azerbaijani military also utilizes the Turkish military tradition of pennants as symbols.
Military holidays
These are the military holidays observed by all service personnel the Armed Forces:
* 14 February – Air Force Day<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.azernews.az/nation/161762.html|titleAzerbaijan marks Air Force Day|date14 February 2020|websiteAzerNews.az}}</ref>
* 9 May – Victory Day (Great Patriotic War)
* 26 June – Day of the Armed Forces
* 5 August – Day of the Azerbaijani Navy<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.trend.az/life/socium/2174877.html |titleВ Азербайджане отметили День Военно-морского флота (фото) |date29 July 2013 |access-date19 December 2020 |archive-date9 November 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131109023427/http://www.trend.az/life/socium/2174877.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 27 September – Memorial Day
* 18 October – Day of the First Military Unit
* 8 November – Victory Day
Azerbaijan Military History Museum
Azerbaijan Military History Museum is a structure under the Ministry of Defense. It was established on 10 December 1992 by the order of the Minister of Defense and in accordance with a decree signed on 29 October 1992 "On the transfer of the Museum of Combat Glory of the VI Army Garrison of the Commonwealth of Independent States". Today, the museum displays 5 tanks, 9 armored personnel carriers, 16 artillery pieces, 6 aircraft, 4 helicopters, 6 different military equipment of the Air Force. Currently, the number of exhibits totals 11,000.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAn excursion was organized to the Military History Museum of Azerbaijan on the occasion of the 100th anniversary of establishment of Armed Forces of the Republic of Azerbaijan in Binagadi district - News - BINAGADI REGION Executive Power|urlhttp://www.binegedi-ih.gov.az/en/news/24.html|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210204055846/http://www.binegedi-ih.gov.az/en/news/24.html|archive-date4 February 2021|access-date2020-12-19|websitewww.binegedi-ih.gov.az}}</ref> at the new building of the Organization of Veterans of War, Labor and Armed Forces]] Republican Veterans Organization After the Second World War, veterans movements were launched in Azerbaijan, with the Baku Veterans Committee being established on 10 June 1960. The activity of the committee was limited to Baku until the early 1970s. During the leadership of First Secretary Heydar Aliyev, there was a revival in the veteran movement, during which the committee gradually expanded to the republic. The establishment of the Republican Veterans Organization took place on 21 March 1987. Despite the official registration of the RVO with the Ministry of Justice, the activity of the organization was largely formal due to the tensions in the country with the Karabakh War, as well as the attitude of the government towards Red Army veterans in general. One of the first laws signed by the President Aliyev was the Law "On Veterans" (28 June 1994), which restored the mandate for the RVO.<ref>{{Cite web |titleHistory of organization |urlhttp://veteran.gov.az/en/pages/T%C9%99%C5%9Fkilatin%20tarixi/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200712083925/http://veteran.gov.az/en/pages/T%C9%99%C5%9Fkilatin%20tarixi/ |archive-date12 July 2020 |access-date2020-12-13 |websiteveteran.gov.az }}</ref>
See also
*Judiciary of Azerbaijan
*Special Purpose Police Unit
References
{{Reflist}}
* {{Cite web|authorAzerbaijan|titleINDEPENDENT AZERBAIJAN AND ARMY BUILDING|urlhttps://azerbaijan.az/en/related-information/80 |websiteAzerbaijan.az |access-date=2023-12-31}} (Official Website of Azerbaijan)
* Chernyavsky, Azerbaijan's new path, 2002, 132, 352.
* G. E. Curtiss (ed.), Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia Country Studies, Washington, DC: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1995.
* {{CIA World Factbook}}
* {{StateDept}}
Further reading
*U.S. Army War College Center for Strategic Leadership, [https://web.archive.org/web/20100401042756/http://www.csl.army.mil/usacsl/publications/IP%2011-08%20-%20Azerbaijan.pdf Transformation of the Azerbaijani Armed Forces], October 2008
External links
{{Commons category|Military of Azerbaijan}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/user/WarrioRDFB Official YouTube Channel of Azerbaijani Soldier program]
{{Azerbaijan topics}}
{{Azerbaijani Armed Forces}}
{{Military of Asia}}
{{Military of Europe}}
Category:1918 establishments in Azerbaijan | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijani_Armed_Forces | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.954582 |
1091 | Geography of Armenia | {{Short description|none}}
<!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
zones]]
Armenia is a landlocked country in the South Caucasus region of the Caucasus. The country is geographically located in West Asia, within the Armenian plateau.<ref name"classification of world regions">The UN [http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm classification of world regions] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20020625192322/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm |date25 June 2002 }} places Armenia in West Asia; the CIA World Factbook {{cite web |urlhttps://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/armenia/ |titleArmenia |workThe World Factbook |publisherCIA |access-date2 September 2010 }} {{cite web |urlhttps://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/education-resources/?xpop1 |titleArmenia |publisherNational Geographic |access-date16 April 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070808084113/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parentasia&Rootmaparmeni&Moded&SubModew |archive-date8 August 2007 |url-statuslive }}, {{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/35178/Armenia |titleArmenia |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica |access-date16 April 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090401081831/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/35178/Armenia |archive-date1 April 2009 |url-statuslive }}, {{cite book|titleCalendario Atlante De Agostini|date2015|publisherIstituto Geografico De Agostini|locationNovara|languageit|isbn9788851124908|pagesub voce|edition111}} and Oxford Reference Online {{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopediaWorld Encyclopedia |titleOxford Reference |publisherOxford Reference Online |doi10.1093/acref/9780199546091.001.0001 |year2004 |isbn9780199546091 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/worldencyclopedi00oxfo }} also place Armenia in Asia.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title General information about Republic of Armenia|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/overview/|publisher Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Armenia)|access-dateOctober 2, 2023|location Armenia|quoteThe country is situated in western part of Asia, occupies the north-eastern part of Armenian plateau – between Caucasus and Nearest Asia}}</ref><ref name"Hewsen">Hewsen, Robert H. "The Geography of Armenia" in The Armenian People From Ancient to Modern Times Volume I: The Dynastic Periods: From Antiquity to the Fourteenth Century. Richard G. Hovannisian (ed.) New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997, pp. 1–17</ref> Armenia is bordered on the north and east by Georgia and Azerbaijan and on the south and west by Iran, Azerbaijan's exclave Nakhchivan, and Turkey.
The terrain is mostly mountainous, with fast flowing rivers and few forests. The climate is highland continental: hot summers and cold winters. The land rises to {{Convert|4,090|m|ft|abbron}} above sea-level at Mount Aragats.Physical environmentArmenia is located in the southern Caucasus, the region southwest of Russia between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.<ref name":02">{{citation-attribution|1{{Cite book|lastCurtis|firstGlenn E.|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/item/94045459/|titleArmenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia : country studies|date1995|publisherFederal Research Division|isbn0-8444-0848-4|edition1st|locationWashington, D.C.|pages25–29|oclc31709972}}}}</ref> Modern Armenia occupies part of historical Armenia, whose ancient centers were in the valley of the Araks River and the region around Lake Van in Turkey.<ref name":02" /> Armenia is bordered on the north by Georgia, on the east by Azerbaijan, on the south by Iran, and on the west by Turkey.<ref name":02" />
In Armenia forest cover is around 12% of the total land area, equivalent to 328,470 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, down from 334,730 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 310,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 18,470 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 5% was reported to be primary forest (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 0% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 100% of the forest area was reported to be under public ownership.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |titleTerms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisherFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleGlobal Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Armenia |urlhttps://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/ARM/home/overview |websiteFood Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>Topography and drainage
{{See also|List of rivers of Armenia|List of lakes of Armenia|Mountains of Armenia}}
Twenty-five million years ago, a geological upheaval pushed up the Earth's crust to form the Armenian Plateau, creating the complex topography of modern Armenia.<ref name":02" /> The Lesser Caucasus range extends through northern Armenia, runs southeast between Lake Sevan and Azerbaijan, then passes roughly along the Armenian-Azerbaijani border to Iran.<ref name":02" /> Thus situated, the mountains make travel from north to south difficult.<ref name":02" /> Geological turmoil continues in the form of devastating earthquakes, which have plagued Armenia.<ref name":02" /> In December 1988, the second largest city in the republic, Leninakan (now Gyumri), was heavily damaged by a massive quake that killed more than 25,000 people.<ref name=":02" />
About half of Armenia's area of approximately {{convert|29,743|km2|sqmi|1|abbron}} has an elevation of at least {{convert|2000|m|ft|0|abbron}}, and only 3% of the country lies below {{convert|650|m|ft|0|abbron}}.<ref name":02" /> The lowest points are in the valleys of the Araks River and the Debed River in the far north, which have elevations of {{convert|380|and|430|m|ft|0|abbron}}, respectively.<ref name":02" /> Elevations in the Lesser Caucasus vary between {{convert|2640|and|3280|m|ft|0|abbron}}.<ref name":02" /> To the southwest of the range is the Armenian Plateau, which slopes southwestward toward the Araks River on the Turkish border.<ref name":02" /> The plateau is masked by intermediate mountain ranges and extinct volcanoes.<ref name":02" /> The largest of these, Mount Aragats, {{convert|4090|m|ft|0|spus|abbr}} high, is also the highest point in Armenia.<ref name":02" /> Most of the population lives in the western and northwestern parts of the country, where the two major cities, Yerevan and Gyumri, are located.<ref name":02" />
The valleys of the Debed and Akstafa rivers form the chief routes into Armenia from the north as they pass through the mountains.<ref name":02" /> Lake Sevan, {{convert|72.5|km|mi|0|abbron}} across at its widest point and {{convert|376|km|mi|1|abbron}} long, is by far the largest lake.<ref name":02" /> It lies {{convert|1900|m|ft|0|abbron}} above sea level on the plateau and is {{convert|1279.18|km2|sqmi|1|abbron}} large.<ref name":02" /><ref name":0">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/eco_booklet_2018.doc.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/eco_booklet_2018.doc.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleENVIRONMENTAL STATISTICS OF ARMENIA FOR 2018 AND TIME-SERIES OF INDICATORS FOR 2014-2018}}</ref> Other main lakes are: Arpi, {{convert|7.5|km2|sqmi|1|abbron}}, Sev, {{convert|2|km2|sqmi|1|abbron}}, Akna {{convert|0.8|km2|sqmi|1|abbron}}.<ref name=":0" />
]]
Terrain is most rugged in the extreme southeast, which is drained by the Bargushat River, and most moderate in the Araks River valley to the extreme southwest.<ref name":02" /> Most of Armenia is drained by the Araks or its tributary, the Hrazdan, which flows from Lake Sevan.<ref name":02" /> The Araks forms most of Armenia's border with Turkey and Iran,<ref name":02" /> while the Zangezur Mountains form the border between Armenia's southern province of Syunik and Azerbaijan's adjacent Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic.Climate
{{Main|Climate of Armenia}}
Temperatures in Armenia generally depend upon elevation.<ref name":02" /> Mountain formations block the moderating climatic influences of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea, creating wide seasonal variations with cold snowy winters, and warm to hot summers.<ref name":02" /> On the Armenian Plateau, the mean midwinter temperature is {{convert|0|°C|°F}} to {{convert|−15|°C|°F}}, and the mean midsummer temperature is {{convert|15|°C|°F}} to {{convert|30|°C|°F}}.<ref name":02" /> Average precipitation ranges from {{convert|250|mm|in|1|spus}} per year in the lower Araks River valley to {{convert|800|mm|in|1|spus}} at the highest altitudes.<ref name":02" /> Despite the harshness of winter in most parts (with frosts reaching {{convert|-40|°C|°F}} and lower in Shirak region{{Citation needed|dateOctober 2020}}), the fertility of the plateau's volcanic soil made Armenia one of the world's earliest sites of agricultural activity.<ref name":02" />
Area and boundaries
{{More citations needed|section|date=October 2020}}
Area:<br>total: 29,743&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup><ref name=":0" />
:country comparison to the world: 143
land: 28,203&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup><br>water: 1,540&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup>
Area comparative
*Australia comparative: about one third (33%) the size of Tasmania
*Canada comparative: greater than half (56%) the size of Nova Scotia
*Turkey comparative: about a quarter (24%) smaller than the size of Konya Province.
*United Kingdom comparative: about one third larger (30%) than Wales
*United States comparative: slightly smaller (7%) than Maryland
*EU comparative: slightly smaller (8%) than Belgium
Land boundaries:<br>total: 1,570&nbsp;km<br>border countries:
Azerbaijan 566&nbsp;km, Azerbaijan-Nakhchivan exclave 221&nbsp;km, Georgia 219&nbsp;km, Iran 44&nbsp;km, Turkey 311&nbsp;km
Coastline:
0&nbsp;km (landlocked)
Elevation extremes:<br>lowest point: 375m<ref name":0" /><br>highest point: Mount Aragats 4,090 m<ref name":0" />
Extreme points of Armenia:<br>North:
Tavush ({{Coord|41|17|N|45|0|E|type:landmark_region:AM}})<br>South:
Syunik ({{Coord|38|49|N|46|10|E|type:landmark_region:AM}})<br>West:
Shirak ({{Coord|41|5|N|43|27|E|type:landmark_region:AM}})<br>East:
Syunik ({{Coord|39|13|N|46|37|E|type:landmark_region:AM}})
Resources and land use
{{More citations needed|section|date=October 2020}}
{{See also|Mineral industry of Armenia|Agriculture in Armenia}}
Natural resources:
deposits of gold, copper, molybdenum, zinc, bauxite
Armenia has significant deposits of copper, molybdenum and gold, as well as smaller deposits of zinc, lead and silver. Some copper-molybdenum and polymetallic ore deposits are rich in elements such as bismuth, tellurium, selenium, gallium, indium, thallium, rhenium and germanium.<ref>{{Cite web |titleArmenia - Mining and Minerals {{!}} Privacy Shield |urlhttps://www.privacyshield.gov/article?idArmenia-mining-sector#:~:textArmenia%20has%20significant%20deposits%20of,,%20thallium,%20rhenium%20and%20germanium. |access-date2022-12-08 |websitewww.privacyshield.gov |language=en}}</ref>
Land use:
<br>arable land:4.456 km²,<ref name":0" /> 15.8%<br>permanent crops: 1.9%<br>permanent pastures: 4.2%<br>forest (2018): 11.2%<ref name":0" /><br>other: 31.2% (2011)
Irrigated land: 2.084&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> (2018)
Total renewable water resources:
7.77 m<sup>3</sup> (2011) Armenia is considered to be a big water “supplier” in the Caspian basin; as a result, the country lacks water, especially in summer when the rate of evaporation exceeds the amount of precipitation. That is the main reason why since ancient times inhabitants have built water reservoirs and irrigation canals in the area. Lake Sevan contains the largest amount of water in the country.
Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):<br>total: 2.86&nbsp;km<sup>3</sup>/yr (40%/6%/54%)<br>per capita: 929.7 m<sup>3</sup>/yr (2010)
See also
{{Portal|Environment|Geography}}
*Atlas of Armenia
*Biogeographic regions of Europe
*Geography of Asia
*Geography of Europe
*Geology of Armenia
References
{{Reflist}}
Further reading
* {{Cite Historic Maps of Armenia}}
{{Armenia topics}}
{{Geography of Asia}}
{{Asia topic|Climate of}}
{{Geography of Europe}}
{{Europe topic|Climate of}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Armenia | 2025-04-05T18:25:29.966752 |
1092 | Demographics of Armenia | {{Short description|none}}
<!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see WP:SDNONE -->
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox place demographics
| place = Armenia
| image | caption Armenia population pyramid in 2020
| size_of_population 3,075,800 (January 1, 2025)<ref name":0">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_12_24r_510.pdf|title Socio-economic situation of RA, January - December 2024|date=n.d.}}</ref>
| density = 107/km<sup>2</sup>
| growth = 0.27/1,000 population (2016 est.)
| birth = 12.3 births/1,000 population (2023)
| death = 8.2 deaths/1,000 population (2023)
| nation = Armenian(s)
| major_ethnic = Armenian
| minor_ethnic = Russian, Yazidis, Kurds, Assyrians
| official = Armenian
| spoken = Armenian, English, Russian, French, Greek, Kurdish, and others
}}
After registering steady increases during the Soviet period, the population of Armenia declined from its peak value of 3.633 million in 1992 to 3.075 million in 2025.<ref name=":0"/>
Whilst the country's population increased steadily during the Soviet Union as a result of periods of repatriation and low emigration rates, it has declined in recent times due to the exodus of peoples following the Soviet break-up. The rates of emigration and population decline, however, have decreased in recent years, and there has been a moderate influx of Armenians returning to Armenia.
Historical statistics
{{historical populations
|alignright|percentagespagr|cols=2
|title=Census population and average annual growth rate
|1831|161747|1873|496140|1886|635833|1897|797853|1904|877322|1914|1014255|1916|993782|1919|961677|1920|720000|1922|782052|1926|878929|1931|1050633|1939|1282338|1959|1763048|1970|2491873|1979|3037259|1989|3304776|2001|3213011|2011|3018854|2022|2932731|2024 |3039700|footnoteFor 1831–1931{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|pp164–167}} {{better source needed|dateMarch 2023}} {{sfn|Allerton Kilbourne Matossian|1962|p12}}{{sfn|Sarkisyanz|1975|p61}}{{efn|The population in 1926 was later reported as 881,290 due to territorial adjustments that took place from 1926–1931.}}<br />For 1920{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|p113}}<br />For 1926<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_26.php?reg2314 The All-Union Population Census of 1926]. Demoscope.ru</ref><br />For 1939–1989<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://armstat.am/file/doc/171.pdf |title1. BRIEF HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE CENSUSES CONDUCTED PREVIOUSLY IN ARMENIA |publisherHayastani vichakagrakan komite |year2001 |locationYerevan |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220320130832/https://armstat.am/file/doc/171.pdf |archive-date20 March 2022}}</ref>{{efn|The population in 1989 was later reported as 3,448,600.<ref>{{Cite web |titlePART 8: POPULATION CENSUS |urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/demog_2015_8.pdf |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160705112134/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/demog_2015_8.pdf |archive-date5 July 2016 |access-date7 August 2022 |websiteStatistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia}}</ref>}}<br />For 2001<ref>[http://docs.armstat.am/census/pdfs/51.pdf Information from the 2001 Armenian National Census]</ref><br />For 2011<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/en/?nid81&id1512|titleTHE RESULTS OF 2011 POPULATION CENSUS OF THE REPUBLIC OF ARMENIA (FIGURES OF THE REPUBLIC OF ARMENIA), trilingual / Armenian Statistical Service of Republic of Armenia|websitewww.armstat.am|access-date=2018-01-10}}</ref>}}
Citing Armenia's conquest and occupation by the Seljuks (11th century) and Mongols (13th–15th centuries), historians Edmund Herzig and Marina Kurkchiyan write "the combination of progressive Turkish (and Kurdish) immigration and Armenian decline, through massacre, famine and emigration, changed the demographic balance in a way that Arab immigration had never done".{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|p=46}}
As a result of "deliberate relocation policies employed by both the Ottomans and Safavids" during the Ottoman–Safavid War, there was a large-scale displacement of Armenians; Armenians also emigrated "to escape the insecurity and hardship of life in war-torn Armenia". Whilst Shah Abbas I relocated Armenians to Isfahan and "Armenian colonies in other parts of Iran" in 1604–1605, "the Ottomans also removed Armenian artisans to their capital".{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|p=47}}
Following the Russian annexation, 45,000 Armenians from Persia and 100,000 from the Ottoman Empire migrated to Eastern Armenia, with another 25,000 migrating following the 1878 Russo-Turkish war. As a result of the repatriation, Armenians had regained a majority in their homeland "for the first time in several hundred years".{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|p66}} As a result of persecution and massacres in the Ottoman Empire, some 100,000 Armenians immigrated to Eastern Armenia between 1870 and 1910.{{sfn|Bloxham|2005|p48}} The areas with Armenian-majorities would later "form the nucleus in the twentieth century of an independent Armenian state".{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|p=66}}
Historian Sen Hovhannisian writes that during the 80 years of peace during which Eastern Armenia was part of Russia, there was "unprecedented" population growth: it tripled from 161,700 to 496,100 between 1831 and 1873, and doubled in the following forty years until it reached 1,000,100 in 1913. The population between 1831 and 1913 increased 6.18 times, yielding an average annual growth rate of 10,200 people. Following the outbreak of World War I, the population, which was 1,014,300 in 1914, fell by 20,500 in 1916 due to the Christian population being drafted. As a result of "wars and civil clashes, hunger and diseases" of 1918–1920, 432,000 people (35.8 percent of the population) were "exterminated".{{sfn|Hovhannisian|2019|p=242}}
Upon its sovietisation, the territory of modern-day Armenia had a population of some 720,000, a decline of nearly 30 percent—"almost half" consisted of refugees.{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|p113}} American historian Richard Pipes states that "according to Soviet estimates, the Armenian population of Transcaucasia declined between 1914 and 1920 by one half million: 200,000 in consequence of Turkish, and, presumably, Communist, massacres, and 300,000 from other causes, mostly famine and disease".{{sfn|Pipes|1959|p48}}
The drastic decline of the population was addressed by the Soviet Armenian government by repatriating displaced Azerbaijanis to districts where they had formed a significant population in Armenia. The Azerbaijani population of Armenia which numbered some 10,000 in 1920 (attributed to the ARF government's expulsion of at least 200,000 Turks and Kurds) rose to 72,596 in 1922 as a result of the return of 60,000 refugees.{{sfn|Korkotyan|1932|p183}} {{better source needed|dateMarch 2023}} In addition to this, the Soviet government welcomed 44,000 Armenian refugees from Greece, Iraq, Turkey, and elsewhere throughout the 1920s and 1930s.{{sfn|Herzig|Kurkchiyan|2005|pp115–117}} In 1946–1948, 86,000 Armenians were repatriated to Soviet Armenia to offset the country's wartime losses.{{sfn|Mirzoyan|2009|p138}} At the same time, by agreement of Armenian and Azerbaijani Soviet leaderships, tens of thousands of Azerbaijanis in Armenia were resettled to Azerbaijan to make room for the repatriates.{{sfn|Постановление N 754 Совета министров СССР «О мероприятиях по переселению колхозников и другого азербайджанского населения из Армянской ССР в Кура-Араксинскую низменность Азербайджанской ССР» от 10 марта 1948 г.}}
{{External media|image1[https://i.redd.it/1enk67k83yt21.png Population growth rates in 2010–2015 vs. 2005–2010] A study revealed that population growth rates were more positive in Armenia, compared to surrounding countries in the specified period.|titleGlobal map of changes in population growth rates}}
Population size and structure
{{original research|section|date=January 2021}}
According to the 2018 HDI statistical update (with data for 2017), compared to all its neighbouring countries Armenia has:<ref name":5">{{Cite web |date |titleHuman Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update |urlhttp://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180914165751/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf |archive-date14 September 2018 |website=United Nations Development Programme Human Development Reports}}</ref>
* the lowest coefficient of human inequality,
* the lowest gender inequality (ranked 55th on Gender Inequality Index),
* highest percentage of men and highest percentage of women with at least some secondary education,
* highest share of seats in parliament held by women,
* highest share of women who reported to feel safe,
* highest GDP growth rate.
Since 1990, Armenia recorded steady growth of average annual HDI scores in every reported period (1990–2000, 2000–2010, 2010–2017).<ref name=":5" />
According to the 2016 Sustainable Society Index, Armenia has a higher rank of Human Wellbeing than all its neighbours. At the same time its Economic Wellbeing rank is below neighbouring countries.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.ssfindex.com/results/ranking-all-countries/|titleRanking all countries – Sustainable Society Index|access-date2 December 2019|archive-date4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204094653/http://www.ssfindex.com/results/ranking-all-countries/}}</ref>
The 2011 census counted 539,394 persons (19.4 percent of the population above 6 years of age) with higher professional education.<ref name":4">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/1._bajin_5_583-664.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/1._bajin_5_583-664.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleArmenian 2011 census data, chapter 5|daten.d.}}</ref> Structure of the population The median age in 2020 was 36.6 years (male: 35.1, female: 38.3).<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.indexmundi.com/armenia/demographics_profile.html |titleArmenia Demographics Profile |access-date2022-10-30 |website=indexmundi.com}}</ref>
36.3 percent of women who gave birth in 2016 had higher education.<ref name=":0" />
Population by Sex and Age Group (Census 12.10.2011):<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2.htm|titleUnited Nations Statistics Division – Demographic and Social Statistics|publisher=United Nations}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! width="80pt" |Age Group
! width="80pt" |Male
! width="80pt" |Female
! width="80pt" |Total
! width="80pt" |%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 1,398,052
| align="right" | 1,620,802
| align="right" | 3,018,854
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 105 565
| align="right" | 102 007
| align="right" | 207 572
| align="right" | 6.88
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 91 429
| align="right" | 88 500
| align="right" | 179 929
| align="right" | 5.96
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 90 458
| align="right" | 88 179
| align="right" | 178 637
| align="right" | 5.92
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 107 938
| align="right" | 125 137
| align="right" | 233 075
| align="right" | 7.72
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 133 897
| align="right" | 158 337
| align="right" | 292 234
| align="right" | 9.68
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 122 109
| align="right" | 149 820
| align="right" | 271 929
| align="right" | 9.01
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 103 114
| align="right" | 119 891
| align="right" | 223 005
| align="right" | 7.39
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 89 073
| align="right" | 98 348
| align="right" | 187 421
| align="right" | 6.21
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 82 502
| align="right" | 94 462
| align="right" | 176 964
| align="right" | 5.86
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 98 064
| align="right" | 112 996
| align="right" | 211 060
| align="right" | 6.99
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 109 294
| align="right" | 125 238
| align="right" | 234 532
| align="right" | 7.77
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 80 989
| align="right" | 96 769
| align="right" | 177 758
| align="right" | 5.89
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 56 189
| align="right" | 71 410
| align="right" | 127 599
| align="right" | 4.23
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 28 020
| align="right" | 37 353
| align="right" | 65 373
| align="right" | 2.17
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 44 041
| align="right" | 63 637
| align="right" | 107 678
| align="right" | 3.57
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 30 734
| align="right" | 44 643
| align="right" | 75 377
| align="right" | 2.50
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 18 662
| align="right" | 30 244
| align="right" | 48 906
| align="right" | 1.62
|-
| align="right" | 85+
| align="right" | 5 974
| align="right" | 13 831
| align="right" | 19 805
| align="right" | 0.66
|-
! width="80pt" |Age Group
! width="80pt" |Male
! width="80pt" |Female
! width="80pt" |Total
! width="80pt" |%
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 287 452
| align="right" | 278 686
| align="right" | 566 138
| align="right" | 18.75
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 983 169
| align="right" | 1 152 408
| align="right" | 2 135 577
| align="right" | 70.74
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 127 431
| align="right" | 189 708
| align="right" | 317 139
| align="right" | 10.51
|-
|}
Population Estimates by Sex and Age Group (01.VII.2019):<ref>h{{cite web |urlhttps://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/products/dyb/dyb_2020/ |titleDemographic Yearbook – 2020 |publisherUnited Nations Statistics Division |placeNew York |access-date=2022-05-18}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 1 399 368
| align="right" | 1 563 114
| align="right" | 2 962 482
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 102 588
| align="right" | 92 078
| align="right" | 194 666
| align="right" | 6.57
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 111 879
| align="right" | 98 348
| align="right" | 210 227
| align="right" | 7.10
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 103 991
| align="right" | 90 955
| align="right" | 194 946
| align="right" | 6.58
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 88 582
| align="right" | 77 838
| align="right" | 166 420
| align="right" | 5.62
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 90 776
| align="right" | 88 311
| align="right" | 179 087
| align="right" | 6.05
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 115 826
| align="right" | 127 910
| align="right" | 243 736
| align="right" | 8.23
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 124 127
| align="right" | 138 753
| align="right" | 262 880
| align="right" | 8.87
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 111 345
| align="right" | 123 527
| align="right" | 234 872
| align="right" | 7.93
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 87 619
| align="right" | 100 891
| align="right" | 188 510
| align="right" | 6.36
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 74 528
| align="right" | 90 316
| align="right" | 164 844
| align="right" | 5.56
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 73 562
| align="right" | 93 943
| align="right" | 167 505
| align="right" | 5.65
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 91 952
| align="right" | 116 734
| align="right" | 208 686
| align="right" | 7.04
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 81 199
| align="right" | 105 827
| align="right" | 187 026
| align="right" | 6.31
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 55 578
| align="right" | 76 627
| align="right" | 132 205
| align="right" | 4.46
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 29 945
| align="right" | 46 812
| align="right" | 76 757
| align="right" | 2.59
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 23 192
| align="right" | 37 510
| align="right" | 60 702
| align="right" | 2.05
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 21 287
| align="right" | 37 958
| align="right" | 59 245
| align="right" | 2.00
|-
| align="right" | 85+
| align="right" | 11 392
| align="right" | 18 776
| align="right" | 30 168
| align="right" | 1.02
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 318 458
| align="right" | 281 381
| align="right" | 599 839
| align="right" | 20.25
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 939 516
| align="right" | 1 064 050
| align="right" | 2 003 566
| align="right" | 67.63
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 141 394
| align="right" | 217 683
| align="right" | 359 077
| align="right" | 12.12
|-
|}
|-
|}
In 2016, households with up to four members prevailed in urban areas throughout Armenia, with the share of such households coming to 70.2 percent in urban communities compared to 60.1 percent in rural communities.<ref name":1">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/poverty_2017_english_2.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/poverty_2017_english_2.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleSocial Snapshot and Poverty in Armenia, 2017, Part 1: Poverty Profile in 2008–2016|daten.d.}}</ref> Vital statistics Life expectancy According to the 2018 HDI statistical update, compared to all its neighbouring countries Armenia has the highest health expenditures as percentage of its GDP and the highest healthy life expectancy at birth.<ref name":5" />
In 2016, the average life expectancy at birth for males was 71.6 years and for females was 78.3 years, with the average at 75.0 years.<ref name=":0" />
After a setback during 1986–1996, mostly due to the Spitak earthquake, and the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, Armenia regained its position and was consistently among the top three former Soviet republics during 1997–2016, topping the list in 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?dsd5bncppjof8f9_&ctypec&strailfalse&bcsd&nselms&met_ysp_dyn_le00_in&scale_ylin&ind_yfalse&idimcountry:AZE:GEO:EST:KAZ:LVA:MDA:RUS:TJK:TKM:UKR:LTU:KGZ:BLR:ARM:XKX&ifdimcountry:region:ECS&tunitY&pit1193079600000&hlen&dlen&indfalse&icfg|titleWorld Development Indicators – Google Public Data Explorer|daten.d.|access-date=23 October 2018}}</ref>
During the Soviet period, life expectancy was traditionally high in Armenia and topped all other republics of the USSR, and most other countries in Eastern Europe between 1978 and 1980.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?dsd5bncppjof8f9_&ctypec&strailfalse&bcsd&nselms&met_ysp_dyn_le00_in&scale_ylin&ind_yfalse&idimcountry:AZE:GEO:EST:KAZ:LVA:MDA:RUS:TJK:TKM:UKR:LTU:KGZ:BLR:ARM&ifdimcountry:region:ECS&tunitY&pit277934400000&hlen&dlen&indfalse&icfg|titleWorld Development Indicators – Google Public Data Explorer|daten.d.|access-date23 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://d-zykin.livejournal.com/275731.html|titleПродолжительность жизни по республикам СССР|lastd_zykin|date2 January 2016|websiteЖурнал Летучего Мыша: каждому свое и подобное к подобному|access-date=23 October 2018}}</ref>
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align:center"
!Period
!Life expectancy in<br />Years
!Period
!Life expectancy in<br />Years
|-
|1950–1955
|62.8
|1985–1990
|68.4
|-
|1955–1960
|64.9
|1990–1995
|68.1
|-
|1960–1965
|67.0
|1995–2000
|70.2
|-
|1965–1970
|69.2
|2000–2005
|72.4
|-
|1970–1975
|70.8
|2005–2010
|72.7
|-
|1975–1980
|70.6
|2010–2015
|74.0
|-
|1980–1985
|70.9
|
|
|}
Source: UN<ref>{{cite web|titleWorld Population Prospects – Population Division – United Nations|urlhttps://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/DataQuery/|access-date16 July 2017|daten.d.}}</ref>
Reproduction indicators
In 2016, natural increase of population comprised 12,366 persons and the crude rate of natural increase reached 4.1%, per 1000 population, decreasing by 0.4 percent compared to the previous year.<ref name=":0" />
After double-digit crude natural increase rates between 1982 and 1992, rates did not exceed 5.5 after 1998. At a regional level, slightly better rates were recorded in the capital Yerevan, where the value of 5.5 is consistently being surpassed since 2009. Particularly weak is natural increase in Tavush and Syunik provinces, not much better off are Lori and Vayots Dzor provinces.<ref name=":0" />
Fertility Rate (TFR) (Wanted Fertility Rate) and CBR (Crude Birth Rate):<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dhsprogram.com/|titleThe DHS Program – Quality information to plan, monitor and improve population, health, and nutrition programs|website=dhsprogram.com}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! rowspan=2| Year
! colspan=2| Total
! colspan=2| Urban
! colspan=2| Rural
|-
! CBR !! TFR
! CBR !! TFR
! CBR !! TFR
|-
| 2000
| style="text-align:right;" | 13.9
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.7 (1.5)
| style="text-align:right;" | 12.1
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.5 (1.3)
| style="text-align:right;" | 16.3
| style="text-align:right;" | 2.1 (1.7)
|-
| 2005
| style="text-align:right;" | 14.6
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.7 (1.6)
| style="text-align:right;" | 14.5
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.6 (1.6)
| style="text-align:right;" | 14.9
| style="text-align:right;" | 1,8 (1,6)
|-
| 2010
| style="text-align:right;" | 14.0
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.7 (1.6)
| style="text-align:right;" | 12.8
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.6 (1.5)
| style="text-align:right;" | 16.2
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.8 (1.8)
|-
| 2015–2016
| style="text-align:right;" | 12.9
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.7 (1.7)
| style="text-align:right;" | 12.7
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.7 (1.6)
| style="text-align:right;" | 13.2
| style="text-align:right;" | 1.8 (1.8)
|-
|}
Armenia's Total Fertility Rate at 1.6 was lowest in the Caucasus region in 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://www.worldpopdata.org/map|titleMap|access-date7 February 2018}}</ref> TFR is expected to stay at 1.6 between 2015 and 2020, less from 1.7 in years 2010–2015.<ref name":5" />
The mean age of mothers at birth was 26.8 years and at first birth it was 24.7 years in 2016.<ref name":0" /> Adolescent birth rate, as well as, share of women married aged 18 was lowest in Armenia compared to its neighbouring countries.<ref name":5" />
In 2016, infant mortality rate (in the first year of their life) was 8.6%, per 1,000 live births.<ref name=":0" />
A study revealed that population growth rate changes were more favourable in Armenia than in its surrounding countries between 2005 and 2015.
Since the 1960s, Armenia has the highest share of urban population among South Caucasus countries.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://2.bp.blogspot.com/-P3uzxXDAWe8/XAfBuRQOSfI/AAAAAAAAOgY/bhpiNYkyhO8JdTNW9RxJnTxacBTHXW4JACLcBGAs/s1600/_RuralPopulationEurope.gif|titleShare of rural population in Europe (animation)|daten.d.|access-date9 December 2018}}</ref>
Vital statistics summary data
{{GraphChart
| width = 550
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=year
| yAxisTitle= million
| yAxisMin| yGrid 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| legend| type line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
| y1= 1.35, 1.38, 1.42, 1.45, 1.5, 1.56, 1.62,1.67, 1.73, 1.8, 1.87, 1.94, 2, 2.06, 2.13, 2.21, 2.27, 2.34, 2.4, 2.46, 2.52, 2.58, 2.64, 2.71, 2.77, 2.83, 2.88, 2.94, 3, 3.05,3.1, 3.14, 3.19,3.24, 3.29, 3.34, 3.39, 3.44, 3.45, 3.48, 3.55,3.6, 3.55, 3.41, 3.31, 3.26, 3.25, 3.24, 3.24, 3.23, 3.22, 3.21, 3.21, 3.19, 3.17, 3.16, 3.14, 3.12, 3.11, 3.09, 3.07, 3.06, 3.04, 3.02, 3.01, 3.01, 3, 2.99, 2.97, 2.97, 2.96, 2.96
| y1Title= population (million)
}}
{{GraphChart
| width = 550
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=years
| yAxisTitle= ‰
| yAxisMin| yGrid 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| hAnnotatonsLine=0
| hAnnotatonsLabel| legend
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
| y1= 23.6,27.1,28.9,25.5,30.4,29.2,30.8,31.6,33.0,32.4,33.3,30.8,28.0,26.8,24.4,22.9,21.6,19.0,18.9,17.6,17.0,17.7,17.2,16.8,16.7,16.8,17.1,17.0,16.7,17.3,17.2,18.1,17.8,17.9,18.4,18.2,18.2,17.1,11.3,15.6,16.3,15.1,12.6,9.2,8.0,7.4,7.1,6.2,5.0,3.8,3.2,2.5,2.1,3.1,3.7,3.5,3.3,4.3,4.4,5.5,5.5,5.0,4.9,4.8,5.3,4.6,4.2,3.5,3.7,3.3,0.1,0.6,3.2
| y2= ,-9.7,-2.8,1.4,2.7,9.1,1.2,1.3,2.2,3.2,4.7,7.8,3.4,1.8,8,9.8,8.3,8.4,7.8,7.1,5.2,6.3,7,6.8,5.7,3.1,2.6,3.4,2.6,-0.9,14.4,-2.9,-2.1,-2.8,-3.6,-4.1,-4.1,-3.1,4.1,-7.3,1.4,16.2,-28.1,-50,-38.5,-24,-9.6,-7.7,-7.2,-5.4,-6,-4.7,-4.9,-8.4,-8.8,-5.7,-8.4,-9.7,-9.6,-11,-10.7,-10.6,-11.2,-9.8,-8,-6.9,-7.1,-7.5,-8,-6,-2.1,1.1,-1.5
| y1Title=Natural change (per 1000)
| y2Title=Crude migration change (per 1000)
}}
{{GraphChart
| width = 550
| height = 150
| xAxisTitle=years
| yAxisTitle= TFR
| yAxisMin| yGrid 0,1
| xGrid= 10
| hAnnotatonsLine=2.1
| hAnnotatonsLabel| legend
| type = line
| x = 1950,1951,1952,1953,1954,1955,1956,1957,1958,1959,1960,1961,1962,1963,1964,1965,1966,1967,1968,1969,1970,1971,1972,1973,1974,1975,1976,1977,1978,1979,1980,1981,1982,1983,1984,1985,1986,1987,1988,1989,1990,1991,1992,1993,1994,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021, 2022
| y1= ,,,,,,,,,,4.63,4.27,4.17,4.11,3.98,3.91,3.69,3.55,3.46,3.20,3.17,3.18,3.07,2.92,2.82,2.79,2.72,2.61,2.46,2.38,2.33,2.31,2.26,2.35,2.44,2.56,2.58,2.55,2.49,2.61,2.63,2.60,2.44,2.14,1.878,1.842,1.834,
1.680,1.509,1.388,1.305,1.239,1.207,1.349,1.383,1.366,1.348,1.417,1.444,1.551,1.556,1.499,1.583,1.573,1.652,1.645,1.647,1.576,1.573,1.599,1.656,1.709
| y1Title=Total Fertility Rate
}}
<ref>B.R. Mitchell. International historical statistics 1750–2005: Africa. Asia and Oceania</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/dyb/dyb2.htm |titleDemographic Yearbook |websiteUnited Nations Statistics Division}}{{nonspecific|dateMay 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/en/|titleStatistical Committee of Armenia|websitearmstat.am}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/ussr_ed_1935.php?year1957|titleДемоскоп Weekly – Приложение. Справочник статистических показателей.|websitedemoscope.ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid82&id2225|titleThe Demographic Handbook of Armenia, 2019 / Statistical Committee of Armenia|websitearmstat.am}}</ref>
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"text-align: right;"
|-
! rowspan=2 |
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Average population
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Live births
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Deaths
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Natural change
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Crude birth rate (per 1000)
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Crude death rate (per 1000)
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Natural change (per 1000)
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Crude migration rate (per 1000)
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Total fertility rate
! rowspan2 width"70pt" |Infant mortality rate (per 1000 births)
! colspan3 width"70pt" |Life expectancy
|-
! males
! females
! total
|-
|1950
|1,354,000
|43,414
| align"right" style"color: blue" |11,525
|31,889
|32.1
|8.5
|23.6
|
|-
|1951
|1,378,000
|49,790
|12,482
|37,308
|36.1
|9.1
|27.1
| -9.4
|-
|1952
|1,415,000
|53,845
|12,916
|40,929
|38.1
|9.1
|28.9
| -2.0
|-
|1953
|1,454,000
|51,025
|14,007
|37,018
|35.1
|9.6
|25.5
| 2.1
|-
|1954
|1,504,000
|57,995
|12,301
|45,900
|38.6
|8.2
|30.4
| 4.0
|-
|1955
|1,564,000
|59,477
|13,763
|45,714
|38.0
|8.8
|29.2
| 10.7
|-
|1956
|1,616,000
|62,119
|12,286
|50,000
|38.5
|7.6
|30.8
| 2.4
|-
|1957
|1,671,000
|66,862
|14,101
|52,761
|40.0
|8.4
|31.6
| 2.4
|-
|1958
|1,732,000
|71,213
|14,089
|57,124
|style="color: blue"|41.1
|8.1
|33.0
| 3.5
|-
|1959
|1,796,000
|72,211
|13,968
|58,243
|40.2
|7.8
|32.4
| 4.6
|-
|1960
|1,867,000
|74,825
|12,675
|style="color: blue"|62,150
|40.1
|6.8
|style="color: blue"|33.3
| 6.2
| align"right" style"color: blue" |4.63
|-
|1961
|1,942,000
|72,377
|12,496
|59,881
|37.3
|6.4
|30.8
| 9.4
| align"right" style"color: blue" |4.27
|-
|1962
|2,005,000
|69,505
|13,297
|56,208
|34.7
|6.6
|28.0
| 4.4
| align"right" style"color: blue" |4.17
|-
|1963
|2,064,000
|67,382
|12,046
|55,336
|32.6
|5.8
|26.8
| 2.6
| align"right" style"color: blue" |4.11
|-
|1964
|2,133,000
|64,454
|12,415
|52,039
|30.2
|5.8
|24.4
| 9.0
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3.98
|-
|1965
|2,205,000
|62,969
|12,582
|50,387
|28.6
|5.7
|22.9
| 10.9
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3.91
|-
|1966
|2,273,000
|61,594
|12,445
|49,149
|27.1
|5.5
|21.6
| 9.2
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3.69
|-
|1967
|2,337,000
|57,031
|12,622
|44,409
|24.4
|5.4
|19.0
| 9.2
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3.55
|-
|1968
|2,401,000
|57,503
|12,231
|45,272
|23.9
|5.1
|18.9
| 8.5
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3.46
|-
|1969
|2,462,000
|56,203
|12,782
|43,421
|22.8
|5.2
|17.6
| 7.8
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3.20
|-
|1970
|2,518,000
|55,694
|12,844
|42,850
|22.1
|5.1
|17.0
| 5.7
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3.17
|-
|1971
|2,580,000
|58,188
|12,518
|45,670
|22.6
|style="color: blue"|4.9
|17.7
| 6.9
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3.18
|-
|1972
|2,644,000
|59,313
|13,730
|45,583
|22.4
|5.2
|17.2
| 7.6
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3.07
|-
|1973
|2,708,000
|59,593
|14,102
|45,491
|22.0
|5.2
|16.8
| 7.4
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.92
|-
|1974
|2,770,000
|60,419
|14,276
|46,143
|21.8
|5.2
|16.7
| 6.2
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.82
|-
|1975
|2,826,000
|62,866
|15,498
|47,368
|22.2
|5.5
|16.8
| 3.4
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.79
|-
|1976
|2,883,000
|65,065
|15,688
|49,377
|22.6
|5.4
|17.1
| 3.1
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.72
|-
|1977
|2,943,000
|65,830
|15,813
|50,017
|22.4
|5.4
|17.0
| 3.8
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.61
|-
|1978
|3,001,000
|66,698
|16,465
|50,233
|22.2
|5.5
|16.7
| 3.0
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.46
|-
|1979
|3,051,000
|69,786
|17,125
|52,661
|22.9
|5.6
|17.3
| -0.6
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.38
|-
|1980
|3,096,000
|70,324
|17,124
|53,200
|22.7
|5.5
|17.2
| -2.5
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.33
|-
|1981
|3,144,000
|73,682
|16,659
|57,023
|23.4
|5.3
|18.1
| -2.1
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.31
|-
|1982
|3,194,000
|74,225
|17,469
|56,756
|23.2
|5.5
|17.8
| -1.9
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.26
|-
|1983
|3,243,000
|76,436
|18,369
|58,067
|23.6
|5.7
|17.9
| -2.6
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.35
|-
|1984
|3,292,000
|79,767
|19,043
|60,724
|24.2
|5.8
|18.4
| -3.3
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.44
|-
|1985
|3,339,000
|80,306
|19,581
|60,725
|24.1
|5.9
|18.2
| -3.9
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.56
|-
|1986
|3,387,000
| align"right" style"color: blue" |81,192
|19,410
|61,782
|24.0
|5.7
|18.2
| --3.8
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.58
|-
|1987
|3,435,000
|78,492
|19,727
|58,765
|22.9
|5.7
|17.1
| -2.9
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.55
|-
|1988
|3,453,000
|74,707
|35,567
|39,140
|21.6
|10.3
|11.3
| -6.1
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.49
|-
|1989
|3,482,000
|75,250
|20,853
|54,397
|21.6
|6.0
|15.6
| -7.2
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.61
|-
|1990
|3,545,000
|79,882
|21,993
|57,889
|22.5
|6.2
|16.3
| 1.8
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.63
|-
|1991
| align"right" style"color: blue" |3,604,000
|77,825
|23,425
|54,400
|21.6
|6.5
|15.1
| 1.5
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.60
|-
|1992
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,549,000
|70,581
|25,824
|44,757
|19.9
|7.3
|12.6
| -27.9
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.44
|-
|1993
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,410,000
|59,041
|27,500
|31,541
|17.3
|8.1
|9.2
| -48.4
| align"right" style"color: blue" |2.14
|-
|1994
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,309,000
|51,143
|24,648
|26,495
|15.5
|7.4
|8.0
| -37.6
|1.878
|-
|1995
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,255,000
|48,960
|24,842
|24,118
|15.0
|7.6
|7.4
| -23.7
|1.842
|-
|1996
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,247,000
|48,134
|24,936
|23,198
|14.8
|7.7
|7.1
| -9.6
|1.834
|-
|1997
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,242,000
|43,929
|23,985
|19,944
|13.5
|7.4
|6.2
| -7.7
|1.680
|-
|1998
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,235,000
|39,366
|23,210
|16,156
|12.2
|7.2
|5.0
| -7.2
|1.509
|-
|1999
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,230,000
|36,502
|24,087
|12,415
|11.3
|7.5
|3.8
| -5.3
|1.388
|-
|2000
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,221,000
|34,276||24,025||10,251
|10.6||7.5||3.2
| -6.0
|1.305
|-
|2001
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,214,000
| align"right" style"color: red" |32,065||24,003||8,062
|style="color: red"|10.0||7.5||2.5
| -4.7
|1.239
|-
|2002
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,205,000
|32,229||25,554||6,675
|10.1||8.0||2.1
| -4.9
| style="color: red" |1.207
|-
|2003
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,188,000
|35,793||26,014||9,779
|11.2||8.2||3.1
| -8.4
|1.349
|-
|2004
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,172,000
|37,520||25,679||11,841
|11.8||8.1||3.7
| -8.7
|1.383
|-
|2005
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,155,000
|37,499||26,379||11,120
|11.9||8.4||3.5
| -8.9
|1.366
|-
|2006
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,139,000
|37,639||27,202||10,437
|12.0||8.7||3.3
| -8.4
|1.348
|13.9
|69.8||76.0||72.9
|-
|2007
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,122,000
|40,105||26,830||13,275
|12.8||8.6||4.3
| -9.7
|1.417
|10.9
|69.8||76.1||73.0
|-
|2008
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,106,000
|41,185||27,412||13,773
|13.3||8.8||4.4
| -9.5
|1.444
|10.8
|70.0||76.3||73.2
|-
|2009
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,089,000
|44,466||27,528||16,938
|14.4||8.9||5.5
| -11.0
|1.551
|10.4
|70.0||76.3||73.2
|-
|2010
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,073,000
|44,825||27,921||16,904
|14.6||9.1||5.5
| -10.7
|1.556
|11.4
|70.1||76.4||73.3
|-
|2011
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,056,000
|43,340||27,963||15,377
|14.2||9.1||5.0
| -10.5
|1.499
|11.6
|70.5||77.3||74.0
|-
|2012<sup>3</sup>
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,037,000
|42,480||27,599||14,881
|14.0||9.1||4.9
| -11.1
|1.583
|10.8
|70.9||77.5||74.3
|-
|2013
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,022,000
|41,770||27,165||14,605
|13.8||9.0||4.8
| -9.7
|1.573
|9.7
|71.5||77.9||74.8
|-
|2014
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,014,000
|43,183||27,196||15,987
|14.3||9.0||5.3
| -7.9
|1.652
|8.8
|71.8||78.1||75.0
|-
|2015
| align"right" style"color: red" |3,007,000
|41,763||27,878||13,885
|13.9||9.3||4.6
| -6.9
|1.645
|8.8
|71.7||78.2||75.0
|-
|2016
| align"right" style"color: red" |2,998,000
|40,592||28,226||12,366
|13.5||9.4||4.2
| -7.2
|1.647
|8.6
|71.6||78.3||75.0
|-
|2017
| align"right" style"color: red" |2,986,000
|37,700||27,157||10,543
|12.7||9.2||3.5
| -7.5
|1.576
|8.2
|71.9||78.7||75.4
|-
|2018
| align"right" style"color: red" |2,973,000
|36,574||25,751||10,823
|12.3||8.7||3.6
| -8.0
|1.573
|7.1
|72.4||79.0||75.9
|-
|2019
| align"right" style"color: red" |2,965,000
|36,041||26,186||9,855
|12.2||8.8||3.4
| -6.1
|1.599
|6.1
|73.1||79.5
|76.5
|-
|2020
| align"right" style"color: red" |2,959,000
||36,353||style"color: red"|36,433|| style"color: red" |-80
|12.3||style"color: red"|12.3|| style"color: red" |-0.0
| -2.0
|1.656
|7.3
|68.4||78.6
|73.5
|-
|2021
|2,964,000
|36,623||34,388||2,235
|12.4||11.6||0.8
| 0.9
|1.710
|6.9
|67.4||77.4
|72.4
|-
|2022
|2,969,000
|36,375||26,692||9,683
|12.3||9.0||3.3
| -1.6
|1.738
|6.7
|71.4
|78.3
|75.1
|-
|2023
|2,991,200
|36,590||24,313||12,277
|12.3||8.2||4.1
| 3.4
|1.885
|6.6
|74.1
|81.0
|77.7
|-
|2024
|3,075,800
|33,648||25,576||8,072
|11.1||8.4||2.7
|
|
|
|
|
|
|}
<sup>1</sup> The numbers of life births and deaths until 1959 were calculated from the birth rate and death rate, respectively
<sup>2</sup> The high number of deaths in 1988 is related to the Spitak earthquake, while in the rest of the 20th century the death rate was equal to the rate of other European countries (excluding England).<ref>{{cite book|authorBaten, Jörg |titleA History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date2016|publisherCambridge University Press|page265|isbn978-1-107-50718-0}}</ref>
<sup>3</sup> The population estimate for 2012 has been recalculated on the basis of the 2011 Census.
2024: https://armstat.am/file/article/population_01_07_24.pdf
Current vital statistics
<ref>{{cite web|titleSocio-Economic Situation of RA, January-September 2024 (in Armenian and Russian)|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid82&id2702}}</ref>
{| class"wikitable" style"text-align:center;"
|+
|-
! Period
! Live births
! Deaths
! Natural increase
|-
| January 2024
| 2,871
| 2,430
| +441
|-
| January 2025
| 2,733
| 2,627
| +106
|-
| Difference
| {{Decrease}} -138 (-4.8%)
| {{increasenegative}} +197 (+8.1%)
| {{decrease}} -335
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Birth rate by province<ref>{{cite web|titleStatistical Yearbook of Armenia, 2023|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid586&year2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|titleThe Demographic Handbook of Armenia, 2023|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid81&id2624}}</ref>
!Province
!TFR (2022)
!CBR (2022)
|-
|Yerevan
|1.42
|9.9
|-
|Aragatsotn
|2.10
|15.4
|-
|Ararat
|2.08
|15.2
|-
|Armavir
|1.90
|14.0
|-
|Gegharkunik
|1.78
|12.7
|-
|Lori
|1.85
|13.0
|-
|Kotayk
|2.04
|14.5
|-
|Shirak
|1.67
|12.2
|-
|Syunik
|1.82
|12.6
|-
|Vayots Dzor
|1.99
|14.5
|-
|Tavush
|1.80
|12.3
|}
Ethnic groups
{{Main|Censuses of Armenia}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Population of ethnic groups in Armenia in 1926–2022
|- bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! rowspan="2" | Ethnic<br />group
! colspan="2" | census 1926<sup>1</sup>
! colspan="2" | census 1939<sup>2</sup>
! colspan="2" | census 1959<sup>3</sup>
! colspan="2" | census 1970<sup>4</sup>
! colspan="2" | census 1979<sup>5</sup>
! colspan="2" | census 1989<sup>6</sup>
! colspan="2" | census 2001<sup>7</sup>
! colspan="2" | census 2011<sup>8</sup>
! colspan="2" | census 2022<sup>9</sup>
|- bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
! # !! %
|-
| Armenians
| align="right" | 743,571
| align="right" | 84.5
| align="right" | 1,061,997
| align="right" | 82.8
| align="right" | 1,551,610
| align="right" | 88.0
| align="right" | 2,208,327
| align="right" | 88.6
| align="right" | 2,724,975
| align="right" | 89.7
| align="right" | 3,083,616
| align="right" | 93.3
| align="right" | 3,145,354
| align="right" | 97.9
| align="right" | 2,961,514
| align="right" | 98.1
|2,875,697
|98.1
|-
| Yazidis
| align="right" | 12,237
| align="right" | 1.4
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 20,481
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 1.6
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 25,627
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 1.5
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 37,486
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 1.5
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 50,822
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 1.7
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 56,127
| rowspan"2" align"right" | 1.7
| align="right" | 40,620
| align="right" | 1.3
| align="right" | 35,272
| align="right" | 1.2
|31,077
|1.1
|-
| Kurds
| align="right" | 2,973
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 1,519
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 2,131
| align="right" | 0.1
|1,663
|0.1
|-
| Russians
| align="right" | 19,548
| align="right" | 2.2
| align="right" | 51,464
| align="right" | 4.0
| align="right" | 56,464
| align="right" | 3.2
| align="right" | 66,108
| align="right" | 2.7
| align="right" | 70,336
| align="right" | 2.3
| align="right" | 51,555
| align="right" | 1.6
| align="right" | 14,660
| align="right" | 0.5
| align="right" | 11,862
| align="right" | 0.4
|14,074
|0.5
|-
| Assyrians
| align="right" | 2,215
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 3,280
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 4,326
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 5,544
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 6,183
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 5,963
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 3,409
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 2,769
| align="right" | 0.1
|2,754
|0.1
|-
| Ukrainians
| align="right" | 2,286
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 5,496
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 5,593
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 8,390
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 8,900
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 8,341
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 1,633
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 1,176
| align="right" | 0.0
|1,005
|0.0
|-
| Greeks
| align="right" | 2,980
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 4,181
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 4,976
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 5,690
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 5,653
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 4,650
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 1,176
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 900
| align="right" | 0.0
|365
|0.0
|-
| Georgians
| align="right" | 274
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 652
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 816
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 1,439
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 1,314
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 1,364
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 694
| align="right" | 0․0
| align="right" | 974
| align="right" | 0.0
|223
|0.0
|-
| Azerbaijanis
| align="right" | 76,870
| align="right" | 8.7
| align="right" | 130,896
| align="right" | 10.2
| align="right" | 107,748
| align="right" | 6.1
| align="right" | 148,189
| align="right" | 5.9
| align="right" | 160,841
| align="right" | 5.3
| align="right" | 84,860
| align="right" | 2.6
| align="right" | 29
| align="right" | 0․0
| align="right" |
| align="right" |
|
|
|-
| Jews
| align="right" | 335
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 512
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 1,024
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 1,047
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 959
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 720
| align="right" | 0.0
| align="right" | 109
| align="right" | 0․0
| align"right" | 127<ref name"smallminorities2011" >{{cite web |titleԱԶԳԱՅԻՆ ՓՈՔՐԱՄԱՍՆՈՒԹՅՈՒՆՆԵՐԸ ՀԱՅԱՍՏԱՆՈՒ |urlhttp://mincult.am/datas/media/azg.poqr.%20ev%20xorhurd%20mshak.nax.%20(1).doc |access-date31 July 2018 |archive-date10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010143439/http://mincult.am/datas/media/azg.poqr.%20ev%20xorhurd%20mshak.nax.%20(1).doc }}</ref>
| align="right" | 0․0
|
|
|-
| Others
| align="right" | 18,001
| align="right" | 2.0
| align="right" | 3,379
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 4,864
| align="right" | 0.3
| align="right" | 9,653
| align="right" | 0.4
| align="right" | 7,276
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 7,580
| align="right" | 0.2
| align="right" | 3,808
| align="right" | 0.1
| align="right" | 2,129
| align="right" | 0.1
|5,508
|0.2
|- bgcolor="#e0e0e0"
! align="left" | Total
! colspan="2" | 880,464
! colspan="2" | 1,282,338
! colspan="2" | 1,763,048
! colspan="2" | 2,491,873
! colspan="2" | 3,037,259
! colspan="2" | 3,304,776
! colspan="2" | 3,213,011
! colspan="2" | 3,018,854
! colspan="2" |2,932,731
|-
| colspan"19" | <small><sup>1</sup> Source: [http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_26.php?reg2134]. <sup>2</sup> Source: [http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_39.php]. <sup>3</sup> Source: [http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_59.php]. <sup>4</sup> Source: [http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_70.php]. <sup>5</sup> Source: [http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_79.php]. <sup>6</sup> Source: [http://demoscope.ru/weekly/ssp/sng_nac_89.php]. <sup>7</sup> Source: [http://docs.armstat.am/census/pdfs/51.pdf]. <sup>8</sup> Source: [https://www.armstat.am/en/?nid82&id2623]</small>
|}
{{Pie chart|label1Armenian|value40.1|label6Other|color6black|value60.1|color5red|label5Russians|value50.5|color4blue|label4Assyrians|value198.1|color3green|value30.1|label3Kurds|label2Yazidis|color2orange|value21.1|color1purple|caption=Ethnic groups of Armenia}}
In 2002, ethnic minorities included Russians, Assyrians, Ukrainians, Yazidis, Kurds, Iranians, Greeks, Georgians, and Belarusians. There were also smaller communities of Vlachs, Mordvins, Ossetians, Udis, and Tats. Minorities of Poles and Caucasus Germans also exist, though they are heavily Russified.<ref name"minorities">Garnik Asatryan and Victoria Arakelova, [http://www.osce.org/documents/oy/2002/01/148_en.pdf The Ethnic Minorities of Armenia] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070808140625/http://www.osce.org/documents/oy/2002/01/148_en.pdf|date8 August 2007}}, Routledge, part of the OSCE, 2002</ref> Languages
{{main|Languages of Armenia}}
Armenian is the sole official language.
As per 2022 census data, Armenian is the most widely spoken language at 99%, Kurdish at 1%, Russian at 65% and English at 5%.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Main Results of RA Census 2022 / Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia |urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid82&id2623 |access-date2024-02-28 |websitewww.armstat.am}}</ref>
Armenia is a member of La Francophonie, and hosted its annual summit in 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://en.168.am/2018/10/08/28632.html|titleLa Francophonie Ministerial Conference kicks off with moment of silence in honor of late Charles Aznavour|date=n.d.}}</ref>
The largest communities of the Armenian diaspora, are fluent in Russian and English.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Population of Armenia by Native Language
!Year
! colspan"2" |2001<ref>{{Cite report |urlhttps://armstat.am/census2001/pdfs/52.pdf |titleDe Jure Population (Urban, Rural*) by Ethnicity and Languages |date2001 |publisherStatistical Committee of Armenia |access-date2025-03-16}}</ref>
! colspan"2" |2011<ref>{{Cite report |urlhttps://armstat.am/file/doc/99478358.pdf |titleԱղյուսակ 5.2-1 Բնակչությունը (քաղաքային, գյուղական) ըստ ազգության, սեռի և մայրենի լեզվի |trans-titleTable 5.2-1 Population (urban, rural) by ethnicity, gender and native language |date2011 |publisherStatistical Committee of Armenia |languageArmenian |access-date2025-03-16}}</ref>
|-
!Language
!Number
!%
!Number
!%
|-
|Armenian
|3,139,152
|97.70
|2,956,615
|97.94
|-
|Yezidi
|31,799
|0.99
|30,973
|1.03
|-
|Russian
|29,563
|0.92
|23,484
|0.78
|-
|Ukrainian
|818
|0.03
|733
|0.02
|-
|Assyrian
|
|
|2,402
|0.08
|-
|Kurdish
|
|
|2,030
|0.07
|-
|English
|
|
|491
|0.02
|-
|Others
|11,679
|0.36
|2,126
|0.07
|-
!Total
! colspan="2" |3,213,011
! colspan="2" |3,018,854
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Population of Armenia by Proficient Language, 2011<ref>{{Cite report |urlhttps://armstat.am/file/doc/99478363.pdf |titleԱղյուսակ 5.2-2 Բնակչությունը (քաղաքային, գյուղական) ըստ ազգության, սեռի և այլ լեզվի, որին ազատ տիրապետում է |trans-titleTable 5.2-2 Population (urban, rural) by ethnicity, gender and other language fluently spoken |date2011 |publisherStatistical Committee of Armenia |languageArmenian |access-date=2025-03-16}}</ref>
!Language
!Native
!Non-Native
!Total % Proficient
|-
|Armenian
|2,956,615
|43,420
|99.45
|-
|Yezidi
|30,973
|5,370
|1.2
|-
|Russian
|23,484
|1,591,246
|53.53
|-
|Ukrainian
|733
|1,151
|0.06
|-
|Assyrian
|2,402
|1,468
|0.13
|-
|Kurdish
|2,030
|1,309
|0.11
|-
|English
|491
|107,922
|3.59
|-
|French
|
|10,106
|0.33
|}
Religions
{{Main|Religion in Armenia}}
Most Armenians are Christians, primarily of the Apostolic Church rite. Armenia is considered the first nation to officially adopt Christianity, which was first preached in Armenia by two Apostles of Jesus, St. Bartholomew and St. Thaddeus in the 1st century. The Armenian Apostolic Church can trace its roots back to the 3rd and 4th centuries. The country formally adopted the Christian faith in 301 A.D. Over 90 percent of Armenians belong to the Armenian Apostolic Church. Armenia also has a population of Catholics and Evangelical Protestants.
According to the 2022 Armenian census, number of adherents of primary religions in Armenia are the following: 2,793,042 (95.2%) Armenian Apostolic, 15,836 (0.5%) Evangelical, 14,349 (0.5%) Yazidism, 17,884 (0.6%) Armenian and Roman (Latin) Catholic, 6,316 (0.2%) Eastern Orthodox, 5,282 (0.2%) Jehovah's Witness, 2,000 (0.1%) Molokan (non-Orthodox Russians), 524 Assyrian Church of the East (Nestorian), 2,132 Paganism, 515 Islam, 118 Judaism. 17,501 (0.6%) people chose No Religion and 49,353 people chose (1.7%) No Response.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Main Results of RA Census 2022 / Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia |urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid82&id2623 |access-date2024-02-28 |websitewww.armstat.am}}</ref>
Emigration
Compared to its neighbouring countries, Armenia has the highest share of immigrants (6.5 percent of total population, 2017 data).<ref name=":5" />
The estimated number of population net migration is −24.8 thousand persons, according to the Integrated living conditions survey of households of 2016; for urban population −13.8 thousand and for rural population −11.0 thousand persons.<ref name=":0" />
24.9% of households were involved in external and internal migration processes over the period of 2013– 2016. Migration directions were distributed as follows: 12% – internal, 10.5% – Republic of Artsakh, rest (76.4%) – international (of which 89.8% – Russia). Among household members of age 15 and above, who left their permanent residence in 2013–2016 for 3 months and longer and had not returned as of 2016, 11.9% were in Armenia, 13.0% in Artsakh, and 75.1% in other countries, predominantly in Russia. More than 54% of migrant household members of the age 15 years and above sent money and/ or goods to their families/relatives/friends within 12 months preceding the survey.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/demog_2017_7.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/demog_2017_7.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleThe Demographic Handbook of Armenia, 2017 – Migration|daten.d.}}</ref>
According to 2019 UN data, the emigration rate averaged annually around 1.7 per 1000 inhabitants in years 2015–2020 and is expected to remain the same until year 2045. These are below average emigration rate of 11.5 per 1000 in years 2000–2010 and even below the emigration rate of 3.2 per 1000 in years 1980–1985.<ref>{{Cite web |titleWorld Population Prospects – Population Division |urlhttps://population.un.org/wpp/DataQuery/ |access-date30 October 2019 |publisherUnited Nations}}</ref>
Migration during post-Soviet period
It is estimated that 740,000-1,300,000 people left Armenia between 1988 and 2005.<ref name":7">{{Cite book |urlhttps://publications.iom.int/books/migration-perspectives-eastern-europe-and-central-asia-2006 |titleMigration Perspectives in Eastern Europe and Central Asia - 2006 |languageen}}</ref>
Economically recessed situation in Armenia during the 1990s enhanced the emigration of 125,000 refugees and displaced persons. Human and natural disasters also caused approximately 192,000 individuals to become internally displaced persons in Armenia. Among the disasters, the major impact was the 1988 Spitak earthquake.<ref name=":7" />
After the collapse of the Soviet Union, borders that were once formal, now assumed real significance. Nonetheless, increased political, inter-ethnic, and social tensions prompted more and more people to migrate between Armenia and its neighbouring countries. As a result, approximately 100,000 persons or 3 percent of the country's population emigrated during the beginning of 1990s.<ref name=":7" />
Refugees and forcibly displaced persons started arriving to Armenia in spring 1988 and continued coming until late 1991. During this time, Armenia gave shelter to approximately 419,000 refugees and displaced persons, 360,000 of whom migrated from Azerbaijan. The rest immigrated from other regions of the former Soviet Union.<ref name=":7" />
{{Pie chart|value186|value27|value33|value44|color1blue|color2red|color3yellow|color4white|label1Refugees from Azerbaijan|label2Refugees from Nagorno-Karabakh|label3Persons Forcibly displaced|label4Refugees from Shahumyan (bordering Nagorno-Karabakh)|caption=419.000 people migrated to Armenia during the post-Soviet period}}
Migration flows during the post-soviet period can be divided into 3 stages:
* The first stage, prior to 1995, was characterized by mass emigration due to economic reasons, a drop in living standards, and a rapid deterioration in the delivery and quality of public utilities. It is estimated that over 800,000 people emigrated from Armenia during this period and that only 400,000 of them have returned since then.
* During the second stage, from 1995 to 2001, emigration decreased, with most of those leaving to be labour migrants in search of better economic and social opportunities. 180,000 people (6 per cent of the population) emigrated from Armenia during these six years These emigrants tended to resettle abroad permanently and were later joined by relatives through family reunification.
* The third stage, from 2002 to the present, is marked by a constant yearly increase in the number of persons travelling to and from Armenia. This stage was also characterized by a shift to a positive migration balance.<ref name=":7" />
According to government records, over 55 per cent of all emigrants are unmarried and 60 per cent are males between the ages of 20 and 44 (very few are children and even fewer are elderly people). Most have an educational level far higher than the national average and have no intention of returning to Armenia. Although no hard data exists, emigrant families appear to be even less likely to return.<ref name=":7" />
The emigration of the major part of the Armenian population has brought about important changes. For example, a decrease in the number of people of reproductive age in Armenia has led to a progressive drop in marriages and birth rates. There has also been a considerable change in the ethnic composition of the population in Armenia due to a higher rate of emigration among ethnic minorities.<ref name":7" /> Immigration Migration data{| class"wikitable sortable"
|+ Armenia Migration Data (2010-present)
! Year !! RA - Total Arrived !! RA - Total Departed !! Net Migration - Total !! International Migration - Arrived !! International Migration - Departed
|-
| 2010 || 32,500 || 69,800 || -37,300 || 18,300 || 55,600
|-
| 2011 || 30,900 || 59,400 || -28,500 || 17,800 || 46,300
|-
| 2012 || 29,300 || 38,700 || -9,400 || 19,500 || 28,900
|-
| 2013 || 19,800 || 44,200 || -24,400 || 12,300 || 36,700
|-
| 2014 || 17,400 || 39,200 || -21,800 || 10,700 || 32,500
|-
| 2015 || 19,500 || 45,400 || -25,900 || 10,600 || 36,500
|-
| 2016 || 15,900 || 40,800 || -24,900 || 8,100 || 33,000
|-
| 2017 || 13,300 || 37,300 || -24,000 || 9,200 || 33,200
|-
| 2018 || 15,300 || 33,586 || -18,286 || 10,100 || 28,386
|-
| 2019 || 15,800 || 31,200 || -15,400 || 12,100 || 27,500
|-
| 2020 || 36,600 || 33,200 || 3,400 || 10,800 || 7,400
|-
| 2021 || 19,205 || 23,324 || -4,119 || 10,120 || 14,239
|-
| 2022 || 29,585 || 23,505 || 6,080 || 15,400 || 9,320
|-
| 2023 || 78,500 || 37,100 || 41,400 || 48,300 || 6,900
|}
<ref name"ArmStat">[https://statbank.armstat.am/pxweb/en/ArmStatBank/ArmStatBank__2%20Population%20and%20social%20processes__28%20Population/PS-pp-13-2021.px/table/tableViewLayout2/?rxid9ba7b0d1-2ff8-40fa-a309-fae01ea885bb Migration Statistics], Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia, 2021.</ref>
Wealth and poverty
Inequality
Out of 41 emerging economies, Armenia was among only four, which recorded rising inequality (measured by Gini coefficient) in years 2007–2015.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleWorld Development Report 2019|daten.d.}}</ref>
Wealth
According to Global Wealth Report, prepared by Credit Suisse, mean wealth per adult in Armenia in 2019 is estimated at $19,517 (rising 9 times from estimated $2,177 in year 2000). Mean wealth per adult in Armenia surpasses corresponding values for neighboring countries Georgia and Azerbaijan by over 50%, all CIS countries except Russia and Kazakhstan, and neighboring Iran. Growth rate of mean wealth per adult between 2000 and 2019 with the value of 9 times beats all neighboring countries, most of CIS countries as well as Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.<ref name":2">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.credit-suisse.com/about-us/en/reports-research/global-wealth-report.html|titleGlobal wealth report|websiteCredit Suisse|access-date23 October 2019}}</ref><ref name":3">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2019.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.credit-suisse.com/media/assets/corporate/docs/about-us/research/publications/global-wealth-databook-2019.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleGlobal wealth databook 2019|daten.d.}}</ref>
Median wealth per adult is reported at $8,309 in 2019, above the world average, rising 9.6 times from $862 in year 2000.<ref name":2" /><ref name":3" />
Between 2000 and 2019, average debts per adult grew 28.7 times to $1,261, or 6.5% of wealth per adult (below the 11.9% world average).<ref name":2" /><ref name":3" />
55% of adults own less than $10,000, 42.7% — $10,000–$100,000, 2.2% — $100,000–$1&nbsp;million and 0.1% — over $1&nbsp;million. The share of adults owning less than $10,000 with the value of 55% is less than corresponding value in each of CIS countries, neighboring Iran and Turkey, as well as the world average. Gini coefficient for wealth is reported at 66.3%, less than 82.4% the European average and 88.5% the world average.<ref name":2" /><ref name":3" />
Poverty
{{See also|Social issues in Armenia}}
As much as 53.5% of the country's population was officially considered poor in 2004. Poverty fell significantly in the following years amid double-digit economic growth that came to an end with the onset of the global financial crisis in late 2008. It soared to almost 36% in 2010, one year after Armenia's Gross Domestic Product shrunk by over 14%. Afterwards, there was a decreasing trend throughout the last years reaching 23.5% in 2018, down from 25.7% in 2017.<ref>[https://www.azatutyun.am/a/30315996.html"Armenian Government Reports Further Drop In Poverty"] azatutyun.am</ref>
The poverty indicators in Shirak, Lori, Kotayk, Tavush and Armavir provinces are higher than the country average. The highest poverty rate in the country has been recorded in Shirak province, where 46% of the population is below the poverty line. To overcome poverty, Armenia would need AMD 63.2&nbsp;billion, or an amount equal to 1.2% of GDP, in addition to the resources already allocated for social assistance, assuming that such assistance would be efficiently targeted to the poor.<ref name=":1" />
In terms of the international poverty line corresponding to US$1.25 in 2005 PPP, poverty in Armenia went down from 19.3% in the year 2001 to 1.5% in the year 2008 and remained nearly unchanged until the year 2015 moving in the range of 1.5% – 2.7%.<ref name":1" />See also
{{Portal|Society}}
{{cols|colwidth=22em}}
* Assyrians in Armenia
* Censuses of Armenia
* Demographics of the Republic of Artsakh
* Ethnic minorities in Armenia
* Greeks in Armenia
* Health in Armenia
* Kurds in Armenia
* List of European countries by population
* Lom people
* Peoples of the Caucasus
* Russians in Armenia
* Social protection in Armenia
* Yazidis in Armenia
{{colend}}
Notes
{{Notelist}}
References
{{reflist}}
Bibliography
{{Refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
*{{Cite book |lastAllerton Kilbourne Matossian |firstMary |titleThe Impact of Soviet Policies in Armenia |publisherE.J. Brill |year=1962}}
*{{Cite book |lastBloxham |firstDonald |titleThe Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians |date2005 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn0-19-927356-1 |locationOxford |oclc57483924 }}
*{{Cite book |last1Herzig |first1Edmund |titleThe Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |last2Kurkchiyan |first2Marina |date2005 |publisherRoutledgeCurzon |isbn0-203-00493-0 |locationLondon |pages66 & 115–117 |oclc=229988654}}
*{{Cite book |lastHovhannisian |firstSen |titleAtlas of Armenia |date1 January 2019 |publisherNahapet |isbn978-9939-856-52-0 |locationYerevan |page242 |oclc=1124982334 }}
*{{Cite The Population of Soviet Armenia}}
*{{cite journal |lastMirzoyan |firstGamlet |year2009 |titleSovetskiyi praviteli Armenii. Grigory Arutunov |urlhttp://www.noev-kovcheg.ru/mag/2009-03/1558.html |journalNoyev Kovcheg |volume3 |access-date23 June 2022 |archive-date5 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305011413/http://www.noev-kovcheg.ru/mag/2009-03/1558.html }}
*{{Cite journal |lastPipes |firstRichard |date1959 |titleDemographic and Ethnographic Changes in Transcaucasia, 1897-1956 |journalMiddle East Journal |publisherMiddle East Institute |volume13 |issue1 |pages41–63 |jstor4323084 }}
*{{cite web |titleПостановление N 754 Совета министров СССР «О мероприятиях по переселению колхозников и другого азербайджанского населения из Армянской ССР в Кура-Араксинскую низменность Азербайджанской ССР» от 10 марта 1948 г. |urlhttp://www.hrono.info/dokum/194_dok/19480310azer.html |publisherwww.hrono.info |ref{{harvid|Постановление N 754 Совета министров СССР «О мероприятиях по переселению колхозников и другого азербайджанского населения из Армянской ССР в Кура-Араксинскую низменность Азербайджанской ССР» от 10 марта 1948 г.}} }}
*{{Cite book |lastSarkisyanz |firstManuel |titleA Modern History of Transcaucasian Armenia: Social, Cultural and Political |year1975 |isbn=978-90-04-05911-5}}
{{Refend}}
External links
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091009064542/http://www.worldmapper.org/countrycartograms/carto_arm.htm Population cartogram of Armenia]
* Khachatryan, Anush; Karapetyan, Arsen: "Public Green Space in Armenian Cities: A Legal Analysis" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest23.pdf Ccaucasus Analytical Digest No. 23]
{{Ethnic groups in Armenia}}
{{Armenia topics}}
{{Asia in topic|Demographics of}}
{{Demographics of Europe}}
{{Asia topic|Ethnic groups in}}
{{Europe topic|Ethnic groups in}}
__FORCETOC__
{{DEFAULTSORT:Demographics Of Armenia}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Armenia | 2025-04-05T18:25:30.087483 |
1093 | Politics of Armenia | {{Short description|none}}
{{Infobox political system
| name = Political System of Armenia
| native_name = {{nobold|Հայաստանի պետական համակարգ}}
| image = Coat of arms of Armenia.svg
| image_size = 130
| caption = Coat of arms of Armenia
| government = Unitary parliamentary republic
| constitution = Constitution of Armenia
| formation | dissolution
| website | legislature National Assembly
| legislature_type = Unicameral
| legislature_speaker = Alen Simonyan
| legislature_speaker_title = President of the National Assembly
| legislature_place = National Assembly Building
| title_hos = President
| current_hos = Vahagn Khachaturyan
| appointer_hos = National Assembly
| title_hog = Prime Minister
| current_hog = Nikol Pashinyan
| appointer_hog = President
| cabinet = Government of Armenia
| cabinet_appointer = President
| cabinet_hq = Government House
| cabinet_ministries = 12
| judiciary = Judiciary of Armenia
| law = Law of Armenia
| cabinet_leader = Prime Minister
| current_cabinet = Pashinyan government
| court = Constitutional Court of Armenia
| chief_judge = Arman Dilanyan
| court_seat = Yerevan
}}
{{Armenia sidebar}}
{{Politics of Armenia}}
The politics of Armenia take place in the framework of the parliamentary representative democratic republic of Armenia, whereby the president of Armenia is the head of state and the prime minister of Armenia the head of government, and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the president and the Government. Legislative power is vested in both the Government and Parliament.<ref name"Shugart2005-Draft">{{cite journal |lastShugart |firstMatthew Søberg |author-linkMatthew Søberg Shugart |dateSeptember 2005 |titleSemi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive and Mixed Authority Patterns |urlhttp://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |url-statusdead |departmentGraduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies |locationUnited States |publisherUniversity of California, San Diego |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080819200307/http://dss.ucsd.edu/~mshugart/semi-presidentialism.pdf |archive-date19 August 2008 |access-date13 October 2017 |websitedss.ucsd.edu }}</ref><ref name"Shugart2005">{{cite journal |lastShugart |firstMatthew Søberg |author-linkMatthew Søberg Shugart |dateDecember 2005 |titleSemi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns |urlhttps://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1057%2Fpalgrave.fp.8200087.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |departmentGraduate School of International Relations and Pacific Studies, University of California, San Diego |journalFrench Politics |volume3 |issue3 |pages323–351 |issn1476-3427 |oclc6895745903 |doi10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087 |doi-accessfree |access-date13 October 2017 |quoteTable 1 shows that dissolution power as a presidential initiative is rare in the contemporary president-parliamentary systems. In fact, only in Armenia may the president dissolve (once per year) without a trigger (e.g. assembly failure to invest a government). }}</ref><ref name"Markarov2016">{{cite book |lastMarkarov |firstAlexander |author-link<!-- Alexander Markarov --> |year2016 |chapterSemi-presidentialism in Armenia |editor1-lastElgie |editor1-firstRobert |editor1-linkRobert Elgie (academic) |editor2-lastMoestrup |editor2-firstSophia |editor2-linkSophia Moestrup |titleSemi-Presidentialism in the Caucasus and Central Asia |chapter-urlhttps://link.springer.com/book/10.1057/978-1-137-38781-3 |locationLondon |publisherPalgrave Macmillan UK |publication-date15 May 2016 |pages61–90 |doi10.1057/978-1-137-38781-3_3 |isbn978-1-137-38780-6 |lccn2016939393 |oclc6039792321 |access-date8 October 2017 |quoteMarkarov discusses the formation and development of the semi-presidential system in Armenia since its foundation in 1991. The author identifies and compares the formal powers of the president, prime minister, and parliament under the 1995 Constitution as well as the amendments introduced through the Constitutional referendum in 2005. Markarov argues that the highly presidentialized semi-presidential system that was introduced in the early 1990s gradually evolved into a Constitutionally more balanced structure. However, in practice, the president has remained dominant and backed by a presidential majority; the president has thus been able to set the policy agenda and implement his preferred policy. }}</ref>
History
Armenia became independent from the Russian Empire on 28 May 1918 as the Republic of Armenia, later referred as First Republic of Armenia. About a month before its independence Armenia was part of short lived Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic. Suffering heavy losses during the Turkish invasion of Armenia and after the Soviet invasion of Armenia, the government of the First Republic resigned on 2 December 1920. Soviet Russia reinstalled its control over the country, which later became part of the Transcaucasian SFSR. The TSFSR was dissolved in 1936 and Armenia became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union known as the Armenian SSR, later also referred as the Second Republic of Armenia.
During the dissolution of the Soviet Union the population of Armenia voted overwhelmingly for independence following the 1991 Armenian independence referendum. It was followed by a presidential election in October 1991 that gave 83% of the votes to Levon Ter-Petrosyan. Earlier in 1990, when the National Democratic Union party defeated the Armenian Communist Party, he was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council of Armenia. Ter-Petrosyan was re-elected in 1996. Following public discontent and demonstrations against his policies on Nagorno-Karabakh, the President resigned in January 1998 and was replaced by Prime Minister Robert Kocharyan, who was elected as second President in March 1998. Following the assassination of Prime Minister Vazgen Sargsyan, parliament Speaker Karen Demirchyan and six other officials during parliament seating on 27 October 1999, a period of political instability ensued during which an opposition headed by elements of the former Armenian National Movement government attempted unsuccessfully to force Kocharyan to resign. In May 2000, Andranik Margaryan replaced Aram Sargsyan (a brother of assassinated Vazgen Sargsyan) as Prime Minister.
Kocharyan's re-election as president in 2003 was followed by widespread allegations of ballot-rigging. He went on to propose controversial constitutional amendments on the role of parliament. These were rejected in a referendum the following May. Concurrent parliamentary elections left Kocharyan's party in a very powerful position in the parliament. There were mounting calls for the President's resignation in early 2004 with thousands of demonstrators taking to the streets in support of demands for a referendum of confidence in him.
The Government of Armenia's stated aim is to build a Western-style parliamentary democracy. However, international observers have questioned the fairness of Armenia's parliamentary and presidential elections and constitutional referendum between 1995 and 2018, citing polling deficiencies, lack of cooperation by the Electoral Commission, and poor maintenance of electoral lists and polling places. Armenia is considered one of the most democratic nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States and the most democratic in the Caucasus region.<ref>{{Cite web |titleDemocracy Index 2022 |urlhttps://www.eiu.com/n/campaigns/democracy-index-2022/ |access-date2024-02-12 |websiteEconomist Intelligence Unit |language=en-GB}}</ref>
The observance of human rights in Armenia is uneven and is marked by shortcomings. Police brutality allegedly still goes largely unreported, while observers note that defendants are often beaten to extract confessions and are denied visits from relatives and lawyers. Public demonstrations usually take place without government interference, though one rally in November 2000 by an opposition party was followed by the arrest and imprisonment for a month of its organizer. Freedom of religion is not always protected under existing law. Nontraditional churches, especially the Jehovah's Witnesses, have been subjected to harassment, sometimes violently. All churches apart from the Armenian Apostolic Church must register with the government, and proselytizing was forbidden by law, though since 1997 the government has pursued more moderate policies. The government's policy toward conscientious objection is in transition, as part of Armenia's accession to the Council of Europe.
Armenia boasts a good record on the protection of national minorities, for whose representatives (Assyrians, Kurds, Russians and Yazidis) four seats are reserved in the National Assembly. The government does not restrict internal or international travel.
Transition to a parliamentary republic
In December 2015, the country held a referendum which approved transformation of Armenia from a semi-presidential to a parliamentary republic.<ref name"controlrisks.com">{{cite web|url https://www.controlrisks.com/en/newsletters/russia-cis-riskwatch/issue-9/armenia-a-gateway-for-iranian-goods |titleArmenia a gateway for Iranian goods? |lastAyriyan|firstSerine| publisher ControlRisks | work Russia/CIS Riskwatch | issue 9|dateApril 2016 |access-date20 April 2016}}</ref>
As a result, the president was stripped of his veto faculty<ref>{{Cite web|titleNew constitution, old faces in Armenia|urlhttps://www.opendemocracy.net/en/odr/new-constitution-old-faces-in-armenia/|access-date2021-04-03|websiteopenDemocracy|languageen}}</ref> and the presidency was downgraded to a figurehead position elected by parliament every seven years. The president is not allowed to be a member of any political party and re-election is forbidden.<ref>{{Cite web|date2015-10-29|titleArmenia: Constitutional Amendments to Be Put to a Referendum {{!}} Global Legal Monitor|urlhttps://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/armenia-constitutional-amendments-to-be-put-to-a-referendum/|access-date2021-04-03|websitewww.loc.gov}}</ref>
Skeptics saw the constitutional reform as an attempt of third president Serzh Sargsyan to remain in control by becoming Prime Minister after fulfilling his second presidential term in 2018.<ref name= "controlrisks.com"/>
In March 2018, the Armenian parliament elected Armen Sarkissian as the new President of Armenia. The controversial constitutional reform to reduce presidential power was implemented, while the authority of the prime minister was strengthened.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.dw.com/en/armenia-armen-sarkissian-elected-into-new-less-powerful-presidential-role/a-42797330|titleArmenia: Armen Sarkissian elected into new, less powerful presidential role &#124; DW &#124; 02.03.2018|websiteDW.COM}}</ref> In May 2018, parliament elected opposition leader Nikol Pashinyan as the new prime minister. His predecessor Serzh Sargsyan resigned two weeks earlier following widespread anti-government demonstrations.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/5/8/armenia-nikol-pashinyan-elected-as-new-prime-minister|titlePashinyan elected as Armenia's new prime minister|websitewww.aljazeera.com}}</ref>
In June 2021, early parliamentary elections were held. Nikol Pashinyan's Civil Contract party won 71 seats, while 29 went to the Armenia Alliance headed by former President Robert Kocharyan. The I Have Honor Alliance, which formed around another former president, Serzh Sargsyan, won seven seats. After the election, Armenia's acting Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan was officially appointed to the post of prime minister by the country's president Armen Sarkissian.<ref>{{cite news |titleNikol Pashinyan officially appointed Armenia's prime minister |urlhttps://www.newindianexpress.com/world/2021/aug/02/nikol-pashinyan-officially-appointed-armenias-prime-minister-2339082.html |workThe New Indian Express |date2 August 2021}}</ref> In January 2022, Armenian President Armen Sarkissian resigned from office, stating that the constitution does no longer give the president sufficient powers or influence.<ref>{{cite news |titleArmenian president resigns over lack of influence |urlhttps://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/1/23/armenian-president-armen-sarkissian-resigns |workwww.aljazeera.com |languageen}}</ref> On 3 March 2022, Vahagn Khachaturyan was elected as the fifth president of Armenia in the second round of parliamentary vote.<ref>{{cite news |titleVahagn Khachaturyan elected new Armenian president |urlhttps://www.aa.com.tr/en/politics/vahagn-khachaturyan-elected-new-armenian-president/2522507 |workwww.aa.com.tr}}</ref>Government
{{Main|Government of Armenia}}
{{office-table}}
|President
|Vahagn Khachaturyan
|Independent
|13 March 2022
|-
|Prime Minister
|Nikol Pashinyan
|Civil Contract
|8 May 2018
|}
Legislative branch
{{Main|National Assembly (Armenia)}}
The unicameral National Assembly of Armenia (Azgayin Zhoghov) is the legislative branch of the government of Armenia.
Before the 2015 Armenian constitutional referendum, it was initially made of 131 members, elected for five-year terms: 41 members in single-seat constituencies and 90 by proportional representation.<ref name":0">{{Cite web|lastStaff|firstWeekly|date2015-12-07|titleConstitutional Amendments Approved in Armenia's Referendum|urlhttps://armenianweekly.com/2015/12/07/constitutional-amendments-approved/|access-date2021-04-03|websiteThe Armenian Weekly|language=en-US}}</ref> The proportional-representation seats in the National Assembly are assigned on a party-list basis among those parties that receive at least 5% of the total of the number of the votes.
Following the 2015 referendum, the number of MPs was reduced from the original 131 members to 101 and single-seat constituencies were removed.<ref name":0" />Political parties and elections
{{Main|List of political parties in Armenia|Programs of political parties in Armenia|Elections in Armenia}}
As of January 2025, there are 123 political parties registered in Armenia.<ref>[https://civic.am/news/86613 How many parties are there in the Republic of Armenia as of January 1, 2025? Last year alone, 8 parties received state registration]</ref> The electoral threshold is currently set at 5% for single parties and 7% for blocs.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://opendemocracy.net/od-russia/emil-sanamyan/running-for-tsar-armenia-s-gagik-tsarukyan|titleA1 Plus, ARFD Nominates Vahan Hovhannisyan|workOpen Democracy|authorSanamyan, Emil|access-date2017-03-28}}</ref>Latest national elections
{{Main|2021 Armenian parliamentary election}}
{{Election results
|image|party1Civil Contract|votes1688761|seats171|sc1=–17{{efn|Compared to the My Step Alliance.}}
|party2Armenia Alliance|votes2269481|seats229|sc2New
|party3I Have Honor Alliance|votes366650|seats36|sc3New
|party4Prosperous Armenia|votes450444|seats40|sc4–26
|party5Hanrapetutyun Party|votes538758|seats50|sc50
|party6Armenian National Congress|votes619691|seats60|sc60
|party7Shirinyan-Babajanyan Alliance of Democrats|votes719212|seats70|sc70
|party8National Democratic Pole|votes818976|seats80|sc8New
|party9Bright Armenia|votes915591|seats90|sc9–18
|party105165 National Conservative Movement Party|votes1015549|seats100|sc10New|color10=#0d215c
|party11Liberal Party|votes1114936|seats110|sc11New|color11=#FF6600
|party12Homeland of Armenians Party|votes1213130|seats120|sc12New|color12=#641d15
|party13Armenia is Our Home Party|votes1312149|seats130|sc13New
|party14Democratic Party of Armenia|votes145020|seats140|sc140
|party15Awakening National Christian Party|votes154619|seats150|sc15New
|party16Free Homeland Alliance|votes164119|seats160|sc16New|color16=#000000
|party17Sovereign Armenia Party|votes173915|seats170|sc17New
|party18Fair Armenia Party|votes183914|seats180|sc18New
|party19Citizen's Decision|votes193775|seats190|sc190
|party20European Party of Armenia|votes202440|seats200|sc20New|color20=#003399
|party21Freedom Party|votes211844|seats210|sc210|color21=#00194C
|party22Rise Party|votes221233|seats220|sc22New
|party23United Homeland Party|votes23964|seats230|sc23New
|party24All-Armenian National Statehood Party|votes24803|seats240|sc24New
|party25National Agenda Party|votes25719|seats250|sc25New
|total_sc=–25
|invalid=4682
|electorate=2595334
|source=[https://news.am/eng/news/651069.html news.am], [https://res.elections.am/images/doc/20.06.21n.pdf CEC], [https://hetq.am/en/article/132734 Hetq]
}}
Latest presidential elections
{{Main|2022 Armenian presidential election}}
Independent agencies
Independent of three traditional branches are the following independent agencies, each with separate powers and responsibilities:<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.atb.am/en/armenia/country/|titleArmenia's Government Structure|website=www.atb.am}}</ref>
* the Constitutional Court of Armenia
* the Central Electoral Commission of Armenia
* the Human Rights Defender of Armenia
* the Central Bank of Armenia
* the Prosecutor General of Armenia
* the Audit Chamber of Armenia
Corruption
{{Main|Corruption in Armenia}}
Transparency International's 2021 Corruption Perceptions Index ranked Armenia 58th<ref>{{Cite web |title2021 Corruption Perceptions Index - Explore Armenia's results |urlhttps://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2021 |access-date2022-06-29 |websiteTransparency.org |languageen}}</ref> out of 180 in the world with 49 points (the same number of points as 2020), this has pushed the country up from being ranked at 60th in 2020.<ref name"transparency.org">{{Cite web |titleCPI 2020: Eastern Europe & Central Asia - News |urlhttps://www.transparency.org/en/news/cpi-2020-eastern-europe-central-asia |websiteTransparency.org}}</ref> According to Transparency International, Armenia has improved significantly on the Corruption Perception Index since 2012, especially since the 2018 revolution,<ref>{{Cite web |lastHub |firstKnowledge |date2022-06-29 |titleTransparency International Knowledge Hub |urlhttps://knowledgehub.transparency.org/helpdesk/overview-of-corruption-and-anti-corruption-in-armenia-1 |access-date2022-06-29 |websiteKnowledge Hub |languageen}}</ref> the country has taken steps to counter corruption. Further mentioning that "Armenia has taken a gradual approach to reform, resulting in steady and positive improvements in anti-corruption. However, safeguarding judicial independence and ensuring checks and balances remain critical first steps in its anti-corruption efforts. The effectiveness of those efforts is additionally challenged by the current political and economic crisis as a result of the recent Nagorno Karabakh conflict and the subsequent protests against Prime Minister Nikol Pashinyan over a ceasefire deal".<ref name"transparency.org" />
In 2008, Transparency International reduced its Corruption Perceptions Index for Armenia from 3.0 in 2007<ref name"TI-GCP-2008-p225">[http://www.transparency.org/content/download/32778/502137 Global Corruption Report 2008], Transparency International, Chapter 7.4, p. 225.</ref> to 2.9 out of 10 (a lower score means more perceived corruption); Armenia slipped from 99th place in 2007 to 109th out of 180 countries surveyed (on a par with Argentina, Belize, Moldova, Solomon Islands, and Vanuatu).<ref name"2008-CPI-Table">[http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table 2008 CORRUPTION PERCEPTIONS INDEX] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090311002755/http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table|date2009-03-11}}, Transparency International, 2008.</ref>
See also
{{Portal|Politics}}
* Constitution of Armenia
* Constitutional economics
* Elections in Armenia
* Foreign relations of Armenia
* List of political parties in Armenia
* Politics of Artsakh
* Programs of political parties in Armenia
* Rule according to higher law
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080516155414/http://report.globalintegrity.org/Armenia Global Integrity Report: Armenia] has information on anti-corruption efforts
* Petrosyan, David: "The Political System of Armenia: Form and Content" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest17.pdf Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 17]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180523075014/http://www.coc.am/LegislationEng.aspx Control Chamber of The Republic of Armenia]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170519193353/http://www.coc.am/files/legislation/COCLawArm.pdf Armenian language document]
* [http://www.parliament.am National Assembly of the Republic of Armenia | Official Web Site | parliament.am]
{{Asia topic|Politics of}}
{{Politics of Europe}}
{{Armenia topics}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Politics Of Armenia}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_Armenia | 2025-04-05T18:25:30.102155 |
1094 | Economy of Armenia | {{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox economy
| country = Armenia
| image = Elite Plaza Business Center at Night.jpg
| image_size = 310px
| caption = Yerevan, the economic centre of Armenia
| currency = Armenian dram (AMD)
| fixed exchange | year Calendar year
| organs = WTO, EAEU, CISFTA, BSEC
| group = {{plainlist|
*Developing/Emerging<ref>{{cite web |titleWorld Economic Outlook Database - Groups and Aggregates |urlhttps://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/groups-and-aggregates |publisherInternational Monetary Fund |access-date18 October 2023 |locationWashington, D.C. |date5 October 2023 |archive-date23 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231023141038/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/groups-and-aggregates |url-status=live }}</ref>
*Upper-middle income economy<ref>{{cite web |titleWorld Bank Country and Lending Groups – World Bank Data Help Desk |urlhttps://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |publisherThe World Bank Group |access-date17 April 2023 |locationWashington, D.C. |archive-date28 October 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191028223324/https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
| population {{steady}} 2.963 million (2024 est.)<ref name"IMF WEO" />
| gdp = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $25.408 billion (nominal, 2024 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />
*{{increase}} $64.432 billion (PPP, 2024 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />}}
| gdp rank = {{plainlist|
*115th (nominal, 2024 est.)
*114th (PPP, 2024 est.)}}
| per capita = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $8,575 (nominal, 2024 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />
*{{increase}} $21,746 (PPP, 2024 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />}}
| per capita rank = {{plainlist|
*84th (nominal, 2024 est.)
*77th (PPP, 2024 est.)}}
| growth = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} 6.0% (2024 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />
*{{increase}} 8.7% (2023 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />
*{{increase}} 12.6% (2022)<ref name="IMF WEO" />}}
| sectors = {{plainlist|
*agriculture: 16.7%
*industry: 28.2%
*services: 54.8%
*IT: 8.25% (2023)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://modex.am/arm-it-2023/ | titleՏեղեկատվական տեխնոլոգիաների ոլորտը Հայաստանում 2023 &#124; }}</ref><ref name"CIAWFAM">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|countryArmenia|access-date17 February 2019|year2019}}</ref>}}
| components | inflation {{plainlist|
*3.1% (2024 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />
*2.0% (2023 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />
*8.6% (2022)<ref name="IMF WEO" />}}
| poverty = {{plainlist|
*{{decreasePositive}} 23.5% in poverty (2018)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locationsAM |titlePoverty headcount ratio at national poverty lines (% of population) - Armenia |publisherWorld Bank |websitedata.worldbank.org |access-date20 March 2020 |archive-date30 March 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230330052911/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.NAHC?locationsAM |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*{{decreasePositive}} 44.1% on less than $5.50/day (2020f)<ref name"Spring2020">{{cite book |titleEurope Central Asia Economic Update, Spring 2020 : Fighting COVID-19 |urlhttps://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33476 |websiteopenknowledge.worldbank.org |date9 April 2020 |publisherWorld Bank |access-date9 April 2020 |pages39, 40 |isbn9781464815645 |archive-date11 April 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200411231555/https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/33476 |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
| gini {{steady}} 27.9 {{color|green|low}} (2022)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locationsAM |titleGini index - Armenia |publisherWorld Bank |access-date22 April 2024}}</ref>
| hdi = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} 0.786 {{color|green|high}} (2022)<ref>{{cite web |titleSpecific country data |urlhttps://hdr.undp.org/data-center/specific-country-data#/countries/ARM |publisherUnited Nations Development Programme |access-date22 April 2024 |locationNew York |date13 March 2024}}</ref> (76th)
*{{increase}} 0.721 {{color|green|high}} (2022)<ref>{{cite web |titleInequality-adjusted Human Development Index |urlhttps://hdr.undp.org/inequality-adjusted-human-development-index#/indicies/IHDI |publisherUnited Nations Development Programme |access-date22 April 2024 |locationNew York |date13 March 2024}}</ref> (IHDI, 51st)}}
| cpi = {{increase}} 47 out of 100 points (2023, 62nd rank)
| edbr {{decrease}} 47th (very easy, 2020)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/armenia |titleEase of Doing Business in Armenia |publisherDoingbusiness.org |access-date2017-11-21 |archive-date2018-01-12 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180112163741/http://www.doingbusiness.org/data/exploreeconomies/armenia/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
| labor = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} 1,380,405 (2019)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locationsAM |titleLabor force, total - Armenia |publisherWorld Bank |websitedata.worldbank.org |access-date3 November 2019 |archive-date27 March 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230327013105/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.TLF.TOTL.IN?locationsAM |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*{{increase}} 50.1% employment rate (2017)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.NE.ZS?locationsAM |titleEmployment to population ratio, 15+, total (%) (national estimate) - Armenia |publisherWorld Bank |websitedata.worldbank.org |access-date21 October 2019 |archive-date12 December 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221212121004/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.EMP.TOTL.SP.NE.ZS?locationsAM |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
| occupations = {{plainlist|
*agriculture: 36.3%
*industry: 17%
*services: 46.7%
*(2013 est.)<ref name="CIAWFAM"/>}}
| unemployment = {{plainlist|
*{{increaseNegative}} 13.0% (2024 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />
*{{decreasePositive}} 12.5% (2023 est.)<ref name="IMF WEO" />}}
| industries = brandy, mining, diamond processing, metal-cutting machine tools, forging and pressing machines, electric motors, knitted wear, hosiery, shoes, silk fabric, chemicals, trucks, instruments, microelectronics, jewelry, software, food processing
| average gross salary = AMD 251,822/ €641 / $690 monthly (February, 2023)
| average net salary = AMD 200,000 / €469 / $509 monthly (Q3, 2023)
| exports {{increase}} $8.4 billion (2023)<ref name"Armenia’s Top 10 Exports">{{cite web | urlhttps://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenian_u_s_economic_cooperation_has_great_potential_kerobyan/ | titleArmenian- U.S. Economic cooperation has great potential - Kerobyan | access-date2023-04-24 | archive-date2023-04-22 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230422053544/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenian_u_s_economic_cooperation_has_great_potential_kerobyan/ | url-statuslive }}</ref>
| export-goods unwrought copper, pig iron, nonferrous metals, gold, diamonds, mineral products, foodstuffs, brandy, cigarettes, energy<ref name"CIAWFAM"/>
| export-partners = {{plainlist|
*{{flagu|European Union}} 25%
*{{flagu|Russia}} 22%
*{{flagu|Switzerland}} 20.4%
*{{flagu|China}} 6.58%
*{{flagu|Iraq}} 5.3%
*{{flagu|Serbia}} 4.93%
*{{flagu|Canada}} 2.52%
*{{flagu|Iran}} 2.51% (2019) <ref name"OECexport">{{cite web |titleExport partners of Armenia |urlhttps://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/arm/show/all/2019/ |publisherThe Observatory of Economic Complexity |access-date19 June 2021 |archive-date12 December 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221212113134/https://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/arm/show/all/2019/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
| imports {{increase}} $12.3 billion (2023)<ref name"Armenia’s Top 10 Exports"/>
| import-goods natural gas, petroleum, tobacco products, foodstuffs, diamonds, pharmaceuticals, cars<ref name"CIAWFAM"/>
| import-partners = {{plainlist|
*{{flagu|Russia}} 33.1%
*{{flagu|European Union}} 17%
*{{flagu|China}} 12.3%
*{{flagu|Iran}} 6.59%
*{{flagu|Turkey}} 5.04%
*{{flagu|Georgia (country)|name=Georgia}} 4.13%
*{{flagu|Ukraine}} 2.54%
*{{flagu|India}} 1.93% (2020)<ref name"OECimport">{{cite web |titleImport partners of Armenia |urlhttps://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/import/arm/show/all/2019/ |publisherThe Observatory of Economic Complexity |access-date19 June 2021 |archive-date12 December 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221212113132/https://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/import/arm/show/all/2019/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>}}
| current account {{decrease}} −$328 million (2017 est.)<ref name"CIAWFAM"/>
| FDI = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $4.169 billion (2015 est.)<ref name="CIAWFAM"/>
*{{increase}} Abroad: $228 million (2015 est.)<ref name="CIAWFAM"/>}}
| gross external debt {{increaseNegative}} $13.81 billion (2021)<ref name"CIAWFAM"/>
| debt {{DecreasePositive}} 48.4% of GDP (2024 est.)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenian_national_assembly_s_committee_approves_draft_state_budget_for_2024/|title=Armenian National Assembly's committee approves draft state budget for 2024}}</ref>
| revenue 7.4 billion (2025 est.)<ref name"CIAWFAM"/>
| expenses 9 billion (2025 est.)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://armenpress.am/en/article/1200790 |titleCabinet approves 2025 state budget draft |date26 September 2024 }}</ref>
| balance −4.6% (of GDP) (2024 est.)<ref name"CIAWFAM"/>
| credit Moody's: {{increase}} Ba3, Outlook Stable (27 Aug 2019)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.moodys.com:18000/research/Moodys-upgrades-Armenias-rating-to-Ba3-changes-outlook-to-stable--PR_404870|titleMoody's upgrades Armenia's rating to Ba3; changes outlook to stable from positive|dateAugust 27, 2019|websiteMoodys.com}}{{dead link|dateNovember 2023}}</ref><br/>Fitch: {{increase}} B+, Outlook Positive (03 Mar 2022)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://arka.am/en/news/economy/fitch_revises_outlook_for_acba_bank_to_positive_from_stable/|titleOutlook Positive B+ |publisherfitchratings.com |access-date2023-03-03}}</ref>
| reserves {{increase}} $3.6 billion (December 2023)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cba.am/Storage/EN/stat_data_eng/reserve.xls|titleCBA report|publishercba.am|access-date2019-11-25|archive-date2022-12-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221212113128/https://www.cba.am/Storage/EN/stat_data_eng/reserve.xls|url-statusdead}}</ref>
| cianame = armenia
| spelling =
}}
The economy of Armenia grew by 12.6% in 2022, according to the country's Statistical Committee and the International Monetary Fund.<ref name"IMF WEO">{{cite web |titleWorld Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 |urlhttps://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c911,&sNGDP_RPCH,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PCPIPCH,LUR,LP,&sy2020&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |publisherInternational Monetary Fund |access-date22 April 2024 |locationWashington, D.C. |date16 April 2024 }}</ref> Total output amounted to 8.5&nbsp;trillion Armenian drams,<ref>{{cite web |titleTime series |urlhttps://armstat.am/en/?nid12&id01001 |publisherStatistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia |access-date18 October 2023 |locationYerevan}}</ref> or $19.5 billion.<ref name"IMF WEO" /><ref name"World Bank">{{cite web |titleOverview |urlhttps://www.worldbank.org/en/country/armenia/overview |websiteWorld Bank |publisherThe World Bank Group |access-date17 April 2023 |locationWashington, D.C. |date7 April 2023 |archive-date25 June 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200625185847/https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/armenia/overview |url-statuslive }}</ref> At the same time, Armenia's foreign trade turnover significantly accelerated in growth from 17.7% in 2021 to 68.6% in 2022.<ref>https://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_12_22a_411.pdf {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230301171442/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_12_22a_411.pdf |date2023-03-01 }} {{bare URL PDF|dateApril 2023}}</ref>
GDP contracted sharply in 2020 by 7.2%, mainly due to the COVID-19 recession and the war against Azerbaijan.<ref name"IMF WEO" /> In contrast it grew by 7.6 per cent in 2019,<ref name":9">{{Cite web|urlhttps://armstat.am/file/doc/99517723.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://armstat.am/file/doc/99517723.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|title2019թ.-ի համախառն ներքին արդյունքի (ՀՆԱ) ռամսյակային և տարեկան նախնական տվյալները|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref> the largest recorded growth since 2007,<ref>{{Cite web|titleGDP growth (annual %) - Armenia {{!}} Data|urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locationsAM|websitedata.worldbank.org|access-date2020-05-06|archive-date2023-05-03|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230503083432/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?locationsAM|url-statuslive}}</ref> while between 2012 and 2018 GDP grew 40.7%, and key banking indicators like assets and credit exposures almost doubled.<ref name"arka2019growth">{{cite web|titleARKA: "Armenia's GDP has grown 40.7% over seven year and key banking indicators have almost doubled"|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenia_s_gdp_has_grown_40_7_over_seven_year_and_key_banking_indicators_have_almost_doubled/?sphrase_id24650680|access-date25 May 2019|archive-date25 December 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191225214246/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenia_s_gdp_has_grown_40_7_over_seven_year_and_key_banking_indicators_have_almost_doubled/?sphrase_id24650680|url-statuslive}}</ref>
While part of the Soviet Union, the economy of Armenia was based largely on manufacturing industry—chemicals, electronic products, machinery, processed food, synthetic rubber and textiles; it was highly dependent on outside resources.<ref>{{Cite CIA World Factbook|countryArmenia|access-date2019-07-07|year2019}}</ref> Armenian mines produce copper, zinc, gold and lead. The vast majority of energy is produced with imported fuel from Russia, including gas and nuclear fuel for Armenia's Metsamor nuclear power plant.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.export.gov/article?idArmenia-energy-sector|titleArmenia - Energy Sector {{!}} export.gov|websitewww.export.gov|languageen|access-date2019-07-08|archive-date2019-09-13|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190913033749/https://www.export.gov/article?idArmenia-energy-sector|url-status=live}}</ref> The main domestic energy source is hydroelectric. Small amounts of coal, gas and petroleum have not yet been developed.
The severe trade imbalance has been somewhat offset by international aid and remittances from Armenians abroad, and foreign direct investment. Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Economic Union and ties with Russia remain close, especially in the energy sector.
Overview
Under the old Soviet central planning system, Armenia had developed a modern industrial sector, supplying machine tools, textiles, and other manufactured goods to sister republics in exchange for raw materials and energy. Since the implosion of the USSR in December 1991, Armenia has switched to small-scale agriculture away from the large agroindustrial complexes of the Soviet era. The agricultural sector has long-term needs for more investment and updated technology. Armenia began borrowing soon after declaring independence. In 2000, Armenian governmental debt reached its greatest level relative to GDP (49.3 percent of GDP).<ref name"Waaniewski 2014">{{Cite journal|lastWaaniewski|firstKrzysztof|date2014|titlePublic Debt, Fiscal Decisions and Political Power|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2517967|journalSSRN Electronic Journal|doi10.2139/ssrn.2517967|s2cid152939493|issn1556-5068}}</ref>
Armenia is a food importer, and its mineral deposits (gold and bauxite) are small. The ongoing conflict with Azerbaijan over the ethnic Armenian-dominated region of Nagorno-Karabakh and the breakup of the centrally directed economic system of the former Soviet Union contributed to a severe economic decline in the early 1990s. Political instability and the threat of war placed a significant strain on economic development. Despite robust growth in recent years, the problem of geopolitical uncertainty resurfaced during the 2020 war, contributing to a 7.2% drop in GDP.<ref name"IMF WEO" /> Armenia's public debt rose to 67.4% in 2020, but fell below 50% again in 2022.<ref>{{cite web |titleReport for Selected Countries and Subjects |urlhttps://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c911,&sGGXWDG_NGDP,&sy2018&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |publisherInternational Monetary Fund |access-date18 October 2023 |locationWashington, D.C. |languageen |date5 October 2023 |archive-date30 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231030045347/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c911,&sGGXWDG_NGDP,&sy2018&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |url-statuslive }}</ref>Global competitiveness
{{See also|Armenia#International Economy-related Rankings}}
In the 2020 report of Index of Economic Freedom by The Heritage Foundation, Armenia is classified as "mostly free" and ranks 34th, improving by 13 positions and ahead of all other Eurasian Economic Union countries and several EU countries including Cyprus, Bulgaria, Romania, Poland, Belgium, Spain, France, Portugal and Italy.<ref name"economic-index">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.heritage.org/Index/ranking|titleHeritage Index of Economic Freedom|publisherThe Heritage Foundation|url-statusunfit|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090720010300/http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking.aspx|archive-date20 July 2009|access-date22 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.heritage.org/index/country/armenia|titleArmenia Economy: Population, GDP, Inflation, Business, Trade, FDI, Corruption|websitewww.heritage.org|languageen|access-date2019-10-24|archive-date2021-08-28|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210828191141/https://www.heritage.org/index/country/armenia|url-statusunfit}}</ref>
In the 2019 report (data for 2017) of Economic Freedom of the World published by Fraser Institute Armenia ranks 27th (classified most free) out of 162 economies.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/economic-freedom-of-the-world-2018-annual-report|titleEconomic Freedom of the World: 2018 Annual Report|date2018-09-25|workFraser Institute|access-date2018-11-06|languageen|archive-date2019-11-16|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191116035239/https://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/economic-freedom-of-the-world-2018-annual-report|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.fraserinstitute.org/studies/economic-freedom|titleEconomic Freedom|websitewww.fraserinstitute.org|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref>
In the 2019 report of Global Competitiveness Index Armenia ranks 69th out of 141 economies.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.weforum.org/reports/how-to-end-a-decade-of-lost-productivity-growth/|titleGlobal Competitiveness Report 2019|websiteWorld Economic Forum|access-date2019-10-24|archive-date2019-10-09|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191009154918/https://www.weforum.org/reports/how-to-end-a-decade-of-lost-productivity-growth/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In the 2020 report (data for 2019) of Doing Business Index Armenia ranks 47th with 10th rank on "starting business" sub-index.<ref>{{Cite book |titleDoing business 2020 |date2019 |publisherWorld Bank Group |isbn978-1-4648-1440-2 |editor-lastWorld Bank (Washington, District of Columbia) |locationWashington}}</ref>
In the 2019 report (data for 2018) of Human Development Index by UNDP Armenia ranked 81st and is classified into "high human development" group.<ref>{{Cite book |titleBeyond income, beyond averages, beyond today: inequalities in human development in the 21st century |date2019 |publisherUnited Nations Development Programme |isbn978-92-1-004496-7 |editor-lastUNDP |seriesHuman development report / publ. for the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) |location=New York, NY}}</ref>
In the 2021 report (data for 2020) of Corruption Perceptions Index by Transparency International Armenia ranked 49 of 179 countries.<ref>{{Cite web |date2022-01-25 |title2021 Corruption Perceptions Index - Explore the results |urlhttps://www.transparency.org/en/cpi/2021 |access-date2024-05-02 |websiteTransparency.org |languageen}}</ref>
History of the modern Armenian economy
At the beginning of the 20th century, the territory of present-day Armenia was an agricultural region with some copper mining and cognac production. From 1914 through 1921, Caucasian Armenia suffered from the genocide of about 1.5 million Armenian inhabitants in their own homeland which caused total property and financial collapse when all of their assets and belongings were forcibly taken away by the Turks, the consequences of which after 105 years to this day remain incalculable, revolution, the influx of refugees from Turkish Armenia, disease, hunger and economic misery. About 200,000 people died in 1919 alone. At that point, only American relief efforts saved Armenia from total collapse.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p42}} Thus, Armenians went from being one of the wealthiest ethnic groups in the region to suffering from poverty and famine. Armenians were the second richest ethnic group in Anatolia after the Greeks, and they were heavily involved in very high productive sectors such as banking, architecture, and trade.<ref>{{Cite journal|titleThe Taboo within the Taboo: The Fate of 'Armenian Capital' at the End of the Ottoman Empire|firstBedross Der|lastMatossian|dateOctober 6, 2011|journalEuropean Journal of Turkish Studies. Social Sciences on Contemporary Turkey|volume37 |doi10.4000/ejts.4411|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, after the mass killings of Armenian intellectuals in April 1915 and the genocide targeted towards the whole Armenian population left the people and the country in ruins. The genocide was responsible for the loss of many high-quality skills that the Armenians possessed.
The first Soviet Armenian government regulated economic activity stringently, nationalizing all economic enterprises, requisitioning grain from peasants, and suppressing most private market activity. This first experiment of state control ended with the advent of Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP) of 1921–1927. This policy continued state control of the large enterprises and banks, but peasants could market much of their grain, and small businesses could function. In Armenia, the NEP years brought partial recovery from the economic disaster of the post-World War I period. By 1926 agricultural production in Armenia had reached nearly three-quarters of its prewar level.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=42}}
By the end of the 1920s, Stalin's regime had revoked the NEP and re-established the centralised state monopoly on all economic activity. Once this occurred, the main goal of the Soviet economic policy in Armenia was to turn a predominantly agrarian and rural republic into an industrial and urban one. Among other restrictions, peasants now were forced to sell nearly all of their output to state procurement agencies rather than at the open market. From the 1930s through the 1960s, an industrial infrastructure has been constructed. Besides hydroelectric plants and canals, roads were built and gas pipelines were laid to bring fuel and food from Azerbaijan and Russia.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=42}}
The state socialist command economy, in which market forces were suppressed and all orders for production and distribution came from the state authorities, survived in all its essential features until the fall of the Soviet regime in 1991. In the early stages of the communist economic revolution, Armenia underwent a fundamental transformation into a "proletarian" society. Between 1929 and 1939, the percentage of Armenia's work force categorised as industrial workers grew from 13% to 31%. By 1935 industry supplied 62% of Armenia's economic production. Highly integrated and sheltered within artificial barter economy of the Soviet system from the 1930s until the end of the communist era, the Armenian economy showed few signs of self-sufficiency at any time during that period. In 1988, Armenia produced only 0.9% of the net material product of the Soviet Union (1.2% of industry, 0.7% of agriculture). The republic retained 1.4% of total state budget revenue, delivered 63.7% of its NMP to other republics, and exported only 1.4% of what it produced to markets outside the Soviet Union.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=42–43}}
Agriculture accounted for only 20% of net material product and 10% of employment before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Armenia's industry was especially dependent on the Soviet military-industrial complex. About 40% of all enterprises in the republic were devoted to defense, and some factories lost 60% to 80% of their business in the last years of the Soviet Union, when massive cuts were made in the national defense expenditures. As the republic's economy faced the prospects of competing in world markets in the mid-1990s, the great liabilities of Armenia's industry were its outdated equipment and infrastructure and the pollution emitted by many of the country's heavy industrial plants.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=43}}
The economic downturn that began in 1989 worsened dramatically in 1992. According to statistics, the GDP declined by 37.5 percent in 1991 compared to 1990, and all sectors contributing to the GDP decreased in production. The collapse of industry in favor of agriculture, whose products were mostly imported throughout the Soviet period, changed the structure of sectoral contributions to GDP.<ref name"Sarian 193–222">{{Cite journal|lastSarian|firstArmand|date2006-03-01|titleEconomic Challenges Faced by the New Armenian State|urlhttp://dx.doi.org/10.3200/demo.14.2.193-222|journalDemokratizatsiya: The Journal of Post-Soviet Democratization|volume14|issue2|pages193–222|doi10.3200/demo.14.2.193-222|issn1074-6846}}</ref>
In 1991, Armenia's last year as a Soviet republic, national income fell 12% from the previous year, while per capita gross national product was 4,920 rubles, only 68% of the Soviet average. In large part due to the earthquake of 1988, the Azerbaijani blockade that began in 1989 and the collapse of the international trading system of the Soviet Union, the Armenian economy of the early 1990s remained far below its 1980 production levels. In the first years of independence (1992–93), inflation was extremely high, productivity and national income dropped dramatically, and the national budget ran large deficits.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=41}}
A period of chronic shortages, was the first stage of price deregulation, which allowed goods to stay in Armenia as opposed to being exported for better prices; the inflation rates were 10 percent in 1990, 100 percent in 1991, and 642.5 percent during the first four months of 1992, compared with the first four months of 1991. Thus, there were two opposing dynamics: price increases in response to shortages and falling incomes due to the recession and unemployment.<ref name"Sarian 193–222"/>Post-communist economic reformsArmenia introduced elements of the free market and privatisation into their economic system in the late 1980s, when Mikhail Gorbachev began advocating economic reform. To supply the country's basic needs, the first decision was land reform and the privatization of land. This allowed for the emergence of small-parcel agriculture supplying markets and supporting self-sustenance during the period of shortages.<ref name"Sarian 193–222"/> Cooperatives were set up in the service sector, particularly in restaurants, although substantial resistance came from the Communist Party of Armenia (CPA) and other groups that had enjoyed privileged position in the old economy. In the late 1980s, much of Armenia's economy already was opening either semi-officially or illegally, with widespread corruption and bribery. The so-called mafia, made up of interconnected groups of powerful officials and their relatives and friends, sabotaged the efforts of reformers to create a lawful market system. When the December 1988 earthquake brought millions of dollars of foreign aid to the devastated regions of Armenia, much of the money went to corrupt and criminal elements.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=48–50}}
Beginning in 1991, the democratically elected government pushed vigorously for privatisation and market relations, although its efforts were frustrated by the old ways of doing business in Armenia, the Azerbaijani blockade, and the costs of the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. In 1992, the Law on the Programme of Privatisation and Decentralisation of Incompletely Constructed Facilities established a state privatisation committee, with members from all political parties. In the middle of 1993, the committee announced a two-year privatisation programme, whose first stage would be privatisation of 30% of state enterprises, mostly services and light industries. The remaining 70%, including many bankrupt, nonfunctional enterprises, were to be privatised in a later stage with a minimum of government restriction, to encourage private initiative. For all enterprises, the workers would receive 20% of their firm's property free of charge; 30% would be distributed to all citizens by means of vouchers; and the remaining 50% was to be distributed by the government, with preference given to members of the labour organisations. A major problem of this system, however, was the lack of supporting legislation covering foreign investment protection, bankruptcy, monopoly policy, and consumer protection.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=50}}
In the first post-communist years, efforts to interest foreign investors in joint enterprises were only moderately successful because of the blockade and the energy shortage. Only in late 1993 was a department of foreign investment established in the Ministry of Economy, to spread information about Armenia's investment opportunities and improve the legal infrastructure for investment activity. A specific goal of this agency was creating a market for scientific and technical intellectual property.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=50}}
A few Armenians living abroad made large-scale investments. Besides a toy factory and construction projects, diaspora Armenians built a cold storage plant (which in its first years had little produce to store) and established the American University of Armenia in Yerevan to teach the techniques necessary to run a market economy.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=50}}
Armenia was admitted to the International Monetary Fund in May 1992 and to the World Bank in September. A year later, the government complained that those organisations were holding back financial assistance and announced its intention to move toward fuller price liberalisation, and the removal of all tariffs, quotas, and restrictions of foreign trade. Although privatisation had slowed because of catastrophic collapse of the economy, Prime Minister Hrant Bagratyan informed the United States officials in the fall of 1993 that plans had been made to embark on a renewed privatisation programme by the end of the year.{{sfn|Curtis|1995|p=50–51}}
Like other former states, Armenia's economy suffers from the legacy of a centrally planned economy and the breakdown of former Soviet trading patterns. Soviet investment in and support of Armenian industry has virtually disappeared, so that few major enterprises are still able to function. In addition, the effects of the 1988 earthquake, which killed more than 25,000 people and made 500,000 homeless, are still being felt.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://www.iitk.ac.in/nicee/wcee/article/10_vol11_7011.pdf |titleProceedings of the Tenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering: 19 - 24 July 1992, Madrid, Spain |publisherBalkema |year1994 |isbn978-90-5410-060-7 |editor-lastAsociación Española de Ingeniería Sísmica |locationRotterdam |pages7011–7015 |languageen |chapterEconomic and social impacts of Armenia earthquake}}</ref> Although a cease-fire has held since 1994, the conflict with Azerbaijan over Nagorno-Karabakh has not been resolved. The consequent blockade along both the Azerbaijani and Turkish borders has devastated the economy, because of Armenia's dependence on outside supplies of energy and most raw materials. Land routes through Azerbaijan and Turkey are closed; routes through Georgia and Iran are adequate and reliable.<ref name":10">{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idpYsRCgAAQBAJ |titleCommonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Industry: Clothing Industry Directory - Strategic Information and Contacts |publisherInternational Business Publications |year2013 |isbn978-1-4387-0940-6 |pages247–248 |languageen}}</ref> In 1992–93, the GDP had fallen nearly 60% from its 1989 level. The national currency, the dram, suffered hyperinflation for the first few years after its introduction in 1993.<ref>{{cite web |date15 August 2012 |titleWorld Hyperinflations &#124; Steve H. Hanke and Nicholas Krus &#124; Cato Institute: Working Paper |urlhttp://www.cato.org/publications/working-paper/world-hyperinflations |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121017012645/http://www.cato.org/publications/working-paper/world-hyperinflations |archive-date17 October 2012 |publisherCato.org}}</ref>
Armenia has registered strong economic growth since 1995 and inflation has been negligible for the past several years. New sectors, such as precious stone processing and jewelry making and communication technology (primarily Armentel, which is left from the USSR era and is owned by external investors). This steady economic progress has earned Armenia increasing support from international institutions. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, EBRD, as well as other international financial institutions (IFIs) and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans. Total loans extended to Armenia since 1993 exceed $800 million. These loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit, stabilizing the local currency; developing private businesses; energy; the agriculture, food processing, transportation, and health and education sectors; and ongoing rehabilitation work in the earthquake zone.<ref name=":10" />
By 1994, however, the Armenian government had launched an ambitious IMF-sponsored economic liberalization program that resulted in positive growth rates in 1995–2005. The economic growth of Armenia expressed in GDP per capita was one of strongest in the CIS. GDP went from $350 to more than $800 on average between 1995 and 2003. Three principal factors explain this result: the credibility of the macroeconomic policies of stabilization, the correction effect following the depression, and the importance of external transfers, in particular since 2000.<ref name"Sarian 193–222"/> Armenia became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in January 2003. Armenia also has managed to slash inflation, stabilize its currency, and privatize most small- and medium-sized enterprises. Armenia's unemployment rate, however, remains high, despite strong economic growth.<ref name":10" />
The chronic energy shortages Armenia suffered in the early and mid-1990s have been offset by the energy supplied by one of its nuclear power plants at Metsamor. Armenia is now a net energy exporter, although it does not have sufficient generating capacity to replace the Metsamor nuclear plant, which is under international pressure to close due to its old design. The European Union had classified the VVER 440 Model V230 light-water-cooled reactors as the "oldest and least reliable" category of all the 66 Soviet reactors built in the former Eastern Bloc. However the IAEA has found that the Metsamor NPP has adequate safety and can function beyond its design lifespan.<ref>{{Cite news |titleInternational Experts Find Adequate Safety At Armenian Nuclear Plant |urlhttps://www.azatutyun.am/a/24213743.html |access-date2022-10-07 |website«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան |date2 June 2011 |languagehy |last1Harutyunyan |first1Sargis |archive-date2022-10-07 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221007130336/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/24213743.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
The country's electricity distribution system was privatized in 2002.<ref name":10" />Outperforming GDP growthAccording to official preliminary data GDP grew by 7.6 per cent in 2019, largest recording growth since 2008.<ref>{{Cite web|title7.6% GDP growth recorded in Armenia in 2019 - Pashinyan|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/interview/7_6_gdp_growth_recorded_in_armenia_in_2019_pashinyan_/|access-date2021-12-11|website=arka.am}}</ref>
Nominal GDP per capita was approximately $4,196 in 2018 and is expected to reach $8,283 in 2023, surpassing neighbouring Azerbaijan and Georgia.<ref name"IMF forecast">{{cite web |titleReport for Selected Countries and Subjects |urlhttps://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c911,912,915,&sNGDPDPC,&sy2018&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |publisherInternational Monetary Fund |access-date18 October 2023 |locationWashington, D.C. |date5 October 2023 |archive-date30 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231030045344/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c911,912,915,&sNGDPDPC,&sy2018&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
With 8.3%, Armenia recorded highest degree of GDP growth among Eurasian Economic Union countries in 2018 January–June against the same period of 2017.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/956452.html|titleArmenia leads EEU countries on level of economic growth – official EEC data|workarmenpress.am|access-date2018-12-03|languageen|archive-date2018-12-03|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181203152219/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/956452.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The economy of Armenia had grown by 7.5% in 2017 and reached a nominal GDP of $11.5 billion per annum, while per capita figure grew by 10.1% and reached $3880.<ref name"arka2017gdp">{{cite web|titleARKA 2017 GDP|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenia_ends_2017_with_7_5_economic_growth_/|access-date18 January 2017|archive-date1 March 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180301044618/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenia_ends_2017_with_7_5_economic_growth_/|url-statuslive}}</ref> With 7.29% Armenia was second best in GDP per capita growth terms in Europe and Central Asia in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?dsd5bncppjof8f9_&met_yny_gdp_pcap_cd&idimcountry:ARM:AZE:GEO&hlen&dlen#!ctypec&strailfalse&bcsd&nselms&met_yny_gdp_pcap_kd_zg&scale_ylin&ind_yfalse&idimcountry:ARM:AZE:GEO:ALB:AND:AUT:BLR:BEL:BIH:BGR:CHI:HRV:CYP:DNK:CZE:EST:FIN:FRO:FRA:DEU:GRC:GRL:HUN:ISL:IRL:IMN:ITA:KAZ:XKX:KGZ:LVA:LIE:LTU:LUX:MKD:MDA:MCO:MNE:NLD:NOR:POL:PRT:ROU:RUS:SMR:SRB:SVK:SVN:ESP:SWE:CHE:TJK:TUR:TKM:UKR:GBR:UZB&ifdimcountry:region:ECS&hlen_US&dlen&indfalse|titleWorld Development Indicators - Google Public Data Explorer|websitewww.google.com|access-date2019-04-30|archive-date2020-07-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200730230101/https://www.google.com/publicdata/explore?dsd5bncppjof8f9_&met_yny_gdp_pcap_cd&idimcountry:ARM:AZE:GEO&hlen&dlen#!ctypec&strailfalse&bcsd&nselms&met_yny_gdp_pcap_kd_zg&scale_ylin&ind_yfalse&idimcountry:ARM:AZE:GEO:ALB:AND:AUT:BLR:BEL:BIH:BGR:CHI:HRV:CYP:DNK:CZE:EST:FIN:FRO:FRA:DEU:GRC:GRL:HUN:ISL:IRL:IMN:ITA:KAZ:XKX:KGZ:LVA:LIE:LTU:LUX:MKD:MDA:MCO:MNE:NLD:NOR:POL:PRT:ROU:RUS:SMR:SRB:SVK:SVN:ESP:SWE:CHE:TJK:TUR:TKM:UKR:GBR:UZB&ifdimcountry:region:ECS&hlen_US&dlen&indfalse|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Armenian GDP PPP (measured in current international dollar) grew total of 316% per capita in 2000–2017, sixth-highest worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?end2017&locationsAM-RO-GE-CN-EU&start2000|titleGDP per capita, PPP (current international $) - Armenia, Romania, Georgia, China, European Union &#124; Data|websitedata.worldbank.org|access-date2018-12-26|archive-date2018-12-26|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181226133936/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?end2017&locationsAM-RO-GE-CN-EU&start2000|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://i.redd.it/022odntsae621.png|titlemap of GDP PPP 2000-2017 growth rates worldwide (Data by the World Bank)|accessdateNovember 9, 2021|archive-dateMay 6, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210506175622/https://i.redd.it/022odntsae621.png|url-status=live}}</ref>
GDP grew 40.7% between 2012 and 2018, and key banking indicators like assets and credit exposures almost doubled.<ref name="arka2019growth" />
data.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Year !! GDP (millions of drams)<ref name"STATSAMGDP">{{cite web|titleGDP at market prices, mln. drams|urlhttps://armstat.am/en/|url-statuslive|access-dateMay 9, 2021|websiteArmstat|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080519125705/http://www.armstat.am:80/en/ |archive-date2008-05-19 }}</ref>!! GDP Growth<ref name"STATSAMGDP" />!! GDP per capita (drams)<ref name"STATSAMPOP">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/en/?nid126&id11001|titleTime series, Average de jure Population Number, thousand pers.|access-dateJune 5, 2016|archive-dateMay 8, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160508042758/http://www.armstat.am/en/?nid126&id11001|url-statuslive}}</ref>!!GDP deflator<ref name"STATSAMDEFL">{{cite web|titleTime series, GDP index-deflator (ratio of GDP at current prices to the volume of GDP at comparable prices of the previous year), %|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/en/?nid126&id01003|url-statuslive|access-dateMay 9, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081118195558/http://www.armstat.am/en/?nid126&id01003 |archive-date=2008-11-18 }}</ref>
|-
| 2000 || {{formatnum:1031338.3}} || +5.9% || {{formatnum:320182}} || −1.4%
|-
| 2001 || {{formatnum:1175876.8}} || +9.6% || {{formatnum:365849}} || +4.1%
|-
| 2002 || {{formatnum:1362471.7}} || +13.2% || {{formatnum:424234}} || +0.7%
|-
| 2003 || {{formatnum:1624642.7}} || +14.0% || {{formatnum:505914}} || +4.6%
|-
| 2004 || {{formatnum:1907945.4}} || +10.5% || {{formatnum:593635}} || +6.3%
|-
| 2005 || {{formatnum:2242880.9}} || +13.9% || {{formatnum:697088}} || +3.2%
|-
| 2006 || {{formatnum:2656189.8}} || +13.2% || {{formatnum:824621}} || +4.6%
|-
| 2007 || {{formatnum:3149283.4}} || +13.7% || {{formatnum:976067}} || +4.2%
|-
| 2008 || {{formatnum:3568227.6}} || +6.9% || {{formatnum:1103348}} || +5.9%
|-
| 2009 || {{formatnum:3141651.0}} || −14.1% || {{formatnum:968539}} || +2.6%
|-
| 2010 || {{formatnum:3460202.7}} || +2.2% || {{formatnum:1062683}} || +7.8%
|-
| 2011 || {{formatnum:3776443.0}} || +4.7% || {{formatnum:1155405}} || +4.2%
|-
| 2012 || {{formatnum:4000722.0}} || +7.2% || {{formatnum:1322946}} || -1.2%
|-
| 2013 || {{formatnum:4555638.2}} || +3.3% || {{formatnum:1507491}} || +3.4%
|-
| 2014 || {{formatnum:4828626.3}} || +3.6% || {{formatnum:1602172}} || +2.3%
|-
| 2015 || {{formatnum:5032089.0}} || +3.0% || {{formatnum:1674795}} || +1.2%
|-
|2016
|5,067,293.5
| +0.2%
|
| +0.3%
|-
|2017
|5,564,493.3
| +7.5%<ref name="arka2017gdp" />
|
| +2.1%
|-
|2018
|6,017,035.2
| +5.2%<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenia_s_economy_grew_by_5_2_percent_in_2018/|titleArmenia's economy grew by 5.2 percent in 2018|websiteARKA News Agency|access-date2019-05-23|archive-date2019-02-21|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190221130619/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenia_s_economy_grew_by_5_2_percent_in_2018/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|
| +2.8%
|-
|2019
|6,543,321.8
| +7.6%<ref name":16">{{Cite web|title7.6% GDP growth recorded in Armenia in 2019 - Pashinyan|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/interview/7_6_gdp_growth_recorded_in_armenia_in_2019_pashinyan_/|access-date2020-02-24|websitearka.am|archive-date2020-02-24|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200224100909/http://arka.am/en/news/interview/7_6_gdp_growth_recorded_in_armenia_in_2019_pashinyan_/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|
| +1.0%
|-
|2020
|6,181,664.1<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://armstat.am/en/|titleMain Indicators in Graphical Forms|websitearmstat.am|access-date2020-05-13|archive-date2008-05-19|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080519125705/http://www.armstat.am/en/|url-status=live}}</ref>
| -7.5%<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://armstat.am/en/?nid12&id01510/|titleArmenia's economy fell by 7.5 percent in 2020|websitearmstat.am|access-date2020-05-13|archive-date2021-05-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210512204258/https://armstat.am/en/?nid12&id01510/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|
| +2.0%
|-
| 2021 || {{formatnum:6991777.8}} || +5.8% || || +6.9%
|-
| 2022 || {{formatnum:8501435.5}} || +12.6% || || +8.0%
|-
| 2023 || {{formatnum:9502778.6}} || +8.7% || || +2.8%
|}
{{Clear}}
Regional GDP
This is a list of provinces of Armenia by nominal GDP shown in Armenian dram and US$. Statistics shown are for 2017.<ref>{{citation|titleՀամախառն ներքին արդյունքն (ՀՆԱ) ըստ ՀՀ մարզերի եւ Երեւան քաղաքի 2015-2017թթ|urlhttps://armstat.am/file/article/sv_08_19a_112.pdf|website=armstat.am}}</ref>
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"font-size:85%;"
!Rank
!Region
!GDP (bil. ֏)
!GDP (bil. US$)
!GDP per capita (֏)
!GDP per capita (US$)
|-
|1
|{{flag|Yerevan}}
|3,032.454
|6.286
|2,816,433
|5,838
|-
|2
|Ararat Province
|381.659
|0.791
|1,478,727
|3,065
|-
|3
|Kotayk Province
|346.843
|0.719
|1,375,270
|2,851
|-
|4
|Armavir Province
|340.604
|0.706
|1,284,327
|2,662
|-
|5
|Syunik Province
|335.238
|0.695
|2,417,001
|5,010
|-
|6
|Lori Province
|276.931
|0.574
|1,263,372
|2,619
|-
|7
|Shirak Province
|238.001
|0.493
|1,002,954
|2,079
|-
|8
|Gegharkunik Province
|224.241
|0.465
|974,118
|2,019
|-
|-
|9
|Aragatsotn Province
|175.229
|0.363
|1,371,121
|2,842
|-
|10
|Tavush Province
|118.657
|0.246
|956,908
|1,984
|-
|11
|Vayots Dzor Province
|94.636
|0.196
|1,892,716
|3,924
|-
|
|{{flag|Armenia}}
|5,564.493
|11.535
|1,867,656
|3,872
|-
|}
2020 recession
The Armenian economy performed poorly in 2020, and contracted by 7.2% after years of consecutive growth. The two biggest contributing factors were the COVID-19 recession and the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War.<ref name":18">{{Cite journal |titleIMF Staff Country Reports |urlhttps://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/002/002-overview.xml |access-date2024-05-03 |websiteIMF eLibrary |languageen |doi10.5089/9798400262463.002|doi-accessfree }}</ref> In the first half of 2020, the Armenian economy was negatively impacted by the economic restrictions that were implemented in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. These restrictions included a stay-at-home order, an indoor social distancing requirement, and a mask mandate. These restrictions had a negative impact on businesses; according to the World Bank, individual consumption dropped by 9% in the first six months of 2020 due to the stay-at-home order.<ref>{{Cite web |titleCOVID-19 leaves a legacy of rising poverty and widening inequality |urlhttps://blogs.worldbank.org/en/developmenttalk/covid-19-leaves-legacy-rising-poverty-and-widening-inequality |access-date2024-05-03 |websiteWorld Bank Blogs |language=en}}</ref>
The economy was further impacted by the war against Azerbaijan later in the year.<ref name":18" />Main sectors of economyAgricultural sector
{{main|Agriculture in Armenia}}
Armenia produced in 2018:
* 415 thousand tons of potatoes;
* 199 thousand tons of vegetables;
* 187 thousand tons of wheat;
* 179 thousand tons of grapes;
* 138 thousand tons of tomatoes;
* 126 thousand tons of watermelons;
* 124 thousand tons of barley;
* 109 thousand tons of apples;
* 104 thousand tons of apricots (12th-largest world producer);;
* 89 thousand tons of cabbages;
* 54 thousand tons of sugar beet;
* 52 thousand tons of peaches;
* 50 thousand tons of cucumbers;
* 39 thousand tons of onions;
In addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/|titleFAOSTAT|websitewww.fao.org|access-date2020-11-01|archive-date2017-05-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170511194947/http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/|url-status=live}}</ref>
, figs, pears, peaches and apples sold at a market in Yerevan are among a few of Armenian agricultural products]]
As of 2010, the agricultural production comprises on average 25 percent of Armenia's GDP.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010"/> In 2006, the agricultural sector accounted for about 20 percent of Armenia's GDP.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Aug-8-2006">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2006/08/218f6eeb-de6f-47e4-970e-dba7583d7d39.asp "Kocharian Orders Tax Exemption For Armenian Farmers"], Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), August 8, 2006.</ref>
Armenia's agricultural output dropped by 17.9 percent in the period of January–September 2010. This was owing to bad weather, a lack of a government stimulus package, and the continuing effects of decreased agricultural subsidies by the Armenian government (per WTO requirements).<ref name"Armenia_in_2010"/> In addition, the share of agriculture in Armenia's GDP hovered around 17.9% until 2012 according to the World Bank. Then already in 2013 the share of it was a bit higher comprising 18.43%. Afterwards a declining trend was registered in the period of 2013-2017 reaching to around 14.90% in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Armenia/Share_of_agriculture/|titleArmenia GDP share of agriculture - data, chart|websiteTheGlobalEconomy.com|access-date2019-05-12|archive-date2019-05-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190512080752/https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/Armenia/Share_of_agriculture/|url-statuslive}}</ref> By comparing the share of agriculture as a component of GDP with the neighboring countries (Georgia, Azerbaijan, Turkey, Iran) one can notice that the percentage is highest for Armenia. As of 2017 the contribution of agriculture to the GDP for the neighboring countries was 6.88, 5.63, 6.08 and 9.05 respectively.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/Share_of_agriculture/|titleGDP share of agriculture by country, around the world|websiteTheGlobalEconomy.com|access-date2019-05-12|archive-date2019-05-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190512080751/https://www.theglobaleconomy.com/rankings/Share_of_agriculture/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2022, the industry with the highest number of companies registered in Armenia is Services with 1,907 companies followed by Wholesale Trade and Manufacturing with 510 and 408 companies respectively.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.hithorizons.com/eu/analyses/country-statistics/armenia|titleIndustry Breakdown of Companies in Armenia|websiteHitHorizons|access-date2023-07-10|archive-date2023-07-09|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230709144206/https://www.hithorizons.com/eu/analyses/country-statistics/armenia|url-statuslive}}</ref>Mining
{{main|Mining in Armenia}}
in southern Armenia]]
In 2017, mining industry output with grew by 14.2% to 172 billion AMD at current prices and run at 3.1% of Armenia's GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_01_18a_112.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_01_18a_112.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleArmenian 2017 GDP breakdown by sector - Armstat (am)|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref>
In 2017, mineral product (without precious metals and stones) exports grew by 46.9% and run at US$692 million, which comprised 30.1% of all exports.<ref name"2017trade">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_12_17r_411.pdf|titleArmenian 2017 foreign trade summary - Armstat (ru)|accessdateNovember 9, 2021|archive-dateSeptember 18, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210918074058/https://armstat.am/file/article/sv_12_17r_411.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref>Construction sectorReal estate transactions count grew by 36% in September 2019 compared to September 2018. Also, the average market value of one square meter of housing in apartment buildings in Yerevan in September 2019 grew by 10.8% from September 2018.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/business/some_15_572_real_estate_transactions_effected_in_armenia_in_2019_september_by_36_1_more_than_in_sept/|titleSome 15,572 real estate transactions effected in Armenia in 2019 September, by 36.1% more than in September 2018|websitearka.am|access-date2019-11-05|archive-date2019-11-05|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191105184414/http://arka.am/en/news/business/some_15_572_real_estate_transactions_effected_in_armenia_in_2019_september_by_36_1_more_than_in_sept/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2017, construction output increased by 2.2% reaching 416 billion AMD.<ref name"Armstat-2018.01.25-en">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/file/doc/99506853.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.armstat.am/file/doc/99506853.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titlePreliminary Main Macro-Economic Indicators of Armenian Economy in 2017 by Armstat|access-date=28 February 2018}}</ref>
Armenia experienced a construction boom during the latter part of the 2000s. According to the National Statistical Service, Armenia's booming construction sector generated about 20 percent of Armenia's GDP during the first eight months of 2007.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Sept-20-2007">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2007/09/ac00c04d-a570-479a-8d0c-9554e4acb7b6.asp "Armenian Growth Still In Double Digits"], Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), September 20, 2007.</ref> According to a World Bank official, 30 percent of Armenia's economy in 2009 came from the construction sector.<ref name"ArmLib-Nov-27-2009" />
However, during the January to September 2010 period, the sector experienced a 5.2 percent year-on-year decrease, which according to the Civilitas Foundation is an indication of the unsustainability of a sector based on an elite market, with few products for the median or low budgets.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010">{{Armenia in 2010. A Year of Uncertainty}}</ref> This decrease comes despite the fact that an important component of the government stimulus package was to support the completion of ongoing construction projects.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010"/>
Energy
{{main|Energy in Armenia|Electricity sector in Armenia}}
In 2017, electricity generation increased by 6.1% reaching 7.8 billion KWh.<ref name"Armstat-2018.01.25-en" />Digital economyThe digital economy is a branch of the economy based on digital computing technologies. The digital economy is sometimes referred to as the Internet economy or the web economy. The digital economy is often intertwined with the traditional economy, making it difficult to distinguish between them. Aimed at the sector's development on November 15, 2021, the Silicon Mountains Summit dedicated to introducing intelligent solutions in the economy was held in Yerevan. The main topic of the summit was the prospect of digitalization of the economy in Armenia. The main driving force of this sphere in Armenia is the banks. Digital transformation is a necessity for banks and financial institutions. At the moment, ACBA Bank is the leader․<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.armbanks.am/hy/2021/11/15/136524/| title Դեպի թվային տնտեսություն․ Կկայանա Silicon Mountains գագաթնաժողովը (ՎԻԴԵՈ) {{!}} ArmBanks.am| access-date 2021-12-19| archive-date 2021-12-19| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20211219130105/http://www.armbanks.am/hy/2021/11/15/136524/| url-status live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url https://hy.freejournal.org/848510/1/%D5%A9%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6-%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6.html| url-status dead| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20211219130125/https://hy.freejournal.org/848510/1/%D5%A9%D5%BE%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6-%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6.html| archive-date 2021-12-19| title Թվային տնտեսություն, թվային հաշվիչ տեխնոլոգիաների վրա հիմնված տնտեսություն։ Թվային տնտեսությունը երբեմն անվանում են համացանցային տնտեսություն, նոր տնտեսություն}}</ref>
Industrial sector
In 2017, industrial output increased by 12.6% annually reaching 1661 billion AMD.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_12_17r_03.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_12_17r_03.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleArmenian economy macro statistics for 2017|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref>
Industrial output was relatively positive throughout 2010, with year-on-year average growth of 10.9 percent in the period January to September 2010, due largely to the mining sector where higher global demand for commodities led to higher prices.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" /> According to the National Statistical Service, during the January–August 2007 period, Armenia's industrial sector was the single largest contributor to the country's GDP, but remained largely stagnant with industrial output increasing only by 1.7 percent per year.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Sept-20-2007" /> In 2005, Armenia's industrial output (including electricity) made up about 30 percent of GDP.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Feb-10-2006">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2006/02/7a425352-3ed4-4b17-a352-e11d38026faa.asp "Government Downplays Economic Cost Of Russian Gas Price Hike"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109222036/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/1580461.html |date2023-11-09 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), February 10, 2006.</ref>Services sectorIn the 2000s, along with the construction sector, the services sector was the driving force behind Armenia's recent high economic growth rate.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Sept-20-2007"/>
Between 2017 and 2019, Armenia's economy increased fast, with annual rate of GDP growth averaging 6.8 percent. Following the political realignment of 2018, prudent macroeconomic policy helped develop a track record of macroeconomic stability and an enhanced business environment. In Armenia, the service sector in 2020 reduced volumes by 14.7%, against 15% growth a year earlier, amounting to 1.7 trillion drams ($3.5 billion). According to the Statistical Committee, a negative trend was recorded in all service segments except finance, as well as information and communication.
Retail trade
In 2010, retail trade turnover was largely unaltered compared to 2009.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" /> The existing monopolies throughout the retail sector have made the sector non-responsive to the crisis and resulted in near zero growth. The aftermath of the crisis has started to shift the structure in the retail sector in favor of food products.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" />
Nowadays(2019), Armenia has improved standards of living and growing income, which brought to the improvement of retail sector in Armenia. retail sector has the highest employment level. While the sector improves, currently the major sector is still in Yerevan, and not in the other cities of Armenia. The development that happened in this sector was the opening of Dalma Garden Mall, and later Yerevan mall, Rio mall and Rossia mall, which dramatically increased the quality of retail in Yerevan. Currently there is a new development, as in Gyumri there is a new mall opened called Shirak Mall. Another reason for the development of the retail is the development that happened in the banking industry. Today people can easily get financial assistance from the banks right to their credit cards, without visiting the bank.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://evconsulting.com/sites/default/files/ArmInvestMap_2018new_1.pdf|titleArmenia Investment Map, Oct. 2018|websiteEV Consulting|access-date2019-05-12|archive-date2019-05-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190512194236/http://evconsulting.com/sites/default/files/ArmInvestMap_2018new_1.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref> Information and Communication Technologies {{see also|Science and technology in Armenia}}As of February 2019 nearly 23 thousand employees were counted in ICT sector. With 404 thousand AMD they enjoyed highest pay rate among surveyed sectors of economy. Average salaries in pure IT sector (excluding communications sub-sector) stood at 582 thousand AMD.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_03_19r_142.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_03_19r_142.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleArmstat - Оплата труда и численность работников|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref>Financial Services{{main|List of banks in Armenia}}In January 2019 there were 20.5 thousand employees registered in the financial sector.<ref name"auto">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_02_19r_142.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_02_19r_142.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleОплата труда и количество работников|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref>
According to Moody's, robust economic growth will benefit banks with GDP growth remaining robust at around 4.5% in 2019–20.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.armbanks.am/|titleArmBanks.am - Armenian financial-banking portal|websiteArmBanks.am|languageen-US|access-date2019-05-04|archive-date2016-11-28|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161128143506/http://www.armbanks.am/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Development of Financial Services in 2017 according to CBA report<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/932552.html|titleNet profit of Armenian banks grow 8 billion AMD in 2017|workarmenpress.am|access-date2018-05-06|languageen|archive-date2018-05-05|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180505170013/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/932552.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
!Financial Services Segments
!2017
!2016
|-
|Banking system
|
|
|-
|Net profit
|39.7 billion AMD
|31.7 billion AMD
|-
|Return on assets (ROA)
|1.0%
|0.9%
|-
|Return on equity (ROE)
|6.0%
|5.8%
|-
|Assets growth rate
|9.2%
|
|-
|Total capital growth rate
|4.9%
|
|-
|Liabilities growth rate
|10.1%
|
|-
|Loans provided to businesses growth rate
|8.5%
|
|-
|General liquidity normative indicator (minimum 15%)
|32.1%
|
|-
|Ongoing liquidity normative indicator (minimum 60%)
|141.7%
|
|-
|Credit organizations
|
|
|-
|Assets growth rate
|21.1%
|
|-
|Total capital growth rate
|41.4%
|
|-
|Liabilities growth rate
|3.5%
|
|-
|Insurance system
|
|
|-
|Assets growth rate
|6.1%
|
|-
|Total capital growth rate
| –11%
|
|-
|Liabilities growth rate
|11.2%
|
|-
|Investment companies
|
|
|-
|Assets growth rate
|54.8%
|
|-
|Total capital growth rate
|51.9%
|
|-
|Liabilities growth rate
|55.3%
|
|-
|Mandatory pension funds
|
|
|-
|Net assets growth rate
|67.0%
|
|-
|Net assets
|105.6 billion AMD
|
|}
Industry report on banking sector prepared by AmRating presents slightly varying figures for some of above data.<ref name":4">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.raexpert.eu/files/Industry_report_Armenia_Banks_07.05.2018.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.raexpert.eu/files/Industry_report_Armenia_Banks_07.05.2018.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleArmenia Industry Research – Banks (07 May 2018)|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref>Tourism
{{main|Tourism in Armenia}}
, established in 1926]]
Tourism in Armenia has been a key sector to the Armenian economy since the 1990s when tourist numbers exceeded half a million people visiting the country every year (mostly ethnic Armenians from the Diaspora). The Armenian Ministry of Economy reports that most international tourists come from Russia, EU states, the United States and Iran. Though relatively small in size, Armenia has three UNESCO world heritage sites.<ref>{{Cite web |lastCentre |firstUNESCO World Heritage |titleArmenia - UNESCO World Heritage Convention |urlhttps://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/am |access-date2024-05-03 |websiteUNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>
Despite internal and external problems, the number of incoming tourists has been continually increasing. 2018 saw a record high of over 1.6 million inbound tourists.<ref>{{Cite web |lastLLC |firstHelix Consulting |titleThe number of tourists visiting Armenia increased by 10.5% in 2018 |urlhttps://www.panorama.am/en/news/2019/02/08/tourists/2070280 |access-date2024-05-03 |websitewww.panorama.am |language=en}}</ref>
In 2018 receipts from international tourism amounted to $1.2 billion, nearly twice the value for 2010.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284421152|titleInternational Tourism Highlights, 2019 Edition|websitewww.e-unwto.org|year2019|publisherWorld Tourism Organization (UNWTO)|doi10.18111/9789284421152|isbn9789284421152|s2cid240665765|access-date2019-11-09|archive-date2019-08-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190830074615/https://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284421152|url-statuslive}}</ref> In per capita terms these stood at $413, ahead of Turkey and Azerbaijan, but behind Georgia.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://i.redd.it/i8xqp7h4hix31.jpg|titleMap of international tourism receipts per capita in Europe in 2018.|accessdateNovember 9, 2021|archive-dateNovember 23, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211123132717/https://i.redd.it/i8xqp7h4hix31.jpg|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2019 the largest growth at 27.2% was shown by accommodation and catering sector, which came as a result of the growth of tourist flows.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenian_premier_largest_growth_in_2019_shown_by_accommodation_and_catering_27_2/|titleArmenian premier: Largest growth in 2019 shown by accommodation and catering - 27.2%|websitearka.am|date21 February 2020 |access-date2020-02-24|archive-date2020-02-24|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200224100912/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenian_premier_largest_growth_in_2019_shown_by_accommodation_and_catering_27_2/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Financial system
{{main|Central Bank of Armenia}}
{{see also|Central Depository of Armenia}}
Foreign debt
The amount of interest paid on the public debt rose significantly (from AMD 11 billion in 2008 to AMD 46.5 billion in 2013), as did the amount of principle repayments (from annual repayments of US$15–16 million in 2005-2008 exceeding US$150 million in 2013). This is a significant financial load on the state budget. Because of additional borrowings and lower concessionality of new loans, the burden might rise in the future years.<ref name="Waaniewski 2014"/>
In 2019, the Armenian government planned to obtain about $490 million in fresh loans rising public debt to about $7.5 billion. Just over $6.9 billion of that would be the government's debt.<ref name":8">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.azatutyun.am/a/29677662.html|titleArmenia's Public Debt To Rise Further In 2019|website«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան|date26 December 2018|languagehy|access-date2019-05-04|last1Harutyunyan|first1Sargis|archive-date2019-05-04|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190504091201/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/29677662.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
After reaching nearly 60.0 per cent of GDP, the public debt to GDP ratio decreased by approximately three percentage points in 2018 compared with a year before and stood at 55.7 per cent at the end of 2018.<ref name":13">{{Cite web|urlhttps://2019.tr-ebrd.com/countries/|titleCountries {{!}} Transition Report 2019|languageen|access-date2019-11-20|archive-date2019-12-09|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191209165121/http://2019.tr-ebrd.com/countries/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The government's public debt at the end of 2019 stood at $6.94 billion, making 50.3% of its GDP.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/in_2019_armenia_s_public_debt_to_make_50_3_of_its_gdp_/|titleIn 2019, Armenia's public debt to make 50.3% of its GDP|websitearka.am|date31 October 2019 |access-date2019-11-05|archive-date2019-11-05|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191105184418/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/in_2019_armenia_s_public_debt_to_make_50_3_of_its_gdp_/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In March 2019 sovereign debt was $5488 million, $86.5 million (about 2%) less than a year ago.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://factor.am/150275.html|titleՀՀ պետական պարտքը նվազել է 86.5 մլն դոլարով կամ գրեթե 2 տոկոսով &#124; Ֆակտոր տեղեկատվական կենտրոն|accessdateNovember 9, 2021|archive-dateOctober 27, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211027161539/https://factor.am/150275.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Other sources quote Armenia's debt at $10.8 billion in September 2018, possibly including non-public debt too.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/armenia/external-debt|titleArmenia External Debt [2002 - 2019] [Data & Charts]|websitewww.ceicdata.com|access-date2019-05-04|archive-date2017-06-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170612112545/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/armenia/external-debt|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2018 debt-to-GDP ratio stood at 55.7% down from 58.7% in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/armenia/government-debt--of-nominal-gdp|titleArmenia Government Debt: % of GDP [2002 - 2019] [Data & Charts]|websitewww.ceicdata.com|access-date2019-05-04|archive-date2019-05-22|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190522181131/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/armenia/government-debt--of-nominal-gdp|url-status=live}}</ref>
Armenia revised the country's fiscal rules in 2018, setting a permissible threshold for public debt in the amount of 40, 50 and 60% of GDP. At the same time, it established that in case of force majeure situations such as natural disasters, wars, the government will be allowed to exceed this threshold.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.finport.am/full_news.php?id37976&lang3|titleVardan Aramyan: It will be unreasonable if the government goes to revise the allowable national debt ceiling in GDP {{!}} Finport.am|websitewww.finport.am|languageen|access-date2019-05-04|archive-date2021-05-06|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210506175622/https://finport.am/full_news.php?id37976&lang3|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The debt rose by $863.5 million in 2016 and by another $832.5 million in 2017. It totalled just $1.9 billion before the 2008-2009 (13.5% of GDP) global financial crisis that plunged the county into a severe recession.<ref name":8" /><ref name"Armenia_in_2010" />
Exchange rate of national currency
National Statistics Office publishes official reference exchange rates for each year.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/am/?nid12&id17010|titleԺամանակագրական շարքեր / Հայաստանի Հանրապետության Ազգային վիճակագրության ծառայություն|websitewww.armstat.am|access-date2018-02-18|archive-date2020-08-04|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200804120757/https://www.armstat.am/am/?nid12&id17010|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{image frame|width|aligncenter|content=
{{Graph:Chart
|type rect |width700 |height=150
|x = 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021
|yAxisTitle AMD/USD |yGrid
|xAxisTitle Year |xAxisAngle-40
|y = 9, 289, 406, 414, 491, 505, 535, 540, 555, 573, 579, 534, 458, 416, 342, 306, 363, 374, 373, 402, 410, 416, 478, 481, 483, 483, 480, 489, 530
}}
|caption = Armenian dram exchange rate per USD
|max-width}} Inflation For 2023 the IMF forecasts inflation at 3.5%, which is below most neighbouring countries.<ref>{{cite web |titleWorld Economic Outlook (October 2023) - Inflation rate, average consumer prices |urlhttps://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PCPIPCH@WEO/MECA/ARM |publisherInternational Monetary Fund |access-date18 October 2023 |locationWashington, D.C. |date5 October 2023 |archive-date4 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230404200606/https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PCPIPCH@WEO/MECA/ARM |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The Armenian government projects inflation at 2.7% in 2019.<ref name":12">{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenia_s_economy_is_expected_to_see_7_1_growth_in_2019_central_bank_official_says/|titleArmenia's economy is expected to see 7.1% growth in 2019, central bank official says|websitearka.am|date5 November 2019 |access-date2019-11-05|archive-date2019-11-05|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191105184416/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenia_s_economy_is_expected_to_see_7_1_growth_in_2019_central_bank_official_says/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The inflation rate in Armenia in 2020 was 1.21 percent, a 0.23 percent decrease over 2019, in 2019 was 1.44 percent, a 1.08 percent decrease over 2018, in 2018 was 2.52 percent, up 1.55 percent from 2017 and in 2017 was 0.97 percent, a 2.37 percent rise from 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.macrotrends.net/countries/ARM/armenia/inflation-rate-cpi|titleArmenia Inflation Rate 1994-2021|websitewww.macrotrends.net|access-date2021-12-14|archive-date2021-12-14|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211214101645/https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/ARM/armenia/inflation-rate-cpi|url-statuslive}}</ref>Cash remittances
's Educational Center in Dilijan]]
Cash remittances from Armenians working abroad — mostly in Russia and the United States — contribute significantly to Armenia's Gross Domestic Product making up 14% of GDP in 2018. They help Armenia sustain double-digit economic growth and finance its massive trade deficit.
In 2008 transfers reached record high of $2.3 billion. In 2015 they reached 10-year low at $1.6 billion. In 2018, they run at round $1.8 billion. $0.8 billion were transferred in first half of 2019. According to CBA their impact on economy is decreasing, as GDP grows at outperforming rate.<ref>{{Cite web |titleArmenia Economy, Politics and GDP Growth Summary - The Economist Intelligence Unit |urlhttps://country.eiu.com/armenia |access-date2022-08-15 |websitecountry.eiu.com |archive-date2022-08-15 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220815133946/https://country.eiu.com/armenia |url-status=live }}</ref>
Net private transfers decreased in 2009, but saw a continuous increase during the first six months of 2010. Since private transfers from the Diaspora tend to be mostly injected into consumption of imports and not in high value-added sectors, the transfers have not resulted in sizeable increases in productivity.<ref name="Armenia_in_2010" />
According to the Central Bank of Armenia, during the first half of 2008, cash remittances sent back to Armenia by Armenians working abroad rose by 57.5 percent and totaled US$668.6 million, equivalent to 15 percent of the country's first-half Gross Domestic Product.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Aug5-08">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/08/4CC57703-F346-4E3C-8CA4-CD1E571BEC5A.ASP "Cash Transfers To Armenia Jump To New High"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081104153645/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/08/4CC57703-F346-4E3C-8CA4-CD1E571BEC5A.ASP |date2008-11-04 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), August 5, 2008.</ref> However, the latter figures only represent cash remittances processed through Armenian commercial banks. According to RFE/RL, comparable sums are believed to be transferred through non-bank systems, implying that cash remittances make up approximately 30 percent of Armenia's GDP in the first half of 2008.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Aug5-08" />
In 2007 cash remittances through bank transfers rose by 37 percent to a record-high level of US$1.32 billion.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Aug5-08"/> According to the Central Bank of Armenia, in 2005, cash remittances from Armenians working abroad reached a record-high level of $1 billion, which is worth more than one fifth of the country's 2005 GDP.<ref name"ArmLib-Feb-9-2006">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2006/02/70759614-25c5-449b-8ed9-91ac340adc17.asp "Survey Highlights Armenia’s Lingering Unemployment"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070613074225/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2006/02/70759614-25C5-449B-8ED9-91AC340ADC17.ASP |date2007-06-13 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), February 9, 2006.</ref>
Banking
{{main|List of banks in Armenia}}
headquarters in Yerevan]]
The central bank has set additional capital buffers in the banking sector. In force since April 2019, the regulator set three buffers exceeding the current capital adequacy requirement compliant with the Basel III regulation: a capital conservation buffer, a counter-cyclical capital buffer and a systemic risk buffer. Full implementation of the buffers over the course of the next few years will strengthen the financial sector's resistance to economic shocks and help increase the efficiency of macroprudential policies.<ref name=":13" />
Armenian banks' lending grew by 10 percent in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/business/armenian_banks_lending_in_2019_grows_by_10_percent_to_3_572_trillion_drams/|titleArmenian banks' lending in 2019 grows by 10 percent to 3.572 trillion. drams|websitearka.am|date14 February 2020 |access-date2020-02-24|archive-date2020-02-24|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200224100911/http://arka.am/en/news/business/armenian_banks_lending_in_2019_grows_by_10_percent_to_3_572_trillion_drams/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Microfinance
The establishment of Microfinance institutions in Armenia was dependent on them making a complementary effort to fill the gap in the financial services sector. Its primary goal was to deal with the rising unemployment and poverty brought on by transitory shock. In this context, self-employment in the country emerged as one of the best options to unemployment. Commercial banking institutions in Armenia overlooked micro-business enterprises that lacked credit histories and sufficient funding. Microfinance has been proposed as an adaptable instrument to assist people in transition economies take advantage of new opportunities.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Khachatryan |first1Knar |urlhttps://www.findevgateway.org/sites/default/files/publications/files/microfinance_in_armenia_sector_characteristics_and_adaptation_strategies.pdf |titleMicrofinance in Armenia: Sector characteristics and adaptation strategies |last2Avetisyan |first2Emma |last3Teulon |first3Frédéric |date2014-01-01 |publisherDepartment of Research, Ipag Business School Working Papers |edition2014-406 |locationParis |pages13–14 |languageen |access-date2022-12-14 |archive-date2022-12-14 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221214084422/https://www.findevgateway.org/sites/default/files/publications/files/microfinance_in_armenia_sector_characteristics_and_adaptation_strategies.pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Government revenues and taxation
{{See also|State Revenue Committee (Armenia)}}
Government revenues
In August 2019 Moody's Investors Service upgraded Armenia to Ba3 rating with stable outlook.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.moodys.com/research/Moodys-upgrades-Armenias-rating-to-Ba3-changes-outlook-to-stable--PR_404870|titleMoody's upgrades Armenia's rating to Ba3; changes outlook to stable from positive|date2019-08-27|websiteMoodys.com|languageen|access-date2019-10-29|archive-date2019-10-29|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191029120749/https://www.moodys.com/research/Moodys-upgrades-Armenias-rating-to-Ba3-changes-outlook-to-stable--PR_404870|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to the National Statistical Service, Armenia's government debt stood at AMD 3.1 trillion (about $6,4 billion, including $5,1 billion of external debt) as of November 30, 2017. Armenia's debt-to-GDP ratio will drop by 1% in 2018 according to finance minister.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/eng/news/250628/|titleArmenia debt-to-GDP ratio to drop 1% in 2018, minister says|workPanARMENIAN.Net|access-date2018-03-22|archive-date2018-03-23|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180323030601/http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/news/250628/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In Armenia's external debt ($5.5 billion as of January 1, 2018), the arrears for multi-country credit programs dominate – 66.2% or $3.6 billion, followed by debt on bilateral loan programs - 17.5% or $958.9 million and investments of non-residents in Armenian Eurobonds – 15,4% or $844.9 million.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://finport.am/full_news.php?id33971&lang3|titleArmenia's external debt is mainly concentrated on loans of international financial organizations {{!}} Finport.am|access-date2018-03-22|languageen|archive-date2021-05-07|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210507124755/https://finport.am/full_news.php?id33971&lang3|url-status=live}}</ref>
For the whole Armenian economy and international commerce, 2020 was a year of decline. In a variety of areas Armenian commodities are being exported and imported at a lower rate. According to the Armenian Statistical Committee, Armenia exported goods worth $2.544 billion in 2020, a fall of 3.9 percent from 2019. Armenia imported items worth 4.559 billion dollars in 2020, down 17.7% from the previous year.The volume of Armenia's international trade has varied throughout the previous 10 years.<ref>{{Cite web|title2020 - Armenia's Top 10 Foreign Trade Partners|urlhttps://hetq.am/en/article/128368|access-date2021-12-11|websiteHetq.am|date10 March 2021 |languageen|archive-date2021-12-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211211155418/https://hetq.am/en/article/128368|url-statuslive}}</ref>Taxation
{{main|Taxation in Armenia}}
{{See also|Armenian Tax Service}}
Employee income tax
From January 1, 2020, Armenia will switch to a flat income taxation system, which, regardless of the amount will tax wages at 23%. Moreover, until 2023 the taxation rate will gradually decrease from 23% to 20%.<ref name":11">{{Cite web|urlhttps://finport.am/full_news.php?id38733&lang3|titleArmenian parliament adopted amendments to Tax Code: changes are aimed at improving the competitiveness of the national economy {{!}} Finport.am|websitefinport.am|languageen|access-date2019-10-29|archive-date2021-04-29|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210429084228/https://finport.am/full_news.php?id38733&lang3|url-statuslive}}</ref> Corporate income tax The reform adopted in June 2019 aims to boost medium-term economic activity and to increase tax compliance. Among other measures, the corporate income tax was reduced by two percentage points to 18.0 per cent and the tax on dividends for non-resident organisations halved to 5.0 per cent.<ref name":13" />
Special taxation for small business
From January 1, 2020, the republic will abandon two alternative tax systems - self-employed and family entrepreneurship. They will be replaced by micro-entrepreneurship with a non-taxable threshold of up to 24 million drams. Business entities that carry out specialized activities, in particular, accounting, advocacy, and consulting will not be considered as micro-business entities. Micro business will be exempted from all types of taxes other than income tax, which will be 5 thousand drams per employee.<ref name":11" />Value-added taxOver half of the tax revenues in January–August 2008 were generated from value-added taxes (VAT) of 20%. By comparison, corporate profit tax generated less than 16 percent of the revenues.<ref name"ArmLib-Oct14-2008-Tax">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/10/A7925A64-775F-40AF-99A4-8B22C65C89C8.ASP "Government Keeps Up Strong Growth In Tax Revenues"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109221932/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/1597777.html |date2023-11-09 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), October 14, 2008.</ref> This suggests that tax collection in Armenia is improving at the expense of ordinary citizens, rather than wealthy citizens (who have been the main beneficiaries of Armenia's double-digit economic growth in recent years).<ref name="ArmLib-Oct14-2008-Tax" />
VAT (Value Added Tax): In Armenia, VAT-paying individuals subtract the VAT paid on their inputs from the VAT levied on their sales and account to the tax authorities for the difference. The standard rate of VAT on domestic sales of goods and services, as well as imports importation, is 20%. Exports of products and services are not taxed.<ref>{{Cite web|titleGeneral Taxation Overview Armenia - ILex Law Firm Armenia|urlhttps://www.ilex.am/en/2-ilex/189-general-taxation-overview-armenia.html|access-date2021-12-11|websitewww.ilex.am|archive-date2021-12-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211211221017/https://www.ilex.am/en/2-ilex/189-general-taxation-overview-armenia.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>Foreign trade, direct investments, and aidForeign tradeExports
{{Clear}}
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{{Clear}}According to the National Statistical Committee, in 2018, exports amounted to $2.411.9 billion, having grown by 7.8% from the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/exports_of_products_and_services_last_year_grew_to_38_of_armenia_s_gdp/|titleExports of products and services last year grew to 38% of Armenia's GDP|websiteARKA News Agency|date8 February 2019 |access-date2019-05-04|archive-date2019-05-04|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190504080529/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/exports_of_products_and_services_last_year_grew_to_38_of_armenia_s_gdp/|url-statuslive}}</ref> After a boom of almost 93% in 2022, the IMF expects exports of goods and services to grow by 22% in 2023 and 8% in 2024.<ref>{{cite web |titleReport for Selected Countries and Subjects |urlhttps://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c911,&sTX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,&sy2018&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |publisherInternational Monetary Fund |access-date18 October 2023 |locationWashington, D.C. |date5 October 2023 |archive-date30 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231030045347/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c911,&sTX_RPCH,TXG_RPCH,&sy2018&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
The goods export structure changed considerably in 2018 as the export of the traditional mining sector decreased while the share of textiles, agriculture and precious metals increased.<ref name"auto1">{{cite journal |titleCountry Economic Update Winter 2019 |journalThe World Bank Group |dateMarch 1, 2019 |urlhttp://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/270691552624070040/pdf/135313-WP-PUBLIC-14-3-2019-18-42-30-CEUMARARMENGWeb.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/270691552624070040/pdf/135313-WP-PUBLIC-14-3-2019-18-42-30-CEUMARARMENGWeb.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |access-date=12 May 2019}}</ref>
Geographical location of the country and relatively low electricity costs are comparative advantages supporting to boost the production of the textile and leather products in Armenia.<ref>{{Cite web|titleArmenian Business Briefs|urlhttps://bizpages.org/countries--AM--Armenia|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200420203645/https://bizpages.org/countries--AM--Armenia |archive-date2020-04-20 }}</ref> Proximity to Europe in comparison with manufacturers in East Asia creates opportunity to strengthen Armenia's position as contract manufacturing destination for European brands. Foreign companies that put orders to Armenian companies are mainly famous European brands, particularly, from Italy (La Perla, SARTIS, VERSACE etc.) and Germany (LEBEK International Fashion, KUBLER Bekleidungswerk). With the Armenia's entry into Eurasian Economic Commission, the opportunity to increase its presence with textile and leather production raised also in the countries of Eurasian Economic Commission as no customs duty applies to Armenian products in the export markets within the customs union.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://evconsulting.com/sites/default/files/ArmInvestMap_2018new_1.pdf|titleArmenia Investment Map|accessdateNovember 9, 2021|archive-dateMay 12, 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190512194236/http://evconsulting.com/sites/default/files/ArmInvestMap_2018new_1.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to the study "Regional and International Trade of Armenia",<ref name"auto2">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.aea.am/files/papers/w1103.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.aea.am/files/papers/w1103.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |titleRegional and International Trade of Armenia: Perspectives and Potentials |websitewww.aea.am}}</ref> authors investigated the trade potential of Armenia for different product groups by employing a gravity model of trade approach. The study explored Armenia's trade flows to 139 countries for the period of 2003 to 2007. According to the results of the paper, the authors concluded that "Armenia has exceeded its export potential almost with all the CIS countries". In addition, the authors concluded that the most perspective product groups of Armenian export tend to be "Industrial products", "Food and beverages" and "Consumer goods".<ref name"auto2"/> On the other hand, the paper "The effects of exchange rate volatility on exports: evidence from Armenia" analyzes the effect of Armenian floating exchange rate regime and exchange rate volatility on Armenian exports to Russia. According to the paper exchange rate volatility has long-run and short-run negative effects on exports. Moreover, authors stated that high exchange rate risk resulted in decreasing exports to Russia.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi 10.1080/13504851.2017.1418064|title The effects of exchange rate volatility on exports: Evidence from Armenia|journal Applied Economics Letters|volume 25|issue 18|pages 1266–1268|year 2018|last1 Barseghyan|first1 Gayane|last2 Hambardzumyan|first2 Hayk|s2cid 158406216}}</ref>
According to most recent (2019 Jan-Feb compared to 2018 Jan-Feb) ArmStat calculations,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.facebook.com/hpatvakanyan/posts/10211891076627262|titleHovsep Patvakanyan|websitewww.facebook.com|languageen|access-date2019-05-09|archive-date2023-11-09|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109221956/https://www.facebook.com/hpatvakanyan/posts/10211891076627262|url-statuslive}}</ref> biggest growth in export quantities was measured towards Turkmenistan by 23.6 times (from $37K to $912K), Estonia by 15 times (from $8.4K to $136.5K) and Canada by 11.5 times (from $623K to $7.8 mln). Meanwhile, exports to Russia, Germany, USA and UAE dropped.
Imports
In 2017 Armenia imported $3.96B, making it the 133rd largest importer in the world. During the last five years the imports of Armenia have decreased at an annualized rate of -1.2%, from $3.82B in 2012 to $3.96B in 2017. The most recent imports are led by Petroleum Gas which represent 8.21% of the total imports of Armenia, followed by Refined Petroleum, which account for 5.46%. Armenia's main imports are oil, natural gas, cereals, rubber manufactures, cork and wood, and electrical machinery. Armenia's main imports partners are Russia, China, Ukraine, Iran, Germany, Italy, Turkey, France and Japan.<ref>{{cite web| url https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/arm/#Imports| title OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity {{!}} OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity| access-date 2019-05-12| archive-date 2019-04-10| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190410192146/https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/country/arm/#Imports| url-status live}}</ref>
The European Union (28.7% of total exports), Russia (26.9%), Switzerland (14.1%), and Iraq (14.1%) are Armenia's largest export partners (6.3 percent ). The Russian Federation is the most important import partner (26.2%), followed by the EU (22.6%), China (13.8%), and Iran (13.8%). (5.6 percent ). After the 2008 Russian-Georgian conflict, which briefly halted the nation's hydrocarbon supply and exposed the country's energy vulnerabilities, the country has been looking for other energy sources. Tensions with its neighbors, notably Azerbaijan and Turkey, continue to exist, affecting commerce. Armenia's ties to Russia, as well as its membership in the Eurasian Economic Union, constrain the country's potential to integrate further with the EU.<ref>{{Cite web|titleForeign trade figures of Armenia - Economic and Political Overview - International Trade Portal International Trade Portal|urlhttps://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/armenia/trade-profile|access-date2021-12-11|websitewww.lloydsbanktrade.com|languageen|archive-date2021-12-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211211200522/https://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/armenia/trade-profile|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Imports in 2017 amounted to $4.183 billion, up 27.8% from 2016.<ref name"hetq2017foreigntrade">{{Cite news|urlhttp://hetq.am/eng/news/85251/armenia-foreign-trade-deficit-$194-billion-in-2017.html|titleArmenia: Foreign Trade Deficit $1.94 Billion in 2017 - Hetq.am|access-date2018-02-08|languageen|archive-date2023-11-09|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109222038/https://hetq.am/en/article/85251|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name="Armstat-2018.01.25-en" />
In 2018 the country's structural trade imbalance was predicted to be 15.7 percent of GDP (World Bank). According to World Trade Organization data, Armenia exported commodities worth US$2.4 billion in 2018, up 7% from the previous year, and imported goods worth US$4.9 billion, up 18%. In terms of services, the country exported US$2 billion in 2018 and imported US$2.1 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|titleForeign trade figures of Armenia - Economic and Political Overview - International Trade Portal International Trade Portal|urlhttps://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/armenia/trade-profile#:~:textAccording%20to%20figures%20by%20WTO,it%20imported%20USD%202.1%20billion.|access-date2021-12-11|websitewww.lloydsbanktrade.com|languageen|archive-date2021-12-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211211200522/https://www.lloydsbanktrade.com/en/market-potential/armenia/trade-profile#:~:textAccording%20to%20figures%20by%20WTO,it%20imported%20USD%202.1%20billion.|url-statuslive}}</ref>
The global economic crisis has had less impact on imports because the sector is more diversified than exports. In the first nine months of 2010, imports grew about 19 percent, just about equal to the decline of the same sector in 2009.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" />DeficitAccording to the National Statistical Service foreign trade deficit amounted to US$1.94 billion in 2017.<ref name"foreignsector2017">{{cite web|titleForeign sector of economy in 2017 - Armstat|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_12_17r_411.pdf|websiteArmstat|languageru|access-date2018-02-28|archive-date2018-03-01|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180301044259/http://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_12_17r_411.pdf|url-statuslive}}</ref>
{{Clear}}The current account deficit represented 2.4 percent of GDP in 2017 and increased up to 8.1 percent of GDP during the first three quarters of 2018. This was a result of about 8 percent increase in goods export and 21 percent increase on goods import in nominal terms year on year in 2018.<ref name="auto1"/>
Armenia's foreign trade turnover increased by 11.6 percent in January–May 2021, compared to an 11.2 percent decline a year earlier, owing to a reversal of the y-o-y dynamics of exports and imports from 8.1 to 12.8 percent decline to 20.8-6.7 percent growth, according to preliminary data from the RA Statistical Committee. As a consequence, Armenia's foreign trade turnover reached 1.5 trillion drams ($2.9 billion), with exports totaling 567.4 billion drams ($1.1 billion) and imports being 931.8 billion drams ($1.8 billion), resulting in a 364.4 billion drams ($695 million) international trade deficit. Foreign trade turnover climbed by 3.9 percent in May 2021,resulting to a 7.9% increase in exports and a minimal 1.5 percent increase in imports. As a consequence, Armenia's international trade deficit in May 2021 was 83.4 billion drams ($160 million), decreasing 7.4% from the same month in 2020. (by 21.1 percent ). Foreign trade turnover increased by 13% year over year in May 2020, due to a 30.7 percent increase in exports and a moderate 4.3 percent increase in imports.<ref>{{Cite web|lastBadalian|firstNaira|dateJune 26, 2021|titleArmenia's foreign trade deficit increased by 33% per annum in May 2021|urlhttps://finport.am/full_news.php?id44297&lang3|url-statuslive|access-date12 December 2021|websitefinport.am|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211211201938/https://finport.am/full_news.php?id44297&lang3 |archive-date2021-12-11 }}</ref>
Partners
European Union
{{See also|Armenia-EU Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement|European Business Association (Armenia)}}
In 2022 Armenia's bilateral trade with the EU topped $2.3 billion, making the EU one of Armenia's biggest and most important economic partners.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.civilnet.am/en/news/692603/as-armenia-eu-trade-blooms-armenian-exporters-look-to-new-opportunities/#:~:textArmenia's%20bilateral%20trade%20with%20the,and%20most%20important%20economic%20partners.|titleAs Armenia-EU trade blooms, Armenian exporters look to new opportunities|websitecivilnet.am|date21 February 2023|access-date20 March 2023|archive-date28 March 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230328000409/https://www.civilnet.am/en/news/692603/as-armenia-eu-trade-blooms-armenian-exporters-look-to-new-opportunities/#:~:textArmenia's%20bilateral%20trade%20with%20the,and%20most%20important%20economic%20partners.|url-statuslive}}</ref>
EU-Armenia trade increased by 15% in 2018 reaching a total value of €1.1 billion.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/975571.html|titleEU-Armenia Partnership Implementation Report: EU is a crucial partner for Armenia's reform agenda|websitearmenpress.am|date21 May 2019 |access-date2022-06-21|archive-date2020-09-28|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200928115755/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/975571.html/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2017 EU countries accounted for 24.3 percent of Armenia's foreign trade.<ref name":2">{{Cite news|urlhttps://hetq.am/hy/article/85410|titleԱրտաքին առևտուր. Հայաստանի TOP 10 գործընկերները 2017 թվականին|languagehy|access-date2022-12-29|archive-date2023-11-09|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109221933/https://hetq.am/hy/article/85410|url-statuslive}}</ref> Whereby exports to EU countries grew by 32,2% to $633 million.<ref name":3">{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/ru/news/economy/eksport_armenii_po_itogam_2017_goda_sostavil_2_242_9_mln_rost_stal_maksimalnym_za_5_let/|titleЭкспорт Армении по итогам 2017 года составил $2 242.9 млн., рост стал максимальным за 5 лет|websitearka.am|date31 January 2018 |access-date2018-02-08|archive-date2018-02-09|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180209002827/http://arka.am/ru/news/economy/eksport_armenii_po_itogam_2017_goda_sostavil_2_242_9_mln_rost_stal_maksimalnym_za_5_let/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In 2010 EU countries accounted for 32.1 percent of Armenia's foreign trade.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" /> Germany is Armenia's largest trading partner among EU member states, accounting for 7.2 percent of trade; this is due largely to mining exports. Armenian exports to EU countries have skyrocketed by 65.9 percent, making up more than half of all 2010 January to September exports. Imports from EU countries increased by 17.1 percent, constituting 22.5 percent of all imports.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" />
During January–February 2007, Armenia's trade with the European Union totaled $200 million.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Mar-30-2007">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2007/03/43d15c73-f5fe-49e8-a4ce-2d4234f33cf6.asp "Armenia Keeps Up Robust Growth"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109221933/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/1587530.html |date2023-11-09 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), March 30, 2007.</ref> During the first 11 months of 2006, the European Union remained Armenia's largest trading partner, accounting for 34.4 percent of its $2.85 billion commercial exchange during the 11-month period.<ref name"ArmLib-Jan-8-2007">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2007/01/4b0b1a8a-57d2-4bfe-80a7-fe750c1c3ce9.asp "Armenia Posts Record-High Trade Deficit"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070223143516/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2007/01/4B0B1A8A-57D2-4BFE-80A7-FE750C1C3CE9.ASP |date2007-02-23 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), January 8, 2007.</ref>
Russia and former Soviet republics
On 14 October 2024, Armenia notified its ratification of the Commonwealth of Independent States Agreement on Free Trade in Services, Establishment, Operations and Investment, which entered into force on 13 November 2024 for Armenia.<ref>https://cis.minsk.by/reestrv2/print/documentCard?ids=6738</ref>
In the first quarter of 2019, share of Russia in foreign trade turnover fell to 11% from 29% from the previous year.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://news.am/eng/news/510449.html|titleArmenian economist on fall of Russian-Armenian trade turnover|websitenews.am|languageen|access-date2019-05-02|archive-date2019-05-02|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190502120814/https://news.am/eng/news/510449.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2017, CIS countries accounted for 30 percent of Armenia's foreign trade.<ref name":2" /> Exports to CIS countries rose by 40,3% to $579,5 million.<ref name":3" />
Bilateral trade with Russia stood at more than $700 million for the first nine months of 2010 – on track to rebound to $1 billion mark first reached in 2008 prior to the global economic crisis.<ref name="Armenia_in_2010" />
During January–February 2007, Armenia's trade with Russia and other former Soviet republics was $205.6 million (double the amount from the same period the previous year), making them the country's number one trading partner.<ref name"ArmeniaLib-Mar-30-2007"/> During the first 11 months of 2006, the volume of Armenia's trade with Russia was $376.8 million or 13.2 percent of the total commercial exchange.<ref name"ArmLib-Jan-8-2007"/>
China
In 2017 trade with China grew by 33.3 percent.<ref name=":2" />
As of early 2011 trade with China is dominated by imports of Chinese goods and accounts for about 10 percent of Armenia's foreign trade.<ref name"ArmLib-Feb-17-2011">[http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/2312784.html Chinese FM Visits Armenia, Urges Closer Ties] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110219093806/http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/2312784.html |date2011-02-19 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), February 17, 2011.</ref> The volume of Chinese-Armenian trade soared by 55 percent to $390 million in January–November 2010. Armenian exports to China, though still modest in absolute terms, nearly doubled in that period.<ref name"ArmLib-Feb-17-2011" />
Iran
Armenia's trade with Iran grew significantly from 2015 and 2020. Because Armenia's land borders to the east and west have been closed by the governments of Turkey and Azerbaijan, domestic firms have looked to Iran as a key economic partner. In 2020, trade between the countries exceeded $300 million.<ref name":17">{{Cite web|date2021-01-26|titleTrade between Iran, Armenia can reach $1b annually: Minister|urlhttps://en.irna.ir/news/84200385/Trade-between-Iran-Armenia-can-reach-1b-annually-Minister|access-date2021-03-07|websiteIRNA English|languageen|archive-date2021-02-25|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225070421/https://en.irna.ir/news/84200385/Trade-between-Iran-Armenia-can-reach-1b-annually-Minister|url-statuslive}}</ref> The number of Iranian tourists has risen in recent years, with an estimated 80,000 Iranian tourists in 2010.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010"/> In January 2021, Iran's finance minister Farhad Dejpasand said that trade between the two countries could reach $1 billion annually as Iran looks to become a regional economic force.<ref name":17" />
United States
From January to September 2010, bilateral trade with the United States was about $150 million, on track for about a 30 percent increase over 2009.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" /> An increase in Armenia's exports to the US in 2009 and 2010 has been due to shipments of aluminum foil.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" />
During the first 11 months of 2006 US–Armenian trade totaled $152.6 million.<ref name"ArmLib-Jan-8-2007" />GeorgiaThe volume of Georgian–Armenian trade remains modest in both relative and absolute terms. According to official Armenian statistics it rose by 11 percent to $91.6 million in January–November 2010. The figure was equivalent to just over 2 percent of Armenia's overall foreign trade.<ref name"ArmLib-Feb-16-2011">[http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/2311549.html Armenia, Georgia Agree On Joint Border Control] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110219015947/http://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/2311549.html |date2011-02-19 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), February 16, 2011.</ref>
Turkey
In 2019 the volume of bilateral trade with Turkey was about $255 million, with trade taking place across Georgian territory.<ref>{{cite web| urlhttps://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-country/tur/partner/arm#:~:textBilateral%20Trade%20by%20Products,-%23permalink%20to%20section&textIn%202019%2C%20Turkey%20exported%20%24255M%20to%20Armenia.,-The%20main%20products&text(%2410.4M).-,During%20the%20last%2022%20years%20the%20exports%20of%20Turkey%20to,exported%20%244.86M%20to%20Turkey.,| titleBilateral Trade by Products Turkey-Armenia| access-date17 February 2022| archive-date18 February 2022| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220218124419/https://oec.world/en/profile/bilateral-country/tur/partner/arm#:~:textBilateral%20Trade%20by%20Products,-%23permalink%20to%20section&textIn%202019%2C%20Turkey%20exported%20%24255M%20to%20Armenia.,-The%20main%20products&text(%2410.4M).-,During%20the%20last%2022%20years%20the%20exports%20of%20Turkey%20to,exported%20%244.86M%20to%20Turkey.,| url-statuslive}}</ref> This figure is not expected to increase significantly so long as the land border between the Armenia and Turkey remains closed.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" />Foreign direct investments
Foreign direct investment (FDI) into Armenia decreased by US$2.7 million in December 2020, compared to a reduction of US$10.3 million the previous quarter.
Armenia foreign direct investment: USD mn Net Flows data is available from March 1993 through December 2020, and is updated quarterly.
The statistics ranged from a high of US$425.9 million in December 2008 to a low of –67.6 USD mn in December 2014.
Armenia's current account surplus is US$51.7 million in December 2020, according to the most recent statistics.
-In June 2021, Armenian Direct Investment Abroad increased by 12.8 million dollars.
-In June 2021, it boosted its Foreign Portfolio Investment by $14.6 million.
-In December 2020 the country's nominal GDP was reported to be 3.8 billion dollars.<ref>{{Cite web|titleArmenia Foreign Direct Investment, 1993 – 2021 {{!}} CEIC Data|urlhttps://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/armenia/foreign-direct-investment|access-date2021-12-11|websitewww.ceicdata.com|archive-date2021-12-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211211220202/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/armenia/foreign-direct-investment|url-statuslive}}</ref>Yearly FDI figures
{{align|right|
{{ Graph:Chart | type=rect
| y = 178.5, 338, 249.8, 254.3, 255
| yAxisTitle Foreign direct investments (in million USD) |yGrid
| xAxisTitle = Year
| x = 2015, 2016, 2017, 2018, 2019
}}
}}Despite robust economic growth foreign direct investment (FDI) in Armenia remain low as of 2018.<ref name":0">{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.azatutyun.am/a/29150307.html|titleForeign Investment In Armenia Down In 2017|website«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան|date6 April 2018|languagehy|access-date2018-04-18|last1Harutyunyan|first1Sargis|archive-date2018-04-18|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180418162041/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/29150307.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name":1">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_02_18r_420.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_02_18r_420.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleForeign investments in 2017 – armstat.am|languageru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/ru/news/economy/pravitelstvo_armenii_namereno_dovesti_uroven_kapitalnykh_investitsiy_do_23_ot_vvp_ministr/|titleПравительство Армении намерено довести уровень капитальных инвестиций до 23% от ВВП – министр|websiteARKA News Agency|date3 May 2019 |access-date2019-05-04|archive-date2019-05-04|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190504080534/http://arka.am/ru/news/economy/pravitelstvo_armenii_namereno_dovesti_uroven_kapitalnykh_investitsiy_do_23_ot_vvp_ministr/|url-status=live}}</ref>
in January–September 2019 the net flow of direct foreign investment in the real sector of the Armenian economy stood at about $267 million.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/economist_armenia_s_authorities_should_not_expect_influx_of_foreign_investment_in_near_future/|titleEconomist: Armenia's authorities should not expect influx of foreign investment in near future|websitearka.am|access-date2020-02-24|archive-date2020-02-24|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200224100909/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/economist_armenia_s_authorities_should_not_expect_influx_of_foreign_investment_in_near_future/|url-status=live}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+FDI inward flows as percentage of gross fixed capital formation<ref name":14">{{Cite web|urlhttps://unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir2019/wir19_fs_am_en.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir2019/wir19_fs_am_en.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleWorld Investment Report 2019 – Country Report – Armenia|accessdate=November 9, 2021}}</ref>
!Year
!Armenia
!Georgia
!South-East Europe and the CIS
!World
|-
|2005–2007 p.a. average
|20.0%
|
|
|
|-
|2016
|17.6%
|35.9%
|15.8%
|10.2%
|-
|2017
|11.4%
|42.3%
|9.6%
|7.5%
|-
|2018
|9.5%
|25.3%
|6.4%
|6.0%
|}
Jersey was the main source of FDI in 2017. Moreover, combined net FDI from all other sources was negative, indicating capital outflow.<ref name":1" /> The tax haven Jersey is home to an Anglo-American company, Lydian International, which is currently building a controversial massive gold mine in the southeastern Vayots Dzor Province. Lydian has pledged to invest a total of $370 million in the Amulsar gold mine.<ref name":0" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Country
(with FDI net flow
exceeding 1 billion AMD)
!Net flow of FDI<br />in 2017,
in billion AMD<ref name=":1" />
!Net flow of FDI
in 9 months of 2018,
in billion AMD<ref name":5">{{Cite news|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/net_foreign_direct_investment_in_armenia_s_real_sector_in_9_months_amount_to_59_8_billion_drams/|titleNet foreign direct investment in Armenia's real sector in 9 months amount to 59.8 billion drams|workARKA News Agency|access-date2018-12-03|archive-date2018-12-02|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181202044002/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/net_foreign_direct_investment_in_armenia_s_real_sector_in_9_months_amount_to_59_8_billion_drams/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_10_18a_420.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_10_18a_420.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleՕտարերկրյա ներդրումները 2018 թվականի հունվար-սեպտեմբերին|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref>
|-
|Jersey
|108
|20.6
|-
|Germany
|14
|14.3
|-
|Netherlands
|3
|0.4
|-
|Argentina
|3
|1.72
|-
|UK
|2
|1.31
|-
|Hungary
|2
|0
|-
|Ireland
|0.6
|0.6
|-
|Cyprus
| −1
|1.76
|-
|France
| −6
| −2
|-
|Lebanon
| −7
|3.4
|-
|Russia
| −12
|11.7
|-
|Luxembourg
| −22
| −1
|-
|Italy
| −0.68
| −0.5
|-
|USA
|0.5
|1.78
|}
Negative values indicate investments of Armenian corporations to foreign country exceeding investments from that country in Armenia.
Stock FDI
FDI stock to GDP ratio grew continuously during 2014–2016 and reached 44.1% in 2016, surpassing average figures for Commonwealth of Independent States countries, transition economies and the world.<ref name"fdi2016">{{Cite news|urlhttp://unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir2017/wir17_fs_am_en.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://unctad.org/sections/dite_dir/docs/wir2017/wir17_fs_am_en.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleFDI data – United Nations Conference on Trade and Development|access-date2018-02-28|languageen}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|+Stock inward FDI<ref name=":14" />
!Year
!Million dollars
!Share of GDP
|-
|2015
|4 338
|
|-
|2016
|4 635
|43.9%
|-
|2017
|4 752
|41.2%
|-
|2018
|5 511
|44.4%
|}
By the end of 2017 stock net FDI (for the period 1988–2017) reached 1824 billion AMD, while gross flow of FDI for the same period reached 3869 billion AMD.<ref name=":1" />
{| class="wikitable"
!Countries
with largest positions
!Stock net FDI <br />by end of 2017,
in billion AMD<ref name=":1" />
|-
|Russia
|773
|-
|Jersey
|159
|-
|Argentina
|112
|-
|France
|83
|-
|Lebanon
|77
|-
|Cyprus
|77
|-
|USA
|73
|-
|Germany
|73
|-
|UK
|53
|-
|Netherlands
|50
|-
|U.A.E.
|29
|-
|Luxembourg
|24
|-
|Italy
|14
|-
|Switzerland
|10
|}
As of February 2019, the European Investment Bank (EIB) has invested about 380 million euros in the various projects implemented in Armenia.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/european_investment_bank_ready_to_carry_out_new_programs_in_armenia/|titleEuropean Investment Bank ready to carry out new programs in Armenia|websitearka.am|access-date2019-11-05|archive-date2019-11-05|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191105184414/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/european_investment_bank_ready_to_carry_out_new_programs_in_armenia/|url-statuslive}}</ref>FDI in founding capital of financial institutionsDuring the sector consolidation process in 2014–2017 the share of foreign capital in the authorized capital of the Armenian commercial banks decreased from 74,6% to 61,8%.<ref name":4" />
Net FDI in founding capital of financial institutions accumulated by end of September 2017 is presented in pie chart below.<ref name"bank_fdi">{{Cite news|urlhttp://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_10_17a_420.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_10_17a_420.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleFDI data by ArmStat|access-date2018-02-18|languagehy-HY}}</ref>
{{align|right|
{{#invoke:Chart|pie chart
| radius = 160
| slices =
( 98.06 : Cyprus : cyan )
( 82.42 : UK : blue )
( 58.28 : Russia : red )
( 54.18 : USA )
( 38.32 : Lebanon : green )
( 33.71 : Iran : grey )
( 21.86 : Luxembourg )
( 21.2 : EBRD )
( 16.57 : Netherlands )
( 16.22 : France )
( 14.54 : Virgin Islands )
( 10.78 : Lichtenstein )
( 6.73 : Switzerland )
( 2.06 : Latvia )
( 0.6 : Canada )
( 0.55 : Germany )
( 0.46 : Austria<ref name="bank_fdi"/> )
| units suffix = _bill._AMD
| percent = true
}}
}}
{{Clear}}
Foreign aid
United States
The Armenian government receives foreign aid from the government of the United States through the United States Agency for International Development and the Millennium Challenge Corporation.
On March 27, 2006, the Millennium Challenge Corporation signed a five-year, $235.65 million compact with the Government of Armenia. The single stated goal of the "Armenian Compact" is "the reduction of rural poverty through a sustainable increase in the economic performance of the agricultural sector." The compact includes a $67 million to rehabilitate up to 943 kilometers of rural roads, more than a third of Armenia's proposed "Lifeline road network". The Compact also includes a $146 million project to increase the productivity of approximately 250,000 farm households through improved water supply, higher yields, higher-value crops, and a more competitive agricultural sector.<ref name"MCC-AM-FactSheet">[http://www.mcc.gov/documents/factsheet-032706-armenia.pdf "Armenia and Millennium Challenge Corporation: Building a Dynamic Partnership for Poverty Reduction through Economic Growth"] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090514221214/http://www.mcc.gov/documents/factsheet-032706-armenia.pdf |date=May 14, 2009 }}, Millennium Challenge Corporation, March 27, 2006.</ref>
In 2010 the volume of US assistance to Armenia remained near 2009 levels; however, longer-term decline continued. The original Millennium Challenge Account commitment for $235 million had been reduced to about $175 million due to Armenia's poor governance record. Thus, the MCC would not complete road construction. Instead, the irrigated agriculture project was headed for completion with apparently no prospects for extension beyond 2011.<ref name="Armenia_in_2010"/>
On May 8, 2019, conditioned with the political events in Armenia since April 2018, United States Agency for International Development signed an extension of US–Armenia bilateral agreement in the area of governance and public administration, which would add additional US$8.5 million to the agreement. By signing another document on the same day, USAID increased the aid by additional US$7.5 million in support for more competitive and diversified private sector in Armenia. The financial allocations will be directed to the financing of the USAID-funded project in infrastructures, agriculture, tourism․ After the signing of the new bilateral agreements, the total amount of the U.S. grants to Armenia amounted to around US$81 million.<ref>{{cite web |titleDeputy Prime Minister Mher Grigoryan receives USAID Deputy Assistant Administrator |urlhttp://www.gov.am/en/news/item/9483/ |websiteThe Government of the Republic of Armenia |access-date12 May 2019 |archive-date12 May 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190512075518/http://www.gov.am/en/news/item/9483/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleՀայաստանն ԱՄՆ-ից լրացուցիչ կտրամադրի 7,449,000 ԱՄՆ դոլարի չափով ֆինանսական հատկացում |urlhttp://mineconomy.am/hy/1243 |websiteMinistry of Economic Development and Investments of the Republic of Armenia |access-date12 May 2019 }}{{dead link|dateNovember 2023}}</ref>
European Union
According to the agreement signed in 2020 EU will provide Armenia with 65 million euros for implementation of three programs in such areas as energy efficiency, environment and community development and formation of tools for implementation of the Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement.
With curtailment of the MCC funding, the European Union may replace the US as Armenia's chief source of foreign aid for the first time since independence. From 2011 to 2013 the EU is expected to advance at least €157.3 million ($208 million) in aid to Armenia.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" />Domestic business environment(housing both the Armenian Customs Service and the Armenian Tax Service).]]{{see also|List of companies of Armenia}}Since transition of power to new leadership in 2018 Armenian government works on improving domestic business environment. Numerous formerly privileged business are now required to pay taxes and officially register all workers. Mainly due to this there were 9.7% more payroll employees registered in January 2019 as compared to January 2018.<ref name"arka.am">{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenian_premier_explains_where_50_000_new_jobs_have_come_from/|titleArmenian premier explains where 50,000 new jobs have come from|websiteARKA News Agency|access-date2019-04-30|archive-date2019-04-29|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190429153244/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenian_premier_explains_where_50_000_new_jobs_have_come_from/|url-status=live}}</ref>
In April 2019 Armenian parliament approved reforms of management of joint stock companies effectively enacting a blocking minority shareholders stake of 25%<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenian_parliament_approves_reforms_of_management_of_joint_stock_companies_/|titleArmenian parliament approves reforms of management of joint stock companies|websiteARKA News Agency|access-date2019-04-30|archive-date2019-04-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190430082836/http://arka.am/en/news/economy/armenian_parliament_approves_reforms_of_management_of_joint_stock_companies_/|url-status=live}}</ref> to cope with shareholder oppression.
Following the advice of economic advisers who cautioned Armenia's leadership against the consolidation of economic power in the hands of a few, in January 2001 the government of Armenia established the State Commission for the Protection of Economic Competition.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.competition.am/?lng2|titleState Commission for the Protection of Economic Competition of the Republic of Armenia|websitewww.competition.am|access-date2008-11-15|archive-date2008-12-05|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081205012836/http://www.competition.am/?lng2|url-statuslive}}</ref> Its members cannot be dismissed by the government.<ref name"ArmeniaNow-Jan-4-2008">[http://www.armenianow.com/?actionviewArticle&AID2724 Competitive Edge: The pitfalls of monopolies, and the challenges of a business-influenced parliament] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303193556/http://www.armenianow.com/?actionviewArticle&AID2724 |date2016-03-03 }}, ArmeniaNow.com, January 4, 2008.</ref>
Foreign trade facilitation
In June 2011 Armenia adopted a Law on Free Economic Zones (FEZ), and developed several key regulations at the end of 2011 to attract foreign investments into FEZs: exemptions from VAT (value added tax), profit tax, customs duties, and property tax.<ref name="State Dept"/>
The “Alliance” FEZ was opened in August 2013, and currently has nine businesses taking advantage of its facilities. The focus of “Alliance” FEZ is on high-tech industries which include information and communication technologies, electronics, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology, architecture and engineering, industrial design and alternative energy. In 2014, the government expanded operations in the Alliance FEZ to include industrial production as long as there is no similar production already occurring in Armenia.<ref name="State Dept"/>
In 2015 another “Meridian” FEZ, focused on jewelry production, watch-making, and diamond-cutting opened in Yerevan, with six businesses operating in it. The investment programs for these companies must still be approved by government.<ref name="State Dept"/>
The Armenian government approved the program to construct the Meghri free economic zone at the border with Iran, which is expected to open in 2017.<ref name"State Dept">{{Source-attribution|sentenceyes|{{Cite web|urlhttps://2009-2017.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/investmentclimatestatements/index.htm?year2017&dlid269872|titleInvestment Climate Statements for 2017|websitewww.state.gov|languageen-US|access-date2018-02-17|archive-date2020-07-30|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200730212501/https://2009-2017.state.gov/e/eb/rls/othr/ics/investmentclimatestatements/index.htm?year2017&dlid269872|url-statuslive}} }}</ref>
Controversial issues
{{see also|Corruption in Armenia}}
Monopolies
Major monopolies in Armenia include:
#Natural gas import and distribution, held by Gazprom Armenia, formerly named ArmRosGazprom (controlled by Russian monopoly Gazprom)<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/09/629c6da9-9ef2-4469-93ef-928d82ed758c.asp New Russian Gas Price For Armenia Unveiled] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109221932/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/1597463.html |date2023-11-09 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), September 23, 2008.</ref>
# Armenia's railway, South Caucasus Railway, owned by Russian Railways (RZD)<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/11/efe6841d-bbe4-434b-ae7e-ed9028694e5a.asp Armenian Railway Under Anti-Trust Investigation] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231109221933/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/1598190.html |date2023-11-09 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), November 5, 2008.</ref>
# Electricity transmission and distribution (see Electricity sector in Armenia)
#Newspaper distribution, held by Haymamul<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2007/09/279f0964-3700-4061-be5e-a02482aca24c.asp Editors Concerned About Sale Of Newspaper Distribution Firm], Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), September 13, 2007.</ref>
Former notable monopolies in Armenia :
# Wireless (mobile) telephony, held by Armentel until 2004<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/10/c27847d4-bce4-467a-937b-2bb5aae0b9d8.asp French Mobile Giant Set To Win Armenia Tender], Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), October 6, 2008.</ref>
# Internet access, held by Armentel until September 2006<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/07/5d999270-2079-4b19-8ec5-691bf2651f02.asp Armenian Telecom Operator Fined $1 Mln] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090108175414/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/07/5D999270-2079-4B19-8EC5-691BF2651F02.asp |date2009-01-08 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), July 30, 2008.</ref>
# Fixed-line telephony, held by Armentel until August 2007<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2007/08/17c75bb8-27b2-4388-8fd1-725d103e8b2d.asp Armenian Telecom Sector Further Liberalized], Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), August 24, 2007.</ref>
Assumed (unofficial) monopolies until 2018 velvet revolution:
#Oil import and distribution (claimed by Armenian opposition parties to belonging to a handful of government-linked individuals,<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/08/3b1ffa7f-f9ac-4dce-b011-50aa2b3d2a88.asp Armenian Premier Downplays Impact Of Georgia War] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081104160225/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/08/3B1FFA7F-F9AC-4DCE-B011-50AA2B3D2A88.ASP |date2008-11-04 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), August 28, 2008.</ref> one of which – "Mika Limited" – is owned by Mikhail Baghdasarian,<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/08/9b068f64-91ba-46c1-9a76-196317cc1012.asp Armenian Cement Plant ‘Sold To Russian Firm’] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081014093837/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/08/9B068F64-91BA-46C1-9A76-196317CC1012.ASP |date2008-10-14 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), August 15, 2008.</ref> while the other – "Flash" – is owned by Barsegh Beglarian, a "prominent representative of the Karabakh clan"<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/press/press/en/2007/03/13d6aa27-b1ec-4fdd-bcb7-78f73c47790b.asp Press Review] (quoting Zhamanak Yerevan), Armenia Liberty, March 19, 2007.</ref>)
# Aviation kerosene (supplying to Zvartnots airport), held by Mika Limited<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2005/11/e45b96b0-5df0-4f06-9c90-28811edad21e.asp Armenia Airport Hamstrung By Mysterious Fuel Shortage], Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), November 7, 2005.</ref>
# Various basic foodstuffs such as rice, sugar, wheat, cooking oil and butter<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/06/676b804e-251e-4ef7-a670-94b55cf25ab3.asp Armenian Central Bank Approves Another Rate Rise], Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), June 3, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/05/49D8330F-1952-4009-A551-D965586E47D8.ASP Government Vows To Curb Rising Inflation] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081123054009/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/05/49D8330F-1952-4009-A551-D965586E47D8.asp |date2008-11-23 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), May 29, 2008.</ref> (the Salex Group enjoys a de facto monopoly on imports of wheat, sugar, flour, butter and cooking oil. Its owner was a parliament deputy Samvel Aleksanian (a.k.a. "Lfik Samo") and close to the country's leadership.<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/01/aa033b02-6450-412b-8951-bf5a1763089c.asp Mining Giant Remains Armenia’s Top Taxpayer] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080131101601/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/01/AA033B02-6450-412B-8951-BF5A1763089C.ASP |date2008-01-31 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), January 29, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2007/10/E6DB75C0-2646-4BB0-9554-1C69E3849998.ASP Armenia Hit By Sugar Shortage] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071224212000/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2007/10/E6DB75C0-2646-4BB0-9554-1C69E3849998.ASP |date2007-12-24 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), October 23, 2007.</ref>).
According to one analyst, Armenia's economic system in 2008 was anticompetitive due to the structure of the economy being a type of "monopoly or oligopoly". "The result is the prices with us do not drop even if they do on international market, or they do quite belated and not to the size of the international market."<ref name"ArmeniaNow-Nov-14-2008">[https://archive.today/20130117025908/http://www.armenianow.com/?actionviewArticle&AID3382&CID3245&IID1209&lngeng Price Predictions: With present inflation at nearly triple expectation, economists challenge 2009 forecast], ArmeniaNow.com, November 14, 2008.</ref>
According to the 2008 estimate of a former prime minister, Hrant Bagratyan, 55 percent of Armenia's GDP is controlled by 44 families.<ref name="ArmeniaNow-Jan-4-2008" />
In early 2008 the State Commission for the Protection of Economic Competition named 60 companies having "dominant positions" in Armenia.<ref name="ArmeniaNow-Jan-4-2008"/>
In October 2009, when visiting Yerevan, the World Bank’s managing director, Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala, warned that Armenia will not reach a higher level of development unless its leadership changes the "oligopolistic" structure of the national economy, bolsters the rule of law and shows "zero tolerance" towards corruption.<ref name"ArmLib-Oct-10-2009">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/content/article/1855547.html Armenia Warned To End ‘Oligopoly’] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091124082227/http://www.armenialiberty.org/content/article/1855547.html |date2009-11-24 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL)October 10, 2009.</ref> "I think you can only go so far with this economic model," Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala told a news conference in Yerevan. "Armenia is a lower middle-income country. If it wants to become a high-income or upper middle-income country, it can not do so with this kind of economic structure. That is clear." She also called for a sweeping reform of tax and customs administration, the creation of a "strong and independent judicial system" as well as a tough fight against government corruption.<ref name"ArmLib-Oct-10-2009"/> The warning was echoed by the International Monetary Fund.<ref name"ArmLib-Nov-27-2009">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/content/article/1889521.html "Armenia Learning From Crisis, Says World Bank "] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120307083532/http://www.armenialiberty.org/content/article/1889521.html |date2012-03-07 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), November 27, 2009.</ref>Takeover of Armenian industrial property by the Russian state and Russian companiesSince 2000 the Russian state has acquired several key assets in the energy sector and Soviet-era industrial plants. Property-for-debt or equity-for-debt swaps (acquiring ownership by simply writing off the Armenian government's debts to Russia) are usually the method of acquiring assets. The failure of market reforms, clan-based economics, and official corruption in Armenia have allowed the success of this process.<ref name"IASPS-Nov13-02">Socor, Vladimir. [http://www.iasps.org/strategic/socor12.htm "Armenia's Energy Sector, Other Industrial Assets Passing Under Russia's Control"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081006052910/http://www.iasps.org/strategic/socor12.htm |date2008-10-06 }}, IASPS Policy Briefings: Oil in Geostrategic Perspective, November 13, 2002.</ref>
In August 2002 the Armenian government sold an 80 percent stake in the Armenian Electricity Network (AEN) to Midland Resources, a British offshore-registered firm which is said to have close Russian connections.<ref name="IASPS-Nov13-02"/>
In September 2002 the Armenian government handed over Armenia's largest cement factory to the Russian ITERA gas exporter in payment for its $10 million debt for past gas deliveries.<ref name"Eurasianet-May-7-03">[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/business/articles/eav050703.shtml >Danielyan, Emil. RUSSIA TIGHTENS GRIP ON ARMENIA WITH DEBT AGREEMENTS]{{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080813030604/http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/business/articles/eav050703.shtml |archive-date=2008-08-13 }}, Eurasianet, May 7, 2003</ref>
On November 5, 2002, Armenia transferred control of 5 state enterprises to Russia in an assets-for-debts transaction which settled $100 million of Armenian state debts to Russia. The document was signed for Russia by Prime Minister Mikhail Kasyanov and Industry Minister Ilya Klebanov, while Prime Minister Andranik Markarian and National Security Council Secretary Serge Sarkisian signed for Armenia.<ref name="IASPS-Nov13-02"/> The five enterprises which passed to 100 percent Russian state ownership are:
* Armenia's largest thermal gas-burning power plant, which is in the town of Hrazdan
* "Mars" — electronics and robotics plant in Yerevan, a Soviet-era flagship for both civilian and military production
* three research-and-production enterprises — for mathematical machines, for the study of materials, and for automated control equipment — these being Soviet-era military-industrial plants
In January 2003 the Armenian government and United Company RUSAL signed an investment cooperation agreement, under which United Company RUSAL (which already owned a 76% stake) acquired the Armenian government's remaining 26% share of RUSAL ARMENAL aluminum foil mill, giving RUSAL 100% ownership of RUSAL ARMENAL.<ref name"IASPS-Nov13-02"/><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.rusal.ru/en/armenal.aspx|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151231191738/http://www.rusal.ru/en/armenal.aspx|url-statusdead|titleRUSAL ARMENAL|archivedateDecember 31, 2015}}</ref>
On November 1, 2006, the Armenian government handed de facto control of the Iran-Armenia gas pipeline to Russian company Gazprom and increased Gazprom's stake in the Russian-Armenian company ArmRosGazprom from 45% to 58% by approving an additional issue of shares worth $119 million.<ref name"EURA-Nov-3-06">Socor, Vladimir. [http://www.jamestown.org/edm/article.php?article_id2371612 "Russia Cements Control of Armenia's Energy System"], Eurasia Daily Monitor, November 3, 2006. {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070913115602/http://www.jamestown.org/edm/article.php?article_id2371612 |dateSeptember 13, 2007 }}</ref> This left the Armenian government with a 32% stake in ArmRosGazprom. The transaction will also help finance ArmRosGazprom's acquisition of the Hrazdan electricity generating plant’s fifth power bloc (Hrazdan-5), the leading unit in the country.<ref name"EURA-Nov-3-06"/>
In October 2008 the Russian bank Gazprombank, the banking arm of Gazprom, acquired 100 percent of Armenian bank Areximbank after previously buying 80 percent of said bank in November 2007 and 94.15 percent in July of the same year.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.armenews.com/article.php3?id_article44934|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081005215742/http://www.armenews.com/article.php3?id_article44934|url-statusdead|titleGazprombank acquiert entièrement la banque arménienne Areximbank|archivedate=October 5, 2008}}</ref>
In December 2017 government transferred natural gas distribution networks in cities Meghri and Agarak to Gazprom Armenia for cost-free use. Construction of these was funded by foreign aid and costed about 1.3 billion AMD.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://hetq.am/hy/article/84327|titleՄեղրիի և Ագարակի գազամատակարարման ցանցն անհատույց հանձնվեց "Գազպրոմ Արմենիա"-ին. վաճառելու առաջարկը մերժվել է|languagehy}}</ref>Non-transparent dealsCritics of the Robert Kocharyan government (in office until 2008) say that the Armenian administration never considered alternative ways of settling the Russian debts. According to economist Eduard Aghajanov, Armenia could have repaid them with low-interest loans from other, presumably Western sources, or with some of its hard currency reserves which then totaled about $450 million. Furthermore, Aghajanov points to the Armenian government's failure to eliminate widespread corruption and mismanagement in the energy sector – abuses that cost Armenia at least $50 million in losses each year, according to one estimate.<ref name"Eurasianet-May-7-03"/>
Political observers say that Armenia's economic cooperation with Russia has been one of the least transparent areas of the Armenian government's work. The debt arrangements have been personally negotiated by (then) Defense Minister (and later President) Serge Sarkisian, initially Kocharyan's closest political associate. Other top government officials, including former Prime Minister Andranik Markarian, had little say on the issue. Furthermore, all of the controversial agreements have been announced after Sarkisian's frequent trips to Moscow, without prior public discussion.<ref name="Eurasianet-May-7-03"/>
While Armenia is not the only ex-Soviet state that has incurred multi-million-dollar debts to Russia over the past decades, it is the only state to have so far given up such a large share of its economic infrastructure to Russia. For example, pro-Western Ukraine and Georgia (both of which owe Russia more than Armenia) have managed to reschedule repayment of their debts.<ref name"Eurasianet-May-7-03"/>Transportation routes and energy lines{{see also|Transport in Armenia}}InternalSince early 2008, Armenia's entire rail network is managed by the Russian state railway under brand South Caucasus Railways.<ref name"ArmLib-Oct14-2008">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/10/6B68C3F8-5DCC-4B9B-81E5-C638FEDE172D.ASP "Armenia ‘Pressing Ahead’ With Iran Rail Link"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081017102959/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/10/6B68C3F8-5DCC-4B9B-81E5-C638FEDE172D.ASP |date2008-10-17 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), October 14, 2008.</ref><ref name"ArmLib-Aug13-2008">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/08/F3509195-D04E-4187-AA45-23B61ACF430F.asp "Armenia Scrambles To Restore Vital Supplies Via Georgia"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081105085647/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2008/08/F3509195-D04E-4187-AA45-23B61ACF430F.ASP |date2008-11-05 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), August 18, 2008.</ref> Metros Yerevan Metro was launched in 1981. It serves 11 active stations. Buses Yerevan Central Bus Station, also known as Kilikia Bus Station, is Yerevan's primary bus terminal, linking buses to both domestic and foreign destinations. Roadways
Total length:
8,140&nbsp;km, <br />World ranking: 112 (7,700&nbsp;km paved including 1561&nbsp;km of expressways).
Through Georgia
Russian natural gas reaches Armenia via a pipeline through Georgia.
The only operational rail link into Armenia is from Georgia. During Soviet times, Armenia's rail network connected to Russia's via Georgia through Abkhazia along the Black Sea. However, the rail link between Abkhazia and other Georgian regions has been closed for a number of years, forcing Armenia to receive rail cars laden with cargo only through the relatively expensive rail-ferry services operating between Georgian and other Black Sea ports.<ref name="ArmLib-Oct14-2008"/>
The Georgian Black Sea ports of Batumi and Poti process more than 90 percent of freight shipped to and from landlocked Armenia. The Georgian railway, which runs through the town of Gori in central Georgia, is the main transport link between Armenia and the aforementioned Georgian seaports. Fuel, wheat and other basic commodities are transported to Armenia by rail.<ref name="ArmLib-Aug13-2008"/>
Armenia's main rail and road border-crossing with Georgia (at {{coord|41|13|41.97|N|44|50|9.12|E|type:landmark_region:AM|display=inline}}) is at the Debed river near the Armenian town of Bagratashen and the Georgian town of Sadakhlo.
The Upper Lars border crossing (at Darial Gorge) between Georgia and Russia across the Caucasus Mountains serves as Armenia's sole overland route to the former Soviet Union and Europe.<ref name"ArmLib-Dec24-2009">[http://www.armenialiberty.org/content/article/1913022.html "Russia, Georgia Agree To Reopen Border Gate"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120307083311/http://www.armenialiberty.org/content/article/1913022.html |date2012-03-07 }}, Armenia Liberty (RFE/RL), December 24, 2009.</ref> It was controversially shut down by the Russian authorities in June 2006, at the height of a Russian-Georgian spy scandal.<ref name"ArmLib-Dec24-2009"/> Upper Lars is the only land border crossing that does not go through Georgia's Russian-backed breakaway regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. The other two roads linking Georgia and Russia run through South Ossetia and Abkhazia, effectively barring them to international traffic.<ref name"ArmLib-Dec24-2009"/>Through Iran
A new gas pipeline to Iran has been completed, and a road to Iran through the southern city of Meghri allows trade with that country. An oil pipeline to pump Iranian oil products is also in the planning stages.
As of October 2008 the Armenian government was considering implementing an ambitious project to build a railway to Iran.<ref name"ArmLib-Oct14-2008" /> The 400 kilometer railway would pass through Armenia's mountainous southern province of Syunik, which borders Iran. Economic analysts say that the project would cost at least $1 billion (equivalent to about 40 percent of Armenia's 2008 state budget).<ref name"ArmLib-Oct14-2008" /> As of 2010, the project has been continuously delayed, with the rail link estimated to cost as much as $4 billion and stretch {{convert|313|km|mi|abbron}}.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010" /> In June 2010, Transport Minister Manuk Vartanian revealed that Yerevan is seeking as much as $1 billion in loans from China to finance the railway's construction.<ref name"ArmLib-Feb-17-2011" /> Through Turkey and Azerbaijan
The border closures by Turkey and Azerbaijan have severed Armenia's rail link between Gyumri and Kars; the rail link with Iran through the Azeri exclave of Nakhichevan; and a natural gas and oil pipeline with Azerbaijan. Also closed are road links with Turkey and Azerbaijan. Despite the economic blockade of Turkey on Armenia, every day dozens of Turkish trucks laden with goods enter Armenia through Georgia.
In 2010 it was confirmed that Turkey will keep the border closed for the foreseeable future after the Turkey-Armenia normalization process collapsed.<ref name"Armenia_in_2010"/>Labor market Labor occupation According to the 2018 HDI statistical update, Armenia had the highest percentage of employment in services (49.7%) and lowest share in agriculture (34.4%) among the South Caucasus countries.<ref name":15">{{Cite web|urlhttp://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/2018_human_development_statistical_update.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleHuman Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref>
Unionization
{{See also|Trade unions in Armenia}}
In 2018, about 30% of wage workers were organized in unions. At the same time, rate of unionization was dropping at average rate of 1% since 1993.<ref name":7">{{Cite web|urlhttp://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/816281518818814423/pdf/2019-WDR-Report.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleWorld Development Report 2019|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref>Monthly wagesAccording to preliminary figures from Statistical Committee of Armenia monthly wages averaged to 172 thousand AMD in February 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid12&id08001|titleTime series / Statistical Committee of Armenia|websitewww.armstat.am|access-date2019-05-01|archive-date2018-11-17|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181117192828/https://www.armstat.am//en/?nid12&id08001|url-statuslive}}</ref>
It is estimated that wages rise at 0.8% for each additional year of experience and "the ability to solve problems and learn new skills yields a wage premium of nearly 20 percent".<ref name":7" />UnemploymentIt was reported that in 2020 there was a drop in the unemployment rate in Armenia from 16.99% in 2019 to 16.63% in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|titleArmenia – unemployment rate 2020|urlhttps://www.statista.com/statistics/440639/unemployment-rate-in-armenia/|access-date2021-05-11|websiteStatista|languageen|archive-date2023-01-19|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230119145939/https://www.statista.com/statistics/440639/unemployment-rate-in-armenia/|url-statuslive}}</ref> The Statistical Committee of Armenia reported that in 2020, the unemployment rate has been volatile reaching to 19.8% during the first quarter of the year and then decreasing to 16% during the fourth quarter.<ref>{{Cite web|titleTime series / Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid12&id08010|access-date2021-05-11|websitewww.armstat.am|archive-date2021-05-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210511193835/https://www.armstat.am/en/?nid12&id08010|url-statuslive}}</ref> According to the latest reports on population of Armenia, in December 2020 the population consisted of 2.96million people and the average monthly earning during February 2021 was US$366.05.<ref>{{Cite web|titleArmenia Unemployment Rate|urlhttps://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/armenia/unemployment-rate|access-date2021-05-11|websitewww.ceicdata.com|archive-date2021-04-13|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210413003902/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/armenia/unemployment-rate|url-status=live}}</ref>
According to prime minister Nikol Pashinyan in January 2019, 562,043 payroll jobs were recorded, against of 511,902 in January 2018, an increase of 9.7%.<ref name"arka.am" />Statistical Committee of Armenia publication based on data retrieved from employers and national income service cites 560,586 payroll positions in January 2019, an increase of 9.9% against previous year.<ref name"auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid82&id2144|titleSocio- Economic Situation of RA, January–February 2019 (Armenian, Russian) / Statistical Committee of Armenia|websitewww.armstat.am|access-date2019-05-01|archive-date2019-11-13|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191113175442/https://www.armstat.am/en/?nid82&id2144|url-statuslive}}</ref> This however does not match survey data published by the Statistical Committee of Armenia, according to which in 4th quarter of 2018 there were 870.1 thousand persons employed against 896.7 thousand employed persons in 4th quarter of 2017.<ref name":6">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_02_19a_141.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.armstat.am/file/article/sv_02_19a_141.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleԱշխատանքի շուկայի ցուցանիշներ|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref> The mismatch was highlighted by former PM Hrant Bagratyan.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.1in.am/2551431.html|title50141 աշխատատեղ ստեղծվել է, բայց 76741 աշխատատեղ էլ՝ փակվե՞լ. Հրանտ Բագրատյան|publisherPeyotto Technologies|website1in.am|access-date2019-05-01|archive-date2019-05-01|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190501071046/https://www.1in.am/2551431.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> For the whole year of 2018 Statistical Committee of Armenia survey counted 915.5 thousand employed persons, an increase of 1.4% against previous year. In the same period unemployment rate of economically active population dropped from 20.8% to 20.4%.<ref name=":6" />
The unemployment rate increased to 19% in 2018 before dropping to 18.3% in 2019 and 18.2% in 2020, having remained basically unchanged since 2009.<ref name"unemployment">{{cite web |titleReport for Selected Countries and Subjects |urlhttps://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c911,&sLUR,LP,&sy2000&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |publisherInternational Monetary Fund |access-date18 October 2023 |locationWashington, D.C. |date5 October 2023 |archive-date30 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231030045347/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2023/October/weo-report?c911,&sLUR,LP,&sy2000&ey2024&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 |url-statuslive }}</ref> At the same time, an estimated 60% of workers were employed in the informal economy in 2019.<ref name":7" /> The strong economic growth of 2021 and 2022 led to a significant drop in unemployment to 15.3% and 13% respectively,<ref name"unemployment" /> causing a substantial reduction in the proportion of the population living below the World Bank upper-middle income economy poverty threshold of $6.85 per day, from 51.7% in 2021 to 37.6% in 2023.<ref name="World Bank" />
World Bank research also reveals that employment rate fell in years 2000–2015 in middle- and low-skill occupations, while it grew high-skill occupations.<ref name=":7" />
See also Statistical Committee of Armenia publication (in English) "Labour market in the Republic of Armenia, 2018".<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.armstat.am/en/?nid82&id2106|titleLabour market in the Republic of Armenia, 2018 / Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia|websitewww.armstat.am|access-date2019-05-01|archive-date2019-11-14|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191114111210/https://www.armstat.am/en/?nid82&id2106|url-statuslive}}</ref> Female unemployment in Armenia Worldwide, women's unemployment rate is 6%, higher than men's by about 0.8 points. According to International Labor Organization, Armenia has the highest women's unemployment rate in post-Soviet countries, equaling 17.3% for women above 25. If we compare this rate with those of the neighboring countries (Latvia: 8.6%, Georgia: 7.7%, Azerbaijan: 4.8%), we can see that it is very high. In 2017, the National Statistical Service of Armenia stated that more than 60% of officially registered unemployed people in Armenia are women. One of the lecturers of Yerevan State University, Ani Kojoyan, mentioned that even though there is no issue in the legislation that becomes a reason for women's unemployment; however, there are some issues that are not mentioned in the legislation. Some of those issues are the fact that potential employers consider women's marital status, how many children they have, or if they are planning to get pregnant any time soon. Moreover, some women are not allowed to work by their husbands after graduating from higher educational institutions. She mentions that the most crucial problem affecting this phenomenon is the fact women do not stand up for their rights. It is also mentioned that according to various sources, there is an inequality in men's and women's monthly wages. In all the sectors, the average monthly salary of men is much higher than women even with the same years of education. It is stated that eliminating the discrimination between two genders would positively impact the country's economy. Ani Kojoyan mentions that this is a crucial problem for the economy except for being a women's rights violation. Thus, the Armenian government should take care that unemployed women can find jobs and become taxpayers.<ref>{{Cite news|titleArmenia Has Highest Female Unemployment Rate Among Post-Soviet Countries|urlhttps://www.azatutyun.am/a/29089151.html|access-date2021-05-13|website«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան|date9 March 2018|languagehy|last1Mkrtchian|first1Anush|archive-date2021-05-13|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210513081635/https://www.azatutyun.am/a/29089151.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Migrant workers
Since gaining independence in 1991, hundreds of thousands of Armenia's residents have gone abroad, mainly to Russia, in search of work. Unemployment has been the major cause of this massive labor emigration. OSCE experts estimate that between 116,000 and 147,000 people left Armenia for economic reasons between 2002 and 2004, with two-thirds of them returning home by February 2005. According to estimates by the National Statistical Survey, the rate of labor emigration was twice as higher in 2001 and 2002.<ref name="ArmLib-Feb-9-2006"/>
According to an OSCE survey, a typical Armenian migrant worker is a married man aged between 41 and 50 years who "began looking for work abroad at the age of 32–33."<ref name="ArmLib-Feb-9-2006"/>
For Armenians another feature of migration was an increase in a variety of threats. The journey itself was extremely dangerous. To pay their way, may departing migrants took out loans failed, the whole family's future was put at a risk. As a consequence, the practice of delaying or refusing to pay part or all of a migrant workers wages has become common. The risks were also heightened by many emigrants failure. This type of migration inherited almost all of the negative characteristics that described pre-transition labor migration.
During the workshop, participants addressed the increasing importance of migration as a growth factor, as well as the significance of SDG Target 10.7 on anticipated and well-managed migration policies for Armenia.<ref>{{Cite web|titleMigration and skills in Armenia|urlhttps://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/m/9D759BA5148D99FBC1257B730046F443_Migration&skills_Armenia.pdf|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180919145654/https://www.etf.europa.eu/sites/default/files/m/9D759BA5148D99FBC1257B730046F443_Migration%26skills_Armenia.pdf |archive-date2018-09-19 }}</ref>Natural environment protection
{{See also|Waste management in Armenia}}
Environmental Project Implementation Unit implements projects related to Natural environment protection.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.epiu.am/|titleԲԾԻԳ – Բնապահպանական ծրագրերի իրականացման գրասենյակ|websiteԲԾԻԳ|access-date2023-04-19|archive-date2023-04-19|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230419145211/https://www.epiu.am/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Armenia's greenhouse gas emissions decreased 62% from 1990 to 2013, averaging −1.3% annually.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/2017_USAID_GHG%20Emissions%20Factsheet_Armenia.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.climatelinks.org/sites/default/files/asset/document/2017_USAID_GHG%20Emissions%20Factsheet_Armenia.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|titleGreenhouse Gas Emissions in Armenia (by USAID)|accessdateNovember 9, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.mnp.am/en/pages/44|titlemnp|websitewww.mnp.am|languageen|access-date2019-11-20|archive-date2019-12-11|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191211191918/http://mnp.am/en/pages/44|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Armenia is working on addressing its environmental problems. Ministry of Environment has introduced a pollution fee system by which taxes are levied on air and water emissions and solid waste disposal.
See also
{{Portal|Business|Economics}}
*Armenian merchantry
*Armenia Securities Exchange
*Currency of Armenia
*Diamond industry in Armenia
*Eurasian Economic Union
*Geographical Issues in Armenia
*List of banks in Armenia
*List of companies of Armenia
Notes
{{Reflist}}
Sources
Books
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastCurtis |editor-firstGlenn Eldon |year1995 |titleArmenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia: country studies |locationWashington, D. C. |publisherFederal Research Division, Library of Congress |isbn0844408484 |url-accessregistration |url=https://archive.org/details/armeniaazerbaija00curt }}
{{Refend}}
External links
* {{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://icarmenia.am Investment Council of Armenia]
* [https://neruzh.am Neruzh Diaspora Tech Startup Program]
* [https://amx.am Armenia Securities Exchange]
{{World Trade Organization}}
{{Economy of Europe}}
{{Asia topic|Economy of}}
{{Armenia topics}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Economy Of Armenia}}
Armenia
Armenia | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Armenia | 2025-04-05T18:25:30.175360 |
1096 | Transport in Armenia | This article considers transport in Armenia.
Railways
Total
in common carrier service; does not include industrial lines
Broad gauge
850 km of gauge (850 km electrified) (1995)
There is no service south of Yerevan.
City with metro system: Yerevan
International links
Azerbaijan - closed - same gauge
Georgia - yes - same gauge
Iran - via Azerbaijan - closed - break of gauge - /
Turkey - closed - break of gauge -/
Most of the cross-border lines are currently closed due to political problems. However, there are daily inbound and outbound trains connecting Tbilisi and Yerevan. Departing from Yerevan railway station trains connect to both Tbilisi and Batumi. From neighboring Georgia, trains depart to Yerevan from Tbilisi railway station. Within Armenia, new electric trains connect passengers from Yerevan to Armenia's second-largest city of Gyumri. The new trains run four times a day and the journey takes approximately two hours.
There is also discussion to establish a rail link between Yerevan and Tehran. Armenia is pursuing funding from the Asian Development Bank to launch the construction of this infrastructure project. The completion of the project could establish a major commodities transit corridor and would serve as the shortest transportation route between Europe and the Persian Gulf. In June 2019, Iranian president Hassan Rouhani backed this project and stated that “we want the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to be connected to the Black Sea, and one of the ways to make this happen is through Iran, Armenia and Georgia.”
thumb|right|Yerevan Metro train
Metros
The capital city of Armenia, Yerevan, is serviced by the Yerevan Metro. The system was launched in 1981, and like most former Soviet Metros, its stations are very deep (20–70 meters underground) and intricately decorated with national motifs. The metro runs on a 13.4 kilometers (8.3 mi) line and currently serves 10 active stations. Trains run every five minutes from 6:30 a.m. until 11 p.m. local AMT time. As of 2017, the annual ridership of the metro is 16.2 million passengers. Free Wi-Fi is available at all stations and some trains.
Trams
Yerevan tram (Armenian: ) was a tram system previously operating in Yerevan, the capital of Armenia. It was opened on 29 September 1906 in the form of a city wagonway. In the second half of the 20th century, the tram system had up to 12 routes, which were served by 3 depots. Trams were operated until 21 January 2004.
History
Model of a horseway tram in Yerevan |alt=|center|thumb|220x220px
The only city in Armenia where a tram ever existed was Yerevan. On 29 September 1906, the Yerevan horse wagonway was opened. This type of narrow-gauge wagonway existed until August 1918, when the tram was destroyed during World War I.
On 12 January 1933, a wide-gauge electric tram was launched.
Most of the tracks have been removed and the trams have been turned into scrap. The tram depot is used by various private enterprises, and the substation currently serves the Yerevan trolleybus.
Buses
International connections
thumb|Yerevan Central Bus Station
Land borders are open with both Georgia and Iran. Yerevan Central Bus Station, also known as Kilikia Bus Station is the main bus terminal in Yerevan with buses connecting to both internal and international destinations. There are daily bus connections between Yerevan and Tbilisi and Yerevan and Tehran. Approximately three times daily, buses depart from Yerevan Central Bus Station to Stepanakert, the capital of the partially recognized state of Artsakh. There are also scheduled bus routes which connect Yerevan with Kyiv, Moscow, Saint Petersburg as well as several other cities across Russia. It is also possible to connect to Chișinău Moldova, Minsk Belarus and other cities in Eastern Europe from Yerevan through connecting bus routes via Georgia and Ukraine. In addition, there is a once a week bus service to Istanbul via Georgia. In June 2019, a new bus route from Baghdad to Yerevan via Iran began.
Local connections
The Armenian bus network connects all major cities, towns, and villages throughout the country. In larger cities and towns such as Yerevan, Gyumri, Vanadzor and Armavir, bus stations are equipped with a waiting room and a ticket office, in other towns bus stations may not have shelters. Most of the routes are operated by GAZelle minivans with a capacity of 15 passengers, some routes are operated by soviet bus producer LiAZ (Russia). Yerevan itself has a large integrated bus network, with a newly acquired bus fleet, passengers are able to connect from one end of the city to the other. Wi-Fi is available on most city buses.
Roadways
thumb|right|275px|The E-road network in Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan. However, the border between Armenia and Azerbaijan is closed due to strained relations between Armenia and Azerbaijan.
Since independence, Armenia has been developing its internal highway network. The "North-South Road Corridor Investment Program" is a major infrastructure project which aims at connecting the southern border of Armenia with its northern by means of a 556 km-long Meghri-Yerevan-Bavra highway. It is a major US$1.5 billion infrastructure project funded by the Asian Development Bank, European Investment Bank and the Eurasian Development Bank. When completed, the highway will provide access to European countries via the Black Sea. It could also eventually interconnect the Black Sea ports of Georgia with the major ports of Iran, thus positioning Armenia in a strategic transport corridor between Europe and Asia. Armenia is pursuing further loans from China as part of the Belt and Road Initiative to complete the north–south highway.
Total
8,800 km
World Ranking: 112
Paved
8,800 km (including 1,561 km of expressways)
Unpaved
0 km (2006 est.)
Pipelines
Natural gas 3,838 km (2017)
Ports and harbors
Cargo shipments to landlocked Armenia are routed through ports in Georgia and Turkey.
Airports
thumb|right|Zvartnots International Airport
thumb|220x220px|Zvartnots International Airport main concourse.
Air transportation in Armenia is the most convenient and comfortable means of getting into the country. There are large international airports that accept both external and domestic flights throughout the Republic. As of 2020, 11 airports operate in Armenia. However, only Yerevan's Zvartnots International Airport and Gyumri's Shirak Airport are in use for commercial aviation. There are three additional civil airports currently under reconstruction in Armenia, including Syunik Airport, Stepanavan Airport, and Goris Airport. The leading Armenian airlines in operation are Armenia Aircompany and Armenia Airways.
There are plenty of air connections between Yerevan and other regional cities, including Athens, Barcelona, Beirut, Berlin, Bucharest, Brussels, Damascus, Doha, Dubai, Istanbul, Kyiv, Kuwait City, London, Milan, Minsk, Moscow, Paris, Prague, Riga, Rome, Tehran, Tel-Aviv, Tbilisi, Vienna, Venice, and Warsaw, as well as daily connections to most major cities within the CIS region. In 2018, passenger flow at the two main airports of Armenia reached a record high of 2,856,673 million people. In December 2019, yearly passenger flow exceeded 3,000,000 million people for the first time in Armenia's history.
In November 2019, the creation of a Free Route Airspace (FRA) between Armenia and Georgia was announced. The process has been carried out through the joint efforts of the General Department of Civil Aviation of Armenia, the Georgian Civil Aviation Administration and Eurocontrol. The Free Route Airspace between the two South Caucasus countries will increase flights to around 40,000 annually.
Country comparison to the world: 153
Airports - with paved runways
Total: 10
Over 3,047 m (9,900 feet): 2
1,524 to 2,437 m (7,920 feet): 2
914 to 1,523 m (4,950 feet): 4
Under 914 m: 2 (as of 2008)
Airports - with unpaved runways
Total: 1
1,524 to 2,437 m: 0
914 to 1,523 m: 1
under 914 m: 0 (as of 2008)
Heliports
Armenia maintains a number of both military and civilian heliports. The main military heliport is located on the premises of Erebuni Airport in Yerevan. Meanwhile, the company Armenian Helicopters, based at Zvartnots Airport in Yerevan, offers charter flights within Armenia and to certain neighboring countries, including Georgia, Russia, and Turkey. Helicopter services are delivered with the US-made Robinson R66 and the European AIRBUS EC130T2 choppers. Flights can be carried out as scheduled or on individual routes.
thumb|250x250px|Wings of Tatev aerial tramway
Aerial tramways
The Wings of Tatev is currently the world's longest reversible aerial tramway which holds the record for longest non-stop double-track cable car and is located in the town of Halidzor.
In October 2019, it was announced that investors were interested in creating an aerial tramway in the capital, Yerevan.
International transport agreements
Armenia cooperates in various international transport-related organizations and agreements, including the following:
Eurocontrol
European Aviation Safety Agency (Pan-European Partner)
European Civil Aviation Conference
European Common Aviation Area
International Civil Aviation Organization
International Road Transport Union
International Transport Forum
International Union of Railways (Associate member)
Montreal Convention
TIR Convention
TRACECA
Trans-European Transport Networks
See also
Civil Aviation Committee of Armenia
Economy of Armenia
Ministry of Transport and Communication (Armenia)
Tourism in Armenia
Transport in Europe
Transport in Georgia (country)
Transport in the Republic of Artsakh
References
External links | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_in_Armenia | 2025-04-05T18:25:30.196484 |
1097 | Armed Forces of Armenia | {{Short description|Combined military forces of Armenia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2023}}
{{Infobox national military
| name = Armed Forces of Armenia
| native_name {{lang|hy|Հայաստանի զինված ուժեր|italicsno}}
| image | alt
| caption = Flag of the Armenian Defense Ministry
| image2 = Coat of Arms of the Armenian Armed Forces.png
| alt2 | caption2 Emblem of the Armenian Armed Forces
| motto | founded 28 May 1918; {{age|1918|5|28}} years ago
| current_form = 28 January 1992; {{age|1992|1|28}} years ago
| disbanded | branches {{army|Armenia}}<br/>{{air force|Armenia}}
| headquarters = Yerevan
| flying_hours = <!-- Leadership -->
| website = {{URL|https://www.mil.am/en}}
<!-- Leadership -->| commander-in-chief = {{flagicon image|Flag of the President of Armenia.svg}} President Vahagn Khachaturyan
| commander-in-chief_title = Commander-in-chief
| minister = {{flagicon image|Flag of Armenia.svg}} Suren Papikyan
| chief minister = {{flagicon image|Flag of Armenia.svg}} Nikol Pashinyan
| chief minister_title = Prime Minister
| minister_title = Minister of Defence
| commander = {{flagicon image|Flag of Armenia.svg}} Major General Edvard Asryan
| commander_title = Chief of the General Staff
<!-- Manpower -->| age 18–30<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2024.html |titleThe World Factbook—Central Intelligence Agency |publisherCia.gov |access-date12 November 2017 |archive-date22 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160322125136/https://www.cia.gov/library//publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2024.html |url-statusdead }}</ref>
| conscription = 24 months
| manpower_data | manpower_age 15–49
| available = 809,576
| available_f 870, 864<ref>{{cite book| title The World Factbook 2008| url https://books.google.com/books?id5lc9jxSKfuEC&pgPA32| year 2009| publisher Government Printing Office| isbn 978-0-16-087361-4 }}</ref>
| fit = 637,776
| fit_f = 729,846
| reaching = 35,774
| reaching_f = 35,182
| active 70,000 (65,000 army, 5,000 air forces and air defense) + 5,000 paramilitary (IISS estimate)<ref name"MIlBal2024">{{cite book |titleThe Military Balance 2024 |date2024 |publisherInternational Institute for Strategic Studies |isbn978-1-032-78004-7 |page=178}}</ref>
| ranked | reserve 210,000 former service personnel with service in last 15 years<ref name="MIlBal2024"/>
| deployed {{flag|Kosovo}} (58 in KFOR)<ref>{{cite web |titleContributing Nations |urlhttps://jfcnaples.nato.int/kfor/about-us/welcome-to-kfor/contributing-nations |websitejfcnaples.nato.int |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20240608091432/https://jfcnaples.nato.int/kfor/about-us/welcome-to-kfor/contributing-nations |archive-date8 June 2024}}</ref><br />{{LBN}} (33 in UNFIL)<ref>{{cite web |titleUNIFIL Troop-Contributing Countries |urlhttps://unifil.unmissions.org/unifil-troop-contributing-countries |websiteunifil.unmissions.org |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20241119125845/https://unifil.unmissions.org/unifil-troop-contributing-countries |archive-date19 November 2024 |date1 November 2024 |quote=Armenia (33)}}</ref>
<!-- Financial -->| amount $1.70 billion (2025)[https://www.azatutyun.am/a/33136331.html]<br/>Percent of GDP 5% (2025)
<!-- Industrial -->| domestic_suppliers Scientific-Production Association Garni-Ler<br/>Aspar Arms<br/>Avtomatika Plant<br/>UAVLAB{{citation needed|dateJune 2024}}
| foreign_suppliers {{RUS}}<ref>{{cite news |titleAcquisition of military equipment from Russia dropped from 96 percent to less than 10 percent: Secretary of Security Council |urlhttps://www.1lurer.am/en/2024/03/06/Acquisition-of-military-equipment-from-Russia-dropped-from-96-percent-to-less-than-10-percent-Secre/1089073 |work1lurer.am |agencyPublic TV of Armenia |date6 March 2024 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20240611124857/https://www.1lurer.am/en/2024/03/06/Acquisition-of-military-equipment-from-Russia-dropped-from-96-percent-to-less-than-10-percent-Secre/1089073 |archive-date11 June 2024 |quoteThe acquisition of military equipment, for example, from 96 percent with Russia has dropped to less than 10 percent}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Wezeman |first1Pieter D. |last2Kuimova |first2Alexandra |last3Smith |first3Jordan |titleArms transfers to conflict zones: The case of Nagorno-Karabakh |urlhttps://www.sipri.org/commentary/topical-backgrounder/2021/arms-transfers-conflict-zones-case-nagorno-karabakh |publisherStockholm International Peace Research Institute |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240525025300/https://www.sipri.org/commentary/topical-backgrounder/2021/arms-transfers-conflict-zones-case-nagorno-karabakh |archive-date25 May 2024 |date30 April 2021 |quoteDespite Russia acting as a leading mediator in the conflict between the two countries, in 2011–20, it accounted for 94 per cent of Armenia’s imports of major arms...}}</ref><br>
{{IND}}<ref name"IndFra">{{cite news |titleArmenia ‘Diversifying’ Arms Suppliers |urlhttps://www.azatutyun.am/a/32806297.html |workazatutyun.am |agencyRFE/RL |dateFebruary 5, 2024 |quote=“In this process, we have also acquired new partners,” Papikian said, singling out India and France.}}</ref><br/>
{{FRA}}<ref name"IndFra"/><ref>{{cite news|titleArmenia signs arms contract with France amid boost in military ties|urlhttps://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20240223-armenia-signs-arms-contract-with-france-amid-boost-in-military-ties|access-date21 March 2024|date23 February 2024|agencyRadio France Internationale}}</ref><br/>
{{CHN}}<ref name="arms"/><br/>
{{BUL}}<ref name="arms"/><br/>
{{SRB}}<ref name="arms"/><br/>
{{UKR}}<ref>{{cite news|lastKucera|firstJoshua|titleTajikistan Buying Guns; Ukraine Selling Weapons to Both Armenia and Azerbaijan|urlhttp://www.eurasianet.org/node/64014|access-date23 June 2013|newspaperEurasianet|date=8 August 2011}}</ref><br/>
{{BLR}}<ref name"arms">{{cite web |last1Nazaretyan |first1Hovhannes |titleThree Decades of Arms Supplies to Armenia and Azerbaijan |urlhttps://evnreport.com/magazine-issues/arms-supplies-to-armenia-and-azerbaijan/ |publisherEVN Report |dateFebruary 2, 2023}}</ref><br/>{{GRE}}<ref>{{cite news |titleGreece strengthens defense cooperation with Armenia |urlhttps://www.sportime.gr/ellinotourkika/i-ellada-stelni-rosika-opla-stin-armenia/ |date2024-03-15 |accessdate2024-11-25 |publisherSportTime}}</ref><br/>{{USA}}
| imports | exports <!-- Related articles -->
| history = Military history of Armenia<br />1918–1920 Armenian-Azerbaijani War<br /> 1918 Armenian-Georgian War<br />1920 Turkish–Armenian War<br />1920 Red Army invasion of Armenia<br />1921 February Uprising<br />1988–1994 First Nagorno-Karabakh War<br />2020 Second Nagorno-Karabakh War<br>September 2022 Armenia–Azerbaijan clashes
| ranks = Military ranks of Armenia
}}
The Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia<ref>{{cite web |titleMoD Defense Policy Department |urlhttps://www.mil.am/en/structures/45 |websitemil.am |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20240611130122/https://www.mil.am/en/structures/45 |archive-date11 June 2024 |quotein the Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia.}}</ref> ({{langx|hy|Հայաստանի Հանրապետության զինված ուժեր|Hayastani Hanrapetut’yan zinvats uzher}}, abbreviated ՀՀ ԶՈՒ, HH ZU), sometimes referred to as the Armenian Army ({{langx|hy|հայկական բանակ|haykakan banak|labelnone}}), is the national military of Armenia. It consists of personnel branches under the General Staff of the Armenian Armed Forces,<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.bvvaul.ru/profiles/3533.php|titleБорисоглебское высшее военное авиационное ордена Ленина Краснознаменное училище лётчиков им. В.П. Чкалова &#124; bvvaul.ru|websitebvvaul.ru}}</ref> which can be divided into two general branches: the Ground Forces, and the Air Force.<ref>{{Cite web|date11 August 2020|titleMiddle East:: Armenia {{spnd}} The world factbook—Central intelligence|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/armenia/}}</ref> Although it was partially formed out of the former Soviet Army forces stationed in the Armenian SSR (mostly units of the 7th Guards Army of the Transcaucasian Military District), the military of Armenia can be traced back to the founding of the First Republic of Armenia in 1918. Being landlocked, Armenia does not have a navy.
The Commander-in-Chief of the military is the President of Armenia, Vahagn Khachaturyan. The Ministry of Defence is in charge of political leadership, headed by Suren Papikyan, while military command remains in the hands of the general staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, who is Major-General {{ill|Eduard Asryan|hy|Էդվարդ Ասրյան}}. Border guards subject to the Ministry of Defence until 2001,<ref name"RA LAW ON BORDER TROOPS">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.arlis.am/DocumentView.aspx?docid128798|titleDocumentView}}</ref> patrol Armenia's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian troops continue to monitor its borders with Iran and Turkey.<ref>{{cite web |last1United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |titleRefworld {{!}} Chronology for Russians in Azerbaijan |urlhttps://www.refworld.org/docid/469f3867c.html |websiteRefworld |publisherMinorities at Risk Project |access-date26 September 2023 |languageen |date2004 |author1-linkUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleRussia - Bilateral Relations |urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/ru |websiteMinistry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia |access-date26 September 2023 |languagehy}}</ref> Since 2002, Armenia has been a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization.<ref>{{cite web |titleCollective Security Treaty Organization |urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/international-organisations/1 |websiteMinistry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia |access-date26 September 2023 |languagehy}}</ref> Armenia signed a military cooperation plan with Lebanon on 27 November 2015.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://massispost.com/2015/11/armenia-and-lebanon-sign-2016-military-cooperation-plan/ |titleArmenia and Lebanon Sign 2016 Military Cooperation Plan—Armenian News By MassisPost |publisherMassispost.com |date27 November 2015|access-date12 November 2017}}</ref>
History
Early Armenian Army
{{Main|First Republic of Armenia}}An Armenian military corps was established to fight against the Ottomans during the Turkish–Armenian War in early 1918. In accordance with the Treaty of Batum of 4 June 1918 the Ottoman Empire demobilized most of the Armenian army.<ref>Hovannisian. Armenia on the Road to Independence, pp. 197.</ref> Ethnic Armenian conscripts and volunteers in the Imperial Russian Army would later become the core of the military of the First Armenian Republic. group fighting under the Armenian Revolutionary Federation banner, ca. 1890s]]
Soviet era
The 7th Guards Army was based in Yerevan from 1946 to 1992. In the late 1980s the Army consisted of:
* Directorate – Yerevan
*15th Motor Rifle Division – Kirovakan (now Vanadzor)
* 75th Motor Rifle Division – Nakhichevan<ref name"Zerbaijan">{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.zerbaijan.com/azeri/azarmy.htm#fnB4|title = THE EMERGING ARMY IN AZERBAIJAN by Patrick Gorman}}</ref>
* 127th Motor Rifle Division – Leninakan (now Gyumri)
* 164th Motor Rifle Division – Yerevan
On 1 June 1992, ITAR-TASS reported that General Fyodor Reut said that some units of the 7th Guards Army would begin leaving Armenia in 10–15 days.<ref>{{cite news|date2 June 1992|titleTroops in Republics won't be withdrawn|newspaperBoca Raton News|agencyAssociated Press}}</ref> The army was disbanded later that summer.<ref>Holm/Feskov 2015, [http://www.ww2.dk/new/army/armies/7gvoa.htm 7th Guards Combined Arms Army]</ref> The former Soviet Air Defense Forces in Armenia were drawn from the 14th Air Defense Corps of the 19th Separate Air Defense Army.
1988–1992
{{Main|Armenian volunteer units during the First Nagorno-Karabakh War}}
The modern Armenian military entered its first stage at the beginning of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, when Armenian militias were formed to combat Azerbaijani units in Artsakh.<ref name"MinDef">Ministry of Defense of Armenia. [http://www.mil.am/eng/index.php?page25 General History of the Armenian Army] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927012151/http://www.mil.am/eng/index.php?page25|date2007-09-27}}. Retrieved 31 January 2006.</ref> On 20 September 1990, the first military unit was created, the Yerevan Special Regiment, with the first oath being held in the Republican Assembly Point and was attended by the first President of Armenia Levon Ter-Petrosyan, Prime Minister Vazgen Manukyan, and defence minister Vazgen Sargsyan.<ref>{{Cite web|lastLLC|firstAyb Solutions|titleLEGEND OF THE SPECIAL REGIMENT|urlhttp://www.hayzinvor.am/en/33854.html|access-date2020-05-15|websiteHay Zinvor|languageen}}</ref> Five battalions were also formed in Ararat, Goris, Vardenis, Ijan and Meghri. In 1991, by the decision of the government, the State Committee of Defense under the Council of Ministers, which facilitated the task of coordinating the defense operations of Armenia, becoming the basis on which the Ministry of Defense was to be established later on.<ref name":1">{{Cite web|lasthraparak|date2015-01-28|titleՀայկական բանակը 23 տարեկան է․ Պատմական ակնարկ|urlhttps://hraparak.am/post/591fa9ffe3d84d0d37fd220e|access-date2021-03-27|websiteՀՐԱՊԱՐԱԿ|languagehy-AM}}</ref>
Post-1992
Armenia established a Ministry of Defence on 28 January 1992. The first military unit of the defence ministry to be formed was the 1st Airborne Regiment, where the first Armenian soldier took the oath to the nation that March.<ref>{{Cite web|title"Բանակն ուժեղ է, երբ թիկունքին զգում է իր երկրի, ժողովրդի, պետության շունչը, երբ զինվորն իր ոտքի տակ զգում է հայրենի հողի սրբությունը"|urlhttp://www.irates.am/hy/1424985286?fb_comment_id714501192004948_1055772527877811|access-date2021-03-16|websiteirates.am|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title1994 թվականի մայիսի 12-ի զինադադարից հետո մենք ահագին առաջ ենք գնացել․ Աստվածատուր...|urlhttps://a1plus.am/hy/article/358498|access-date2021-03-16|websiteA1Plus|languagehy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|titleՀայաստանի Հանրապետությունը նշում է Զինված ուժերի կազմավորման 20ամյակը: ՖՈՏՈՇԱՐՔ|urlhttps://armenpress.am/arm/news/677314/Armenia_marks_20th_anniversary_of_formation_of_Armed_Forces_PHOTO_SERIES.html|access-date2021-03-16|websitearmenpress.am|languagehy}}</ref> Since a significant part of the officers of the Armed Forces were fighters of the self-defense volunteer detachments, a center for raising the qualification of officers was established for their qualification and training, which during its activity it provided about 1,500 officer-graduates. The School of Non-Commissioned Officers produced about 1,000 graduates.<ref name=":1" />
The Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe was ratified by the Armenian parliament in July 1992. The treaty establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of military equipment, such as tanks, artillery, armored combat vehicles, combat aircraft, and combat helicopters, and provides for the destruction of weaponry in excess of those limits. Armenian officials have consistently expressed determination to comply with its provisions and thus Armenia has provided data on armaments as required under the CFE Treaty. Despite this, Azerbaijan accuses Armenia of diverting a large part of its military forces to Nagorno-Karabakh and thus circumventing these international regulations. In March 1993, Armenia signed the multilateral Chemical Weapons Convention, which calls for the eventual elimination of chemical weapons. Armenia acceded to the nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty as a non-nuclear weapons state in July 1993.
In addition to the branches of services listed above, Armenia established its own Internal Troops from the former Soviet Interior Troops after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.<ref>See for example http://www.mia.gov.az/index.php?/en/content/278/</ref> Up until December 2002, Armenia maintained a Ministry of Internal Affairs, but along with the Ministry of National Security, it was reorganized as a non-ministerial institution. The two organizations became the Police of Armenia and the National Security Service.<ref>Taylor and Francis, Europa World Yearbook 2004, p.554</ref>
Organization and service branches
{{Main|General Staff of the Armenian Armed Forces}}
The Armenian Armed Forces are Headquartered in Yerevan, where most of the general staff is based. The general staff is responsible for operational command of the Armenian Military and its two major branches.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mil.am/eng/index.php?page6 |titlemil.am |access-date27 December 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110531153215/http://www.mil.am/eng/index.php?page6 |archive-date31 May 2011 }}</ref> The armed forces also has the following personnel branches:{{col div}}
* Department of Military Preparedness
* Department of Military Apparatus
* Department of Aviation
* Department of Missile Troops
* Department of Air Defence
* Department of Rear Services
* Department of Signal Troops
* Department of the Engineer Troops
* Department of Armaments
* Department of the RNBC Defence Troops
* Medical Department
* Personnel Department
* Intelligence Department
* Strategic Planning Department
* Mobilization Department
* Operative Department
* Department of Military Service Security
* Department of Military Commissars
* Financial Department
* Human Resources Department
{{col div end}}
Ground Forces
{{Main|Armenian Ground Forces}}
According to IISS 2010, Armenia has 30 T-80 tanks,<ref>Jane's World Armies Armenia, 2008.</ref> 390 T-72 tanks, 14 T-54/55 tanks and 80 BMP-1's, 7 BMP-1K, 55 BMP-2 and 12 BRM-1K. Wheeled APCs reported included 11 BTR-60s, 21 BTR-70s, 4 BTR-80s, 145 MT-LBs, 5 BMD-1S, and 120 BRDM-2 scout vehicles.
Although the Russians have supplied newer equipment to Armenia over the years, the numbers have never been sufficient to upgrade all ground force formations and many of the lower readiness units still have older, Soviet-legacy systems that have not been upgraded or in many cases effectively maintained. These older systems are placing great demands on the logistics system for service, maintenance, replacement parts and necessary upgrades, costing the army both financially and in overall readiness. The ground force is engaged in an effort of reassessment, reorganisation and restructuring, as the future of Armenia's defence needs a revised force structure and unit mix. The army sees the need to maintain much of its traditional mechanised formations, but is looking to lighten and make more mobile and self-sustainable a small number of other formations. It must develop these newer formations to support its international requirements and effectively operate in mountainous and other rugged terrain, but it must do this without affecting the mechanised capability that is needed to confront Azerbaijan's conventional forces.<ref name"eskiyaordusu1">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-World-Armies/Armenia-Armenia.html|titleDefense & Security Intelligence & Analysis: IHS Jane's—IHS|access-date24 December 2014}}</ref>
Since the fall of the Soviet Union, Armenia has followed a policy of developing its armed forces into a professional, well trained, and mobile military. In 2000, the Centre for International Studies and Research reported that at that time the Armenian Army had the strongest combat capability of the three South Caucasus countries' armies (the other two being Georgia and Azerbaijan).<ref>Robert Fairbanks, [http://www.ceri-sciencespo.com/archive/nov00/Fairbanks.pdf Public and private armies in the Caucasus], Sciences Po, November 2000</ref> CSTO Secretary, Nikolay Bordyuzha, came to a similar conclusion after collective military drills in 2007 when he stated that, "the Armenian Army is the most efficient one in the post-Soviet space".<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/21078/|titleBordyuzha: Armenian army most efficient in post-soviet space|workPanARMENIAN.Net|access-date24 December 2014}}</ref> This was echoed more recently by Igor Korotchenko, a member of the Public Council, Russian Ministry of Defense, in a March 2011 interview with Voice of Russia radio.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://news.am/eng/news/49916.html|titleArmenian army among best in post-Soviet area, expert says|access-date24 December 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141224155310/http://news.am/eng/news/49916.html|archive-date24 December 2014|url-statusdead}}</ref>
The Army is functionally divided into Active and Reserve Forces. Their main functions include deterrence, defense, peace support and crisis management, humanitarian and rescue missions, as well as social functions within Armenian society.
The Active Forces mainly have peacekeeping and defensive duties, and are further divided into Deployment Forces, Immediate Reaction, and Main Defense Forces. The Reserve Forces consists of Enhancement Forces, Territorial Defense Forces, and Training Grounds. They deal with planning and reservist preparation, armaments and equipment storage, training of formations for active forces rotation or increase in personnel.
During peacetime the Army maintains permanent combat and mobilization readiness. They become part of multinational military formations in compliance with international treaties Armenia is a signatory to, participate in the preparation of the population, the national economy and the maintenance of wartime reserves and the infrastructure of the country for defense.
In times of crisis the Army's main tasks relate to participation in operations countering terrorist activities and defense of strategic facilities (such as nuclear power plants and major industrial facilities), assisting the security forces in proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, illegal armaments traffic and international terrorism.
In case of low- and medium-intensity military conflict the Active Forces that are part of the Army participate in carrying out the initial tasks for the defense of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country. In case of a high intensity conflict the Land Forces, together with the Air Force, Air Defense and Border Guards, form the defense group of the Armenian Armed Forces aiming at countering aggression and protect the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country.
Experiments in developing small arms have been undertaken in Armenia, producing the K-3 assault rifle, but Jane's Infantry Weapons estimates that the program has ceased, and the rifle is not in widespread service with the army. The AK-74 is the standard-issue rifle of the Armenian Army with older AKMs in reserve use.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.janes.com/articles/Janes-Infantry-Weapons/K-3-5-45&nbsp;mm-assault-rifle-Armenia.html|titleDefense & Security Intelligence & Analysis: IHS Jane's—IHS|access-date24 December 2014}}{{Dead link|dateDecember 2021 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref> Beside AK rifles Armenian forces use mostly Russian small arms like the Makarov pistol, SVD sniper rifle, and the PKM general purpose machine gun.
Air Force and Air Defense
{{Main|Armenian Air Force}}
Su-25's during a military parade in Yerevan]]
The Armenian Air Force consists of 15 Su-25 ground attack planes, 18 Su-30 jet fighters, 1 Mig 25, 16 Mil Mi-24 helicopter gunships, 6 L-39 trainer and attack aircraft, 16 Yak-52 trainer aircraft, 3 Il-76 cargo planes, 18 Mil Mi-8 transport helicopters, and 10 Mil Mi-2 light utility helicopters. There are an additional 18 MiG-29 fighter jets of the Russian 102nd Military Base stationed in Gyumri.
The Armenian anti-aircraft branch was equipped and organized as part of the military reform program of Lieutenant-General Norat Ter-Grigoryants. It consists of an anti-aircraft missile brigade and two regiments armed with 100 anti-aircraft complexes of various models and modifications, including the SA-8, Krug, S-75, S-125, SA-7, SA-10, SA-13, SA-16 and SA-18. Russia has SA-6 and S-300 long range surface-to-air missiles at the Russian 102nd Military Base. There are also 24 Scud ballistic missiles with eight launchers.
Numerical strength is estimated at 3,000 servicemen, with plans for further expansion.
In late December 2010, the Armenian Defense Minister, Seyran Ohanyan, officially acknowledged that the army are equipped with the Russian-made S-300 surface-to-air missiles. The statement was made while the Minister was inspecting a new air-defense command point that maintains "state-of-the-art equipment" built specifically for the operation of the S-300's. Russian specialist started to train Armenian teams on sophisticated Missiles and Defensive Systems. The S-300 was paraded for the first time in the 2011 Parade and the only S-300 missile system (SA10 Grumble) which likes mobility. The S-300 is the main Air Defensive system that protects Armenia's air security. In the 2016 Armenian Parade celebrating the Armenian Independence BUK-M2<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/eng/news/221011/|titleBuk system spotted during Armenia's Independence Day parade rehearsal|newspaperPanARMENIAN.Net|access-date7 October 2016}}</ref> Air Defense Systems were shown. These systems were not part of the 200&nbsp;million dollar contract agreement between Yerevan and Moscow but an agreement between CSTO partners. Other devices such as stem of electronic warfare (EW) "Infauna" and P-325U consist in the Armenian Armed Forces.
Military of Artsakh
{{Main|Artsakh Defense Army}}
In addition to forces mentioned above, there were around 20,000 active soldiers defending Nagorno-Karabakh, a disputed territory which seceded from Azerbaijan from 1991 to 2023. They were well trained and well equipped with the latest in military software and hardware.<ref>C. W. Blandy, [http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/arag/document-listings/caucasus/08(17)CWB.pdf Azerbaijan: Is War Over Nagornyy Karabakh a Realistic Option?] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110510000120/http://www.da.mod.uk/colleges/arag/document-listings/caucasus/08(17)CWB.pdf |date10 May 2011 }}, Advanced Research and Assessment Group, Defence Academy of the United Kingdom, Caucasus Series 08/17, 2008, p.16</ref> The Karabakh army's heavy military hardware included: 316 tanks, 324 armored vehicles, 322 artillery pieces of calibers over 122&nbsp;mm, 44 multiple rocket launchers, and a new anti-aircraft defense system.<ref>DeRouen, Karl and Uk Heo (eds.) Civil Wars of the World: Major Conflicts since World War II. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, 2007, p. 151.</ref> In addition, the Artsakh Defence Army maintained a small air-force of 2 Su-25s, 5 Mi-24s and 5 other helicopters.{{Citation needed|dateOctober 2016}} The Artsakh Defence Army was disbanded on 21 September 2023 under the terms of Nagorno-Karabakh ceasefire agreement following the 2023 Azerbaijani military offensive on the territory. Personnel
{{see also|Military ranks of Armenia}}
The Armed Forces of Armenia is constitutionally a conscript force, but there is also a growing number of professional officers. There were roughly 19,000 conscripts and 23,000 professionals serving in 2017.<ref>{{citation |titleThe Military Balance 2017 |publisherIISS |page199}}</ref> Enlistment, which is performed twice a year, is handled by military commissariats. Male draftees between the ages of 18 and 27 are obliged to present themselves in the commissariats for registration. People who have changed their citizenship or have dual citizenship are also subject to conscription, unless they have already served in the armed forces of another country. Since 2003, conscientious objectors can apply for alternative service. Draft evaders can not be appointed to public service positions. Citizens who have completed military service are registered in the reserve and are divided into rank and file, non-commissioned and commissioned staff of the reserve. Reservists can be called up to training musters and exercises in peacetime. Reserve obligation lasts up to the age of 50.<ref>{{citation |titleLaw of the Republic of Armenia "On Conscription"}}</ref>
Educational institutions
in 2015.]]
* National Defense Research University
* Vazgen Sargsyan Military University
* Monte Melkonian Military Academy
* Armenak Khanperyants Military Aviation University
* Yerevan State Medical University Military Faculty
* Foreign institutions for Armenian soldiers<ref>{{Cite web|titleMD RA—Study Abroad|urlhttp://www.mil.am/en/structures/68|access-date29 May 2020|websitemil.am|language=en}}</ref>
**Military Academy of Modena
**École spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr
**Hellenic Military Academy
**Military University of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation—College of Military Finance
Higher military education is provided by the National Defense Research University in Yerevan. It was established in 2016, on the basis of the Institute for National Strategic Studies.<ref>{{cite web |titleNational Defense Research University opens in Yerevan |urlhttps://news.am/eng/news/308635.html |websitenews.am |access-date29 June 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629155445/https://news.am/eng/news/308635.html |archive-date29 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The I Have the Honour State Program is an educational program of the ministry of defence that serves conscripts in the army. Participants of the program are given the right to defer conscription in favor of education in post-secondary institutions with full reimbursement of tuition fees, after which the conscript is awarded the rank of lieutenant and is appointed to the service for a period of 2 years and 3 months.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://mil.am/en/pages/2|titleMD RA—For Journalists|websitemil.am}}</ref> Contract service A contractual military service is a service last for 3–12 months, or for a term of three or five years. Males under 36 who have not previously served as contract servicemen and are registered in the reserve, can be enrolled in contractual military service as privates. Felons and those not fit for service are ineligible for contract service. Since 2008, sergeant training courses for contract servicemen have operated in the Armed Forces and since 2013, the duration of the courses has three months. The courses are open to reservist privates under the age of 25.<ref>{{Cite web|titleMD RA - For Journalists|urlhttps://www.mil.am/en/pages/38|access-date2021-04-02|websitemil.am|languageen}}</ref>
Conscription
Military service in Armenia is mandatory.<ref>{{Cite web|titleLegislation: National Assembly of RA|urlhttp://www.parliament.am/legislation.php?selshow&ID1658&langrus|access-date2021-04-02|websiteparliament.am}}</ref> Citizens aged 27 to 50 are registered in the reserve and may be drafted if a national mobilization was declared. The enlistment process is handled by the military commissariats in January and May. Dual citizens are not be exempt from the draft.<ref>{{Cite web|titleMilitary Service in Armenia—ILex Law Firm Armenia|urlhttps://www.ilex.am/en/2-ilex/244-military-service-in-armenia.html|access-date2021-04-02|websiteilex.am}}</ref> If one fails to follow through with their obligations, a criminal case is then instituted, which could lead to 3 years in jail.<ref>{{Cite web|titleDiaspora—Military Registration and Service|urlhttp://diaspora.gov.am/en/pages/101/military|access-date2021-04-02|websitediaspora.gov.am|languageen}}</ref>
The following military commissariats operate in Armenia:<ref>{{Cite web|titleMD RA—Military Enlistment office|urlhttps://www.mil.am/en/military-enlistment|access-date2021-04-02|websitemil.am|language=en}}</ref>
* Yerevan
** Conscription and Mobilization Service
** No.1 territorial subdivision
** No.2 Territorial Subdivision
** No.3 Territorial Subdivision
** No.4 Territorial Subdivision
* Ashtarak
** Aragatsotn Regional Subdivision
* Artashat
** Ararat Regional Subdivision
* Armavir
** Armavir Regional Subdivision
* Martuni
** Gegharkunik Regional Subdivision
* Abovyan
** Kotayk Regional Subdivision
* Vanadzor
** Lori Regional Subdivision
* Gyumri
** Shirak Regional Subdivision
* Goris
** Syunik Regional Subdivision
* Ijevan
** Tavush Regional Subdivision
* Yeghegnadzor
** Vayots Dzor Province Regional Subdivision
The armed forces also sport the following volunteer units:
* Sisakan Regiment<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://www.hayzinvor.am/en/73941.html?fdx_switchertrue | titleReady to retaliate, and go further... | publisherhayzinvor.am | languageen | firstAlice | lastAlaverdyan | date19 March 2020 | access-date=8 April 2021 }}</ref>
* Erato Detachment
* Vanadzor Volunteer Detachment<ref>{{Cite web|titleArminfo: В Армении формируются добровольческие отряды|urlhttps://arminfo.info/full_news.php?id56969&lang2|access-date2021-03-28|websitearminfo.info|languageen|archive-date20 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210120002321/https://arminfo.info/full_news.php?id56969&lang2|url-statusdead}}</ref>
*Homeland Detachment<ref>{{Cite web|date15 January 2020|titleПредставитель отряда "Родина": "Аргишти Кярамян координировал процесс сдачи Азербайджану Шуши"|trans-titleRepresentative of the Rodina detachment: "Argishti Karamian coordinated the process of surrendering Shushi to Azerbaijan"|urlhttps://armenianreport.com/ru/pubs/270428/|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20210120045253/https://armenianreport.com/ru/pubs/270428/|archive-date20 January 2021|access-date21 January 2021|workArmenianReport|languageru|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|lastHovhannisyan|firstSamvel|date16 January 2021|titleДуэль Ванецяна и Кярамяна—стреляют друг в друга, попадают в Армению|trans-titleDuel of Vanetsyan and Kyaramyan—shoot each other, end up in Armenia|urlhttps://armenianreport.com/ru/pubs/270487/|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20210120050002/https://armenianreport.com/ru/pubs/270487/|archive-date20 January 2021|access-date21 January 2021|workArmenianReport|languageru|url-statuslive}}</ref>
*ARF Battalion<ref name"asbarez">{{cite news|author<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.-->|date28 October 2020|titleMore ARF Volunteers Head to Frontlines|workAsbarez|urlhttps://asbarez.com/198083/more-arf-volunteers-head-to-frontlines/|access-date23 January 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://araratnews.am/hyd-n-kazmavorum-e-kamavorakanneri-pahestayin-gumartak/ |titleՀՅԴ-ն կազմավորում է կամավորականների պահեստային գումարտակ &#124; AraratNews |access-date11 April 2021 |archive-date28 November 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161128155429/http://araratnews.am/hyd-n-kazmavorum-e-kamavorakanneri-pahestayin-gumartak/ |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|lastTechnologies|firstPeyotto|title"ՀՅԴ պահեստազորային գումարտակը կատարելու է ԳՇ-ի առաջադրած խնդիրները". Արթուր Եղիազարյան|urlhttps://168.am/2019/10/17/1190169.html|access-date2021-04-11}}</ref>
*Tigran the Great International Military Regiment<ref>{{Cite news|title"Մեծն Տիգրան" գունդը հավաքագրում է կամավորների|urlhttps://www.azatutyun.am/a/24625728.html|access-date2021-04-11|website«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան|date26 June 2012 |languagehy}}</ref>
Women in the armed forces
During the First Nagorno-Karabakh War in the early 90s, at least 115 Armenian women were known to have taken part in combat operations.<ref name":0">{{Cite web|date16 November 2020|titleThe Artsakh War brought about Armenia's first all-women military unit|urlhttps://www.wearethemighty.com/mighty-trending/armenias-all-women-military-unit/}}</ref> Many women from the diaspora arrived to serve in non-combat missions.<ref>{{Cite web|date2018-11-28|titleHow I Became a Soldier|urlhttps://armenianweekly.com/2018/11/28/how-i-became-a-soldier/|access-date2021-03-27|websiteThe Armenian Weekly|languageen-US}}</ref> The first woman to have been given a significant position in the military was Zhanna Galstyan, who was appointed deputy commander of the Central District Defensive Unit after the formation of the Artsakh Defense Army.<ref>{{Cite web|titleZhanna G. Galstyan|urlhttp://www.nankr.am/en/48|access-date2021-03-23|websitenankr.am|archive-date18 January 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210118004353/http://www.nankr.am/en/48|url-status=dead}}</ref>
More than 2,000 women currently serve in the army, with most working in administrative positions or in liaison and medical units. In October 2016, a program, approved by the National Assembly, committed the military to "creating additional opportunities" for women serving in the army or seeking military service. Defense Minister Vigen Sargsyan at the time told the MPs that "It would be wrong not to let them (women) reach their full potential."<ref>{{Cite web|titleАрмения: Власти привлекают женщин к службе в армии {{!}} Eurasianet|urlhttps://russian.eurasianet.org/node/63756|access-date2021-03-27|websiterussian.eurasianet.org|languageen}}</ref> The Erato Detachment was the first all-women military unit in the Armenian Armed Forces,<ref name":0" /> being created after of clashes between the Azerbaijani Army and Armenia occurred in July 2020.<ref name":0" /> Anna Hakobyan, the wife of the current Prime Minister of Armenia, Nikol Pashinyan, underwent a week long combat readiness program with women from the Republic of Artsakh who joined the unit.<ref>{{Cite web|titleArtsakh women participate in 1-week combat preparedness training at initiative of Armenian PM's wife|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/1026529|websitearmenpress.am}}</ref>
Minorities
During the 2020 war, a group of Yazidi reservists formed a reserve military unit that joined the frontline in Karabakh. The unit was led by Rzgan Sarhangyan and is composed of 50 soldiers aged between 18 and 55.<ref>{{Cite web|date2020-10-03|titleArmenian Yazidis join fight against Azerbaijan in Nagorno-Karabakh|urlhttps://english.alarabiya.net/features/2020/10/03/Armenian-Yazidis-join-fight-against-Azerbaijan-in-Nagorno-Karabakh|access-date2021-04-02|websiteAl Arabiya English|languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|titleMore Yazidi volunteers heading for Artsakh to protect the common homeland|urlhttps://en.armradio.am/2020/11/05/more-yazidi-volunteers-heading-for-artsakh-to-protect-the-common-homeland/|access-date2021-04-02|websitePublic Radio of Armenia|languageen-US}}</ref> Equipment
{{main|List of equipment of the Armenian Armed Forces}}
The Armenian Army operates a wide variety of older equipment, mostly of Soviet origin. There is also some newer equipment from Russia. In 2015, a US$200m loan was ratified by Russia for the purchase of modern weapons between 2015 and 2017.<ref>{{cite journal |titleThe Military Balance 2017 |page199 |publisher=IISS}}</ref> Armenia produces its own combat helmets and body armors through the works of a joint Armenian-Polish company. Some personal equipment used by special units (Future Assault Shell Technology helmets, plate carriers and special pouches) is imported. Armenia also produces most of its small arms, with only specialised units being imported.
Following the 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh clashes, the Helsinki Citizens' Assembly released a report, which detailed the circumstances of death of Armenian servicemen. Among the contributing factors were stated to be malfunctioning equipment and lack of necessary materiel, especially ammunition.<ref>{{cite web |last1Sadikyan |first1Armine |titleON THE DEATH CIRCUMSTANCES OF SERVICEMEN PERISHED DURING THE HOSTILITIES OF APRIL 2016 AND THE STATE OF SOCIAL SECURITY OF THEIR FAMILIES |urlhttp://hcav.am/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/REPORT-ON-THE-DEATH-CIRCUMSTANCES-OF-SERVICEMEN-PERISHED-DURING-THE-HOSTILITIES-OF-APRIL-2016-AND-THE-STATE-OF-SOCIAL-SECURITY-OF-THEIR-FAMILIES.pdf |publisherHelsinki Citizens' Assembly Vanadzor office |access-date29 June 2018 |page14 |date2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180629155320/http://hcav.am/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/REPORT-ON-THE-DEATH-CIRCUMSTANCES-OF-SERVICEMEN-PERISHED-DURING-THE-HOSTILITIES-OF-APRIL-2016-AND-THE-STATE-OF-SOCIAL-SECURITY-OF-THEIR-FAMILIES.pdf |archive-date29 June 2018 |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleNo Armenian Defense Official Held Responsible for Negligence During 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh Clashes |urlhttp://epress.am/en/2017/04/25/no-armenian-defense-official-held-responsible-for-negligence-during-2016-nagorno-karabakh-clashes.html |websiteepress.am |access-date29 June 2018|date25 April 2017 }}</ref> This was followed by plans to increase Armenian defense spending to purchase more weapons and ammunition.<ref>{{cite news |last1Gabrielian |first1Sisak |titleYerevan Plans More Arms Acquisitions In 2018 |urlhttps://www.azatutyun.am/a/28769583.html |newspaper«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» Ռադիոկայան |date2 October 2017 |publisherRadio Free Europe / Radio Liberty |access-date29 June 2018}}</ref>
Armenia is not a significant exporter of conventional weapons, but it has provided support, including material, to the Armenians of Nagorno-Karabakh during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
International military cooperation
Russia
{{See also|Armenia–Russia relations#Military union and cooperation}}
during his visit to the 102nd Russian military base in Armenia.]]
Russia is one of the closest allies of Armenia. The Russian 102nd Military Base, the former 127th Motor Rifle Division, is stationed in Gyumri. The military alliance of the two nations and, in particular, the presence of Russian troops on Armenian soil has been a key element of Armenia's national security doctrine since Armenia gained independence in 1991.<ref name"asbarez.com">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.asbarez.com/2009/12/17/armenia-russia-sign-arms-export-deal-2/|titleArmenia, Russia Sign Arms Export Deal|workAsbarez News|access-date24 December 2014|date17 December 2009|archive-date23 December 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091223153057/http://www.asbarez.com/2009/12/17/armenia-russia-sign-arms-export-deal-2/|url-statusdead}}</ref> Russia stations an estimated 5,000 soldiers of all types in Armenia, including 3,000 officially reported to be based at the 102nd Military Base. In 1997, the two countries signed a far-reaching friendship treaty, which calls for mutual assistance in the event of a military threat to either party and allows Russian border guards to patrol Armenia's frontiers with Turkey and Iran. In early 2005, the 102nd Military Base had 74 tanks, 17 battle infantry vehicles, 148 armored personnel carriers, 84 artillery pieces, 18 MiG-29 fighters, one battery of SA-6 and two batteries of S-300 anti-aircraft missiles. However, in 2005–2007, following an agreement on the withdrawal of two Russian military bases from Georgia, a great deal of military hardware was moved to the 102nd Base from the Russian 12th Military Base in Batumi and the 62nd Military Base at Akhalkalaki, Georgia. Russia also supplies weapons at the relatively lower prices of the Russian domestic market as part of a collective security agreement since January 2004.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://newsfromrussia.com/main/2003/11/12/51161.html |titleRussian supply |access-date12 March 2006 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051202115302/http://newsfromrussia.com/main/2003/11/12/51161.html |archive-date=2 December 2005 }}</ref>
According to unconfirmed reports by the Azeri media, Russia has supplied $1&nbsp;billion worth of arms and ammunitions to Armenia in 1996; and handed over an additional $800&nbsp;million worth of arms to Armenia in 2008–2009. According to AzerNews, the weapons in this latest transfer include 21 tanks, 12 armored vehicles, five other battle machines, a great number of rocket launchers, over 1,050 cases of grenades, nearly 7,900 types of ammunition, 120 grenade launchers, over 4,000 sub-machine guns, TNT fuses, mines of various types, 14 mine-launchers, 9 Grad launchers, five cannons, and other weapons.<ref>AzerNews [https://web.archive.org/web/20110706131008/http://www.azernews.az/site/shownews.php?news_id=9867 Russia `donates` $800m arms to Armenia] 14 January 2009</ref>
Officer training is another sphere of Russian-Armenian military cooperation. In the first years of sovereignty when Armenia lacked a military educational establishment of its own, officers of its army were trained in Russia. Even now when Armenia has a military college on its own territory, the Armenian officer corps honors the tradition and is trained at Russian military educational establishments. In 1997, 600 Armenian servicemen were being trained at Russian Military Academies: the training was conducted by the Marshal Bagramyan Training Brigade.<ref>Ministry of Defence of Armenia, [http://www.mil.am/eng/?page=11 Official Web Site]</ref>
At the first meeting of the joint Russian-Armenian government panel for military-technical cooperation that took place during autumn 2005, Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov reported that, Russian factories will participate in the Armenian program of military modernization, and that Russia is prepared to supply the necessary spare parts and equipment. In accordance with this agreement, Armenia and Russia agreed to work together in exporting weapons and other military equipment to third countries in December 2009. The export agreement was signed by Defense Minister Seyran Ohanyan and a visiting senior Russian official, Konstantin Biryulin, during a meeting of a Russian-Armenian inter-governmental commission on bilateral military-technical cooperation. The agreement envisages the two countries' interaction in exporting military production to third countries, which will help to strengthen the armed forces of the two states, and further cement the already close Russian–Armenian military cooperation.<ref name="asbarez.com"/>
A Russian-Armenian defense agreement signed in August 2010 extends Russia's military presence in Armenia till 2044 and commits Russia to supplying Armenia with modern and compatible weaponry and special military hardware at reduced prices.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.armenialiberty.org/content/article/2200677.html|titleArmenia 'Unfazed' By Azerbaijan's Growing Military Spending|work«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան|date26 October 2010 |access-date24 December 2014 |last1Harutyunyan |first1=Sargis }}</ref>
At the beginning of 2009, Azerbaijani media published allegations that Russia had made extensive weapons transfers to Armenia throughout 2008 costing about $800&nbsp;million. On 12 January 2009, the Russian ambassador was invited to the Azerbaijani Ministry of Foreign Affairs and asked about this information. On 21 January 2009, Russian ministry of foreign relations officially denied the transfers.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://day.az/news/politics/144560.html|titleМИД России опроверг информацию о поставках Армении российского оружия на $800 млн.|date21 January 2009|workDAY.AZ|access-date24 December 2014}}</ref> According to US diplomatic cables leaked in December 2010, Azerbaijani defence minister Safar Abiyev claimed that in January 2009 during his visit to Moscow, his Russian counterpart Anatoly Serdyukov unofficially had admitted to weapons transfers "after the second bottle of vodka" that evening, although officially it was denied.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/us-embassy-cables-documents/197735|titleEmbassy cables: Truth about Putin and Medvedev – over a bottle of vodka|workThe Guardian|dateDecember 2010|access-date24 December 2014}}</ref>
In June 2013 it was revealed that Russia has deployed in Armenia several Iskander-M ballistic missiles systems, which are stationed at undisclosed locations in the country.<ref>{{cite news|lastHarutyunyan|firstSargis|titleAdvanced Russian Missiles 'Deployed in Armenia'|urlhttp://www.azatutyun.am/content/article/25005647.html|access-date22 June 2013|date3 June 2013|agencyRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty}}</ref> Collective Security Treaty Organisation
{{See also|Armenia–CSTO relations}}
On 7 October 2002, the Presidents of Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan, signed a charter in Tashkent, founding the Collective Security Treaty Organisation (CSTO) (Russian: Организация Договора о Коллективной Безопасности (ОДКБ/ODKB)) or simply Ташкентский договор (The Tashkent Treaty). Nikolai Bordyuzha was appointed secretary general of the new organisation. On 23 June 2006, Uzbekistan became a full participant in the CSTO and its membership was formally ratified by its parliament on 28 March 2008.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140227124643/http://www.eurasianhome.org/ eurasianhome.org] Access date: 24 December 2014 (Archive date 27 February 2014)</ref> Furthermore, the CSTO is an observer organisation at the United Nations General Assembly.
The charter reaffirmed the desire of all participating states to abstain from the use or threat of force. Signatories would not be able to join other military alliances or other groups of states, while aggression against one signatory would be perceived as an aggression against all. To this end, the CSTO holds yearly military command exercises for the CSTO nations to have an opportunity to improve inter-organisation cooperation. The largest-scale CSTO military exercise held, to date, were the "Rubezh 2008" exercises hosted in Armenia where a combined total of 4,000 troops from all 7 constituent CSTO member countries conducted operative, strategic, and tactical training with an emphasis towards furthering the efficiency of the collective security element of the CSTO partnership.<ref>[http://www.pims.org/news/2008/08/06/rubezh-2008-the-first-large-scale-csto-military-exercise] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090210230833/http://www.pims.org/news/2008/08/06/rubezh-2008-the-first-large-scale-csto-military-exercise|date10 February 2009}}</ref>
The Ministry of Defense of Armenia has repeatedly stated that it would expect direct military assistance from the CSTO in case war with Azerbaijan resumes, as recently as December 2009, Defense Minister Ohanyan made the same statement. In August 2009, Nikolay Bordyuzha, the CSTO's secretary-general, confirmed that official Yerevan can count on such support.<ref name="asbarez.com"/>
On 4 February 2009, an agreement to create the Collective Rapid Reaction Force (KSOR) was reached by five of the seven CSTO members, with plans finalized on 14 June 2009. Armenia is one of the five member states. The force is intended to be used to repulse military aggression, conduct anti-terrorist operations, fight transnational crime and drug trafficking, and neutralize the effects of natural disasters.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://thefastertimes.com/defensespending/2009/10/30/with-russian-prodding-csto-begins-taking-shape/|titleWith Russian Prodding, CSTO Begins Taking Shape|workThe Faster Times|access-date24 December 2014|url-statususurped|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141224155135/http://www.thefastertimes.com/defensespending/2009/10/30/with-russian-prodding-csto-begins-taking-shape/|archive-date24 December 2014}}</ref> NATO
{{Main|Armenia–NATO relations}}
{{See also|Major non-NATO ally#Armenia}}
Armenia participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PiP) program and it is in a NATO organization called Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). Armenia is in the process of implementation of Individual Partnership Action Plans (IPAPs), which is a program for those countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with NATO. Cooperative Best Effort exercise (the first where Russia was represented) was run on Armenian territory in 2003.
France
On 5 October 2023, following the 2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh, France announced that it would send defense aid to the Armenian military.<ref>{{cite web |titleFrench foreign minister pledges arms for Armenia in visit to Yerevan |urlhttps://www.euronews.com/2023/10/04/french-foreign-minister-pledges-arms-for-armenia-in-visit-to-yerevan |websiteeuronews.com |publishereuronews |access-date5 October 2023}}</ref> Greece
Greece is Armenia's closest ally in NATO and the two cooperate on multiple issues. A number of Armenian officers are trained in Greece every year, and military aid/material assistance has been provided to Armenia. In 2003, the two countries signed a military cooperation accord, under which Greece will increase the number of Armenian servicemen trained at the military and military-medical academies in Athens.
In February 2003, Armenia sent 34 peacekeepers to Kosovo where they became part of the Greek contingent. Officials in Yerevan have said the Armenian military plans to substantially increase the size of its peacekeeping detachment and counts on Greek assistance to the effort. In June 2008, Armenia sent 72 peacekeepers to Kosovo for a total of 106 peacekeepers.
In November 2024, several sources claimed that Greece was planning to transfer all Russian-made air defences it possessed to Armenia. The equipment includes S-300 long-range SAMs, acquired by Greece after the Cypriot Missile Crisis, Tor-M1 short-medium range SAM, and Osa-AKM short-range systems. The claim has not been confirmed by the Greek MoD yet.<ref>{{Cite news |lastՌ/Կ |first«Ազատություն» |date2024-11-26 |titleGreece Said To Send Air Defense Systems To Armenia |urlhttps://www.azatutyun.am/a/33216699.html |access-date2024-11-26 |work«Ազատ Եվրոպա/Ազատություն» ռադիոկայան |languagehy}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastBrahy |firstJérôme |titleGreece to transfer S-300 and Tor-M1 air defense systems to Armenia instead of Ukraine in strategic shift |urlhttps://armyrecognition.com/news/army-news/army-news-2024/greece-to-transfer-s-300-and-tor-m1-air-defense-systems-to-armenia-instead-of-ukraine-in-strategic-shift |access-date2024-11-26 |websitearmyrecognition.com |languageen-gb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastLLC |firstHelix Consulting |titleGreece could send Russian air defense systems to Armenia |urlhttps://www.panorama.am/en/news/2024/11/26/Greece-Armenia/3082882 |access-date2024-11-26 |websitewww.panorama.am |languageen}}</ref>
Baltic States
Lithuania has been sharing experience and providing consultations to the Armenian Defense Ministry in the field of democratic control of armed forces, military and defense concepts and public relations since 2002. Since 2004, Armenian officers have been invited to study at the Lithuanian War Academy and the Baltic Defence College in Tartu, Estonia. Lithuania covers all study expenditures. In early 2007, two Armenian officers for the first time took part in a Baltic lead international exercise, Amber Hope, which was held in Lithuania.<ref>[http://groong.usc.edu/news/msg211150.html Lithuanian Defense Minister Going To Armenia]{{dead link|dateOctober 2014}}</ref> United States
{{See also|Armenia–United States relations#Military cooperation|Kansas–Armenia National Guard Partnership}}
The United States has been steadily upping its military clout in the region. In early 2003, the United States Department of Defense announced several major military programs in the Caucasus. Washington's military aid to Armenia in 2005 amounted to $5&nbsp;million, and in April 2004, the two sides signed a military-technical cooperation accord.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwuPeALvC-aUC&pgPA8|titleTreaties in Force|date2008|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office|isbn9780160821240|languageen}}</ref> In late 2004, Armenia deployed a unit of 46 soldiers, which included bomb-disposal experts, doctors, and transport specialists, to Iraq as part of the American-led Multi-National Force Iraq. In 2005, the United States allocated $7&nbsp;million to modernize the military communications of the Armenian Armed Forces.
Since 2003, Armenia and the Kansas National Guard have exchanged military delegations as part of a National Guard Bureau program to promote better relations between the United States and developing nations. The program has largely consisted of mutual visits to each other's countries in an effort to share "ideas and [the] best practices for military and emergency management."<ref>"[http://www.kansascity.com/2012/11/27/3936209/kansas-national-guard-aiding-armenian.html#storylinkcpy Kansas National Guard aiding Armenian military]." Kansas City Star. 27 November 2012. Retrieved 27 November 2012. {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121130023232/http://www.kansascity.com/2012/11/27/3936209/kansas-national-guard-aiding-armenian.html#storylinkcpy |date30 November 2012 }}</ref>
Eagle Partner 2023 was a military exercise which took place in Armenia from 11 September to 20 September 2023. The main goal of the exercise was the fortifying of the alliance between the United States with Armenia and also the training of the 12th Peacekeeping Brigade of the Armed Forces of Armenia for future peacekeeping missions.<ref>{{Cite web |lastArmenia|firstU. S. Mission|date2023-09-15 |titleEagle Partner Exercise Builds Upon Longstanding U.S.-Armenian Security Cooperation|urlhttps://am.usembassy.gov/eagle-partner/|access-date2023-10-27|websiteU.S. Embassy in Armenia|languageen-US}}</ref> Eagle Partner 2024 began on 15 July 2024. The exercises were scheduled to last through July 24.<ref>[https://www.voanews.com/a/armenia-launches-military-drills-with-us-amid-souring-ties-with-old-ally-russia-/7699015.html Armenia launches military drills with US amid souring ties with old ally Russia ]</ref>
On 6 December 2024, Armenian Defense Minister Suren Papikyan held a high-level meeting with United States Secretary of Defense Lloyd Austin at The Pentagon. The two leaders met to discuss the strategic relationship between the United States and Armenia. Austin stated, "Your visit is historic. Armenia extended its hand to the United States and I'm proud to host you here today" and "the U.S. supports a sovereign, independent, and prosperous Armenia and that relationship between the two nations continues to grow closer."<ref>[https://mediamax.am/en/news/armypolice/56422/ Pentagon head describes the visit of Armenian DM as "historic"]</ref> Papikyan highlighted the priority of transforming the Armenian Armed Forces and enhancing interoperability with the U.S. Armed Forces.<ref>[https://armenpress.am/en/article/1206818 Armenian Defense Minister, U.S. Secretary of Defense discuss cooperation]</ref>
European Union
{{See also|Armenia–European Union relations}}
On 22 July 2024, the European Union approved the allocation of 10 million euros to the Armed Forces of Armenia from the European Peace Facility. This marked the first ever funding assistance to the Armed Forces of Armenia from the EU. The funding will be used to increase the material and technical capabilities of Armenia's army. The EU's Foreign Affairs chief, Josep Borrell stated "Security is an important element of bilateral relations with Armenia. The EU has a mutual interest in further expanding dialogue on foreign and security policy, also looking into Armenia's future participation in EU-led missions and operations." Armenia's Foreign Minister Ararat Mirzoyan stated "We salute the historic decisions of EU Foreign Affairs Council on providing assistance to Armenia under the European Peace Facility. This is a very important milestone in the Armenia-EU partnership based on shared values and principles as well as the vision for stability, peace and prosperity." While the Armenian Minister of Defence, Suren Papikyan stated "This initiative will give a new charge to closer cooperation with our partner EU member countries in both bilateral and multilateral formats."<ref>[https://asbarez.com/eu-approves-10-million-euros-for-military-aid-to-armenia/ EU Approves 10 Million Euros in Military Assistance to Armenia]</ref><ref>[https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2024/07/22/european-peace-facility-council-adopts-the-first-ever-assistance-measure-in-support-of-the-armenian-armed-forces/ European Peace Facility: Council adopts the first ever assistance measure in support of the Armenian Armed Forces]</ref>
Peacekeeping operations
As of 2022, Armenia is involved in peacekeeping operations in Kosovo, Afghanistan, Lebanon, Mali and Kazakhstan<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://armenianow.com/news/63416/armenia_military_peacekeepers_mission_mali|titleDM: Armenian peacekeepers to take part in Mali mission|workarmenianow.com|access-date13 May 2015|archive-date18 May 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150518101028/http://armenianow.com/news/63416/armenia_military_peacekeepers_mission_mali|url-statusdead}}</ref> Kosovo
There are 70 Armenian soldiers serving in Kosovo as peacekeepers.
Armenia joined the Kosovo Force in Kosovo in 2004. Armenian "blue helmets" serve within the Greek Army battalion. The relevant memorandum was signed on 3 September 2003, in Yerevan and ratified by the Armenian Parliament on 13 December 2003. The sixth deployment of Armenian peacekeepers departed for Kosovo on 14 November 2006.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.serbianna.com/news/2006/02761.shtml|titleArmenia to deploy more soldiers to Kosovo|access-date12 March 2006|archive-date22 February 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120222035324/http://www.serbianna.com/news/2006/02761.shtml|url-statusdead}}</ref> In 2008, the Armenian National Assembly voted unanimously to double the peacekeeping force in Kosovo by sending an extra 34 peacekeepers to the region, increasing the total number of peacekeepers in the region to 68.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.pr-inside.com/armenia-to-double-its-peacekeepers-contingent-r604186.htm|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120313203235/http://www.pr-inside.com/armenia-to-double-its-peacekeepers-contingent-r604186.htm|url-statusdead|titleArmenia to double its peacekeepers' contingent in Kosovo|archivedate=13 March 2012}}</ref>
Armenia temporarily withdrew its peacekeepers from Kosovo in February 2012 as a result of the reduction of the Greek subdivisions.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/680789|titleArmenian peacekeepers withdrawn from Kosovo|date21 February 2012|workarmenpress.am|access-date24 December 2014}}</ref> Armenia redeployed them in July to serve alongside American soldiers in Kosovo.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://armenia.usembassy.gov/news070612.html|titleEmbassy News 2012—Embassy of the United States Yerevan, Armenia|access-date24 December 2014|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015195534/http://armenia.usembassy.gov/news070612.html|archive-date15 October 2015}}</ref> Iraq After the end of the invasion of Iraq, Armenia deployed a unit of 46 peacekeepers under Polish command. Armenian peacekeepers were based in Al-Kut, {{convert|62|mi|km|orderflip|abbron}} from the capital of Baghdad.<ref>{{cite web| url http://news.monstersandcritics.com/intelandterror/article_1089436.php/Armenias_third_contingent_of_peacekeepers_now_in_Iraq| titleArmenia's third contingent of peacekeepers now in Iraq| access-date 12 March 2006| archive-date29 September 2007| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070929122452/http://news.monstersandcritics.com/intelandterror/article_1089436.php/Armenias_third_contingent_of_peacekeepers_now_in_Iraq| url-statusdead}}</ref> On 23 July 2006, the fourth shift of Armenian peacekeepers departed for Iraq. The shift included 3 staff commanders, 2 medical officers, 10 combat engineers and 31 drivers. Throughout the length of the deployment, there was one Armenian wounded and no deaths. The Armenian government extended the small troop presence in Iraq by one year at the end of 2005 and 2006.<ref>{{cite news|titleArmenian defense minister to visit Iraq as Armenia to extend the small troop presence |urlhttp://library.aua.am/library/news/archive/2006_11-14.htm |agencyAssociated Press |date13 November 2006 |access-date20 February 2007 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927211223/http://library.aua.am/library/news/archive/2006_11-14.htm |archive-date27 September 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |titleARMENIAN PEACEKEEPERS TO STAY AN EXTRA YEAR IN IRAQ | urlhttp://www.azg.am/?langEN&num2005120601 | publisherAZG Armenian Daily |date6 December 2005 | access-date20 February 2007| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070318193724/http://www.azg.am/?langEN&num2005120601| archive-date 18 March 2007}}</ref> On 7 October 2008, Armenia withdrew its contingent of 46 peacekeepers. This coincided with the withdrawal of the Polish contingent in Iraq.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jJANqHYIy4fh_F3IKdxJh0t1APQg|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081205073822/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5jJANqHYIy4fh_F3IKdxJh0t1APQg|url-statusdead|titleArmenian troops pull out of Iraq: US military|archivedate5 December 2008}}</ref> Afghanistan Armenia deployed 130 soldiers in Afghanistan as part of the NATO-led International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). They were serving under German command protecting an airport in Kunduz.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mediamax.am/en/news/politics/959/|titleNews—mediamax.am|workmediamax.am|access-date24 December 2014}}</ref> Lebanon In 2014, Armenia deployed 33 peacekeepers to Lebanon as part of UNIFIL.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://unifil.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid11559&languageen-US |titleUNIFIL Troop-Contributing Countries |workunmissions.org |access-date12 May 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150626104608/http://unifil.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid11559&languageen-US |archive-date26 June 2015 }}</ref> Since then, they have served under the Italian contingent and fulfill headquarter security functions.<ref>{{cite web |titleFSC.EMI/68/22 |urlhttps://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/0/d/516549.pdf |publisherPermanent Mission of Armenia to the OSCE |access-date16 November 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221205082004/https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/0/d/516549.pdf |archive-date5 December 2022 |date19 April 2022 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Mali
In 2015, one peacekeeper was dispatched to Mali on a monitoring-peacekeeping mission.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/1002834.html |titleArmenian Armed Forces celebrate 28th anniversary of foundation |workarmenpress.am |access-date28 January 2020}}</ref>
Kazakhstan
In 2022, Armenia sent around 100 servicemen to Kazakhstan as part of the Collective Security Treaty Organization peacekeeping forces. Nikol Pashinyan, who serves as the CSTO chairman, confirmed that the alliance will send 'peacekeepers' to Kazakhstan for a limited period given the threat to national security and the sovereignty of Kazakhstan, due to the 2022 Kazakh protests.<ref>{{Cite web|titleArmenia Sends 70 Soldiers to Kazakhstan as Part of CSTO Pecekeeping Force|urlhttps://hetq.am/en/article/139760|access-date2022-01-06|websiteHetq.am|date6 January 2022 |languageen}}</ref>
References
{{Reflist}}
* {{CIA World Factbook}}
* {{StateDept}}
External links
* [https://www.mil.am/hy/army Armed Forces of Armenia]
{{Armenia topics}}
{{Armenian Armed Forces}}
{{Military of Asia}}
{{Military of Europe}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Armed Forces of Armenia}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed_Forces_of_Armenia | 2025-04-05T18:25:30.246253 |
1098 | Foreign relations of Armenia | {{Short description|none}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}
{{Politics of Armenia}}
Since its independence, Armenia has maintained a policy of trying to have positive and friendly relations with Iran, Russia, and the West, including the United States and the European Union.<ref>[http://times.am/2010/03/29/armenian-foreign-policy-between-russia-iran-and-u-s/ – "Armenian Foreign Policy Between Russia, Iran And U.S." – 29 March 2010] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110724192109/http://times.am/2010/03/29/armenian-foreign-policy-between-russia-iran-and-u-s/ |date24 July 2011 }}</ref> It has full membership status in a number of international organizations, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurasian Economic Union, and observer status, etc. in some others. However, the dispute over the Armenian genocide of 1915 and the ongoing Nagorno-Karabakh conflict have created tense relations with two of its immediate neighbors, Azerbaijan and Turkey.
The Ministry of Foreign Affairs implements the foreign policy agenda of the Government of Armenia and organizes and manages diplomatic services abroad. Since August 2021, Ararat Mirzoyan has served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Armenia.
Foreign relations
Armenia is a member of more than 70 different international organizations, including the following:
* Asian Development Bank
* Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Commonwealth of Independent States
* Council of Europe
* The EU's Eastern Partnership and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly
* The UN's Eastern European Group
* Eurocontrol
* European Bank for Reconstruction and Development
* European Political Community
* Eurasian Economic Union
* Eurasian Development Bank and the Eurasian Customs Union
* Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges
* International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
* International Monetary Fund
* Interpol
* La Francophonie
* NATO's Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, Individual Partnership Action Plan, and Partnership for Peace
* Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe
* Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation
* TRACECA
* United Nations
* World Bank, the World Customs Organization, and the World Trade Organization
Armenia is also an observer member of the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Assembly, the Community of Democratic Choice, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of American States, the Pacific Alliance,<ref>{{Cite web|titleArmenia granted observer status at Pacific Alliance|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/981310.html|websitearmenpress.am|languageen|access-date8 May 2020|archive-date30 September 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190930155648/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/981310.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> the Arab League, the Community of Democracies,<ref>{{Cite web|titleSecretary General's meeting with Ambassador of Armenia to Poland – CoD|urlhttps://community-democracies.org/?p7783|languageen-US|access-date8 May 2020|archive-date20 March 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200320045328/https://community-democracies.org/?p7783|url-statuslive}}</ref> a dialogue partner in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and a regional member of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank.Armenian genocide recognition
{{see also|Armenian genocide recognition}}
right|thumb|300px|
{{legend|green|Countries that officially recognize the events as genocide.}}
{{legend|#8CC68C|Countries where certain political parties, provinces or municipalities have recognized the events as genocide, independently from the government as a whole.}}
{{legend|#D40000|Countries that explicitly deny that there was an Armenian genocide.}}
As of 2025, 34 states have officially recognized the historical events as genocide. Parliaments of countries that recognize the Armenian genocide include Argentina, Armenia, Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, Cyprus, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Latvia, Lebanon, Libya, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, the Netherlands, Paraguay, Poland, Portugal, Russia, Slovakia, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, United States, Uruguay, Vatican City and Venezuela.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armenian-genocide.org/current_category.7/affirmation_list.html|titleResolutions, Laws, and Declarations|websitearmenian-genocide.org|access-date6 June 2016|archive-date2 November 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201102142616/https://www.armenian-genocide.org/current_category.7/affirmation_list.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> Additionally, some regional governments of countries recognize the Armenian genocide too, such as New South Wales and South Australia in Australia<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://armenianweekly.com/2009/03/25/south-australia-passes-armenian-genocide-motion/|titleSouth Australia Passes Armenian Genocide Motion|lastHairenik|date25 March 2009|websiteArmenian Weekly|access-date6 June 2016|archive-date15 December 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171215110823/https://armenianweekly.com/2009/03/25/south-australia-passes-armenian-genocide-motion/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LA19970417004 |titleArmenian Genocide Commemoration – 17/04/1997 – NSW Parliament |date19 January 2012 |access-date6 June 2016 |url-statusunfit |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120119075550/http://www.parliament.nsw.gov.au/prod/parlment/hansart.nsf/V3Key/LA19970417004 |archive-date19 January 2012 }}</ref> as well as Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://news.am/eng/news/12175.html|titleScotland, North Ireland and Wales recognize Armenian Genocide|websitenews.am|access-date6 June 2016|archive-date28 November 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201128092104/https://news.am/eng/news/12175.html|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://news.am/eng/news/155362.html|titleParliament of Scotland passes motion on Armenian Genocide|websitenews.am|access-date6 June 2016|archive-date28 November 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201128170200/https://news.am/eng/news/155362.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> US House Resolution 106 was introduced on 30 January 2007, and later referred to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs. The bill has 225 co-sponsors.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www3.capwiz.com/y/issues/bills/?billnumH.RES.106&congress110|titleThe top news headlines on current events from Yahoo! News|date27 September 2007|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927173509/http://www3.capwiz.com/y/issues/bills/?billnumH.RES.106&congress110|archive-date27 September 2007}}</ref> The bill called for former President George W. Bush to recognize and use the word genocide in his annual 24 April speech which he never used. His successor President Barack Obama expressed his desire to recognize the Armenian genocide during the electoral campaigns,<ref>{{Cite AV media|lasthyebiz|titleSen. Barack Obama Discusses Armenian Genocide ...|date30 January 2008|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vJwR83GZjwdo| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/JwR83GZjwdo| archive-date2021-11-22 | url-statuslive|access-date6 June 2016|viaYouTube}}{{cbignore}}</ref> but after being elected, did not use the word "genocide" to describe the events that occurred in 1915.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/511/recognize-armenian-genocide/|titleRecognize the Armenian genocide|websitePolitiFact|access-date6 June 2016|archive-date9 December 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201209021933/https://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/promises/obameter/promise/511/recognize-armenian-genocide/|url-statuslive}}</ref> The US House of Representatives formally recognized the Armenian genocide with House Resolution 296 on 29 October 2019.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50229787?ocidsocialflow_twitter|titleUS House votes to recognize Armenian genocide|websiteBBC|date30 October 2019|access-date30 October 2019|archive-date16 October 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201016224812/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-50229787?ocidsocialflow_twitter|url-statuslive}}</ref> The United States Senate unanimously recognized the genocide with Senate Resolution 150 on 12 December 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-resolution/150|titleS.Res.150 – 116th Congress (2019–2020): A resolution expressing the sense of the Senate that it is the policy of the United States to commemorate the Armenian genocide through official recognition and remembrance.|lastMenendez|firstRobert|date2019-04-09|websitecongress.gov|access-date2019-12-12|archive-date20 November 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201120012849/https://www.congress.gov/bill/116th-congress/senate-resolution/150|url-statuslive}}</ref> In 2021, President Joe Biden became the first U.S. president to formally recognize the Armenian genocide.<ref>{{Cite web|date2021-04-24|titleStatement by President Joe Biden on Armenian Remembrance Day|urlhttps://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/04/24/statement-by-president-joe-biden-on-armenian-remembrance-day/|access-date2022-02-05|websiteThe White House|languageen-US|archive-date24 April 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210424160412/https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/04/24/statement-by-president-joe-biden-on-armenian-remembrance-day/|url-statuslive}}</ref> As of 2022, all 50 U.S. states have also recognized the events as genocide.
Disputes
{{Update|section|dateFebruary 2023}} Nagorno-Karabakh conflict
{{see also|Nagorno-Karabakh conflict}}
Armenia provides political, material and military support to the Republic of Artsakh in the longstanding Nagorno-Karabakh conflict.
The current conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh began in 1988 when Armenian demonstrations against Azerbaijani rule broke out in Nagorno–Karabakh and later in Armenia. The Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast voted to secede from Azerbaijan and join Armenia. Soon, violence broke out against Armenians in Azerbaijan and Azeris in Armenia. In 1990, after violent episodes in Nagorno–Karabakh and Azerbaijani cities like Baku, Sumgait and Kirovabad, Moscow declared a state of emergency in Karabakh, sending troops to the region, and forcibly occupied Baku, killing over a hundred civilians. In April 1991, Azerbaijani militia and Soviet forces targeted Armenian populations in Karabakh, known as Operation Ring. Moscow also deployed troops to Yerevan. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, conflict escalated into a full-scale war between the Nagorno-Karabakh Republic (supported by Armenia), and Azerbaijan. Military action was influenced by the Russian military, which manipulated the rivalry between the two neighbouring sides in order to keep both under control.{{Citation needed|date=June 2015}}
More than 30,000 people were killed in the fighting during the period of 1988 to 1994. In May 1992, Armenian forces seized Shusha and Lachin (thereby linking Nagorno-Karabakh to Armenia). By October 1993, Armenian forces succeeded in taking almost all of former NKAO, Lachin and large areas in southwestern Azerbaijan. In 1993, the UN Security Council adopted four resolutions calling for the cessation of hostilities, unimpeded access for international humanitarian relief efforts, and the eventual deployment of a peacekeeping force in the region. Fighting continued, however, until May 1994 at which time Russia brokered a cease-fire between the three sides.
Negotiations to resolve the conflict peacefully have been ongoing since 1992 under the Minsk Group of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe. The Minsk Group is co-chaired by Russia, France, and the United States and has representation from Turkey, the U.S., several European nations, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Despite the 1994 cease-fire, sporadic violations, sniper-fire and land mine incidents continue to claim over 100 lives each year.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXMF3DAAAQBAJ&qNegotiations+to+resolve+the+conflict+peacefully+have+been+ongoing+since+1992+under+the+aegis+of+the+Minsk+Group+of+the+Organization+for+Security+and+Co-operation+in+Europe.+The+Minsk+Group+is+co-chaired+by+Russia%2C+France%2C+and+the+United+States+and+has+representation+from+Turkey%2C+the+U.S.%2C+several+European+nations%2C+Armenia+and+Azerbaijan.+Despite+the+1994+cease-fire%2C+sporadic+violations%2C+sniper-fire+and+landmine+incidents+continue+to+claim+over+100+lives+each+year.%5B&pgPA32|titleAzerbaijan Business and Investment Opportunities Yearbook Volume 1 Strategic, Practical Information and Opportunities|date14 April 2016|publisherIBP Inc|isbn978-1-4387-7619-4|languageen|access-date27 November 2020|archive-date7 April 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230407231043/https://books.google.com/books?idXMF3DAAAQBAJ&qNegotiations+to+resolve+the+conflict+peacefully+have+been+ongoing+since+1992+under+the+aegis+of+the+Minsk+Group+of+the+Organization+for+Security+and+Co-operation+in+Europe.+The+Minsk+Group+is+co-chaired+by+Russia,+France,+and+the+United+States+and+has+representation+from+Turkey,+the+U.S.,+several+European+nations,+Armenia+and+Azerbaijan.+Despite+the+1994+cease-fire,+sporadic+violations,+sniper-fire+and+landmine+incidents+continue+to+claim+over+100+lives+each+year.&#91;&pgPA32|url-statuslive}}{{self-published source|dateFebruary 2020}}</ref>{{self-published inline|dateFebruary 2020}}
Since 1997, the Minsk Group co-chairs have presented three proposals to serve as a framework for resolving the conflict. Each proposal was rejected. Beginning in 1999, the presidents of Azerbaijan and Armenia initiated a direct dialogue through a series of face-to-face meetings, often facilitated by the Minsk Group Co-Chairs. The OSCE sponsored a round of negotiations between the presidents in Key West, Florida. U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell launched the talks on 3 April 2001, and the negotiations continued with mediation by the U.S., Russia and France until 6 April 2001. The Co-Chairs are still continuing to work with the two presidents in the hope of finding lasting peace.
The two countries are still at war. Citizens of Armenia, as well as citizens of any other country who are of Armenian descent, are forbidden entry to Azerbaijan. If a person's passport shows evidence of travel to Nagorno–Karabakh, they are forbidden entry to Azerbaijan.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ncsj.org/Azerbaijan.shtml |titleAzerbaijan Country Page of the NCSJ (advocates on behalf of Jews in Russia, Ukraine, the Baltic States & Eurasia) accessed 23 May 2010 |access-date26 May 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090308021931/http://www.ncsj.org/Azerbaijan.shtml |archive-date8 March 2009 }}</ref><ref name"panarmenian.net">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/25889/|titleAzerbaijan doesn't allow Armenians in the country|workPanARMENIAN.Net|access-date19 February 2015|archive-date13 July 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150713183519/http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/25889/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
In 2008, in what became known as the 2008 Mardakert Skirmishes, Armenian forces and Azerbaijan clashed over Nagorno-Karabakh. The fighting between the sides was brief, with few casualties on either side.<ref name"regnum.ru">{{cite news|urlhttp://www.regnum.ru/english/943595.html |titleAzerbaijani president: Armenians are guests in Yerevan |publisherREGNUM News Agency |date17 January 2008 |access-date21 April 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090612043901/http://www.regnum.ru/english/943595.html |archive-date=12 June 2009}}</ref>
The 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh war and the 2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh were the latest escalations of the unresolved conflict.
Countries without diplomatic relations
Armenia does not have diplomatic relations with the following countries (organized by continent):
Africa
* {{Flag|Lesotho}}, {{Flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}, {{Flag|South Sudan}}
The Americas
* {{Flag|Barbados}}
Asia
* {{Flag|Azerbaijan}}, {{Flag|Pakistan}} (Pakistan is the only country in the world that does not recognize Armenia), {{Flag|Turkey}}
Oceania
* {{Flag|Marshall Islands}}, {{Flag|Papua New Guinea}}, {{Flag|Samoa}}, {{Flag|Solomon Islands}}, {{Flag|Tonga}}
Armenia also has no diplomatic relations with states with limited recognition except for the now defunct Republic of Artsakh and the State of Palestine.<ref name"ps">{{Cite web|titlePalestine - Bilateral Relations |urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/ps |websiteMinistry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia |access-date13 July 2024}}</ref>Countries with diplomatic relations
List of countries which Armenia maintains diplomatic relations with:
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="3" |
|-
!#
!Country
!Date<ref>{{Cite web|titleBilateral relations|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/|websiteMinistry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia|access-date30 August 2023|archive-date22 September 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230922111605/https://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|1
|{{flag|Lithuania}}
|{{dts|21 November 1991}}
|-
|2
|{{flag|Romania}}
|{{dts|17 December 1991}}
|-
|3
|{{flag|Ukraine}}
|{{dts|25 December 1991}}
|-
|4
|{{flag|United States}}
|{{dts|7 January 1992}}
|-
|5
|{{flag|Denmark}}
|{{dts|14 January 1992}}
|-
|6
|{{flag|Mexico}}
|{{dts|14 January 1992}}
|-
|7
|{{flag|Australia}}
|{{dts|15 January 1992}}
|-
|8
|{{flag|Argentina}}
|{{dts|17 January 1992}}
|-
|9
|{{flag|Bulgaria}}
|{{dts|18 January 1992}}
|-
|10
|{{flag|Greece}}
|{{dts|20 January 1992}}
|-
|11
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}
|{{dts|20 January 1992}}
|-
|12
|{{flag|Austria}}
|{{dts|24 January 1992}}
|-
|13
|{{flag|Spain}}
|{{dts|27 January 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web |titleFicha de paises y territorios |urlhttps://www.exteriores.gob.es/es/Comunicacion/Paginas/Ficha.aspx |access-date13 August 2022 |languagees |archive-date12 August 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220812093426/https://www.exteriores.gob.es/es/Comunicacion/Paginas/Ficha.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|14
|{{flag|Netherlands}}
|{{dts|30 January 1992}}
|-
|15
|{{flag|Canada}}
|{{dts|31 January 1992}}
|-
|16
|{{flag|Germany}}
|{{dts|31 January 1992}}
|-
|17
|{{flag|Iran}}
|{{dts|9 February 1992}}
|-
|18
|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}
|{{dts|12 February 1992}}
|-
|19
|{{flag|Brazil}}
|{{dts|17 February 1992}}
|-
|20
|{{flag|Mongolia}}
|{{dts|21 February 1992}}
|-
|21
|{{flag|North Korea}}
|{{dts|21 February 1992}}
|-
|22
|{{flag|South Korea}}
|{{dts|21 February 1992}}
|-
|23
|{{flag|France}}
|{{dts|24 February 1992}}
|-
|24
|{{flag|Hungary}}
|{{dts|26 February 1992}}
|-
|25
|{{flag|Poland}}
|{{dts|26 February 1992}}
|-
|26
|{{flag|Lebanon}}
|{{dts|4 March 1992}}
|-
|27
|{{flag|Syria}}
|{{dts|6 March 1992}}<ref>{{Cite web |title30th anniversary of establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Armenia and the Syrian Arab Republic |urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/2022/03/06/arm-sy/11330 |access-date18 May 2023 |websiteMinistry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia |archive-date18 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230518152359/https://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/2022/03/06/arm-sy/11330 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
|28
|{{flag|Egypt}}
|{{dts|9 March 1992}}
|-
|29
|{{flag|Belgium}}
|{{dts|10 March 1992}}
|-
|30
|{{flag|Italy}}
|{{dts|17 March 1992}}
|-
|31
|{{flag|Cyprus}}
|{{dts|18 March 1992}}
|-
|32
|{{flag|Finland}}
|{{dts|25 March 1992}}
|-
|33
|{{flag|Cuba}}
|{{dts|27 March 1992}}
|-
|34
|{{flag|Czech Republic}}
|{{dts|30 March 1992}}
|-
|35
|{{flag|Russia}}
|{{dts|3 April 1992}}
|-
|36
|{{flag|Israel}}
|{{dts|4 April 1992}}
|-
|37
|{{flag|China}}
|{{dts|6 April 1992}}
|-
|38
|{{flag|Tanzania}}
|{{dts|22 April 1992}}
|-
|39
|{{flag|Switzerland}}
|{{dts|30 April 1992}}
|-
|40
|{{flag|Cambodia}}
|{{dts|14 May 1992}}
|-
|41
|{{flag|Moldova}}
|{{dts|18 May 1992}}
|-
|42
|{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
|{{dts|19 May 1992}}
|-
|43
|{{flag|Philippines}}
|{{dts|20 May 1992}}
|-
|—
|{{flag|Holy See}}
|{{dts|23 May 1992}}
|-
|44
|{{flag|Portugal}}
|{{dts|25 May 1992}}
|-
|45
|{{flag|Uruguay}}
|{{dts|27 May 1992}}
|-
|46
|{{flag|Burundi}}
|{{dts|28 May 1992}}
|-
|47
|{{flag|Ghana}}
|{{dts|29 May 1992}}
|-
|48
|{{flag|Norway}}
|{{dts|5 June 1992}}
|-
|49
|{{flag|New Zealand}}
|{{dts|6 June 1992}}
|-
|50
|{{flag|Luxembourg}}
|{{dts|11 June 1992}}
|-
|51
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|{{dts|23 June 1992}}
|-
|52
|{{flag|Morocco}}
|{{dts|26 June 1992}}
|-
|53
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
|{{dts|30 June 1992}}
|-
|54
|{{flag|Singapore}}
|{{dts|1 July 1992}}
|-
|55
|{{flag|Paraguay}}
|{{dts|2 July 1992}}
|-
|56
|{{flag|Oman}}
|{{dts|7 July 1992}}
|-
|57
|{{flag|Thailand}}
|{{dts|7 July 1992}}
|-
|58
|{{flag|Sweden}}
|{{dts|10 July 1992}}
|-
|59
|{{flag|Vietnam}}
|{{dts|14 July 1992}}
|-
|60
|{{flag|Georgia}}
|{{dts|17 July 1992}}
|-
|61
|{{flag|Bolivia}}
|{{dts|27 July 1992}}
|-
|62
|{{flag|Latvia}}
|{{dts|22 August 1992}}
|-
|63
|{{flag|Estonia}}
|{{dts|23 August 1992}}
|-
|64
|{{flag|Guinea}}
|{{dts|27 August 1992}}
|-
|65
|{{flag|Kazakhstan}}
|{{dts|27 August 1992}}
|-
|66
|{{flag|India}}
|{{dts|31 August 1992}}
|-
|67
|{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
|{{dts|3 September 1992}}
|-
|68
|{{flag|Japan}}
|{{dts|7 September 1992}}
|-
|69
|{{flag|Peru}}
|{{dts|9 September 1992}}
|-
|70
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
|{{dts|14 September 1992}}
|-
|71
|{{flag|Indonesia}}
|{{dts|22 September 1992}}
|-
|72
|{{flag|Turkmenistan}}
|{{dts|9 October 1992}}
|-
|73
|{{flag|Tajikistan}}
|{{dts|21 October 1992}}
|-
|74
|{{flag|Bangladesh}}
|{{dts|11 November 1992}}
|-
|75
|{{flag|Sudan}}
|{{dts|8 December 1992}}
|-
|76
|{{flag|Algeria}}
|{{dts|30 December 1992}}
|-
|77
|{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
|{{dts|9 January 1993}}
|-
|78
|{{flag|Slovakia}}
|{{dts|14 January 1993}}
|-
|79
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|{{dts|4 February 1993}}
|-
|80
|{{flag|Albania}}
|{{dts|18 February 1993}}
|-
|81
|{{flag|Cape Verde}}
|{{dts|26 February 1993}}
|-
|82
|{{flag|Malaysia}}
|{{dts|11 March 1993}}
|-
|83
|{{flag|Nepal}}
|{{dts|26 March 1993}}
|-
|84
|{{flag|Chile}}
|{{dts|15 April 1993}}
|-
|85
|{{flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}
|{{dts|14 May 1993}}
|-
|86
|{{flag|Malta}}
|{{dts|27 May 1993}}
|-
|87
|{{flag|Belarus}}
|{{dts|12 June 1993}}
|-
|88
|{{flag|Madagascar}}
|{{dts|25 June 1993}}
|-
|89
|{{flag|Kenya}}
|{{dts|13 July 1993}}
|-
|90
|{{flag|Zambia}}
|{{dts|7 October 1993}}
|-
|91
|{{flag|Venezuela}}
|{{dts|30 October 1993}}
|-
|92
|{{flag|Ethiopia}}
|{{dts|2 December 1993}}
|-
|93
|{{flag|Mali}}
|{{dts|21 February 1994}}
|-
|94
|{{flag|Gabon}}
|{{dts|9 March 1994}}
|-
|95
|{{flag|Slovenia}}
|{{dts|27 June 1994}}
|-
|96
|{{flag|Nicaragua}}
|{{dts|6 July 1994}}
|-
|97
|{{flag|Kuwait}}
|{{dts|8 July 1994}}
|-
|98
|{{flag|Serbia}}
|{{dts|8 July 1994}}
|-
|99
|{{flag|Angola}}
|{{dts|3 October 1994}}
|-
|100
|{{flag|Eritrea}}
|{{dts|16 October 1994}}
|-
|101
|{{flag|Colombia}}
|{{dts|22 December 1994}}
|-
|102
|{{flag|Maldives}}
|{{dts|9 January 1995}}
|-
|103
|{{flag|Yemen}}
|{{dts|26 May 1995}}
|-
|104
|{{flag|Mozambique}}
|{{dts|13 September 1995}}
|-
|105
|{{flag|Uzbekistan}}
|{{dts|27 October 1995}}
|-
|106
|{{flag|Jamaica}}
|{{dts|1 December 1995}}
|-
|107
|{{flag|Jordan}}
|{{dts|18 June 1996}}
|-
|108
|{{flag|Ireland}}
|{{dts|28 June 1996}}
|-
|109
|{{flag|Croatia}}
|{{dts|8 July 1996}}<ref>{{cite web|titleBilateral relations - Date of Recognition and Establishment of Diplomatic Relations|urlhttps://mvep.gov.hr/foreign-policy/bilateral-relations/date-of-recognition-and-establishment-od-diplomatic-relations/22800|access-date5 February 2022|websiteMinistry of Foreign Affairs of Croatia|archive-date28 September 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220928182827/https://mvep.gov.hr/foreign-policy/bilateral-relations/date-of-recognition-and-establishment-od-diplomatic-relations/22800|url-status=live}}</ref>
|-
|110
|{{flag|Afghanistan|2013}}
|{{dts|5 September 1996}}
|-
|111
|{{flag|Bahrain}}
|{{dts|25 October 1996}}
|-
|112
|{{flag|Costa Rica}}
|{{dts|8 April 1997}}
|-
|113
|{{flag|Iceland}}
|{{dts|15 May 1997}}
|-
|114
|{{flag|Ecuador}}
|{{dts|20 May 1997}}
|-
|115
|{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}
|{{dts|29 July 1997}}
|-
|116
|{{flag|Qatar}}
|{{dts|5 November 1997}}
|-
|117
|{{flag|Laos}}
|{{dts|21 April 1998}}
|-
|118
|{{flag|Ivory Coast}}
|{{dts|13 May 1998}}
|-
|—
|{{flag|Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}
|{{dts|29 May 1998}}
|-
|119
|{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}
|{{dts|25 June 1998}}
|-
|120
|{{flag|Guatemala}}
|{{dts|29 June 1998}}
|-
|121
|{{flag|Panama}}
|{{dts|7 August 1998}}
|-
|122
|{{flag|Haiti}}
|{{dts|21 January 1999}}
|-
|123
|{{flag|Belize}}
|{{dts|12 February 1999}}
|-
|124
|{{flag|El Salvador}}
|{{dts|22 March 1999}}
|-
|125
|{{flag|Suriname}}
|{{dts|24 July 1999}}
|-
|126
|{{flag|Iraq}}
|{{dts|12 February 2000}}
|-
|127
|{{flag|Libya}}
|{{dts|19 June 2000}}<ref>{{Cite web |titleDiplomatic relations between Armenia and Libyan Arab Jamahiriya as of 19 June 2000 |urlhttps://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1314865?lnen |access-date24 August 2023 |websiteUnited Nations Digital Library |date19 June 2000 |last1Jamahiriya |first1Libyan Arab |archive-date12 January 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240112134955/https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/1314865?lnen |url-statuslive }}</ref>
|-
|128
|{{flag|Saint Lucia}}
|{{dts|17 October 2000}}
|-
|129
|{{flag|Somalia}}
|{{dts|28 June 2001}}
|-
|130
|{{flag|Brunei}}
|{{dts|15 April 2002}}
|-
|131
|{{flag|Tunisia}}
|{{dts|15 July 2002}}
|-
|132
|{{flag|Guyana}}
|{{dts|24 October 2003}}
|-
|133
|{{flag|Togo}}
|{{dts|14 November 2003}}
|-
|134
|{{flag|Andorra}}
|{{dts|18 November 2003}}
|-
|135
|{{flag|Timor-Leste}}
|{{dts|23 December 2003}}
|-
|136
|{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
|{{dts|19 March 2004}}
|-
|137
|{{flag|Rwanda}}
|{{dts|29 March 2004}}
|-
|138
|{{flag|Senegal}}
|{{dts|8 April 2004}}
|-
|139
|{{flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}
|{{dts|17 December 2004}}
|-
|140
|{{flag|San Marino}}
|{{dts|21 March 2006}}
|-
|141
|{{flag|Seychelles}}
|{{dts|19 April 2006}}
|-
|142
|{{flag|Namibia}}
|{{dts|2 October 2006}}
|-
|143
|{{flag|Montenegro}}
|{{dts|7 November 2006}}<ref>{{cite web |titleTabela priznanja i uspostavljanja diplomatskih odnosa |urlhttps://mvp.gov.me/rubrike/bilateralni-odnosi/Tabela-priznanja-i-uspostavljanja-diplomatskih-odn |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200213235103/https://mvp.gov.me/rubrike/bilateralni-odnosi/Tabela-priznanja-i-uspostavljanja-diplomatskih-odn |archive-date13 February 2020 |access-date16 April 2021 |publisherMontenegro Ministry of Foreign Affairs and European Integration}}</ref>
|-
|144
|{{flag|Chad}}
|{{dts|26 December 2006}}
|-
|145
|{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
|{{dts|15 March 2007}}
|-
|146
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|{{dts|28 May 2007}}
|-
|147
|{{flag|Benin}}
|{{dts|2 August 2007}}
|-
|148
|{{flag|Dominican Republic}}
|{{dts|9 October 2007}}
|-
|149
|{{flag|Mauritania}}
|{{dts|30 January 2008}}
|-
|150
|{{flag|Liechtenstein}}
|{{dts|7 May 2008}}
|-
|151
|{{flag|Comoros}}
|{{dts|2 July 2008}}
|-
|152
|{{flag|Monaco}}
|{{dts|15 October 2008}}
|-
|153
|{{flag|Fiji}}
|{{dts|7 June 2010}}
|-
|154
|{{flag|Honduras}}
|{{dts|16 September 2011}}
|-
|155
|{{flag|Malawi}}
|{{dts|20 January 2012}}
|-
|156
|{{flag|Tuvalu}}
|{{dts|16 March 2012}}
|-
|157
|{{flag|Grenada}}
|{{dts|3 April 2012}}
|-
|158
|{{flag|Bhutan}}
|{{dts|26 September 2012}}<ref name"bhutan">{{Cite news |date3 October 2012 |titleEstablishment of diplomatic relations between the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Republic of Armenia |urlhttps://www.mfa.gov.bt/establishment-of-diplomatic-relations-between-the-kingdom-of-bhutan-and-the-republic-of-armenia/ |workMinistry of Foreign Affairs of Bhutan |access-date31 October 2024}}</ref>
|-
|159
|{{flag|Myanmar}}
|{{dts|31 January 2013}}
|-
|160
|{{flag|Eswatini}}
|{{dts|3 May 2013}}
|-
|161
|{{flag|Mauritius}}
|{{dts|28 June 2013}}
|-
|162
|{{flag|Uganda}}
|{{dts|28 June 2013}}
|-
|163
|{{flag|Vanuatu}}
|{{dts|26 September 2013}}
|-
|164
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|{{dts|11 October 2015}}
|-
|165
|{{flag|Niger}}
|{{dts|26 November 2016}}
|-
|166
|{{flag|Bahamas}}
|{{dts|21 September 2017}}
|-
|167
|{{flag|Central African Republic}}
|{{dts|21 September 2017}}
|-
|168
|{{flag|Federated States of Micronesia}}
|{{dts|21 September 2017}}
|-
|169
|{{flag|Palau}}
|{{dts|21 September 2017}}
|-
|170
|{{flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}
|{{dts|21 September 2017}}
|-
|171
|{{flag|Liberia}}
|{{dts|22 September 2017}}
|-
|172
|{{flag|Nauru}}
|{{dts|22 September 2017}}
|-
|173
|{{flag|Kiribati}}
|{{dts|26 September 2018}}
|-
|174
|{{flag|Gambia}}
|{{dts|10 October 2018}}
|-
|175
|{{flag|Dominica}}
|{{dts|5 April 2019}}
|-
|176
|{{flag|Djibouti}}
|{{dts|22 May 2019}}
|-
|177
|{{flag|North Macedonia}}
|{{dts|27 September 2019}}
|-
|178
|{{flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}
|{{dts|29 August 2023}}
|-
|179
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|{{dts|25 November 2023}}
|-
|180
|{{flag|Botswana}}
|{{dts|14 December 2023}}
|-
|—
|{{Flag|State of Palestine}}
|{{dts|27 September 2024}}
|}
Multilateral relations
Notes on some of Armenia's multilateral relations follow:
{| class"wikitable sortable" border"1" style="width:100%; margin:auto;"
!width="15%"| Organization
!width="12%"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|African Union}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|25 October 2010}}
| Armenia established diplomatic relations with the African Union on 25 October 2010.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://panarmenian.net/eng/news/55764|titleArmenia, African Union to develop relations|workPanArmenian.net|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date31 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170331024959/http://panarmenian.net/eng/news/55764|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The African Union Commission hailed the Armenian government's intention to have a representative in the African Union, and expressed willingness to develop relations with Armenia.
* The Representative of Armenia to the African Union is located in Cairo, Egypt.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Arab League}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2004}}
| Armenia was granted Observer Status in the Arab League in 2004 after a Syrian invitation.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://azad-hye.blogspot.ca/2005/01/observer-status-for-armenia-in-arab.html|titleObserver status for Armenia in the Arab League|workazad-hye.Blogspot.ca|date19 January 2005|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date21 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170421002247/http://azad-hye.blogspot.ca/2005/01/observer-status-for-armenia-in-arab.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* Armenia maintains positive relations with most Arab states.
* A memorandum on mutual understanding and cooperation between Armenia and the Arab League was signed in January 2005.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armeniandiaspora.com/showthread.php?16766-Armenia-Arab-League-sign-memo-on-mutual-understanding|titleArmenia, Arab League sign memo on mutual understanding|workArmenianDiaspora.com|date20 January 2005|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date21 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170421004108/http://www.armeniandiaspora.com/showthread.php?16766-Armenia-Arab-League-sign-memo-on-mutual-understanding|url-statuslive}}</ref> The agreement promotes intensifying cooperation and the opening of Armenian diplomatic missions in Arab states.
* The Representative of Armenia to the Arab League is located in Cairo, Egypt.
|- valign="top"
|Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1992}}
|| See Armenia–BSEC relations
* Armenia joined the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC) on 25 June 1992 as one of the eleven founding members of the economic organization.
* The Permanent Mission of Armenia to BSEC is located in Istanbul, Turkey.
|- valign="top"
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Collective Security Treaty Organization.svg}} Collective Security Treaty Organization||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1994}}
|| See Armenia–CSTO relations
* Armenia joined the CSTO in 1994.
* The Armenian Permanent Mission to the CSTO is based in Moscow, Russia.
|- valign="top"
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Council of Europe.svg}} Council of Europe||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2001}}
|| See Armenia in the Council of Europe
* Armenia joined the Council of Europe on 25 January 2001.
* The Armenian Permanent Mission to the Council of Europe is based in Strasbourg, France. The Council of Europe maintains an Office in Yerevan, Armenia.
* The Council of Europe has recognized the Armenian genocide.
|- valign="top"
|{{flagicon image|Flag of the Eurasian Economic Union.svg}} Eurasian Economic Union||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2015}}
|| See Member states of the Eurasian Economic Union and Enlargement of the Eurasian Economic Union
* Armenia joined the Eurasian Economic Union on 2 January 2015.
* Armenia is a member of the Eurasian Customs Union Free-trade area.
* Other members include Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Observer members Cuba, Moldova, and Uzbekistan.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|European Union}}||align=right|<!--start date -->{{dts|1991}}
| See Armenia–European Union relations and Potential enlargement of the European Union
* Formal relations began in 1991 when Armenia gained independence from the Soviet Union.
* In 2002, the European Parliament announced that Armenia could potentially join the EU in the future.
* A Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement (CEPA) between the EU and Armenia was finalized in 2017.
* Armenia is a member of the EU's Euronest Parliamentary Assembly, Eastern Partnership, and Energy Community.
* The Delegation of the European Union to Armenia Office is located in Yerevan, Armenia. The Armenian Permanent Mission to the EU is based in Brussels, Belgium.
* Since 2013, EU citizens enjoy visa-free travel to Armenia.
* In 2017, Armenia began talks on visa-liberalization for Armenian citizens traveling into the EU's Schengen Area.
* In 2024, the European Parliament passed a resolution confirming Armenia meets Maastricht Treaty Article 49 requirements and may apply for EU membership.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2024-0163_EN.html|titleJOINT MOTION FOR A RESOLUTION on closer ties between the EU and Armenia and the need for a peace agreement between Azerbaijan and Armenia &#124; RC-B9-0163/2024 &#124; European Parliament|website=www.europarl.europa.eu}}</ref>
* On 12 February 2025, Armenia's parliament approved a bill officially endorsing Armenia's EU accession.
* The European Parliament has recognized the Armenian genocide.
|--valign="top"
|{{Flag|NATO}}||align=right|<!--Start date-->{{dts|1992}}
| See Armenia–NATO relations
* Armenia is not a member of NATO.
* Armenia joined the NATO Partnership for Peace on 5 October 1994. In 2002, Armenia became an associate member of the NATO Parliamentary Assembly.
* The Information Centre on NATO in Armenia Office is located in Yerevan, Armenia. The Armenian Permanent Mission to the NATO is based in Brussels, Belgium.
|}
Bilateral relations
Notes on some of Armenia's bilateral relations follow (organized by continent):
Africa
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Algeria}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|30 December 1992}}
|See Algeria–Armenia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 December 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/dz/|titleAlgeria – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170228075445/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/dz/|archive-date28 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Angola}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|3 October 1994}}
|See Angola–Armenia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 October 1994.<ref name"auto1">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/bo/|titleBolivia – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227233258/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/bo/|archive-date27 December 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Benin}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2 August 2007}}
|See Armenia–Benin relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 August 2007.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Botswana}}||align=right|<!--start date -->{{dts|14 December 2023}}
|Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 December 2023.<ref name":3">{{Cite news |date14 December 2023 |titleDiplomatic relations established between Armenia and Botswana |urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/1126252.html |access-date14 December 2023 |archive-date14 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231214144640/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/1126252.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Burkina Faso}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|16 November 1992}}
|See Armenia–Burkina Faso relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 November 1992.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Burundi}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|28 May 1992}}
|See Armenia–Burundi relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/bi/|titleBurundi – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815184218/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/bi/|archive-date15 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Cameroon}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|28 May 2007}}
|See Armenia–Cameroon relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 May 2007.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Cape Verde}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|26 February 2007}}
|See Armenia–Cape Verde relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 February 2007.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Central African Republic}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|September 2017}}
|See Armenia–Central African Republic relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.panorama.am/en/news/2017/09/22/Armenia-diplomatic-relations/1838703|titleArmenia establishes diplomatic relations with five countries|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|websitepanorama.am|access-date8 March 2018|archive-date9 March 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180309054009/https://www.panorama.am/en/news/2017/09/22/Armenia-diplomatic-relations/1838703|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Chad}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|26 December 2006}}
|See Armenia–Chad relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 December 2006.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Comoros}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|3 July 2008}}
|See Armenia–Comoros relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 July 2008.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/524557|titleDiplomatic Relations Established Between Republic of Armenia and Union of Comoros|workarmenpress.am|access-date23 April 2017}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Congo}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|15 March 2007}}
|See Armenia–Congo relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 March 2007.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/cg/|titleCongo – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date29 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170329050844/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/cg/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Cote D'Ivoire}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|13 May 1998}}
|See Armenia–Côte d'Ivoire relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 May 1998.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Democratic Republic of Congo}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|10 November 2015}}
|See Armenia–Democratic Republic of Congo relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 November 2015.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/item/2015/10/11/min_congo/|titleMeeting of Foreign Ministers of Armenia and Democratic Republic of Congo – Press Releases – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date1 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170401144039/http://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/item/2015/10/11/min_congo/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Djibouti}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|22 May 2019}}
|See Armenia–Djibouti relations{{pb}}In October 2015, both countries Foreign Ministers met to discuss establishing diplomatic relations and possible ways of developing bilateral ties.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://news.am/eng/news/290227.html|titleArmenia and Djibouti plan to develop relations|worknews.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date19 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170419103017/https://news.am/eng/news/290227.html|url-statuslive}}</ref> Both countries officially established diplomatic relations on 22 May 2019 at the United Nations.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/975886.html|titleArmenia, Djibouti establish diplomatic relations|websitearmenpress.am|access-date23 May 2019|archive-date23 May 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190523121910/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/975886.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Egypt}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|March 1992}}
| See Armenia–Egypt relations
* Egypt has an embassy in Yerevan.
* Armenia has an embassy in Cairo.
* Roughly 6,000 Armenians live in Egypt. See also Armenians in Egypt
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Equatorial Guinea}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|19 May 1992}}
|See Armenia–Equatorial Guinea relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 19 May 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/gq/|titleEquatorial Guinea – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date4 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170404053117/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/gq|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Eritrea}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|16 October 1994}}
|See Armenia–Eritrea relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 October 1994.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/er/|titleEritrea – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date25 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170325025755/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/er/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|-
|{{Flag|Eswatini}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|3 May 2013}}
|See Armenia–Eswatini relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 May 2013.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sz/|titleSwaziland – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|lastLLC|firstHelix Consulting|workmfa.am|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170113062025/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sz/|archive-date13 January 2017|url-statusdead|access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Ethiopia }}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2 December 1993}}
|See Armenia–Ethiopia relations
* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 December 1993.<ref name"ReferenceB">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/et/|titleEthiopia – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170227193121/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/et|archive-date27 February 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Armenia has an embassy in Addis Ababa.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.mfa.am/en/embassies/et| title Embassy of Armenia in Ethiopia| access-date 31 May 2021| archive-date 2 June 2021| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213629/https://www.mfa.am/en/embassies/et| url-status live}}</ref>
* Ethiopia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
* There is a small community of Armenians in Ethiopia's capital Addis Ababa. See also Armenians in Ethiopia
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Gabon}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|9 March 1994}}
|See Armenia–Gabon relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 March 1994.<ref name="auto1"/>
|-
|{{Flag|Gambia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|9 October 2018}}
|See Armenia–Gambia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 2018.<ref name":0">{{Cite web |date10 October 2018 |titleDiplomatic relations established between Armenia and The Gambia |urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/950509.html |websitearmenpress.am |access-date11 October 2018 |archive-date11 October 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181011053548/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/950509.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Ghana}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|29 May 1992}}
|See Armenia–Ghana relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 May 1992.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Guinea}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1992}}
|See Armenia–Guinea relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Guinea-Bissau}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|3 September 1992}}
|See Armenia–Guinea-Bissau relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 September 1992.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Kenya}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|13 July 1993}}
|See Armenia–Kenya relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 July 1993.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ke/|titleKenya – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date29 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170329051001/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ke/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Liberia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|21 September 2017}}
|See Armenia–Liberia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2017.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://gnnliberia.com/2017/09/24/armenia-liberia-establish-diplomatic-relations/|titleArmenia, Liberia establish diplomatic relations|access-date8 March 2018|archive-date9 March 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180309054049/http://gnnliberia.com/2017/09/24/armenia-liberia-establish-diplomatic-relations/|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Libya}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2000}}
|See Armenia–Libya relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in the year 2000.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ly/|titleLibya – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date30 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330174322/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ly/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Madagascar}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|25 June 1993}}
|See Armenia–Madagascar relations{{pb}}Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Madagascar were established on 25 June 1993.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mg/|titleMadagascar – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702161734/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mg/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Malawi}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|20 January 2012}}
|See Armenia–Malawi relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 January 2012.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mw/|titleMalawi – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170228075239/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mw/|archive-date28 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Mali}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|21 February 1994}}
|See Armenia–Mali relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 February 1994.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ml/|titleMali – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702161149/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ml/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Mauritania}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|30 January 2008}}
|See Armenia–Mauritania relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 30 January 2008.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/520783/armenia-and-mauritania-establish--------------------------------diplomatic-relations.html|titleARMENIA AND MAURITANIA ESTABLISH DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS|workArmenPress.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date7 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170407055006/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/520783/armenia-and-mauritania-establish--------------------------------diplomatic-relations.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Mauritius}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|28 June 2013}}
|See Armenia–Mauritius relations{{pb}}Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Mauritius were established on 28 June 2013.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mu/|titleMauritius – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702131552/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mu/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Morocco}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|June 1992}}
|See Armenia–Morocco relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in June 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ma/|titleMorocco – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702183131/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ma/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Morocco has an honorary consulate in Yerevan
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Mozambique}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|13 September 1995}}
|See Armenia–Mozambique relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 13 September 1995.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Namibia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2 October 2006}}
|See Armenia–Namibia relations{{pb}}Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Namibia were established on 2 October 2006.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/na/ | titleBilateral Relations – Namibia | publisherMinistry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia | date18 February 2015 | access-date8 March 2017 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815192139/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/na/ | archive-date15 August 2011 | url-statusdead }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Niger}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|26 November 2016}}
|See Armenia–Niger relations{{pb}}Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Niger were established on 26 November 2016.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/item/2016/11/26/min_oif_niger/|titleThe Minister of Foreign Affairs of Armenia and Niger signed Protocol on the Establishment of diplomatic relations| access-date8 March 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180309054507/http://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/item/2016/11/26/min_oif_niger/|archive-date=9 March 2018}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Nigeria}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|4 February 1993}}
|See Armenia–Nigeria relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 4 February 1993.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ng/|titleNigeria – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702153637/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ng/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Rwanda}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2004}}
|See Armenia–Rwanda relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in 2004.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic}}||align=right|<!--start date -->
|There are no diplomatic relations between Armenia and the partially-recognized Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}||align=right|<!--start date -->
|See Armenia–São Tomé and Príncipe relations{{pb}}There are no diplomatic relations between Armenia and São Tomé and Príncipe.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Senegal}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|8 April 2004}}
|See Armenia–Senegal relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 April 2004.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sn/|titleSenegal – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date7 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170407055556/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sn/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia is represented by Senegal through its embassy in Moscow.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Seychelles}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|19 April 2006}}
|See Armenia–Seychelles relations{{pb}}Diplomatic relations between the two countries were established on 19 April 2006.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sc/|titleSeychelles – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702135715/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sc/|archive-date2 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Sierra Leone}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|22 March 2004}}
|See Armenia–Sierra Leone relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 March 2004.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armeniandiaspora.com/showthread.php?704-Armenia-Sierra-Leone-establish-diplomatic-relations|titleArmenia, Sierra Leone establish diplomatic relations|workarmeniandiaspora.com|date23 March 2004|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date30 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330083256/http://www.armeniandiaspora.com/showthread.php?704-Armenia-Sierra-Leone-establish-diplomatic-relations|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Somalia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2001}}
|See Armenia–Somalia relations{{pb}}Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Somalia were established on 28 June 2001.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/so|titleSomalia – Bilateral Relations|websitemfa.am|access-date2 October 2018|archive-date12 August 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220812125649/https://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/so|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|South Africa}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1993}}
|See Armenia–South Africa relations{{pb}}Diplomatic relations between Armenia and South Africa were established on 23 June 1993.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/za/|titleSouth Africa – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702183452/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/za/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia is represented in South Africa through its embassy in Cairo, Egypt.<ref name"dirco.gov.za">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.dirco.gov.za/foreign/bilateral/armenia.html|titleArmenia (Republic of)|workdirco.gov.za|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date13 September 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150913072727/http://www.dirco.gov.za/foreign/bilateral/armenia.html|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* South Africa is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Kyiv, Ukraine.<ref name="dirco.gov.za"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|South Sudan}}||align=right|<!--start date -->
|See Armenia–South Sudan relations{{pb}}Armenia and South Sudan have not yet established diplomatic relations, however the Foreign Minister of Armenia stated that Armenia recognizes the Republic of South Sudan as an independent state on 9 July 2011.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ss/|titleSouthSudan – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date24 April 2017|archive-date25 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170425204734/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ss/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Sudan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|8 December 1992}}
|See Armenia–Sudan relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 December 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sd/|titleSudan – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815175210/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/tn/|archive-date15 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* There is a small Armenian community in Sudan, most are concentrated in the Sudanese capital Khartoum.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Tanzania}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1992}}
|See Armenia–Tanzania relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/tz/|titleTanzania United Republic of – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date30 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330084107/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/tz/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Togo}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|14 November 2013}}
|See Armenia–Togo relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 November 2013.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/tg|titleArmenia, Togo bilateral relations|workNews.am|access-date9 April 2019|archive-date30 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190430170007/https://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/tg|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Tunisia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|15 July 2002}}
|See Armenia–Tunisia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 July 2002.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/tn/|titleTunisia – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date15 August 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815175210/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/tn/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Uganda}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|28 June 2013}}
|See Armenia–Uganda relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 28 June 2013.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ug/|titleUganda – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330084415/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ug/|archive-date30 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Zambia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1993}}
|See Armenia–Zambia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1993.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/zm/|titleZambia – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702140032/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/zm/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Zimbabwe}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1992}}
|See Armenia–Zimbabwe relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/zw/|titleZimbabwe – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170226212914/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/zw/|archive-date26 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|}
The Americas
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Antigua and Barbuda}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|14 May 1993}}
|See Antigua and Barbuda–Armenia relations {{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 May 1993.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ag/|titleAntigua and Barbuda – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date30 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330014643/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ag/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Argentina}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|17 January 1992}}
| See Argentina–Armenia relations
* Argentina is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Yerevan.
* Armenia has an embassy in Buenos Aires.
* Argentine parliament has recognized the Armenian genocide.
* Around 135,000 ethnic Armenians live in the country.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120219175135/http://www.mrecic.gov.ar/portal/seree/ditra/am.html List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and Armenia (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)]
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Bahamas}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|21 September 2017}}
|See Armenia–Bahamas relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2017.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.bahamas.gov.bs/wps/portal/public/gov/government/news/the%20bahamas%20establishes%20diplomatic%20relations%20with%20armenia/!ut/p/b1/vZTZbqswFEW_pR-QYmZ4NAEc5pgZXiJIKBcIQ0MGwtdfKlWqWqntfbitLT8caR_v7XUkEykRE2mXXasyO1d9lx1f6pTb0QBZEDKCJagcBFpAqzRrQBphchEkiwB8siB434_8EACNBND1SAwcmiQiIt4kgJdHq1QU74ovW6-s_GTcj_sbxVXSIW01mq2aeBYb2Z_Zpqnrw3zMj9Zp3p_Pgaw85ezZv4kYuSkgk0jAZfOHGb0ybINYLS3IPDupi7YQlzi8w8nRtrl-CxXDAVa9Og-AHfOqL7BCJpWBd3kMK8yl8xXTHmAvwuSE8Qkfcoo7uC0dJeR8AeJJ7nPetia-1YrtvYiBJBi2keGHh1ceXzz4n3i-9bOAWwRbE275DeUw4Lv-iEi_Rk69Cr4a2Ycb3mcwqG8ES0h707cFkSwy_rMkAs8TPhEDZufV90Gbm9mtZzz7c3AbfUkn69AafT-0g_bu2w5pyQYpSdrw7GUobbMhCzq0OrVO1fdQLrKogAv8D4YO5YuL4ZrkjIAFHqJ_2hCxjrCA4P0tZKkFJffbhuxPGSLHwusXpL70gpTebCBn0o5C_rbh_5-hTqRV3j7e9u0jeGQZkmVFkhI5iqd4kifCLmF4udQmefmdmCo5tqILRGkq-2BTnNRCP2pCiHhz3_WQgYbO9aLap5dpNAEKayFJSfryxAxaF_P2VABWrR07ClfLsXHX0GilPkeVeO3di3hKL-qdpsQ9bZYchRv7j3dc92sa1kpUBWsUBtlaSiwkIeiaqh4Eum5KyK-j2r3uHPmcVMCw0E3PBtf0dl1BgTU8PCfMcArAXRbnTYXcczuGByQnh-Tcnrodv2qmXQdgs2Xzsnkghja4GibnKk9yPL9t-BdaSHlm/dl4/d5/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/|titleThe Bahamas Establishes Diplomatic Relations with Armenia – Government – News|websitebahamas.gov.bs|access-date10 June 2020|archive-date17 June 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180617044356/http://www.bahamas.gov.bs/wps/portal/public/gov/government/news/the%20bahamas%20establishes%20diplomatic%20relations%20with%20armenia/!ut/p/b1/vZTZbqswFEW_pR-QYmZ4NAEc5pgZXiJIKBcIQ0MGwtdfKlWqWqntfbitLT8caR_v7XUkEykRE2mXXasyO1d9lx1f6pTb0QBZEDKCJagcBFpAqzRrQBphchEkiwB8siB434_8EACNBND1SAwcmiQiIt4kgJdHq1QU74ovW6-s_GTcj_sbxVXSIW01mq2aeBYb2Z_Zpqnrw3zMj9Zp3p_Pgaw85ezZv4kYuSkgk0jAZfOHGb0ybINYLS3IPDupi7YQlzi8w8nRtrl-CxXDAVa9Og-AHfOqL7BCJpWBd3kMK8yl8xXTHmAvwuSE8Qkfcoo7uC0dJeR8AeJJ7nPetia-1YrtvYiBJBi2keGHh1ceXzz4n3i-9bOAWwRbE275DeUw4Lv-iEi_Rk69Cr4a2Ycb3mcwqG8ES0h707cFkSwy_rMkAs8TPhEDZufV90Gbm9mtZzz7c3AbfUkn69AafT-0g_bu2w5pyQYpSdrw7GUobbMhCzq0OrVO1fdQLrKogAv8D4YO5YuL4ZrkjIAFHqJ_2hCxjrCA4P0tZKkFJffbhuxPGSLHwusXpL70gpTebCBn0o5C_rbh_5-hTqRV3j7e9u0jeGQZkmVFkhI5iqd4kifCLmF4udQmefmdmCo5tqILRGkq-2BTnNRCP2pCiHhz3_WQgYbO9aLap5dpNAEKayFJSfryxAxaF_P2VABWrR07ClfLsXHX0GilPkeVeO3di3hKL-qdpsQ9bZYchRv7j3dc92sa1kpUBWsUBtlaSiwkIeiaqh4Eum5KyK-j2r3uHPmcVMCw0E3PBtf0dl1BgTU8PCfMcArAXRbnTYXcczuGByQnh-Tcnrodv2qmXQdgs2Xzsnkghja4GibnKk9yPL9t-BdaSHlm/dl4/d5/L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Barbados}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|}}
|See Armenia–Barbados relations{{pb}}There are no diplomatic relations between Armenia and Barbados.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Belize}}||alignright|<!--start date --> {{dts|12 February 1999}}||See Armenia–Belize relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relation on 12 February 1999.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/bz/|titleBelize – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702131649/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/bz/|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Bolivia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|27 July 1992}}
|See Armenia–Bolivia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 July 1992.<ref name="auto1"/>
* Bolivia recognized the Armenian genocide in 2014.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Brazil}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|17 February 1992}}
| See Armenia–Brazil relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Brasília.
* Brazil has an embassy in Yerevan.
* Brazil recognized the Armenian genocide in 2015.
* There are between 80,000- 100,000 people of Armenian descent living in Brazil.<ref name=":1" />
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Canada}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|31 January 1992}}
| See also Armenia–Canada relations, Embassy of Armenia in Ottawa, Armenian Canadian
* Armenia has an embassy in Ottawa.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://canada.mfa.am/en/|titleEmbassy of Armenia to Canada|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date24 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170424135435/http://canada.mfa.am/en/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Canada has an embassy in Yerevan.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://news.am/eng/news/788882.html |titleCanada opens embassy in Armenia |access-date26 October 2023 |archive-date26 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231026204037/https://news.am/eng/news/788882.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* In 2004, the parliament of Canada recognized the Armenian Genocide.
* There are approximately 65,000 Armenians in Canada
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080526064932/http://geo.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/geo/armenia-en.aspx Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade about relations with Armenian]
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Chile}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|15 April 1993}}
| See Armenia–Chile relations
* Armenia is accredited to Chile from its embassy in Buenos Aires, Argentina and maintains an honorary consulate in Santiago.
* Chile is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia and maintains an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Chile recognized the Armenian genocide in 2007.
* There are around 1,600 people of Armenian descent living in Chile.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}}
* Chile recognized the Armenian genocide on 14 September 2007.<ref name"consejo">{{cite web |date21 May 2007 |titleEl Consejo Nacional Armenio del Uruguay fue recibido en la Embajada de Chile |urlhttp://www.ian.cc/notas/noticias_ian.php?id1003 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706215707/http://www.ian.cc/notas/noticias_ian.php?id1003 |archive-date6 July 2011 |access-date19 June 2009 |publisherInternational Armenian Network}}. Fuente Diario Armenia</ref><ref>{{cite news | url http://www.hairenik.com/armenianweekly/col06160701p.htm | title Chile Proves Genocide Recognition is Based on Truth, Not Lobbying | publisher Armenian Weekly | first Harut | last Sassounian | volume 73 | number 24 | date 16 June 2007}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.senado.cl/prontus_senado/antialone.html?pagehttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.senado.cl%2Fprontus_senado%2Fsite%2Fartic%2F20070914%2Fpags%2F20070914115407.html |titleArchived copy |access-date19 January 2021 |archive-date3 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303172526/http://www.senado.cl/prontus_senado/antialone.html?pagehttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.senado.cl%2Fprontus_senado%2Fsite%2Fartic%2F20070914%2Fpags%2F20070914115407.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Colombia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|22 December 1994}}
|See Armenia–Colombia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 December 1994.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/co/|titleColombia – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702160759/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/co/|archive-date2 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia is represented in Colombia through its embassy in Brasília, Brazil.
* Colombia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
* The city of Armenia, Colombia was renamed after Armenia in memory of the victims of the Armenian Genocide.
* There are mainly 250 people of Armenian descent.<ref>http://www.soyarmenio.com.ar/2014/01/el-nombre-armenia-en-colombia-por.html {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181022073545/http://www.soyarmenio.com.ar/2014/01/el-nombre-armenia-en-colombia-por.html |date22 October 2018 }} 29 January 2014</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Costa Rica}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|8 April 1997}}
|See Armenia–Costa Rica relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 April 1997.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Cuba}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|27 March 1992}}
|See Armenia–Cuba relations
* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 March 1992.<ref name"ReferenceA">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/cu/|titleCuba – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702183505/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/cu/|archive-date2 July 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Armenia is represented in Cuba through its embassy in Mexico City, Mexico.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
* Cuba is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Dominica}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|8 April 2019}}
|See Armenia–Dominica relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 8 April 2019.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armradio.am/en/10242|titleArmenia, Commonwealth of Dominica establish diplomatic relations|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workarmradio.am|access-date9 April 2019|archive-date9 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190409131740/https://armradio.am/en/10242|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.caribbeanwidenews.com/2019/04/12/dominica-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-armenia/|titleDominica Establishes Diplomatic Relations With Armenia|date12 April 2019|access-date2 September 2019|archive-date2 September 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190902085022/https://www.caribbeanwidenews.com/2019/04/12/dominica-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-armenia/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.dominicavibes.dm/news-257584/|titleDominica and The Republic of Armenia Establish Diplomatic Relations &#124; Dominica Vibes News|date12 April 2019|access-date2 September 2019|archive-date24 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190424073331/https://www.dominicavibes.dm/news-257584/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/dm|titleDominica – Bilateral Relations|websitemfa.am|access-date2 September 2019|archive-date2 September 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190902085022/https://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/dm|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/2019/04/05/us/9357|titleRepublic of Armenia and the Commonwealth of Dominica established diplomatic relations|websitemfa.am|access-date2 September 2019|archive-date2 September 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190902085026/https://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/2019/04/05/us/9357|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref name"dominicanewsonline.com">{{Cite web|urlhttps://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/dominica-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-armenia/|titleDominica establishes diplomatic relations with Armenia|date11 April 2019|websiteDominica News Online|access-date2 September 2019|archive-date2 September 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190902090527/https://dominicanewsonline.com/news/homepage/news/dominica-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-armenia/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Dominican Republic}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|9 October 2007}}
|See Armenia–Dominican Republic relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 9 October 2007.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/do/|titleDominican Republic – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date29 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170329051332/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/do/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Ecuador}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|20 May 1997}}
|See Armenia–Ecuador relations
* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 20 May 1997.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ec/|titleEcuador – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702182804/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ec/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Ecuador is a member of the Andean Parliament which recognized the Armenian genocide in September 2016.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|El Salvador}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|22 March 1999}}
|See Armenia–El Salvador relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 March 1999.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Guatemala}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|29 June 1998}}
|See Armenia–Guatemala relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 June 1998.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/gt/|titleGuatemala – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702190226/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/gt/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Guyana}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|24 October 2003}}
|See Armenia–Guyana relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 October 2003.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/gy/|titleGuyana – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170420003722/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/gy|archive-date20 April 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Greenland}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|14 January 1992}}
|See Armenia–Greenland relations{{pb}}Armenia maintains relations with Greenland via Denmark, established on 14 January 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/dk/|titleDenmark – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815165225/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/dk/|archive-date15 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Grenada}}||align=right|<!--start date -->{{dts|3 April 2012}}
|See Armenia–Grenada relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 3 April. 2012.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/gd/|titleGrenada – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date28 February 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170228075036/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/gd/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Haiti}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|21 January 1999}}
|See Armenia–Haiti relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 January 1999.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ht/|titleHaiti – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702182109/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ht/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Honduras}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|16 September 2011}}
|See Armenia–Honduras relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 September 2011.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Jamaica}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1 December 1995}}
|See Armenia–Jamaica relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 December 1995.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Mexico}}||alignright|<!--start date --> {{dts|14 January 1992}}<ref name"autogenerated1">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mx/|titleMexico – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|authorHelix Consulting LLC|workMFA.am|access-date19 February 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150219163904/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mx/|archive-date19 February 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref>
| See Armenia–Mexico relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Mexico City.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/by-countries2/mx/|titleMexico – By country – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160819220255/http://mfa.am/en/by-countries2/mx/|archive-date19 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Mexico is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Moscow, Russia and an Honorary Consulate in Yerevan<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://embamex.sre.gob.mx/rusia/|titleInicio|workSRE.gob.mx|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date16 April 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160416121106/http://embamex.sre.gob.mx/rusia/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/978527.html|titleHonorary Consulate of Mexico opens in Armenia|websitearmenpress.am|access-date14 June 2019|archive-date4 August 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200804142454/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/978527.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* There are approximately 400 Armenians living in Mexico and several thousand Mexicans of Armenian descent.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armeniadiaspora.com/population.html |titleArmeniaDiaspora.com – News from Armenia, Events in Armenia, Travel and Entertainment – Armenian Population in the World |authorHayk |workArmeniaDiaspora.com – News from Armenia, Events in Armenia, Travel and Entertainment |access-date19 February 2015 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130511084353/http://www.armeniadiaspora.com/population.html |archive-date11 May 2013 }}</ref>
* Mexico recognized the Armenian genocide in 2023.<ref>{{cite web |titleMexico Senate recognizes the Armenian Genocide |urlhttps://en.armradio.am/2023/02/09/mexico-senate-recognizes-the-armenian-genocide/ |websitePublic Radio of Armenia |access-date10 February 2023 |archive-date10 February 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230210021235/https://en.armradio.am/2023/02/09/mexico-senate-recognizes-the-armenian-genocide/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* See also: Armenians in Mexico
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Nicaragua}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|6 July 1994}}
|See Armenia–Nicaragua relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 July 1994.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ni/|titleNicaragua – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702135040/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/ni/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Panama}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|7 August 1998}}
|See Armenia–Panama relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 August 1998.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.mire.gob.pa/sites/default/files/documentos/Trasnsparencia/gestion-anual-2011-2012.pdf |titleArchived copy |access-date7 January 2017 |archive-date6 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200806131148/https://www.mire.gob.pa/sites/default/files/documentos/Trasnsparencia/gestion-anual-2011-2012.pdf |url-statusdead }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Paraguay}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2 July 1992}}
|See Armenia–Paraguay relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 2 July. 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/py/|titleParaguay – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date15 August 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815175349/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/py/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* In 2015, Paraguay recognized the Armenian Genocide.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Peru}}||alignright|<!--start date --> {{dts|20 April 1992}}<ref name"autogenerated1"/>
|See Armenia–Peru relations
* Peru recognized Armenia on 26 December 1991.
* Peru is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
* There are around 50 people of Armenian descent living in Peru.
* Peru is a member of the Andean Parliament which recognized the Armenian genocide in September 2016.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Saint Lucia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|17 October 2000}}
|See Armenia–Saint Lucia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 October 2000.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Saint Kitts and Nevis}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|21 September 2017}}
|See Armenia–Saint Kitts and Nevis relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2017.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.foreign.govt.kn/st-kitts-and-nevis-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-armenia/|titleSt. Kitts and Nevis Establishes Diplomatic Relations with Armenia|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180622170752/http://www.foreign.govt.kn/st-kitts-and-nevis-establishes-diplomatic-relations-with-armenia/|archive-date22 June 2018}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Saint Vincent and the Grenadines}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|17 December 2004}}
|See Armenia–Saint Vincent and the Grenadines relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 17 December 2004.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Suriname}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|24 July 1999}}
|See Armenia–Suriname relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 24 July 1999.<ref name="auto1"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Trinidad and Tobago}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|29 August 2023}}
|See Armenia–Trinidad and Tobago relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 29 August 2023.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|United States}}||align=right|<!--start date -->1920 & 1991
| See Armenia–United States relations{{pb}}The dissolution of the Soviet Union in December 1991 brought an end to the Cold War and created the opportunity for bilateral relations with the New Independent States (NIS) as they began a political and economic transformation. The U.S. recognized the independence of Armenia on 25 December 1991, and opened an embassy in Yerevan in February 1992.
* Armenia has an embassy in Washington, D.C., a consulate-general in Los Angeles, and honorary consulates in Chicago, Fresno, and Las Vegas.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.usa.mfa.am/en/|titleEmbassy of Armenia to the United States of America|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211202164636/https://usa.mfa.am/en|url-status=live}}</ref>
* The United States has an embassy in Yerevan, which is the second-largest American embassy in the world.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://armenia.usembassy.gov|titleHome – Yerevan, Armenia – Embassy of the United States|workUSEmbassy.gov|access-date23 April 2017|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170207002030/https://armenia.usembassy.gov/|archive-date=7 February 2017}}</ref>
* As of 2022, all 50 U.S. states have fully recognized the Armenian Genocide.
* The U.S. House of Representatives recognized the Armenian genocide on 29 October 2019.
* The U.S. Senate recognized the Armenian genocide on 12 December 2019.
* On 24 April 2021, U.S. President Joe Biden officially recognized the Armenian genocide.
* There are approximately 1,500,000 Armenian Americans.
* The Armenia–United States Strategic Partnership Charter was signed on 14 January 2025.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Uruguay}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|27 May 1992}}
| See Armenia–Uruguay relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Montevideo.
* Uruguay has an embassy in Yerevan.
* There are around 20,000 people of Armenian descent living in Uruguay.<ref name=":1" />
* Uruguay was the first country to recognize the Armenian genocide on 20 April 1965.
* In May 2022, the two countries agreed to open embassies in each other's countries; Yerevan and Montevideo.<ref>{{Cite web |titleArmenia and Uruguay will open embassies |urlhttps://www.panarmenian.net/eng/news/300554/Armenia_and_Uruguay_will_open_embassies |access-date2022-05-27 |websitePanARMENIAN.Net |archive-date7 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230407134100/https://www.panarmenian.net/eng/news/300554/Armenia_and_Uruguay_will_open_embassies |url-status=live }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Venezuela}}||alignright|<!--start date --> {{dts|30 October 1993}}<ref name"autogenerated1"/>
|See Armenia–Venezuela relations
* Armenia has an honorary consulate in Caracas
* Venezuela is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.
* There are around 4000 people of Armenian descent living in Venezuela.<ref name=":1" />
* Venezuelan parliament has recognized the Armenian genocide.
|}
Asia
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal relations began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Afghanistan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|5 September 1996}}
|See Afghanistan–Armenia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 September 1996.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/af/|titleAfghanistan – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702134820/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/af/|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{pb}}Relations suspended following the 2021 Taliban offensive.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Azerbaijan}}
|No diplomatic relations
|See Armenia–Azerbaijan relations, First Nagorno-Karabakh War, Sumgait pogrom, Baku pogrom, Maraga massacre, Khachkar destruction in Nakhichevan, Second Nagorno-Karabakh War
The two nations have fought two wars in 1918–20 (Armenian–Azerbaijani War) and in the 1988–94 (Nagorno-Karabakh War), in the past century, with last one ended with provisional cease fire agreement signed in Bishkek. There are no formal diplomatic relations between the two countries, because of the ongoing Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and dispute.{{pb}}During the Soviet period, many Armenians and Azeris lived in relative peace under the Soviet iron fist. However, when Mikhail Gorbachev introduced the policies of Glasnost and Perestroika, the majority of Armenians from the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Oblast (NKAO) of the Azerbaijan SSR began a movement to unify with the Armenian SSR. In 1988, the Armenians of Karabakh voted to secede and join Armenia. This, along with sporadic massacres in Azerbaijan against Armenians resulted in the conflict that became known as the Nagorno-Karabakh War. The violence resulted in de facto Armenian control of former NKAO and seven surrounding Azerbaijani regions which was effectively halted when the three sides agreed to observe a cease-fire which has been in effect since May 1994, and in late 1995 the sides also agreed to mediation of the OSCE Minsk Group. The Minsk Group is co-chaired by the U.S., France and Russia, and comprises Armenia, Azerbaijan, Turkey and several Western European nations. Despite the cease fire, up to 40 clashes are reported along the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict lines of control each year.{{citation needed|date=January 2016}}{{pb}}The sides are still technically at war. Citizens of Armenia, as well as citizens of any other country who are of Armenian descent, are forbidden entry to the Republic of Azerbaijan. If a person's passport shows any evidence of travel to Nagorno-Karabakh, they are forbidden to enter the Republic of Azerbaijan.{{pb}}In 2008, in what became known as the 2008 Mardakert Skirmishes, Armenia and Azerbaijan clashed over Nagorno-Karabakh. The fighting between the three sides was brief, with few casualties on either side.{{pb}}The Second Nagorno-Karabakh War in 2020, the 2023 Azerbaijani offensive in Nagorno-Karabakh, and the ongoing Armenia-Azerbaijan border crisis have further deteriorated relations and heightened tension between the two nations.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Bahrain}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|October 1996}}
|See Armenia–Bahrain relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in October 1996.<ref name"auto">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/kh/|titleCambodia – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160325182747/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/kh/|archive-date25 March 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Bangladesh}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|11 November 1992}}
|See Armenia–Bangladesh relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 November 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/bd/|titleBangladesh – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150927092111/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/bd/|archive-date27 September 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* There is a small community of Armenians in the capital Dhaka, the neighborhood of Armanitola was named after the Armenian Community. See also Armenians in Bangladesh.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Bhutan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|26 September 2012}}
|See Armenia–Bhutan relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 September 2012.<ref name="bhutan" />
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Brunei Darussalam}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|15 April 2012}}
|See Armenia–Brunei Darussalam relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 15 April 2012.<ref name="auto"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Cambodia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|14 May 1992}}
|See Armenia–Cambodia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 14 May 1992.<ref name="auto"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|China}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|6 April 1992}}
| See Armenia–China relations
* China recognized Armenia on 21 December 1991.
* Armenia has an embassy in Beijing.
* China has an embassy in Yerevan.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://am.chineseembassy.org/ |titleChinese embassy in Yerevan (in Chinese and Russian only) |publisherAm.ChineseEmbassy.org |access-date12 November 2011 |archive-date21 December 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071221164940/http://am.chineseembassy.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Since the establishment of diplomatic relations, cultural exchange has been a major component of bilateral relations, as both nations recognize the importance of creating a strong foundation based upon their ancient and rich histories.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/dozys/gjlb/3130/ |titleChinese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia |publisherFmprc.gov.cn |access-date12 November 2011 |archive-date3 June 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130603073735/http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/eng/wjb/zzjg/dozys/gjlb/3130/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Georgia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|17 July 1992}}
| See Armenia–Georgia relations{{pb}}Armenians and Georgians have a lot in common. Both are ancient Christian civilizations with their own distinct alphabets. Both use the terms "Apostolic" and "Orthodox" in the full titles of their respective churches. They also use the term "Catholicos" to refer to their church patriarchs. Despite all this, however, Armenians and Georgians have tended to have a tenuous relationship (at times, sharing close bonds while at other times regarding each other as rivals).{{pb}}Today, relations with Georgia are of particular importance for Armenia because, under the economic blockade imposed by Turkey and Azerbaijan due to the ongoing Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Georgia offers Armenia its only land connection with Europe and access to its Black Sea ports. However, because of Armenia's reliance on Russia and Georgia, both of whom fought the 2008 South Ossetia war and severed diplomatic and economic relations as a result; and as 70% of Armenia's imports entered via Georgia especially from Russia which has imposed an economic blockade on Georgia, Armenia also has been indirectly affected from this blockade as well. The development of close relations between Turkey and Georgia (such as the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline and South Caucasus natural gas pipeline) have also weighed on the mutual relations. For example, on 20 March 2006, Georgian Ambassador to Armenia Revaz Gachechiladze stated, <blockquote>"We sympathize with the sister nation but taking decisions of the kind we should take into account the international situation. When the time comes Georgia will do everything within the limits of the possible for the recognition of the Armenian genocide by the international community including Georgia." </blockquote>However, Armenian-Georgian relations have begun to improve. On 10 May 2006, Armenia and Georgia agreed on the greater part of the lines of the state border between the two countries. The Javakheti region in southern Georgia contains a large Armenian population and although there have been local civic organizations (such as United Javakhk) pushing for autonomy, there has been no violence between Armenians and Georgians in the area.
* Armenia has an embassy in Tbilisi and general consulate in Batumi.
* Georgia has an embassy in Yerevan.
* There are roughly 170,000 Armenians in Georgia today.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|India}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|31 August 1992}}
| See Armenia–India relations
* Since 1999, Armenia has an embassy in New Delhi and two honorary consulates Mumbai, and Chennai.
* India has an embassy in Yerevan.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.indianembassy.am/eng/main.html|archiveurlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100227100947/http://www.indianembassy.am/eng/main.html|url-statususurped|titleindianembassy.am|archivedate27 February 2010|websiteindianembassy.am}}</ref>
* Indian government is funding the renovation of schools in Lori region.
* Around 700 Medical students are studying in Armenian universities.
* Armenia recognizes Kashmir to be part of India and not of Pakistan.
* Armenia supports India's bid for permanent seat in the United Nations Security Council.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.indianembassy.am/relation.html |titleArmenia – India Bilateral Relations |publisherIndianembassy.am |access-date12 November 2011 |url-statususurped |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111028080319/http://www.indianembassy.am/relation.html |archive-date=28 October 2011 }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Indonesia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|22 September 1992}}
||See Armenia–Indonesia relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 September 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/id/|titleIndonesia – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702140639/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/id/|archive-date2 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia has an embassy in Jakarta
* Indonesia has an honorary consulate in Yerevan
* Armenia's Representative to the Association of Southeast Asian Nations is also located in Jakarta.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/in-international-organizations/175|titleAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations – In International Organizations|websitemfa.am|access-date8 April 2019|archive-date8 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190408183719/https://www.mfa.am/en/in-international-organizations/175|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Iran}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|9 February 1992}}
|See Armenia–Iran relations{{pb}}Despite religious and ideological differences, relations between Armenia and the Islamic Republic of Iran remain cordial and Armenia and Iran are strategic partners in the region. Armenia and Iran enjoy cultural and historical ties that go back thousands of years. There are no border disputes between the two countries and the Christian Armenian minority in Iran enjoys official recognition. Of special importance is the cooperation in the field of energy security which lowers Armenia's dependence on Russia and can in the future also supply Iranian gas to Europe through Georgia and the Black Sea.
* Armenia has an embassy in Tehran.
* Iran has an embassy in Yerevan.
* An estimated 200,000 Armenians live in Iran. See also Iranian Armenians
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Iraq}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|2000}}
|See Armenia–Iraq relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in the year 2000<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/iq/|titleIraq – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date20 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170420003344/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/iq|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia has an embassy in Baghdad
* Iraq has an embassy in Yerevan
* In 2015, Armenia announced it would establish a consulate general in Erbil, the capital of Kurdistan Region.
* Today it is estimated that there are around 15,000 Armenians in Iraq.
* Armenian is an official minority language in Iraq.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Israel}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|4 April 1992}}
|See Armenia–Israel relations{{pb}}Since independence, Armenia has received support from Israel. While both countries have diplomatic relations, neither maintained an embassy in the other country, until Armenia opened an embassy in Tel Aviv in 2020. Ehude Moshe Eytam, the Israeli ambassador to Armenia is based in Tbilisi, Georgia, and visits Yerevan twice a month. Israel has recognized 24 Armenians as Righteous Among the Nations for risking their lives to save Jews during the Holocaust.
* Israel is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Tbilisi (Georgia) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Armenia has an embassy in Tel Aviv and an honorary consulate in Jerusalem.
* Between 3,000 and 10,000 Armenians live in Israel. (See Armenians in Israel.)
* One of the four quarters of the Old City of Jerusalem is known as the Armenian Quarter.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Japan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|7 September 1992}}
|See Armenia–Japan relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Tokyo.
* Japan has an embassy in Yerevan.
* [http://www.mofa.go.jp/region/europe/armenia/index.html Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia]
* [http://japanarmenia.com/ Japanese and Armenian relations]
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Jordan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|18 June 1996}}
|See Armenia–Jordan relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 18 June 1996.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/jo/|titleJordan – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815192737/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/jo/|archive-date15 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia is represented by a consulate in the capital Amman.
* There are an estimated 3,000–5,000 Armenians living in the country today.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Kazakhstan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|27 August 1992}}
|See Armenia–Kazakhstan relations
* Since 1992 Armenia first had its embassy in Almaty and later moved it to Astana.
* Kazakhstan has an embassy in Yerevan.
* Both countries are members of the Eurasian Union.
* There are 25,000 people of Armenian descent living in Kazakhstan.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120419065538/http://portal.mfa.kz/portal/page/portal/mfa/en/content/policy/cooperation/CIS/07 Kazakh Ministry of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia]
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Kuwait}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1994}}
|See Armenia–Kuwait relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Kuwait city.
* Kuwait has an embassy in Yerevan.
* There are around 6,000 people of Armenian descent living in Kuwait.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Kyrgyzstan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> 1993
|See Armenia–Kyrgyzstan relations
* Both countries established diplomatic relations in January 1993 by protocol.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/kg/|titleKyrgyzstan – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date27 December 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227234613/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/kg/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia is represented in Kyrgyzstan through its embassy in Astana, Kazakhstan<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/by-countries/kg/|titleKyrgyzstan – Embassies – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date20 March 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180320002055/http://www.mfa.am/en/by-countries/kg|url-statusdead}}</ref> and an honorary consulate in Bishkek.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/consulates/kg/|titleKyrgyzstan – Consulates – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170422045547/http://www.mfa.am/en/consulates/kg|archive-date22 April 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Kyrgyzstan is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/representations-by-countries2/kg/|titleKyrgyzstan – By country – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170623082101/http://mfa.am/en/representations-by-countries2/kg/|archive-date23 June 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States, Collective Security Treaty Organization and Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area.
* Around 1,000 Armenians live in the country.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Laos}}||align=right|<!--start date --> 1998
|See Armenia–Laos relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 April 1998.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/la/|titleLao People's Democratic Republic – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702140719/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/la/|archive-date2 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Lebanon}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|4 March 1992}}
|See Armenia–Lebanon relations{{pb}}Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Lebanon were established on 4 March 1992.{{pb}}Armenian-Lebanese relations are very friendly. Lebanon is host to the eighth largest Armenian population in the world with around 160,000 Armenians in the country. Lebanon is the only member of the Arab League, much less of the Middle East and the Islamic World that recognizes the Armenian genocide. During the 2006 Lebanon War, Armenia announced that it would send humanitarian aid to Lebanon. According to the Armenian government, an unspecified amount of medicines, tents and fire-fighting equipment was allocated to Lebanese authorities on 27 July 2006.<ref>[http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2006/07/EB9E5465-7B17-4A96-B513-03AA0567FAB0.ASP Armenia To Provide Relief To Lebanon] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071007080634/http://www.armenialiberty.org/armeniareport/report/en/2006/07/EB9E5465-7B17-4A96-B513-03AA0567FAB0.ASP |date7 October 2007 }}, Armenialiberty.org.</ref><ref>[http://www.panarmenian.net/news/eng/?nid18992&page1 Armenia Sent Humanitarian Assistance To Lebanon] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070927231001/http://www.panarmenian.net/news/eng/?nid18992&page1 |date27 September 2007 }}, PanArmenian.Net</ref>{{pb}}In September 2009 Mr. Ashot Kocharian was appointed the Ambassador of Armenia in Lebanon. On 18 April 2013, the newly appointed Ambassador of Lebanon to Armenia Mr. Jean Makaron presented his credentials to the President of Armenia.{{pb}}On 4 March 2016, Mr. Samvel Mkrtchyan was appointed the Ambassador Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary of Armenia to the Lebanese Republic.
* Armenian is a recognized minority language in Lebanon.
* Armenia has an embassy in Beirut.
* Lebanon has an embassy in Yerevan.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Malaysia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|11 March 1993}}
|See Armenia–Malaysia relations
* Armenia is represented in Malaysia through embassy in New Delhi (India).
* Malaysia is represented in Armenia through embassy in Moscow (Russia).
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Maldives}}||align=right|<!--start date --> 1995
|See Armenia–Maldives relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 10 January 1995.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.foreign.gov.mv/v2/en/foreign-relations/bilateral-relations/ |titleBilateral Relations : Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date14 December 2017 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150912081607/http://www.foreign.gov.mv/v2/en/foreign-relations/bilateral-relations/ |archive-date12 September 2015 }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Mongolia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> 1992
|See Armenia–Mongolia relations{{pb}}* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 11 February 1992.<ref name"mfa.am">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mn/|titleMongolia – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227233929/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mn/|archive-date27 December 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Armenia is represented in Mongolia through its embassy in Beijing, China.<ref name="mfa.am"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Myanmar}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|31 January 2013}}
|See Armenia–Myanmar relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 31 January 2013.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mm/|titleMyanmar – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date30 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330083812/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/mm/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Nepal}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|26 March 1993}}
|See Armenia–Nepal relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 March 1993.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/np/|titleNepal – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702153200/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/np/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|North Korea}}||alignright|<!--start date -->13 February 1992<ref name"search.naver.com">{{cite web|urlhttp://search.naver.com/search.naver?smtab_hty.top&wherenexearch&ieutf8&query%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%20%EC%95%84%EB%A5%B4%EB%A9%94%EB%8B%88%EC%95%84%20%EC%88%98%EA%B5%90|title북한 아르메니아 수교 : 네이버 통합검색|workNaver.com|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date3 May 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220503161446/https://search.naver.com/search.naver?smtab_hty.top&wherenexearch&ieutf8&query%EB%B6%81%ED%95%9C%20%EC%95%84%EB%A5%B4%EB%A9%94%EB%8B%88%EC%95%84%20%EC%88%98%EA%B5%90|url-status=live}}</ref>
|See Armenia–North Korea relations
* The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Armenia and the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) started on 13 February 1992.<ref name="search.naver.com"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Oman}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|July 1992}}
|See Armenia–Oman relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations in July 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/om/|titleOman – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110815183315/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/om/|archive-date15 August 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Oman has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Pakistan}}||align=right|<!--start date -->
|See Armenia–Pakistan relations{{pb}}Armenia-Pakistan relations are poor owing to disagreements between the two countries. The main issue is the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Pakistan is a major supporter of Azerbaijan in the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict. Pakistan also does not recognize Armenia despite Armenia recognizing Pakistan. Pakistan does not recognize the Armenian genocide and maintains that during the war large number of Armenians and Muslims were killed. Armenia also has friendly relations with India, which Pakistan heavily opposes.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Palestine}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|27 September 2024}}
|See Armenia–Palestine relations{{pb}}On 21 June 2024, the Armenian government recognized the State of Palestine.<ref>{{Cite web |date21 June 2024 |titleStatement by the Foreign Ministry of the Republic of Armenia on the recognition of the State of Palestine |urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/interviews-articles-and-comments/2024/06/21/mfa_statement/12706 |websiteMinistry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia |access-date23 June 2024}}</ref> On 27 September 2024, diplomatic relations were established.<ref name"ps" />
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Philippines}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|20 May 1992}}
|See Armenia–Philippines relations
* The Philippines has a consulate in Yerevan.
* Armenia has a consulate in Manila.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Qatar}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|5 November 1997}}
|See Armenia–Qatar relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 5 November 1997.<ref name="auto"/>
* Approximately 5,500 Armenians live in Qatar, mostly in the capital Doha. See also Armenians in Qatar.
* Armenia has an embassy in Doha.
* Qatar has an embassy in Yerevan.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Saudi Arabia}}||alignright|<!--start date -->{{dts|25 November 2023}}<ref name":2">{{Cite news |date25 November 2023 |titleEstablishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Armenia and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/2023/11/25/ARM_SA/12363 |access-date25 November 2023 |archive-date25 November 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231125111932/https://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/2023/11/25/ARM_SA/12363 |url-status=live }}</ref>
||See Armenia–Saudi Arabia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 25 November 2023.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sa/ |titleSaudi Arabia – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia |publisherMFA.am |access-date12 November 2011 |archive-date27 December 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171227233121/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sa/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Armenia is represented in Saudi Arabia through its embassy in Abu Dhabi, (United Arab Emirates).
* Saudi Arabia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Tbilisi, (Georgia).
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Singapore}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1 July 1992}}
|See Armenia–Singapore relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 1 July 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sg/|titleSingapore – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150417172441/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/sg/|archive-date17 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|South Korea}}||alignright|<!--start date -->21 February 1992<ref name"mofa.go.kr">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/countries/europe/countries/20070803/1_24643.jsp?menum_30_40|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20151010192406/http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/countries/europe/countries/20070803/1_24643.jsp?menum_30_40|url-statusdead|archive-date10 October 2015|titleCountries and Regions > Europe > List of the Countries|firstMinistry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of|lastKorea|workMOFA.go.kr|access-date=23 April 2017}}</ref>
|See Armenia–South Korea relations{{pb}}The establishment of diplomatic relations between the Republic of Armenia and the Republic of Korea began on 21 February 1992.<ref name="mofa.go.kr"/>
* The Republic of Korea and the Republic of Armenia Policy Consultation will deal with ways to vitalize high-level exchanges promote substantive cooperation and work together on regional and global issues.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/press/pressreleases/index.jsp?menum_10_20&sp%2Fwebmodule%2Fhtsboard%2Ftemplate%2Fread%2Fengreadboard.jsp%3FtypeID%3D12&boardid302&seqno310308|titlePress > Press Releases|firstMinistry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of|lastKorea|workMOFA.go.kr|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170423153514/http://www.mofa.go.kr/ENG/press/pressreleases/index.jsp?menum_10_20&sp%2Fwebmodule%2Fhtsboard%2Ftemplate%2Fread%2Fengreadboard.jsp%3FtypeID%3D12&boardid302&seqno310308|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Armenia has an honorary consulate in Seoul.
* The Republic of Korea has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Bilateral trade in 2014:
** Exports : $15&nbsp;million (textile, automobile)
** Imports : $3&nbsp;million (animal feed, rubber)
* The number of the South Korean citizens living in Armenia in 2019 was about 373.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Sri Lanka}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|12 February 1992}}
|See Armenia–Sri Lanka relations
* Armenia is represented in Sri Lanka through the Embassy of Armenia in New Delhi.
* Sri Lanka is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flagicon image|Flag of the Syrian revolution.svg}} Syria||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1992}}
| See Armenia–Syria relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Damascus and a consulate general in Aleppo and honorary consulate in Der ez-Zor .<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/ministry/embassiesList.html#Damascus |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040530095847/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/ministry/embassiesList.html#Damascus |url-statusdead |archive-date30 May 2004 |titleArmenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Armenian embassy in Damascus |publisherArmeniaForeignMinistry.com |access-date=12 November 2011 }}</ref>
* Since 1997, Syria has an embassy in Yerevan.
* There are around 150,000 people of Armenian descent living in the Syria.{{Citation needed|date=February 2009}} During the Armenian genocide, the main killing fields of Armenians were located in the Syrian desert of Deir ez-Zor. In 2015, the government of Syria recognized the Armenian Genocide.
* Armenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Syrian embassy in Yerevan<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/ministry/mid_2007.pdf|titleArmenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Syrian embassy in Yerevan|workArchive.org|access-date23 April 2017|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080828192535/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/ministry/mid_2007.pdf|archive-date=28 August 2008}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Tajikistan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> 1992
|See Armenia–Tajikistan relations
* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 October 1992 by protocol.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/tj/|titleTajikistan – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702190332/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/tj/|archive-date2 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia is represented in Tajikistan through its embassy in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/by-countries/tj/|titleTajikistan – Embassies – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160408170334/http://www.mfa.am/en/by-countries/tj/|archive-date8 April 2016|url-statusdead}}</ref> and an honorary consulate in Dushanbe.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/consulates/tj/|titleTajikistan – Consulates – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date3 May 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190503221204/https://www.mfa.am/en/consulates/tj/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* Tajikistan is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/representations-by-countries2/tj/|titleTajikistan – By country – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 February 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170202065531/http://www.mfa.am/en/representations-by-countries2/tj/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States, Collective Security Treaty Organization and Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area.
* There are roughly 3,000 Armenians living in Tajikistan.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Thailand}}||align=right|<!--start date --> 1992
|See Armenia–Thailand relations
* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 July 1992 by protocol.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/th/|titleThailand – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702144543/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/th/|archive-date2 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia has an honorary consulate in Bangkok.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/consulates/th/|titleThailand – Consulates – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date8 August 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200808202207/https://www.mfa.am/en/consulates/th|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Thailand is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/representations-by-countries2/th/|titleThailand – By country – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170623115651/http://mfa.am/en/representations-by-countries2/th/|archive-date23 June 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Timor-Leste}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|23 December 2003}}
|See Armenia–Timor-Leste relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 23 December 2003.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/8480/|titleARMENIA Established Diplomatic Relations With Timor-Leste Republic|workPanArmenian.net|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date14 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170414081224/http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/world/news/8480/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Turkey}}||align=right|<!--start date --> No formal diplomatic relations
|See Armenia–Turkey relations{{pb}}Turkey was one of the first countries to recognize Armenia's independence in 1991. Despite this, for most of the 20th century and early 21st century, relations remain tense and there are no formal diplomatic relations between the two countries for numerous reasons. Some bones of contention include the unresolved Karabakh conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan (which has resulted in Turkey imposing a blockade on Armenia that is still in effect today), the treatment of Armenians in Turkey, the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan oil pipeline, and the Armenian claim of Turkey's holding of historic Armenian lands{{Citation needed|dateJune 2015}}{{dubious|dateJune 2015}} (ceded to them in the Treaty of Kars, a treaty which Armenia refuses to recognize to this day since it was signed between the Soviet Union and Turkey, and not between Armenia and Turkey proper). At the forefront of all disputes, however, is the issue surrounding the Armenian Genocide. The killing and deportation of between one and one-and-a-half million Armenians from the Ottoman Empire orchestrated by the Young Turks is a taboo subject in Turkey itself as the Turkish government refuses to acknowledge that a genocide ever happened. However, since Turkey has become a candidate to join the European Union, limited discussion of the event is now taking place in Turkey. Some in the European Parliament have even suggested that one of the provisions for Turkey to join the E.U. should be the full recognition of the event as genocide.{{pb}}On 5 June 2005, Armenian President Robert Kocharian announced that he was ready to "continue dialogue with Azerbaijan for the settlement of the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict and with Turkey on establishing relations without any preconditions."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/news/eng/?nid18307 |titleYerevan Ready to Continue Dialogue with Baku for Karabakh Settlement |publisherPanArmenian.net |date5 June 2006 |access-date12 November 2011 |archive-date22 September 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090922160315/http://www.panarmenian.net/news/eng/?nid18307 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Armenia has also stated that as a legal successor to the Armenian SSR, it is loyal to the Treaty of Kars and all agreements inherited by the former Soviet Armenian government.<ref>{{cite news | title In Vartan Oskanian's Words, Turkey Casts Doubt on the Treaty of Kars With Its Actions | publisher All Armenian Mass Media Association | date 13 December 2006 | url http://www.mediaforum.am/armtoday.php?year2006&month12&day13&LangID1 | access-date 13 December 2006 | url-status dead | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20071009175655/http://www.mediaforum.am/armtoday.php?year2006&month12&day13&LangID1 | archive-date 9 October 2007 }}</ref> Yet Turkey continues to lay preconditions on relations, insisting that Armenia abandon its efforts to have the Genocide recognized, which official Yerevan is not willing to do.{{pb}}In the wake of the 2008 South Ossetia war between Georgia and Russia, Armenia and Turkey have shown signs of an inclination to reconsider their relationship. According to The Economist magazine, 70% of Armenia's imports enter via Georgia. Because of the apparently belligerent posture of the Russian state, economic ties with Turkey appear especially attractive.<ref>"Turkey and Armenia; Friends and Neighbors, rising hopes of better relations between two historic enemies", The Economist, 27 September 2008, p. 67.</ref>{{pb}}It is estimated that around 70,000 Armenians live in Turkey today, down from nearly 2 million before the start of the Armenian genocide in 1915. See Armenians in Turkey.
* Armenia does not have a diplomatic mission in Turkey.
* Turkey does not have a diplomatic mission in Armenia.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Turkmenistan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|1992}}
|See Armenia–Turkmenistan relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Ashgabat.
* Turkmenistan has an embassy in Yerevan.
* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe.
* There are between 20,000 and 32,000 people of Armenian descent living in Turkmenistan.<ref name":1">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.haias.net/news/_armenian-population.html|titleARMENIAN POPULATION IN THE WORLD|websitehaias.net|access-date5 June 2016|archive-date6 January 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120106134950/http://www.haias.net/news/_armenian-population.html|url-statusdead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|United Arab Emirates}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|25 June 1998}}
|See Armenia–United Arab Emirates relations
* Diplomatic relations between Armenia and the UAE were established on 25 June 1998.
* Armenia has an embassy in Abu Dhabi.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/ministry/embassiesList.html#Abu%20Dhabi |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040530095847/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/ministry/embassiesList.html#Abu%20Dhabi |url-statusdead |archive-date30 May 2004 |titleArmenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Armenian embassy in Abu Dhabi |publisherArmeniaForeignMinistry.com |access-date=12 November 2011 }}</ref>
* The United Arab Emirates has an embassy in Yerevan.
* There are around 3,500 people of Armenian descent living in the United Arab Emirates.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.armeniadiaspora.com/cgi-sys/suspendedpage.cgi|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090204150034/http://www.armeniadiaspora.com/followup/population.html|url-statusdead|titleAccount Suspended|archive-date4 February 2009|websitearmeniadiaspora.com}}</ref>
* Armenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: presentation of the Emirati ambassador's credentials to the Armenian Foreign Minister<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/PR/PR201.html|titleAmbassador of United Arab Emirates Presents Credentials|date27 September 2004|workArchive.org|access-date23 April 2017|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040927130450/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/PR/PR201.html|archive-date27 September 2004}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Uzbekistan}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|25 June 1995}}
|See Armenia–Uzbekistan relations
* Both countries established diplomatic relations on 27 October 1995 by protocol.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.uz/en/cooperation/country/?sphrase_id2004455|titleMinistry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Uzbekistan — States with which the Republic of Uzbekistan established diplomatic relations|workMFA.uz|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date25 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190425191449/https://mfa.uz/en/cooperation/country/?sphrase_id2004455|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/uz/|titleUzbekistan – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170202065539/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/uz/|archive-date2 February 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* Uzbekistan is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/representations-by-countries2/uz/|titleUzbekistan – By country – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170202065420/http://www.mfa.am/en/representations-by-countries2/uz/|archive-date2 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States and Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area.
* Around 70,000 Armenians live in Uzbekistan.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Vietnam}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|14 July 1992}}
|See Armenia–Vietnam relations
* Diplomatic relations between Armenia and Vietnam were established on 14 July 1992.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/cn_vakv/euro/nr040819105821/ns070924160837| title Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Vietnam| access-date 7 September 2015| archive-date 30 July 2018| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180730205535/http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/cn_vakv/euro/nr040819105821/ns070924160837| url-status live}}</ref>
* Armenia has an embassy in Hanoi.
* Vietnam is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/vn/|titleVietnam – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702131920/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/vn/|archive-date2 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Yemen}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|26 May 1995}}
|See Armenia–Yemen relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 May 1995.<ref>{{Cite web|titleYemen - Bilateral relations|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/ye|websiteMinistry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Armenia|access-date30 August 2023|archive-date16 December 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231216064957/https://www.mfa.am/en/bilateral-relations/ye|url-status=live}}</ref>
|}
Europe
{{further|Armenia–European Union relations}}
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal relations began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Albania}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|18 February 1993}}
|See Albania–Armenia relations
* Armenia is represented in Albania through its embassy in Athens, (Greece).
* Albania is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Athens, (Greece).<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.handyvisas.com/embassies/albania/|titleEmbassies of Albania|websitehandyvisas.com|access-date14 August 2023|archive-date14 August 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230814103233/https://www.handyvisas.com/embassies/albania/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Andorra}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|18 November 2003}}
|See Andorra–Armenia relations
* Armenia is represented in Andorra through its embassy in Paris, (France).
* Andorra is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Paris, (France).
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Austria}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|24 January 1992}}
|See Armenia–Austria relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Vienna.
* Austria has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Approximately 6,000 Armenians live in Austria. See Armenians in Austria.
* Austria recognized the Armenian genocide in 2015.
* Armenia's permanent representative to the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe is located in Vienna.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Belarus}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|12 June 1993}}
|See Armenia–Belarus relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Minsk.
* Belarus has an embassy in Yerevan and honorary consulate in Gyumri.
* Both countries are full members of the Eurasian Union.
* Approximately 30,000 Armenians live in Belarus, mainly in Minsk. See also Armenians in Belarus.
* Armenia's permanent representative to the Commonwealth of Independent States is located in Minsk, Belarus.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Belgium}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|10 March 1992}}
|See Armenia–Belgium relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Brussels.
* Belgium is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow.
* Around 8,000 Armenians live in Belgium.
* Belgium recognized the Armenian genocide in 1998.
* Armenia's permanent representative to the European Union is located in Brussels.
* Armenia's permanent representative to NATO is located in Brussels.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Bosnia and Herzegovina}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|29 July 1997}}
|See Armenia–Bosnia and Herzegovina relations
* Bosnia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Bulgaria}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|18 January 1992}}
| See Armenia–Bulgaria relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Sofia and honorary consulates in Plovdiv and Varna.
* Since 19 December 1999, Bulgaria has an embassy in Yerevan.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.bg/yerevan/|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071219122252/http://www.mfa.bg/yerevan/|url-statusdead|titleBulgarian embassy in Yerevan|archive-date=19 December 2007}}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation.
* There are around 50,000 people of Armenian descent living in Bulgaria.
* Bulgaria recognized the Armenian genocide in 2015.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Croatia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|8 July 1994}}
|See Armenia–Croatia relations
* Armenia is represented in Croatia through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and honorary consulate in Zagreb.
* Croatia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|-
|{{Flag|Cyprus}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|18 March 1992}}
|See Armenia–Cyprus relations
* Cyprus was the second country to recognise the Armenian genocide, on 24 April 1975.
* Armenia is represented in Cyprus through its embassy in Athens (Greece).
* Cyprus is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia), and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* There are over 3.500 people of Armenian descent living in Cyprus.<sup>[57]</sup>
* Armenian is an official minority language in Cyprus.
* Vahan Ovanesyan of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation visited Cyprus on 24 January 2001 to take part in celebrations of the 110th anniversary of the federation.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Czech Republic}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|30 March 1992}}
|See Armenia–Czech Republic relations
* Armenia is represented in Czech Republic through its embassy in Prague.
* The Czech Republic is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Yerevan.
* The Czech Republic has recognized the Armenian Genocide.
* There are around 12,000 people of Armenian descent living in the Czech Republic.
* Armenia and Czechia signed an agreement on military-technical cooperation.<ref name"Arka">{{cite web |titleArmenian Parliament ratifies agreement on Armenian-Czech military-technical cooperation |urlhttps://arka.am/en/news/politics/armenian_parliament_ratifies_agreement_on_armenian_czech_military_technical_cooperation/ |websiteArka.am |access-date13 September 2023 |archive-date13 September 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230913024802/http://arka.am/en/news/politics/armenian_parliament_ratifies_agreement_on_armenian_czech_military_technical_cooperation/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Denmark}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|14 January 1992}}
|See Armenia–Denmark relations
* Armenia is represented in Denmank through its embassy in Copenhagen, Denmark.
* Denmark is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Kyiv, Ukraine and honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* On 26 January 2017, the Parliament of Denmark approved a resolution condemning Turkish violence and massacres against Armenians during the Armenian Genocide.
* There are approximately 3,000 Armenians in Denmark.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Estonia}}||align=right|<!--start date -->{{dts|23 August 1992}}
|See Armenia–Estonia relations
* Armenia is represented in Estonia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania) and an honorary consulate in Tallinn.
* Estonia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* There are approximately 3,000 Armenians in Estonia.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Finland}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|25 March 1992}}
|See Armenia–Finland relations
* Before 1918, both countries were part of the Russian Empire. Finland recognised Armenia on 30 December 1991. Armenia is represented in Finland by a non-resident ambassador (based in Stockholm, Sweden). Finland is represented in Armenia by a non-resident ambassador (based in Helsinki at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan. Around 1,000 people of Armenian descent live in Finland.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|France}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|24 February 1992}}
|See Armenia–France relations{{pb}}Franco-Armenian relations have existed since the French and the Armenians established contact in the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia and are close to this day. 2006 was proclaimed the Year of Armenia in France.
* Armenia has an embassy in Paris and honorary consulates in Lyon and Marseille.
* France has an embassy in Yerevan.
* There are around 750,000 Armenians in France. See also Armenians in France.
* France recognized the Armenian genocide in 1998.
* Armenia's permanent representative to the Council of Europe is located in Strasbourg, France.
* Armenia's permanent representative to the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie is located in Paris, France.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Germany}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|January 1992}}
| See Armenia–Germany relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Berlin and honorary consulate in Karlsruhe.
* Germany has an embassy in Yerevan.
* Between 90,000 and 110,000 Armenians live in Germany today. See also Armenians in Germany.
* Germany recognized the Armenian genocide in 2005.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Greece}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|20 January 1992}}
|See Armenia–Greece relations{{pb}}Greece was one of the first countries to recognize Armenia's independence on 21 September 1991, and one of those that have officially recognized the Armenian Genocide. Since the independence of Armenia the two countries have been partners within the framework of international organizations (United Nations, OSCE, Council of Europe, BSEC), whilst Greece firmly supports the community programs aimed at further developing relations between the EU and Armenia.{{pb}}Continuous visits of the highest level have shown that both countries want to continue to improve the levels of friendship and cooperation (Visit by the President of Armenia Levon Ter-Petrossian to Greece in 1996, visit by the President of the Hellenic Republic Costis Stephanopoulos in 1999, visit by the President of Armenia Robert Kocharyan to Greece in 2000 and 2005 and visit by Greek president Karolos Papoulias to Armenia in June 2007).{{pb}}Greece is, after Russia, the major military partner of Armenia. Armenian officers are trained in Greek military academies, and various technical assistance is supplied by Greece. Since 2003, an Armenian platoon has been deployed in Kosovo as part of KFOR, where they operate as a part of the Greek battalion of KFOR. It is estimated that around 80,000 Armenians live in Greece.
* Armenia has an embassy in Athens and an honorary consulate in Thessaloniki.
* Greece has an embassy in Yerevan.
* Greece recognized the Armenian genocide in 1996.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Holy See}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|23 May 1992}}
|See Armenia–Holy See relations
* Armenia maintains an embassy in the Vatican.
* In 2000, the Vatican recognized the Armenian Genocide.
* The Holy See maintains an Apostolic Nunciature in Yerevan.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Hungary}}||align=right| {{dts|26 February 1992}}
|See Armenia–Hungary relations
* Armenia is represented in Hungary through its embassy in Vienna (Austria).
* Hungary is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Tbilisi (Georgia) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.kulugyminiszterium.hu/kum/en/bal/missions/missions_abroad/honorary_consulates/europe.htm |titleHungarian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Hungarian honorary consulate in Yerevan |publisherKulugyminiszterium.hu |access-date12 November 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111001140534/http://www.kulugyminiszterium.hu/kum/en/bal/missions/missions_abroad/honorary_consulates/europe.htm |archive-date=1 October 2011 }}</ref>
* There are around 30,000 people of Armenian descent living in Hungary.
* Armenian is an official minority language in Hungary.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Iceland}}||align=right|<!--start date -->{{dts|1995}}
|See Armenia–Iceland relations
* Iceland is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow, Russia and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/consulates-armenia/is|titleIceland – Consulates|websitemfa.am|access-date26 June 2020|archive-date29 June 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200629142632/https://www.mfa.am/en/consulates-armenia/is|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Ireland}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|13 June 1996}}
|See Armenia–Ireland relations
* Ireland recognized Armenia's independence in December 1991.
* Armenia is represented in Ireland through its embassy in London and through an honorary consulate in Dublin.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.armenianembassy.org.uk/Ireland-armenia-bilateral.htm |titleArmenian embassy in London (also accredited to Ireland) |publisherArmenianembassy.org.uk |access-date12 November 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101021223430/http://www.armenianembassy.org.uk/Ireland-armenia-bilateral.htm |archive-date=21 October 2010 }}</ref>
* Ireland is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Sofia (Bulgaria) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.embassyofireland.bg/home/index.aspx?id35062 |titleIrish embassy in Sofia (also accredited to Armenia) |publisherEmbassyofireland.bg |date15 June 2011 |access-date12 November 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706142821/http://www.embassyofireland.bg/home/index.aspx?id35062 |archive-date6 July 2011 }}</ref>
* There is a small Armenian community in Ireland, mostly in Dublin.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Italy}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|12 May 1993}}
| See Armenia–Italy relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Rome.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://xoomer.alice.it/gbaghdas/Index.html |titleArmenian embassy in Rome |publisherXoomer.alice.it |access-date12 November 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081213153932/http://xoomer.alice.it/gbaghdas/Index.html |archive-date=13 December 2008 }}</ref> and honorary consulate in Milan.
* Italy has an embassy in Yerevan and an honorary consulate in Gyumri.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ambjerevan.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Jerevan |titleItalian embassy in Yerevan |publisherAmbjerevan.esteri.it |access-date12 November 2011 |archive-date5 November 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111105054214/http://www.ambjerevan.esteri.it/Ambasciata_Jerevan |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Italy has recognized the Armenian genocide in 2000.
* There are around 4,000 people of Armenian descent living in Italy.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Kosovo}}||align=right|<!--start date -->
||See Armenia–Kosovo relations
* Armenia has not established diplomatic relations with Kosovo.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Latvia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|22 August 1992}}
|See Armenia–Latvia relations
* Armenia is represented in Latvia through its embassy in Vilnius (Lithuania).
* Latvia is represented in Armenia through a non-resident ambassador based in Riga (at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs) and through an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Latvia recognized the Armenian genocide in 2021.
* There are around 5,000 people of Armenian descent living in Latvia.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Liechtenstein}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|7 May 2008}}
|See Armenia–Liechtenstein relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 May 2008.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Lithuania}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|21 November 1991}}
|See Armenia–Lithuania relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Vilnius.
* Lithuania has an embassy in Yerevan.
* There are around 2,500 people of Armenian descent living in Lithuania. See also Armenians in Lithuania.
* Lithuania recognized the Armenian genocide in 2005.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Luxembourg}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|11 June 1992}}
|See Armenia–Luxembourg relations
* Armenia is represented in Luxembourg through its embassy in Brussels, (Belgium), and an honorary consulate in Luxembourg City.
* Luxembourg maintains a consulate in Yerevan.
* Luxembourg recognized the Armenian genocide in 2015.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Malta}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|27 May 1993}}
|See Armenia–Malta relations
* Armenia is represented in Malta through its embassy in Rome.
* Malta is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Warsaw and honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Around 500 Armenians live in Malta.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Moldova}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|May 1992}}
|See Armenia–Moldova relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Chișinău.
* Moldova is accredited to Armenia from its embassy in Kyiv, Ukraine.
* There are around 8000 people of Armenian descent living in Moldova.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Monaco}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|Oct 2008}}
|See Armenia–Monaco relations
* Armenia is accredited to Monaco from its embassy in Paris, France.
* Monaco does not have an accreditation to Armenia.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Montenegro}}||align=right|<!--start date -->{{dts|7 November 2006}}
|See Armenia–Montenegro relations
Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 November 2006.
* Armenia is represented in Montenegro through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic) and an honorary consulate in Podgorica.
* Montenegro is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Kyiv (Ukraine) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Netherlands}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|30 January 1992}}
|See Armenia–Netherlands relations and Armenians in the Netherlands
* Armenia has an embassy in The Hague and honorary consulate in Hilversum.
* The Netherlands has an embassy in Yerevan.
* There are between 12,000 and 20,000 people of Armenian descent living in the Netherlands.
* The Netherlands recognized the Armenian genocide in 2004.<ref>{{cite web |lastNational |firstGlobal |urlhttp://www.canada.com/globaltv/national/story.html?ida5f2efe0-1811-4d1c-a6a9-55198d792e40 |titleHarper affirms Canadian position on Armenian Genocide |publisherCanada.com |date19 April 2006 |access-date12 November 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120225113011/http://www.canada.com/globaltv/national/story.html?ida5f2efe0-1811-4d1c-a6a9-55198d792e40 |archive-date25 February 2012 }}</ref>
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|North Macedonia}}||alignright|<!--start date -->{{dts|27 April 1993}}<ref name"North Macedonia">{{cite web |titleEstablished Full Diplomatic Relations of the Republic of Macedonia |urlhttp://www.macedonianembassy.org/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id50%3Abilateral-relations&catid50%3Abilateral-relations&Itemid81&langen |access-date15 October 2012 |archive-date4 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304035638/http://www.macedonianembassy.org/index.php?optioncom_content&viewarticle&id50:bilateral-relations&catid50:bilateral-relations&Itemid81&langen |url-statuslive }}<!-- "Armenia - 27 April 1993" --></ref>
|See Armenia–North Macedonia relations{{pb}}Both countries established relations on 27 April 1993.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Norway}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|5 June 1992}}
|See Armenia–Norway relations
* Armenia is represented in Norway through its embassy in Copenhagen (Denmark).
* Norway has an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Approximately 2,000 Armenians live in Norway.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Poland}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|26 February 1992}}
| See Armenia–Poland relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Warsaw.
* Poland has an embassy in Yerevan.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.erewan.polemb.net/ |titlePolish embassy in Yerevan (in Armenian and Polish only) |publisherErewan.polemb.net |access-date12 November 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100626025753/http://www.erewan.polemb.net/ |archive-date=26 June 2010 }}</ref>
* There are around 50,000 Armenians in Poland. Armenian is an official minority language in Poland. See also Armenians in Poland
* See also Poles in Armenia
* Poland recognized the Armenian genocide in 2005.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Portugal}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|25 May 1992}}
|See Armenia–Portugal relations
* Armenia is represented in Portugal through its embassy in Rome (Italy) and honorary consulates in Lisbon and Porto.
* Portugal is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/ministry/embassiesList.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20040530095847/http://www.armeniaforeignministry.com/ministry/embassiesList.html |url-statusdead |archive-date30 May 2004 |titleArmenians embassies around the world |access-date10 May 2009 |publisher=Armenian Ministry of Foreign Affairs }}</ref>
* Portugal recognized the Armenian genocide in 2019.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
* One of the most notable Armenians who resided in Portugal was Calouste Gulbenkian. He was a wealthy Armenian businessman and philanthropist, who made Lisbon the headquarters for his businesses. He established the international charity, the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation in Lisbon. He also founded the Museu Calouste Gulbenkian in Lisbon.<ref>{{cite news |titleCalouste Gulbenkian Dies at 86. One of the Richest Men in the World. Oil Financier, Art Collector Lived in Obscurity, Drove in Rented Automobile. |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1955/07/21/archives/calouste-gulbenkian-dies-at-86-one-of-richest-men-in-the-world-oit.html |workNew York Times |date21 July 1955 |access-date7 May 2009 |archive-date22 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201022174914/https://www.nytimes.com/1955/07/21/archives/calouste-gulbenkian-dies-at-86-one-of-richest-men-in-the-world-oit.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |titleSolid Gold Scrooge |urlhttp://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,810402,00.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091205202902/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,810402,00.html |url-statusdead |archive-date5 December 2009 |magazineTime |date23 July 1958 |access-date7 May 2009}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Romania}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|17 November 1991}}
|See Armenia–Romania relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Bucharest.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mae.ro/index.php?undedoc&id5841&idlnk4&cat6 |titleRomanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Armenian embassy in Bucharest |publisherMae.ro |access-date12 November 2011 |archive-date1 August 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170801033216/http://www.mae.ro/index.php?undedoc&id5841&idlnk4&cat6 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Romania has an embassy in Yerevan.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mae.ro/index.php?undedoc&id6207&idlnk4&cat6 |titleRomanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs: direction of the Romania embassy in Yerevan |publisherMae.ro |access-date12 November 2011 |archive-date1 August 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170801040356/http://www.mae.ro/index.php?undedoc&id6207&idlnk4&cat6 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Around 10,000 Armenians live in Romania.
* Armenian is an official minority language in Romania.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Russia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|3 April 1992}}
|See Armenia–Russia relations{{pb}}Armenia's most notable recent foreign policy success came with 29 August treaty with Russia on friendship, cooperation and mutual assistance, in which Moscow committed itself to the defense of Armenia should it be attacked by a third party. Russia is the key regional security player, and has proved a valuable historical ally for Armenia. Although it appeared as a response to Aliyev's US trip, the treaty had probably long been under development. However, it is clear from the wider context of Armenian foreign policy that—while Yerevan welcomes the Russian security guarantee—the country does not want to rely exclusively on Moscow, nor to become part of a confrontation between Russian and US-led alliances in the Transcaucasus.
* Armenia has an embassy in Moscow and general consulates Rostov-on-Don and Saint Petersburg and honorary consulates in Kaliningrad and Sochi.
* Russia has an embassy in Yerevan and general consulate in Gyumri.
* Armenia's permanent representative to the CSTO is located in Moscow.
* Russia has recognized the Armenian genocide in 1995.
* Armenia joined the Russian-led Eurasian Union in 2015.
* It is estimated that there are between 2,500,000 and 2,900,000 million Armenians in Russia.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|San Marino}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|21 March 2006}}
|See Armenia–San Marino relations
* Armenia is represented in San Marino through its embassy in Rome (Italy).
* San Marino has an honorary consulte in Yerevan.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Serbia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|14 January 1993}}
|| See Armenia–Serbia relations
* Armenia is represented in Serbia through its embassy in Athens (Greece) and honorary consulate in Belgrad.
* Serbia has an embassy in Yerevan.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Slovakia}}||align=right|<!--start date -->{{dts|14 January 1993}}
| See Armenia–Slovakia relations
* Armenia is represented in Slovakia through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic).
* Slovakia has an embassy in Yerevan.
* Both countries are full members of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and of the Council of Europe.
* Between 24 and 28 February 2008, Slovak Foreign Minister Ján Kubiš made an official visit to Armenia.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.mzv.sk/servlet/content?MT/App/WCM/main.nsf/vw_ByID/ID_60BFE0A6939BE901C12570840032B081_EN&OpenDocumentY&LANGEN&OB113&DSY&TGBlankMaster&URLhttp://www.mzv.sk/App/WCM/Aktualit.nsf/vw_ByID/ID_6CE17E4E26E0DBACC12573F9006714C4 |titleSlovak Ministry of Foreign Affairs about Ján Kubiš's visit to Armenia |publisherMzv.sk |access-date12 November 2011 }}{{dead link|dateJuly 2017 |botInternetArchiveBot |fix-attemptedyes }}</ref>
* Slovakia recognized the Armenian genocide in 2004.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Slovenia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|27 June 1994}}
| See Armenia–Slovenia relations
* Armenia is represented in Slovenia through its embassy in Prague (Czech Republic) and an honorary consulate in Ljubljana.
* Slovenia is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Kyiv (Ukraine) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|29 May 1998}}
|See Armenia–Sovereign Military Order of Malta relations
* Diplomatic relations were established on 29 May 1998.
* The Sovereign Military Order of Malta maintains an embassy in Yerevan.
* The Order of Malta has recognized the Armenian Genocide.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Spain}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|27 January 1992}}
| See Armenia–Spain relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Madrid<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://news.am/eng/news/32428.html |titleArmenia opens embassy in Spain &#124; Armenia News |publisherNEWS.am |date13 June 2009 |access-date12 November 2011 |archive-date10 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230410061025/https://news.am/eng/news/32428.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> and there are two honorary consulates in Valencia and Barcelona.
* Spain is represented in Armenia through its embassy in Moscow (Russia) and an honorary consulate in Yerevan.
* Five regional parliaments in Spain including the Balearic Islands, Aragon, Navarre, Basque Country and Catalonia as well as 29 municipalities have recognized the Armenian Genocide.
* Around 80,000 Armenians live in Spain.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Sweden}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|10 July 1992}}
|See Armenia–Sweden relations
* Armenia has an embassy in Stockholm.
* Sweden has an embassy in Yerevan in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.swedenabroad.com/en-GB/Embassies/Tblisi/About-us/About-the-Embassy/ |titleABOUT US |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120920123331/http://www.swedenabroad.com/en-GB/Embassies/Tblisi/About-us/About-the-Embassy/ |archive-date=20 September 2012 }}</ref>
* Sweden recognized the Armenian genocide in 2010.
* Around 5,000–8,000 Armenians live in Sweden. See also Armenians in Sweden.
* Both countries are full members of the Council of Europe.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Switzerland}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|23 December 1991}}
| See Armenia–Switzerland relations
* The Armenian ambassador to Switzerland and the Swiss ambassador to Armenia (based in Yerevan, Armenia) were both accredited in 2011.
* The Armenian ambassador to Switzerland is based in Geneva, in the Armenian representation to the United Nations.
* Switzerland maintains an embassy in Yerevan.
* There are roughly 5,000 Armenians in Switzerland.
* Switzerland recognized the Armenian genocide in 2003.
* Armenia's representative to the World Trade Organization is also located in Geneva.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.mfa.am/en/in-international-organizations/148|titleWorld Trade Organization – In International Organizations|websitemfa.am|access-date8 April 2019|archive-date8 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190408184319/https://www.mfa.am/en/in-international-organizations/148|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs about relations with Armenia<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/reps/eur/varm/afoarm.html|titleSwiss representation in Armenia|workAdmin.ch|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date5 October 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141005032353/http://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/reps/eur/varm/afoarm.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Ukraine}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|25 December 1992}}
|See Armenia–Ukraine relations{{pb}}Armenian–Ukrainian relations have lasted for centuries and today are cordial. Relations between Armenia and Ukraine have deflated since Armenia recognized the disputed referendum in Crimea and its subsequent annexation by Russia, and Ukraine has withdrawn its ambassador to Armenia for consultations. The Ukrainian government has asserted that this is temporary and that diplomatic relations between the two states shall indeed continue.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://www.rferl.org/content/armenia-crimea-russia-ukraine/25310243.html|titleArmenian Consul Denies Labeling Crimea 'Reunification'|workRadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|date26 March 2014|access-date19 February 2015|archive-date31 December 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151231191904/http://www.rferl.org/content/armenia-crimea-russia-ukraine/25310243.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* Armenia has an embassy in Kyiv and consulates in Odesa and Yalta.
* Ukraine has an embassy in Yerevan and honorary consulate in Gyumri.
* Armenian is an official minority language in Ukraine.
* An estimated 250,000 Armenians live in Ukraine.
* Crimea recognized the Armenian genocide in 2005.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|United Kingdom}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|20 January 1992}}
|| See Armenia–United Kingdom relations
* The United Kingdom recognised Armenia on 31 December 1991.
* The first embassy of the Republic of Armenia in Europe was established in London in October 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.armenianembassyuk.com/ |titleArmenian embassy in London |publisherArmenianembassyuk.com |access-date12 November 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111003154252/http://www.armenianembassyuk.com/ |archive-date=3 October 2011 }}</ref>
* Since 1995, the United Kingdom has had an embassy in Yerevan.<ref>[http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagenameOpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&cPage&cid1053447059775 British embassy in Yerevan] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080618101301/http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagenameOpenMarket%2FXcelerate%2FShowPage&cPage&cid1053447059775 |date18 June 2008 }}</ref>
* The two countries maintain collaborative and friendly relations, however the United Kingdom does not recognize the Armenian genocide, as it considers that the evidence is not clear enough to respectively consider "the terrible events that afflicted the Ottoman Armenian population at the beginning of the last century" genocide under the 1948 UN convention. The British government states the "massacres were an appalling tragedy" and states that this was the view of the government during that period.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.number10.gov.uk/Page13999 |titlearmeniangenocide – epetition response |date6 December 2007 |publishernumber10.gov.uk |access-date8 November 2009 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120402040200/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page13999 |archive-date2 April 2012 }}</ref> Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland consider it to be a genocide, and there is a memorial in Cardiff, Wales.
* There are approximately 20,000 Armenians in the UK, mostly in Greater London and Manchester.
* [http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagenameOpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&cPage&cid1007029394365&aKCountryProfile&aid=1019233781786 British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Armenia]
|}
Oceania
{| class"wikitable sortable" style"width:100%; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="width:15%;"| Country
! style="width:12%;"| Formal Relations Began
!Notes
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Australia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|15 January 1992}}
|See Armenia–Australia relations
* The first Armenians migrated to Australia in the 1850s, during the gold rush.
* The majority came to Australia in the 1960s, starting with the Armenians of Egypt after Nasser came to power then, in the early 1970s, from Cyprus after the Turkish occupation of the island and from 1975 until 1992, a period of civil unrest in Lebanon.
* Person-to-person governmental links are increasing although they are still modest. In September 2003, The Hon Mr Philip Ruddock MP visited Armenia in his former capacity as Australian Minister for Immigration and Multicultural and Indigenous Affairs. In October 2005, the Armenian Foreign Minister, H.E. Mr Vardan Oskanyan, visited Australia. In November 2005, The Hon Mr Joe Hockey MP, Minister for Human Services, visited Armenia.
* The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia refuses to recognise the mass murder of Armenians in 1915 as Genocide, although the State of New South Wales and South Australia passed a law recognising the Armenian Genocide. The Australian Government elections of 2007 created an atmosphere in which the Opposition Labor party declared it will push for the Recognition of the Armenian genocide in Australian Parliament if Labor wins the Elections.
* There are around 60,000 Armenians in Australia.
* Australia maintains a consulate in Yerevan.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Fiji}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|7 June 2010}}
|See Armenia–Fiji relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 7 June 2010.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/fj/|titleFiji – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date2 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702160714/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/fj/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Kiribati}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|26 September 2018}}
|See Armenia–Kiribati relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 September 2018.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/eng/news/260533/Armenia_established_diplomatic_relations_with_Kiribati|titleArmenia, Kiribati establish diplomatic ties|workPanArmenian.net|access-date27 September 2018|archive-date27 September 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180927141908/http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/news/260533/Armenia_established_diplomatic_relations_with_Kiribati|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Marshall Islands}}||<!--Date started-->
|See Armenia–Marshall Islands relations{{pb}}There are no diplomatic relations between Armenia and the Marshall Islands.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Micronesia}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|21 September 2017}}
|See Armenia–Micronesia relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2017.<ref name"armenpress.am">{{cite web |urlhttps://armenpress.am/eng/news/906184/armenia-establishes-diplomatic-ties-with-palau-and-micronesia.html |titleArmenia establishes diplomatic ties with Palau and Micronesia |publisherArmenpress |date22 September 2017 |access-date8 March 2018 |archive-date8 March 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180308231936/https://armenpress.am/eng/news/906184/armenia-establishes-diplomatic-ties-with-palau-and-micronesia.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Nauru}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|22 September 2017}}
|See Armenia–Nauru relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 22 September 2017.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/item/2017/09/23/fm_nauru/|titleArmenia and Nauru established diplomatic relations|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180309054123/http://www.mfa.am/en/press-releases/item/2017/09/23/fm_nauru/|archive-date9 March 2018}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|New Zealand}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|6 June 1992}}
|See Armenia–New Zealand relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 6 June 1992.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/nz/|titleNew Zealand – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workmfa.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170702175322/http://mfa.am/en/country-by-country/nz/|archive-date2 July 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Armenia is represented by New Zealand through its embassy in Moscow.
* There is a small Armenian community in New Zealand, mostly in Auckland.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Palau}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|21 September 2017}}
|See Armenia–Palau relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 21 September 2017.<ref name="armenpress.am"/>
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Papua New Guinea}}||<!--Date started-->||See Armenia–Papua New Guinea relations{{pb}}There are no diplomatic relations between Armenia and Papua New Guinea.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Samoa}}||<!--Date started-->||See Armenia–Samoa relations{{pb}}There are no diplomatic relations between Armenia and Samoa.
|- valign="top"
|{{flag|Solomon Islands}}||<!--Date started-->||See Armenia–Solomon Islands relations{{pb}}There are no diplomatic relations between Armenia and Solomon Islands.
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Tuvalu}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|16 March 2012}}
|See Armenia–Tuvalu relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 16 March 2012.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.panarmenian.net/eng/news/99280/|titleArmenia, Tuvalu establish diplomatic ties|workPanArmenian.net|access-date23 April 2017|archive-date30 March 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170330174152/http://www.panarmenian.net/eng/news/99280/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|- valign="top"
|{{Flag|Vanuatu}}||align=right|<!--start date --> {{dts|26 September 2013}}
|See Armenia–Vanuatu relations{{pb}}Both countries established diplomatic relations on 26 September 2013.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/vu/|titleVanuatu – Bilateral Relations – Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Armenia|firstHelix Consulting|lastLLC|workMFA.am|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170202053017/http://www.mfa.am/en/country-by-country/vu/|archive-date2 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
|}
Other international organizations
Armenia is additionally a full member, unless otherwise noted, in the following international organizations, programs and treaties:
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
* [http://ancientcivilizationsforum.org// Ancient Civilizations Forum]
* Artemis Accords
* Assembly of European Regions
* Berne Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats
* Black Sea Trade and Development Bank
* Bologna Process
* British Council
* Commonwealth of Independent States Free Trade Area
* Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
* Energy Charter Treaty
* Eurasian Patent Organization
* Eurimages
* Eurojust (Cooperation agreement)
* European Athletic Association
* European Atomic Energy Community (Cooperation agreement)
* European Audiovisual Observatory
* European Aviation Safety Agency (Pan-European Partner)
* European Broadcasting Union
* European Civil Aviation Conference
* European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
* European Committee for Standardization (Affiliate member)
* European Common Aviation Area
* European Convention for the Prevention of Torture
* European Cooperation in Science and Technology
* European Court of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights
* European Cultural Convention
* European Higher Education Area
* European Neighbourhood Policy
* European Olympic Committees
* European Organization for Nuclear Research (Cooperation agreement)<ref>{{Cite web| url https://home.cern/about/who-we-are/our-governance/member-states| titleOur Member States| date 7 January 2020| access-date7 January 2020| archive-date 29 November 2018| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181129195642/https://home.cern/about/who-we-are/our-governance/member-states| url-status =live}}</ref>
* European Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions
* European Social Charter
* European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* European University Association
* Europol (Cooperation agreement)
* FIFA and UEFA
* Food and Agriculture Organization
* Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities
* Freedom Online Coalition
* Geneva Phonograms Convention
* Horizon 2020 and Horizon Europe
* ICRANet
* International Anti-Corruption Academy
* International Atomic Energy Agency
* International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes
* International Chamber of Commerce
* International Civil Aviation Organization
* International Committee of the Red Cross
* International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
* International Criminal Court (Signatory)
* International Development Association
* International Finance Corporation
* International Labour Organization
* International Olympic Committee
* International Organization for Migration
* International Organization for Standardization
* International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions
* International Renewable Energy Agency
* International Road Transport Union and the TIR Convention
* International Solar Alliance
* International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* International Telecommunication Union
* International Union of Railways (Associate member)
* Interparliamentary Assembly on Orthodoxy
* Inter-Parliamentary Union
* Intra-European Organisation of Tax Administrations
* Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency
* Open Government Partnership
* Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
* Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property
* Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe
* Patent Cooperation Treaty
* PostEurop
* Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
* TRIPS Agreement
* UNESCO
* United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
* United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
* United Nations Development Programme
* United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
* United Nations Industrial Development Organization
* Universal Postal Union
* U.S. European Command State Partnership Program
* Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe
* Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons
* Venice Commission
* Warsaw Declaration
* WIPO Copyright Treaty
* World Health Organization
* World Intellectual Property Organization
* World Meteorological Organization
* World Organisation for Animal Health
* World Peace Council
* World Sports Alliance
* World Tourism Organization
}}
See also
{{Portal|Europe|Politics}}
* Armenia and the International Criminal Court
* Armenia and the United Nations
* Armenia–BSEC relations
* Armenia in the Council of Europe
* Armenia–European Union relations
* Armenia–NATO relations
* Armenia–OSCE relations
* Armenian diaspora
* Armenian population by urban area
* Euronest Parliamentary Assembly
* Foreign relations of Artsakh
* List of ambassadors of Armenia
* List of diplomatic missions in Armenia
* List of diplomatic missions of Armenia
* List of ministers of foreign affairs of Armenia
* Politics of Europe
* Visa policy of Armenia
* Visa requirements for Armenian citizens
Footnotes
{{reflist}}
References
* {{CIA World Factbook}}
* {{StateDept}}
External links
{{External links|date=April 2017}}
; Argentina
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120219175135/http://www.mrecic.gov.ar/portal/seree/ditra/am.html List of Treaties ruling the relations Argentina and Armenia (Argentine Foreign Ministry, in Spanish)]
; Canada
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110609075158/http://www.armembassycanada.ca/ Armenian embassy in Ottawa]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080526064932/http://geo.international.gc.ca/cip-pic/geo/armenia-en.aspx Canadian Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International Trade about relations with Armenian]
;Chile
* {{cite news | url http://www.hairenik.com/armenianweekly/col06160701p.htm | title Chile Proves Genocide Recognition is Based on Truth, Not Lobbying | publisher Armenian Weekly | first Harut | last Sassounian | volume 73 | number 24 | date 16 June 2007|ref=none}}
* [http://www.senado.cl/prontus_senado/antialone.html?pagehttp://www.senado.cl/prontus_senado/site/artic/20070914/pags/20070914115407.html Chilean Senate: recognition of the Armenian genocide (in Spanish only)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303172526/http://www.senado.cl/prontus_senado/antialone.html?pagehttp%3A%2F%2Fwww.senado.cl%2Fprontus_senado%2Fsite%2Fartic%2F20070914%2Fpags%2F20070914115407.html |date3 March 2016 }}
; Czech
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111003154252/http://www.armenianembassyuk.com/ Armenian embassy in London]
* [http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagenameOpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&cPage&cid1007029394365&aKCountryProfile&aid1019233781786 British Foreign and Commonwealth Office about relations with Armenia] *[https://web.archive.org/web/20080618101301/http://www.britishembassy.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagenameOpenMarket%2FXcelerate%2FShowPage&cPage&cid1053447059775 British embassy in Yerevan]
;Denmark
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081204061720/http://www.um.dk/en/menu/DevelopmentPolicy/DanishDevelopmentPolicyCountries/TheNeighbourhoodProgramme/Countries/Armenia/Armenia.htm Danish Foreign Ministry: development program with Armenia]
;NATO
* Iskandaryan, Alexander:"NATO and Armenia: A Long Game of Complementarism" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest05.pdf Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 5]
;International
* Khachatrian, Haroutiun: "Foreign Investments in Armenia: Influence of the Crisis and Other Peculiarities" in the [http://www.laender-analysen.de/cad/pdf/CaucasusAnalyticalDigest28.pdf Caucasus Analytical Digest No. 28]
{{Foreign relations of Armenia}}
{{Armenia topics}}
{{Armenia ties}}
{{Foreign relations of Asia}}
{{Foreign relations of Europe}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Armenia | 2025-04-05T18:25:32.705737 |
1110 | Demographics of American Samoa | {{Short description|none}}
<!-- "none" is a legitimate description when the title is already adequate; see WP:SDNONE -->
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2013}}
Demographics of American Samoa include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects. American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean.
, year 2005.]]
Population
{{Further|List of states and territories of the United States by population}}
{{Historical populations
|percentages=pagr
|cols=2
|1900|5679
|1912|7251
|1920|8056
|1930|10055
|1940|12908
|1950|18937
|1960|20051
|1970|27159
|1980|32297
|1990|46773
|2000|57291
|2010|55519
|2020|49710
}}
The statistics from 1900 to 1950 and every decennial census are from the U.S. Census Bureau. There was no census taken in 1910, but a special census taken in 1912. Beginning with the 1930 Census, Swain Island is included in the population count for American Samoa. The remaining statistics are from the World Factbook, unless otherwise indicated.<ref name"CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|countryAmerican Samoa|dateOctober 6, 2021|year2021}}</ref>
* Approximately 55,212,<ref name"worldometers">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.worldometers.info/world-population/american-samoa-population/|titleAmerican Samoa Population (live) – Worldometers|websitewww.worldometers.info}}</ref><ref name"pri">{{cite web|titleHow a weird law gives one group American nationality but not citizenship |urlhttps://www.pri.org/stories/2014-10-11/how-weird-law-gives-one-group-american-nationality-not-citizenship |last Mendoza |firstMoises |dateOctober 11, 2014 |publisherPublic Radio International (PRI) |access-date2018-08-24 |quoteThose nationals — born on the 55,000-person US island territory in the South Pacific — receive US passports, can serve in the military and work and live on the mainland United States.}}</ref><ref name"nbcnews">{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/u-s-nationals-born-american-samoa-sue-citizenship-n860721 |titleU.S. nationals born in American Samoa sue for citizenship |agencyAssociated Press |workNBC News |access-date2018-10-01 |dateMarch 28, 2018 |dfmdy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://2010.census.gov/news/releases/operations/cb11-cn177.html |titleCensus 2010 News &#124; U.S. Census Bureau Releases 2010 Census Population Counts for American Samoa |access-date2018-10-01 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120723145237/http://2010.census.gov/news/releases/operations/cb11-cn177.html |archive-date2012-07-23 |work2010 United States Census|publishercensus.gov}}</ref> but the Factbook states 49,437 (2020 estimate). About 65% of the population are U.S. nationals, of whom at least 10% are U.S. citizens.<ref name"census detailed">[https://archive.today/20200214004913/https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pidDEC_10_DPAS_ASDP2 2010 American Samoa Demographic Profile Data], U.S. Census Bureau.</ref> Of the foreign-born population, 81% are from Samoa, 9% are from other parts of Oceania, and 9% are from Asia.<ref name"census detailed"/>
Structure of the population
{{Hidden begin
|titlePopulation by Sex and Age Group (Census 01.IV.2010): <ref>{{Cite web |titleUNSD — Demographic and Social Statistics |urlhttps://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/products/dyb/#statistics |access-date2023-05-10 |website=unstats.un.org}}</ref>
|titlestyle = background:#EEBC35;
}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! width="80pt"|Age Group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80pt"|Female
! width="80pt"|Total
! width="80pt"|%
|-
| align="right" | Total
| align="right" | 28 164
| align="right" | 27 355
| align="right" | 55 519
| align="right" | 100
|-
| align="right" | 0–4
| align="right" | 3 417
| align="right" | 3 194
| align="right" | 6 611
| align="right" | 11.91
|-
| align="right" | 5–9
| align="right" | 3 470
| align="right" | 3 065
| align="right" | 6 535
| align="right" | 11.77
|-
| align="right" | 10–14
| align="right" | 3 214
| align="right" | 3 065
| align="right" | 6 279
| align="right" | 11.31
|-
| align="right" | 15–19
| align="right" | 3 218
| align="right" | 3 078
| align="right" | 6 296
| align="right" | 11.34
|-
| align="right" | 20–24
| align="right" | 1 944
| align="right" | 1 947
| align="right" | 3 891
| align="right" | 7.01
|-
| align="right" | 25–29
| align="right" | 1 670
| align="right" | 1 654
| align="right" | 3 324
| align="right" | 5.99
|-
| align="right" | 30–34
| align="right" | 1 726
| align="right" | 1 784
| align="right" | 3 510
| align="right" | 6.32
|-
| align="right" | 35–39
| align="right" | 1 845
| align="right" | 1 764
| align="right" | 3 609
| align="right" | 6.50
|-
| align="right" | 40–44
| align="right" | 1 793
| align="right" | 1 807
| align="right" | 3 600
| align="right" | 6.48
|-
| align="right" | 45–49
| align="right" | 1 673
| align="right" | 1 716
| align="right" | 3 389
| align="right" | 6.10
|-
| align="right" | 50–54
| align="right" | 1 335
| align="right" | 1 344
| align="right" | 2 679
| align="right" | 4.83
|-
| align="right" | 55–59
| align="right" | 1 011
| align="right" | 1 038
| align="right" | 2 049
| align="right" | 3.69
|-
| align="right" | 60–64
| align="right" | 755
| align="right" | 725
| align="right" | 1 480
| align="right" | 2.67
|-
| align="right" | 65–69
| align="right" | 500
| align="right" | 460
| align="right" | 960
| align="right" | 1.73
|-
| align="right" | 70–74
| align="right" | 321
| align="right" | 333
| align="right" | 654
| align="right" | 1.18
|-
| align="right" | 75–79
| align="right" | 155
| align="right" | 182
| align="right" | 337
| align="right" | 0.61
|-
| align="right" | 80–84
| align="right" | 76
| align="right" | 130
| align="right" | 206
| align="right" | 0.37
|-
| align="right" | 85+
| align="right" | 41
| align="right" | 69
| align="right" | 110
| align="right" | 0.20
|-
! width="50"|Age group
! width="80pt"|Male
! width="80"|Female
! width="80"|Total
! width="50"|Percent
|-
| align="right" | 0–14
| align="right" | 10 101
| align="right" | 9 324
| align="right" | 19 425
| align="right" | 34.99
|-
| align="right" | 15–64
| align="right" | 16 970
| align="right" | 16 857
| align="right" | 33 827
| align="right" | 60.93
|-
| align="right" | 65+
| align="right" | 1 093
| align="right" | 1 174
| align="right" | 2 267
| align="right" | 4.08
|-
|}
{{Hidden end}}
Vital statistics
Registered births and deaths
{| class="wikitable"
|+21st-century demography of American Samoa<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://doc.as/research-and-statistics/statistical-yearbook/|titleStatistical Yearbook &#124; Department of Commerce|dateOctober 15, 2018|access-dateAugust 14, 2021|archive-dateSeptember 8, 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210908215430/https://doc.as/research-and-statistics/statistical-yearbook/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleProducts – National Vital Statistics Reports |urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/nchs/products/nvsr.htm |access-date2024-05-20 |website=www.cdc.gov}}</ref>
|-
! scope="col"|Year
! scope="col"|Population
! scope="col"|Live births
! scope="col"|Deaths
! scope="col"|Natural increase
! scope="col"|Crude birth rate
! scope="col"|Crude death rate
! scope="col"|Rate of natural increase
! scope="col"|Total Fertility Rate
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2001
| align="right" | 59,400
| align="right" | 1,655
| align="right" | 239
| align="right" | 1,416
| align="right" | 27.9
| align="right" | 4.0
| align="right" | 23.9
| align="right" | 3.50
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2002
| align="right" | 60,800
| align="right" | 1,629
| align="right" | 295
| align="right" | 1,334
| align="right" | 26.8
| align="right" | 4.9
| align="right" | 21.9
| align="right" | 3.86
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2003
| align="right" | 62,600
| align="right" | 1,608
| align="right" | 257
| align="right" | 1,351
| align="right" | 25.7
| align="right" | 4.1
| align="right" | 21.6
| align="right" | 3.85
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2004
| align="right" | 64,100
| align="right" | 1,713
| align="right" | 289
| align="right" | 1,424
| align="right" | 26.7
| align="right" | 4.5
| align="right" | 22.2
| align="right" | 4.14
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2005
| align="right" | 65,500
| align="right" | 1,720
| align="right" | 279
| align="right" | 1,441
| align="right" | 26.3
| align="right" | 4.3
| align="right" | 22.0
| align="right" | 3.92
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2006
| align="right" | 66,900
| align="right" | 1,442
| align="right" | 267
| align="right" | 1,175
| align="right" | 21.6
| align="right" | 4.0
| align="right" | 17.6
| align="right" | 3.52
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2007
| align="right" | 68,200
| align="right" | 1,293
| align="right" | 251
| align="right" | 1,042
| align="right" | 19.0
| align="right" | 3.7
| align="right" | 15.3
| align="right" | 2.87
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2008
| align="right" | 69,200
| align="right" | 1,338
| align="right" | 240
| align="right" | 1,098
| align="right" | 19.3
| align="right" | 3.5
| align="right" | 15.8
| align="right" | 2.91
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2009
| align="right" | 70,100
| align="right" | 1,375
| align="right" | 324
| align="right" | 1,051
| align="right" | 19.6
| align="right" | 4.6
| align="right" | 15.0
| align="right" | 2.86
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2010
| align="right" | 67,380
| align="right" | 1,279
| align="right" | 247
| align="right" | 1,032
| align="right" | 19.0
| align="right" | 3.7
| align="right" | 15.3
| align="right" | 3.11
|-
|scope"row" align"right" | 2011
| align="right" | 64,292
| align="right" | 1,287
| align="right" | 283
| align="right" | 1,004
| align="right" | 20.0
| align="right" | 4.4
| align="right" | 15.6
| align="right" | 3.10
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2012
| align="right" | 63,596
| align="right" | 1,175
| align="right" | 282
| align="right" | 893
| align="right" | 18.5
| align="right" | 4.4
| align="right" | 14.1
| align="right" | 2.85
|-
|scope"row" align"right" | 2013
| align="right" | 62,610
| align="right" | 1,161
| align="right" | 270
| align="right" | 891
| align="right" | 18.5
| align="right" | 4.3
| align="right" | 14.2
| align="right" | 2.61
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2014
| align="right" | 61,811
| align="right" | 1,084
| align="right" | 259
| align="right" | 825
| align="right" | 17.5
| align="right" | 4.2
| align="right" | 13.3
| align="right" | 2.60
|-
|scope"row" align"right" | 2015
| align="right" | 60,863
| align="right" | 1,096
| align="right" | 314
| align="right" | 782
| align="right" | 18.0
| align="right" | 5.2
| align="right" | 12.8
| align="right" | 2.55
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2016
| align="right" | 60,200
| align="right" | 1,013
| align="right" | 280
| align="right" | 733
| align="right" | 16.8
| align="right" | 4.7
| align="right" | 12.1
| align="right" | 2.69
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2017
| align="right" | 60,300
| align="right" | 1,001
| align="right" | 310
| align="right" | 691
| align="right" | 16.6
| align="right" | 5.1
| align="right" | 11.5
| align="right" | 2.59
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2018
| align="right" | 59,600
| align="right" | 921
| align="right" | 298
| align="right" | 623
| align="right" | 15.5
| align="right" | 5.0
| align="right" | 10.5
| align="right" |
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2019
| align="right" | 58,500
| align="right" | 840
| align="right" | 278
| align="right" | 562
| align="right" | 14.4
| align="right" | 4.8
| align="right" | 9.6
| align="right" |
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2020<ref name"Yearbook 2022">{{Cite web | urlhttps://www.doc.as.gov/post/press-release-american-samoa-statistical-yearbook-2022 | titleAmerican Samoa Statistical Yearbook – 2022 | access-date2024-05-20 | archive-date2024-05-20 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240520080050/https://download-files.wixmp.com/ugd/1b80df_e8da4942fd5e4debb1263a9f1139176c.pdf?token=eyJhbGciOiJIUzI1NiIsInR5cCI6IkpXVCJ9.eyJpc3MiOiJ1cm46YXBwOmU2NjYzMGU3MTRmMDQ5MGFhZWExZjE0OWIzYjY5ZTMyIiwic3ViIjoidXJuOmFwcDplNjY2MzBlNzE0ZjA0OTBhYWVhMWYxNDliM2I2OWUzMiIsImF1ZCI6WyJ1cm46c2VydmljZTpmaWxlLmRvd25sb2FkIl0sImlhdCI6MTcxNjE5MjAyOSwiZXhwIjoxNzE2MjI4MDM5LCJqdGkiOiJlMGRhNjZlNy03NDgwLTQzZWUtYTI0Yi1mZmFjYTRlM2M0MDQiLCJvYmoiOltbeyJwYXRoIjoiL3VnZC8xYjgwZGZfZThkYTQ5NDJmZDVlNGRlYmIxMjYzYTlmMTEzOTE3NmMucGRmIn1dXSwiZGlzIjp7ImZpbGVuYW1lIjoiU3RhdGlzdGljYWwgWWVhcmJvb2sgb2YgQW1lcmljYW4gU2Ftb2EgMjAyMi5wZGYiLCJ0eXBlIjoiYXR0YWNobWVudCJ9fQ.1ZAl-iIHXVtjTKz9k3JXgLgoLPcRKJZ-0s979Q56ylU}}</ref>
| align="right" | 49,841
| align="right" | 734
| align="right" | 322
| align="right" | 412
| align="right" | 14.7
| align="right" | 6.5
| align="right" | 8.2
| align="right" |
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2021<ref name="Yearbook 2022" />
| align="right" | 51,561
| align="right" | 706
| align="right" | 331
| align="right" | 375
| align="right" | 13.7
| align="right" | 6.4
| align="right" | 7.3
| align="right" |
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2022<ref name="Yearbook 2022" />
| align="right" | 51,269
| align="right" | 706
| align="right" | 399
| align="right" | 307
| align="right" | 13.8
| align="right" | 7.8
| align="right" | 6.0
| align="right" |
|-
| scope"row" align"right" | 2023
| align="right" |
| align="right" | 737
| align="right" | 356
| align="right" | 381
| align="right" | 13.8
| align="right" | 6.7
| align="right" | 7.1
| align="right" |
|-
|}
Ethnic groups
* Pacific Islander 92.6% (includes Samoan 88.9%, Tongan 2.9%, other 0.8%)
* Asian 3.6% (includes Filipino 2.2%, other 1.4%)
* Mixed 2.7%
* Other 1.2% (2010 est.)
Languages
in American Samoa]]
Native languages include:
* Samoan 88.6%
* English 3.9%
* Tongan 2.7%
* Other Pacific islander 3%
* Other 1.8% (2010 est.)
English proficiency is very high.
Religion
* Christian 98.3%
* Other 1%
* Unaffiliated 0.7% (2010 est.)
Major Christian denominations on the island include the Congregational Christian Church in American Samoa, the Catholic Church, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints and the Methodist Church of Samoa. Collectively, these churches account for the vast majority of the population.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Macpherson |first1Cluny |last2Macpherson |first2La'avasa |date2011 |titleChurches and the Economy of Sāmoa |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/23725519 |journalThe Contemporary Pacific |volume23 |issue2 |pages304–337 |doi10.1353/cp.2011.0042 |jstor23725519 |s2cid154742271|hdl10125/23847 |hdl-accessfree }}</ref>
J. Gordon Melton in his book claims that the Methodists, Congregationalists with the London Missionary Society, and Catholics led the first Christian missions to the islands. Other denominations arrived later, beginning in 1895 with the Seventh-day Adventists, various Pentecostals (including the Assemblies of God), Church of the Nazarene, Jehovah's Witnesses, and the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.
The World Factbook 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of American Samoa as 98.3% Christian, other 1%, unaffiliated 0.7%.<ref name"CIA"/> World Christian Database 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of American Samoa as 98.3% Christian, 0.7% agnostic, 0.4% Chinese Universalist, 0.3% Buddhist, and 0.3% Baháʼí.<ref name"World Christian Database">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_5_2.asp|titleAmerican Samoa: Adherents Profile at the Association of Religion Data Archives, World Christian Database|publisherThearda.com|access-dateFebruary 26, 2014|archive-dateSeptember 29, 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180929073936/http://www.thearda.com/internationalData/countries/Country_5_2.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref>
According to Pew Research Center, 98.3% of the total population is Christian. Among Christians, 59.5% are Protestant, 19.7% are Catholic and 19.2% are other Christians. A major Protestant church on the island, gathering a substantial part of the local Protestant population, is the Congregational Christian Church in American Samoa, a Reformed denomination in the Congregationalist tradition. {{As of|2017|8}}, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints website claims membership of 16,180 or one-quarter of the whole population, with 41 congregations, and 4 family history centers in American Samoa.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics/country/american-samoa|titleLDS Newsroom|publisherMormonnewsroom.org|access-dateAugust 11, 2017}}</ref> The Jehovah's Witnesses claim 210 "ministers of the word" and 3 congregations.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.jw.org/en/jehovahs-witnesses/worldwide/AS/|titleAmerican Samoa: How Many Jehovah's Witnesses Are There?|websiteJW.ORG|languageen|access-date13 August 2017}}</ref>References
{{Reflist}}
{{American Samoa}}
{{Demographics of US}}
{{Oceania topic|Demographics of}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Demographics Of American Samoa}}
Category:Economy of American Samoa
Category:Geography of American Samoa
Category:Society of American Samoa
American Samoa | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_American_Samoa | 2025-04-05T18:25:32.739088 |
1111 | Politics of American Samoa | {{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see WP:SDNONE -->
{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=January 2021}}
{{Original research|date=March 2020}}
}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Politics of American Samoa}}
Politics of American Samoa takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency, whereby the governor is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. American Samoa is an unincorporated and unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior. Its constitution was ratified in 1966 and came into effect in 1967. Executive power is discharged by the governor and the lieutenant governor. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. The party system is based on the United States party system. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature.
There is also the traditional village politics of the Samoan Islands, the {{Lang|sm|fa'amatai}} and the {{Lang|sm|faʻa Sāmoa}}, which continues in American Samoa and in independent Samoa, and which interacts across these current boundaries. The {{Lang|sm|faʻa Sāmoa}} is the language and customs, and the {{Lang|sm|fa'amatai}} the protocols of the {{Lang|sm|fono}} (council) and the chiefly system. The {{Lang|sm|fa'amatai|italicno}} and the {{Lang|sm|fono}} take place at all levels of the Samoan body politic, from the family, to the village, to the region, to national matters. The {{Lang|sm|matai}} (chiefs) are elected by consensus within the {{Lang|sm|fono}} of the extended family and village(s) concerned. The {{Lang|sm|matai}} and the {{Lang|sm|fono}} (which is itself made of {{Lang|sm|matai}}) decide on distribution of family exchanges and tenancy of communal lands. The majority of lands in American Samoa and independent Samoa are communal. A {{Lang|sm|matai}} can represent a small family group or a great extended family that reaches across islands, and to both American Samoa and independent Samoa.Government
{{main|Government of American Samoa}}
The government of American Samoa is defined under the Constitution of American Samoa. As an unincorporated territory, the Ratification Act of 1929 vested all civil, judicial, and military powers in the president, who in turn delegated authority to the secretary of the interior in {{Executive Order|10264}}. The secretary promulgated the Constitution of American Samoa which was approved by a constitutional convention of the people of American Samoa and a majority of the voters of American Samoa voting at the 1966 election, and came into effect in 1967.<ref name=constitution>[http://asbar.org/revised-constitution-of-american-samoa Revised Constitution of American Samoa], American Samoa Bar Association.</ref>
The governor of American Samoa is the head of government and along with the lieutenant governor of American Samoa is elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms.<ref>[https://new.asbar.org/code-annotated/4-0105-term-of-office/ 4.0105 Term of office], Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association.</ref>
The legislative power is vested in the American Samoa Fono, which has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 21 members serving two-year terms, being 20 representatives popularly elected from various districts and one delegate from Swains Island elected in a public meeting. The Senate has 18 members, elected for four-year terms by and from the chiefs of the islands.<ref name=constitution/>
The judiciary of American Samoa is composed of the High Court of American Samoa, a District Court, and village courts.<ref>[https://new.asbar.org/code-annotated/3-0101-vesting-of-judicial-power/ 3.0101 Vesting of judicial power], Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association.</ref> The High Court is led by a chief justice and an associate justice, appointed by the secretary of the interior.<ref>[https://new.asbar.org/code-annotated/3-1001-chief-and-associate-justices-appointment/ 3.1001 Chief and Associate Justices-Appointment], Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association.</ref> Other judges are appointed by the governor upon the recommendation of the chief justice and confirmed by the Senate.<ref>[https://new.asbar.org/code-annotated/3-1010-district-court-judges-term/ 3.1010 District court judges-Term], Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association.</ref><ref>[https://new.asbar.org/code-annotated/3-1004-associate-judges-appointment-term/ 3.1004 Associate judges-Appointment-Term], Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association.</ref>
Elections
{{main|Elections in American Samoa|}}
International organization participation
* United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (associate)
* Interpol (subbureau)
* International Olympic Committee
* Pacific Community
See also
*Political party strength in American Samoa
*American Samoa's at-large congressional district
References
{{Reflist}}
{{American Samoa}}
{{Politics in the United States}}
{{Oceania in topic|Politics of}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Politics Of American Samoa}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics_of_American_Samoa | 2025-04-05T18:25:32.742423 |
1112 | Economy of American Samoa | {{Short description|none}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{update|date=May 2020}}
{{more citations needed|date=November 2019}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox economy
| country = American Samoa
| image | width 290px
| currency = US dollar (USD)
| year = 1 October&nbsp;– 30 September
| organs WTO<ref>{{cite web |titleSamoa and the WTO |urlhttps://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/samoa_e.htm |websitewto.org |access-date=12 February 2025}}</ref>
| gdp rank = 187th (nominal) / 190th (PPP)
| gdp = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $1.068&nbsp;billion (nominal; {{abbr|2024f|2024 forecast}})<ref name IMF_2024>{{cite web | url https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/October/weo-report?c862,&sNGDP_R,NGDP_RPCH,NGDP,NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDP_D,NGDPRPC,NGDPRPPPPC,NGDPPC,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,PPPSH,PPPEX,PCPI,PCPIPCH,PCPIE,PCPIEPCH,LP,GGXWDG,GGXWDG_NGDP,&sy2021&ey2026&ssm0&scsm1&scc0&ssd1&ssc0&sic0&sortcountry&ds.&br1 | title World Economic Outlook Database | date 2024 | website imf.org | access-date = 2025-02-12 }} </ref>
*{{increase}} $1.480&nbsp;billion (PPP; {{abbr|2024f|2024 forecast}})}}
| growth 1.7% (2022)<ref name"worldbank_2022">{{cite web |titleAmerican Samoa |urlhttps://data.worldbank.org/country/american-samoa?viewchart |websiteworldbank.org |access-date=2024-09-30}}</ref>
| per capita = {{plainlist|
*{{increase}} $5,048.032 (nominal; {{abbr|2024f|2024 forecast}})
*{{increase}} $6,998.213 (PPP; {{abbr|2024f|2024 forecast}})<ref name = IMF_2024/>}}
| sectors = NA
| inflation = {{positive decrease}} 1.951% ({{abbr|2024f|2024 forecast}})
| poverty = NA
| labor = 17,630 (2007)
| occupations = agriculture 34%, industry 33%, services 33% (1990)
| unemployment = 8.36% (2020)
| industries = tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts
| exports = $69.9&nbsp;million (2018)
| export-goods = canned tuna 93% (2004)
| export-partners = {{plainlist|
*{{flagu|Australia}} 30.7%
*{{flagu|United Kingdom}} 17.7%
*{{flagu|Tanzania}} 9.11%
*{{flagu|UAE}} 7.07% (2022)<ref name"OECExport">{{cite web |titleExport Partners of the American Samoa |urlhttps://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/export/asm/show/all/2023 |publisherThe Observatory of Economic Complexity |access-date=28 February 2025}}</ref>}}
| imports = $147&nbsp;million (2018)
| import-goods = materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% (2004)
| import-partners = {{plainlist|
*{{flagu|Singapore}} 28.3%
*{{flagu|New Zealand}} 15.3%
*{{flagu|Fiji}} 14.4%
*{{flagu|Taiwan}} 11.3%
*{{flagu|Malaysia}} 10.9% (2023)<ref name"OECImport">{{cite web |titleImport Partners of the American Samoa |urlhttps://oec.world/en/visualize/tree_map/hs92/import/asm/show/all/2023 |publisherThe Observatory of Economic Complexity |access-date=28 February 2025}}</ref>}}
| debt = 69.5&nbsp;million (2015)
| revenue = $121&nbsp;million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants) (1997)
| expenses = $127&nbsp;million (1997)
| aid = more than $40&nbsp;million from US in financial support (1994)
| cianame = american-Samoa
| spelling = US
}}
The economy of American Samoa is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned.<ref name="FEMA"/> American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States; economic activity is strongly linked to the main customs zone of the U.S., with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its trade. Tuna fishing and processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna being the primary export. Transfers from the U.S. federal government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes.
tuna cannery. Tuna canning represents a major export industry in the territory]]
Statistics
cannery]]
GDP: purchasing power parity – $537&nbsp;million (2007 est.)
<br>country comparison to the world: 210
GDP (official exchange rate): $462.2 million (2005)
GDP – real growth rate: 3% (2003)
<br>country comparison to the world: 139
GDP – per capita: purchasing power parity – $7,874 (2008)
<br>country comparison to the world: 120
GDP – composition by sector:
<br>agriculture:
NA%
<br>industry:
NA%
<br>services:
NA% (2002)
Labor Force: 17,630 (2005)
<br>country comparison to the world: 203
Labor force – by occupation: government 33%, tuna canneries 34%, other 33% (1990)
Unemployment rate: 23.8% (2010)
<br>country comparison to the world: 175
Population below poverty line:
NA% (2002 est.)
Household income or consumption by percentage share:
<br>lowest 10%:
NA%
<br>highest 10%:
NA%
Inflation rate (consumer prices):
NA% (2003 est.)
Budget:
<br>revenues: $155.4 million (37% in local revenue and 63% in US grants)
<br>expenditures: $183.6 million (FY07)
Agriculture – products: bananas, coconuts, vegetables, taro, breadfruit, yams, copra, pineapples, papayas; dairy products, livestock
Industries: tuna canneries (largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels), handicrafts
Industrial production growth rate: NA%
Electricity – production: 180 GWh (2006)
<br>country comparison to the world: 179
Electricity – production by source:
<br>fossil fuel:
100%
<br>hydro:
0%
<br>nuclear:
0%
<br>other:
0% (2001)
Electricity – consumption: 167.4 GWh (2006)
<br>country comparison to the world: 179
Electricity – exports: 0 kWh (2007)
Electricity – imports: 0 kWh (2007)
Oil – production: {{convert|0|oilbbl/d}} (2007 est.)
<br>country comparison to the world: 209
Oil – consumption: {{convert|4053|oilbbl/d}} (604 m<sup>3</sup>/d), 2006
<br>country comparison to the world: 170
Oil – exports: {{convert|0|oilbbl/d}} (2005)
<br>country comparison to the world: 142
Oil – imports: {{convert|4066|oilbbl/d}} (2005)
<br>country comparison to the world: 166
Natural gas – production: 0 cu m (2007)
<br>country comparison to the world: 208
Natural gas – consumption: 0 cu m (2007)
<br>country comparison to the world: 207
Natural gas – exports: 0 cu m (2007)
<br>country comparison to the world: 202
Natural gas – imports: 0 cu m (2007)
<br>country comparison to the world: 201
Natural gas – proved reserves: 0 cu m (2006)
<br>country comparison to the world: 205
Exports: $445.6 million (2004)
<br>country comparison to the world: 167
Exports – commodities:
canned tuna 93% (2004)
Exports – partners:
Indonesia 70%, Australia 6.7%, Japan 6.7%, Samoa 6.7% (2002)
Imports: $308.8 million (2004)
<br>country comparison to the world: 195
Imports – commodities:
materials for canneries 56%, food 8%, petroleum products 7%, machinery and parts 6% (2004)
Imports – partners:
Australia 36.6%, New Zealand 20.3%, South Korea 16.3%, Mauritius 4.9% (2002)
Debt – external:
$NA (2002 est.)
Economic aid – recipient:
$NA; note – important financial support from the US, more than $40 million in 1994
Currency:
US dollar (USD)
Currency code:
USD
Exchange rates:
US dollar is used
Fiscal year:
1 October – 30 September
References
{{reflist|refs<ref name"FEMA">{{cite press release |titleFact Sheet: Territory of American Samoa {{!}} FEMA.gov |urlhttps://www.fema.gov/news-release/2009/09/30/fact-sheet-territory-american-samoa |access-date3 November 2019 |workFEMA |issueHQ-09-112Fact Sheet |date30 September 2009}}</ref>
}}
External links
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041026232700/http://www.classbrain.com/art_cr/publish/american_samoa_economy.shtml]
{{American Samoa}}
{{Economy of the United States by jurisdiction}}
{{Oceania in topic|Economy of}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Economy of American Samoa}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_American_Samoa | 2025-04-05T18:25:32.749325 |
1129 | August 13 | {{pp-pc1}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{calendar}}
{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*29 BC &ndash; Octavian holds the first of three consecutive triumphs in Rome to celebrate the victory over the Dalmatian tribes.
* 523 &ndash; John I becomes the new Pope after the death of Pope Hormisdas.
* 554 &ndash; Emperor Justinian I rewards Liberius for his service in the Pragmatic Sanction, granting him extensive estates in Italy.
* 582 &ndash; Maurice becomes Emperor of the Byzantine Empire.
* 871 &ndash; Emperor Louis II of Italy and Empress Engelberga are captured by Prince Adelchis of Benevento.<ref>Barbara Kreutz, Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), pp. 46–47.</ref>
* 900 &ndash; Count Reginar I of Hainault rises against Zwentibold of Lotharingia and slays him near present-day Susteren.
*1099 &ndash; Raniero is elected as Pope Paschal II, who would become deeply entangled in the Investiture Controversy.
*1516 &ndash; The Treaty of Noyon between France and Spain is signed. Francis I of France recognizes Charles's claim to Naples, and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, recognizes Francis's claim to Milan.
*1521 &ndash; After an extended siege, forces led by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés capture Tlatoani Cuauhtémoc and conquer the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan.
*1532 &ndash; Union of Brittany and France: The Duchy of Brittany is absorbed into the Kingdom of France.
*1536 &ndash; Buddhist monks from Kyoto, Japan's Enryaku-ji temple set fire to 21 Nichiren temples throughout Kyoto in what will be known as the Tenbun Hokke Disturbance.
*1553 &ndash; Michael Servetus is arrested by John Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland as a heretic.
1601–1900
*1624 &ndash; The French king Louis XIII appoints Cardinal Richelieu as prime minister.
*1645 &ndash; Sweden and Denmark sign Peace of Brömsebro.
*1650 &ndash; Colonel George Monck of the English Army forms Monck's Regiment of Foot, which will later become the Coldstream Guards.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.coldstreamguards-boro.org/Regimental%20History.htm |titleHistory of the Coldstream Guards |access-date26 April 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130906170010/http://coldstreamguards-boro.org/Regimental%20History.htm |archive-date6 September 2013}}</ref>
*1704 &ndash; War of the Spanish Succession: Battle of Blenheim: English and Imperial forces are victorious over French and Bavarian troops.
*1724 &ndash; Johann Sebastian Bach leads the first performance of Nimm von uns, Herr, du treuer Gott, BWV 101, a chorale cantata on a famous tune.<ref>{{cite web
| url http://www.bach-digital.de/receive/BachDigitalWork_work_00000126?langen
| title = Nimm von uns, Herr, du treuer Gott BWV 101; BC A 118
| website = Bach Digital
| date = 2024
}}</ref>
*1779 &ndash; American Revolutionary War: The Royal Navy defeats the Penobscot Expedition with the most significant loss of United States naval forces prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor.
*1792 &ndash; King Louis XVI of France is formally arrested by the National Tribunal, and declared an enemy of the people.
*1806 &ndash; Battle of Mišar during the Serbian Revolution begins. The battle ends two days later with a Serbian victory over the Ottomans.
*1814 &ndash; The Convention of London, a treaty between the United Kingdom and the United Netherlands, is signed in London, England.
*1868 &ndash; The 8.5–9.0 {{M|w}} Arica earthquake struck southern Peru with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), causing 25,000+ deaths and a destructive basin wide tsunami that affected Hawaii and New Zealand.
*1889 &ndash; William Gray of Hartford, Connecticut is granted United States Patent Number 408,709 for "Coin-controlled apparatus for telephones."<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://docs.google.com/viewer?urlpatentimages.storage.googleapis.com/pdfs/US408709.pdf |titleCoin-controlled apparatus for telephones |websitegoogle.com |access-date13 August 2017 |archive-date2 April 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200402133309/https://docs.google.com/viewer?urlpatentimages.storage.googleapis.com%2Fpdfs%2FUS408709.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
*1898 &ndash; Spanish–American War: Spanish and American forces engage in a mock battle for Manila, after which the Spanish commander surrendered in order to keep the city out of Filipino rebel hands.<ref>{{cite book|lastYoung|firstKenneth Ray|chapterMacArthur, Arthur|titleThe War of 1898, and U.S. Interventions, 1898–1934: An Encyclopedia|editor-lastBeede|editor-firstBenjamin R.|locationFlorence, Ky.|publisherTaylor & Francis|date1994|isbn9780824056247|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idcf-AAAAAQBAJ|page275|access-date2020-08-13|archive-date2016-05-03|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160503105529/https://books.google.com/books?idcf-AAAAAQBAJ|url-statuslive}}</ref>
* 1898 &ndash; Carl Gustav Witt discovers 433 Eros, the first near-Earth asteroid to be found.
*1900 &ndash; The steamer Deutschland of Hamburg America Lines set a new record for the eastward passage when it docked on Plymouth, England, five days, 11 hours and 45 minutes after sailing from New York, breaking by three hours, six minutes its previous mark in its maiden voyage in July.<ref>{{cite book|firstJacques|lastLegrand|titleChronicle of the 20th Century|publisherEcam Publication|year1987|page18|isbn0-942191-01-3}}</ref>1901–present
*1905 &ndash; Norwegians vote to end the union with Sweden.
*1906 &ndash; The all black infantrymen of the U.S. Army's 25th Infantry Regiment are accused of killing a white bartender and wounding a white police officer in Brownsville, Texas, despite exculpatory evidence; all are later dishonorably discharged. (Their records were later restored to reflect honorable discharges but there were no financial settlements.)
*1913 &ndash; First production in the UK of stainless steel by Harry Brearley.
*1918 &ndash; Women enlist in the United States Marine Corps for the first time. Opha May Johnson is the first woman to enlist.
* 1918 &ndash; Bayerische Motoren Werke AG (BMW) established as a public company in Germany.
*1920 &ndash; Polish–Soviet War: The Battle of Warsaw begins and will last till August 25. The Red Army is defeated.
*1937 &ndash; Second Sino-Japanese War: The Battle of Shanghai begins.
*1942 &ndash; Major General Eugene Reybold of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers authorizes the construction of facilities that would house the "Development of Substitute Materials" project, better known as the Manhattan Project.
*1944 &ndash; World War II: German troops begin the pillage and razing of Anogeia in Crete that would continue until September 5.
*1954 &ndash; Radio Pakistan broadcasts the "Qaumī Tarāna", the national anthem of Pakistan for the first time.
*1960 &ndash; The Central African Republic declares independence from France.
*1961 &ndash; Cold War: East Germany closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of Berlin to thwart its inhabitants' attempts to escape to the West, and construction of the Berlin Wall is started.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.berlin.de/mauer/en/history/construction-of-the-berlin-wall/ |titleConstruction of the Berlin Wall |websiteBerlin.de |access-date12 August 2017 |archive-date16 November 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181116075756/https://www.berlin.de/mauer/en/history/construction-of-the-berlin-wall/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The day is known as Barbed Wire Sunday.
*1964 &ndash; Peter Allen and Gwynne Evans are hanged for the murder of John Alan West becoming the last people executed in the United Kingdom.
*1967 &ndash; Two young women became the first fatal victims of grizzly bear attacks in the 57-year history of Montana's Glacier National Park in separate incidents.<ref>{{cite book |last1Olsen |first1Jack |titleNight of the grizzlies |date1996 |publisherHomestead Pub. |locationMoose, Wyo. |isbn=0-943972-48-5}}</ref>
*1968 &ndash; Alexandros Panagoulis attempts to assassinate the Greek dictator Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos in Varkiza, Athens.
*1969 &ndash; The Apollo 11 astronauts enjoy a ticker-tape parade in New York City.<ref>{{cite news |last1Taylor |first1Alan |titleThe Year Men Walked on the Moon |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2014/07/45-years-ago-we-landed-men-on-the-moon/100775/ |access-dateOctober 24, 2017 |workThe Atlantic |dateJuly 15, 2014 |archive-dateOctober 25, 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171025074458/https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2014/07/45-years-ago-we-landed-men-on-the-moon/100775/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> That evening, at a state dinner in Los Angeles, they are awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by U.S. President Richard Nixon.<ref>{{cite web |titleRichard Nixon: Remarks at a Dinner in Los Angeles Honoring the Apollo 11 Astronauts |urlhttp://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid2202 |websiteThe American Presidency Project |access-dateOctober 24, 2017 |dateAugust 13, 1969 |archive-dateSeptember 2, 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180902011826/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid2202 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Aviaco Flight 118 crashes on approach to A Coruña Airport in A Coruña, Spain, killing all 85 people on the plane and one other one the ground.<ref>{{Cite web|lastRanter|firstHarro|titleASN Aircraft accident Sud Aviation SE-210 Caravelle 10R EC-BIC La Coruña Airport (LCG)|urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19730813-0|url-statuslive|access-date2021-08-12|websiteaviation-safety.net|publisherAviation Safety Network|archive-date2020-06-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200612233759/https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19730813-0}}</ref>
*1977 &ndash; Members of the British National Front (NF) clash with anti-NF demonstrators in Lewisham, London, resulting in 214 arrests and at least 111 injuries.
*1978 &ndash; One hundred fifty Palestinians in Beirut are killed in a terrorist attack during the second phase of the Lebanese Civil War.
*1990 &ndash; A mainland Chinese fishing boat Min Ping Yu No. 5202 is hit by a Taiwanese naval vessel and sinks in a repatriation operation of mainland Chinese immigrants, resulting in 21 deaths. This is the second tragedy less than a month after Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident.<ref name"cts0814">{{cite news|title閩平漁5202號偷渡客獲救與撞船原因探討|urlhttp://news.cts.com.tw/cts/politics/199008/199008141780881.html|work中華電視公司|date1990-08-14|access-date2019-08-12|archive-date2019-08-12|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190812200955/http://news.cts.com.tw/cts/politics/199008/199008141780881.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; One hundred fifty-six Congolese Tutsi refugees are massacred at the Gatumba refugee camp in Burundi.
*2008 &ndash; Russo-Georgian War: Russian units occupy the Georgian city of Gori.
*2014 &ndash; A Cessna Citation Excel crashes in Santos, São Paulo, Brazil killing all seven people aboard, including Brazilian Socialist Party presidential candidate Eduardo Campos.<ref>{{cite web |date13 August 2014 |title8 people die after a plane crashed in Brazil |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-28778604 |accessdate13 August 2014 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; At least 76 people are killed and 212 others are wounded in a truck bombing in Baghdad, Iraq.
*2020 &ndash; Israel–United Arab Emirates relations are formally established.<ref>{{cite web | url https://www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-israel-uae-peace-agreement | titleTrump announces 'Historic Peace Agreement' between Israel, UAE | last Singman | firstBrooke | date 14 August 2020 | websiteFox News | access-date 16 August 2020 | archive-date2 February 2021 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20210202111051/https://www.foxnews.com/politics/trump-israel-uae-peace-agreement | url-statuslive }}</ref>
Births
Pre-1600
* 985 &ndash; Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, Fatimid caliph (d. 1021)
*1311 &ndash; Alfonso XI, king of Castile and León (d. 1350)
*1567 &ndash; Samuel de Champlain, French explorer (d. 1635)<ref>Fischer (2008), p. 3</ref>
*1584 &ndash; Theophilus Howard, 2nd Earl of Suffolk, English admiral and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Cumberland (d. 1640)
*1592 &ndash; William, Count of Nassau-Siegen, German count, field marshal of the Dutch State Army (d. 1642)<ref>{{cite book |last1Huberty |first1Michel |last2Giraud |first2Alain |last3Magdelaine |first3F.&nbsp;&&nbsp;B. |titlel'Allemagne Dynastique |languagefr |locationLe Perreux |publisherAlain Giraud |date1981 |volumeTome–III: Brunswick-Nassau-Schwarzbourg |pages234, 250 }}</ref>1601–1900
*1625 &ndash; Rasmus Bartholin, Danish physician, mathematician, and physicist (d. 1698)
*1662 &ndash; Charles Seymour, 6th Duke of Somerset, English politician, Lord President of the Council (d. 1748)
*1666 &ndash; William Wotton, English linguist and scholar (d. 1727)
*1700 &ndash; Heinrich von Brühl, Polish-German politician (d. 1763)
*1717 &ndash; Louis François, Prince of Conti (d. 1776)
*1756 &ndash; James Gillray, English caricaturist and printmaker (d. 1815)
*1764 &ndash; Louis Baraguey d'Hilliers, French general (d. 1813)
*1790 &ndash; William Wentworth, Australian journalist, explorer, and politician (d. 1872)
*1803 &ndash; Vladimir Odoyevsky, Russian philosopher and critic (d. 1869)
*1814 &ndash; Anders Jonas Ångström, Swedish physicist and astronomer (d. 1874)
*1818 &ndash; Lucy Stone, American abolitionist and suffragist (d. 1893)
*1819 &ndash; Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet, Anglo-Irish mathematician and physicist (d. 1903)
*1820 &ndash; George Grove, English musicologist and historian (d. 1900)
*1823 &ndash; Goldwin Smith, English-Canadian historian and journalist (d. 1910)
*1824 &ndash; John J. Robison, American politician in Michigan (d. 1897)<ref>{{cite book |last|first |author-link|date 1891|titlePortrait and Biographical Album of Washtenaw County, Michigan: Containing Biographical Sketches of Prominent and Representative Citizens, Together with Biographies of All the Governors of the State, and of the Presidents of the United States|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHVhfp1DVDDwC |locationUniversity of Michigan |publisherBiographical Publishing Company|page 202|isbn=}}</ref>
*1831 &ndash; Salomon Jadassohn, German pianist and composer (d. 1902)
*1841 &ndash; Johnny Mullagh, Australian cricketer (d. 1891)
*1842 &ndash; Charles Wells, English brewer, founded Charles Wells Ltd (d. 1914)
*1849 &ndash; Leonora Barry, Irish-born American social activist (d. 1930)<ref>{{cite book|firstEleanor|lastFexner|chapterBarry, Leonora Marie Kearney|editor-firstEdward T.|editor-lastJames|titleNotable American Women, 1607–1950: A Biographical Dictionary|volume1|year1971|isbn978-0-67462-734-5|page101}}</ref>
*1851 &ndash; Felix Adler, German-American religious leader and educator (d. 1933)
*1860 &ndash; Annie Oakley, American target shooter (d. 1926)<ref>{{cite book|firstGinger|lastWadsworth|titleAnnie Oakley|locationMinneapolis|publisherLerner Publications|year2005|isbn978-0-82252-940-8|page44}}</ref>
*1866 &ndash; Giovanni Agnelli, Italian businessman, founded Fiat S.p.A. (d. 1945)
*1867 &ndash; George Luks, American painter and illustrator (d. 1933)
*1871 &ndash; Karl Liebknecht, German politician, co-founded Communist Party of Germany (d. 1919)<ref>{{Cite book |lastMeyer |firstKarl W. |urlhttp://worldcat.org/oclc/2159407 |titleKarl Liebknecht, Man Without a Country |publisherPublic Affairs Press |year1957 |locationWashington, D.C. |oclc2159407}}</ref>
*1872 &ndash; Richard Willstätter, German-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize Laureate (d. 1942)
*1879 &ndash; John Ireland, English composer and educator (d. 1962)
*1884 &ndash; Harry Dean, English cricketer and coach (d. 1957)
*1888 &ndash; John Logie Baird, Scottish engineer, invented the television (d. 1946)
* 1888 &ndash; Gleb W. Derujinsky, Russian-American sculptor (d. 1975)
*1889 &ndash; Camillien Houde, Canadian lawyer and politician, 34th Mayor of Montreal (d. 1958)
*1895 &ndash; István Barta, Hungarian water polo player (d. 1948)
* 1895 &ndash; Bert Lahr, American actor (d. 1967)
*1898 &ndash; Jean Borotra, French tennis player (d. 1994)
* 1898 &ndash; Regis Toomey, American actor (d. 1991)
*1899 &ndash; Alfred Hitchcock, English-American director and producer (d. 1980)
* 1899 &ndash; José Ramón Guizado, Panamanian politician, 17th President of Panama (d. 1964)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://bdigital.binal.ac.pa/BIOVIC/Captura/upload/JoseRamonGuizado.doc |formatMicrosoft Word |titleBiografía de José Ramón Guizado |languagees |publisherBiblioteca Nacional de Panamá |access-date2020-10-12 |archive-date2020-11-03 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201103090844/http://bdigital.binal.ac.pa/BIOVIC/Captura/upload/JoseRamonGuizado.doc |url-statuslive }}</ref>1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Felix Wankel, German engineer (d. 1988)
*1904 &ndash; Buddy Rogers, American actor and musician (d. 1999)
* 1904 &ndash; Margaret Tafoya, Native American Pueblo potter (d. 2001)<ref>{{cite web |titleMargaret Tafoya |urlhttp://clara.nmwa.org/index.php?gentity_detail_print&entity_id8036 |websiteCLARA Database of Women Artists |access-date2018-11-19 |archive-date2018-11-15 |archive-urlhttps://wayback.archive-it.org/2972/20181115095120/http://clara.nmwa.org/index.php?gentity_detail_print&entity_id8036 |url-status=live }}</ref>
*1906 &ndash; Chuck Carroll, American football player and lawyer (d. 2003)
* 1906 &ndash; Art Shires, American baseball player and boxer (d. 1967)
*1907 &ndash; Basil Spence, Scottish architect, designed Coventry Cathedral (d. 1976)
*1908 &ndash; Gene Raymond, American actor and pilot (d. 1998)
*1911 &ndash; William Bernbach, American advertiser, co-founded DDB Worldwide (d. 1982)
*1912 &ndash; Claire Cribbs, American basketball player and coach (d. 1985)
* 1912 &ndash; Ben Hogan, American golfer and sportscaster (d. 1997)
* 1912 &ndash; Salvador Luria, Italian-American microbiologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1991)
*1913 &ndash; Makarios III, Greek archbishop and politician, 1st President of Cyprus (d. 1977)
* 1913 &ndash; Fred Davis, English snooker player (d. 1998)
*1914 &ndash; Grace Bates, American mathematician and academic (d. 1996)
*1917 &ndash; Sid Gordon, American baseball player (d. 1975)
*1918 &ndash; Noor Hassanali, Trinidadian lawyer and politician, 2nd President of Trinidad and Tobago (d. 2006)
* 1918 &ndash; Frederick Sanger, English biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2013)<ref namenobelbio>{{cite web | titleThe Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958: Frederick Sanger – biography | urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1958/sanger/biographical/ | publisherNobelprize.org | access-date10 August 2020 | archive-date12 August 2020 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200812063621/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1958/sanger/biographical/ | url-statuslive }}<br />{{cite web | titleThe Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980: Frederick Sanger – autobiography | urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1980/sanger/biographical/ | publisherNobelprize.org | access-date10 August 2020 | archive-date9 August 2020 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200809210502/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1980/sanger/biographical/ | url-status=live }}</ref>
*1919 &ndash; Rex Humbard, American evangelist and television host (d. 2007)
* 1919 &ndash; George Shearing, English jazz pianist and bandleader (d. 2011)
*1920 &ndash; Neville Brand, American actor (d. 1992)
*1921 &ndash; Louis Frémaux, French conductor (d. 2017)
* 1921 &ndash; Jimmy McCracklin, American blues/R&B singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2012)
* 1921 &ndash; Mary Lee, Scottish singer (d. 2022)<ref>{{Cite web|titlejabw_vintage/british music yearbook|urlhttp://www.r2ok.co.uk/yearb.htm|access-date2021-04-06|websitewww.r2ok.co.uk|archive-date2021-04-21|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210421014241/http://www.r2ok.co.uk/yearb.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; Chuck Gilmur, American basketball player, coach, and educator (d. 2011)
*1925 &ndash; Benny Bailey, American trumpet player, songwriter, and producer (d. 2005)
* 1925 &ndash; José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, Argentine executive and policy maker (d. 2013)
*1926 &ndash; Fidel Castro, Cuban lawyer and politician, ex-President of Cuba (d. 2016)
*1928 &ndash; John Tidmarsh, English journalist and radio host (d. 2019)
*1929 &ndash; Pat Harrington, Jr., American actor (d. 2016)
*1930 &ndash; Wilfried Hilker, German footballer and referee
* 1930 &ndash; Don Ho, American singer and ukulele player (d. 2007)
* 1930 &ndash; Bernard Manning, English comedian (d. 2007)
* 1930 &ndash; Wilmer Mizell, American baseball player and politician (d. 1999)
* 1930 &ndash; Bob Wiesler, American baseball player (d. 2014)
*1933 &ndash; Joycelyn Elders, American admiral and physician, 15th Surgeon General of the United States
*1935 &ndash; Alex de Renzy, American director and producer (d. 2001)
* 1935 &ndash; Mudcat Grant, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2021)
*1938 &ndash; Dave "Baby" Cortez, American R&B pianist, organist, and composer
* 1938 &ndash; Bill Masterton, Canadian ice hockey player<ref name"NHL_Aug13">{{cite web |last1John |first1Kreiser |titleAug. 13: Hockey Hall of Fame member Clarke born |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/news/this-date-in-nhl-history-august-13/c-281289930 |websiteNHL.com |access-date10 August 2020 |date13 August 2019 |archive-date27 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201027125936/https://www.nhl.com/news/this-date-in-nhl-history-august-13/c-281289930 |url-status=live }}</ref> (d. 1968)
*1940 &ndash; Bill Musselman, American basketball player and coach (d. 2000)
*1942 &ndash; Hissène Habré, Chadian politician and war criminal, 5th president of Chad (d. 2021)<ref nameSenegal>{{cite news |titleChad's former President Habre, convicted of war crimes, dies in Senegal |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/world/africa/chads-former-president-habre-convicted-war-crimes-dies-senegal-2021-08-24/ |access-date24 August 2021 |publisherReuters |date24 August 2021}}</ref>
*1943 &ndash; Fred Hill, American football player
* 1943 &ndash; Ertha Pascal-Trouillot, President of Haiti<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/15/world/woman-in-the-news-firm-leader-for-haitians-ertha-pascal-trouillot.html|titleWoman in the News; Firm Leader For Haitians Ertha Pascal-Trouillot|firstJoseph B.|lastTreaster|newspaperThe New York Times |date15 March 1990 |access-date2018-05-24|languageen|archive-date2018-05-25|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180525063138/https://www.nytimes.com/1990/03/15/world/woman-in-the-news-firm-leader-for-haitians-ertha-pascal-trouillot.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 1943 &ndash; Michael Willetts, English sergeant; George Cross recipient (d. 1971)
*1944 &ndash; Kevin Tighe, American actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1945 &ndash; Lars Engqvist, Swedish politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Sweden
* 1945 &ndash; Gary Gregor, American basketball player
* 1945 &ndash; Robin Jackman, Indian-English cricketer and sportscaster (d. 2020)
* 1945 &ndash; Howard Marks, Welsh cannabis smuggler, writer, and legalisation campaigner (d. 2016)
* 1946 &ndash; Janet Yellen, American economist, 78th United States secretary of the treasury<ref>{{Cite web |author<!--Staff writer(s)/no by-line.--> |titleDr. Janet L. Yellen, Chair – Council of Economic Advisers |urlhttps://clintonwhitehouse2.archives.gov/WH/EOP/CEA/html/yellen.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210407212824/https://clintonwhitehouse2.archives.gov/WH/EOP/CEA/html/yellen.html |archive-dateApril 7, 2021 |websiteclintonwhitehouse2.archives.gov |dateAugust 3, 1999 |access-date=January 21, 2001}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; Fred Stanley, American baseball player and manager
* 1947 &ndash; John Stocker, Canadian voice actor and director
* 1947 &ndash; Margareta Winberg, Swedish politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Sweden
*1948 &ndash; Kathleen Battle, American operatic soprano<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1949 &ndash; Jim Brunzell, American wrestler
* 1949 &ndash; Bobby Clarke, Canadian ice hockey player and manager<ref name="NHL_Aug13"/>
* 1949 &ndash; Philippe Petit, French tightrope walker
* 1949 &ndash; Willy Rey, Dutch-Canadian model (d. 1973)
*1950 &ndash; Jane Carr, English actress<ref>{{cite web|titleJane Carr|websiteBritish Film Institute|date2018|access-date18 August 2018|urlhttps://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba92ca459|archive-date18 February 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190218235538/http://www.bfi.org.uk/films-tv-people/4ce2ba92ca459|url-statusdead}}</ref>
* 1950 &ndash; Rusty Gerhardt, American baseball player, coach, and manager
*1951 &ndash; Dan Fogelberg, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007)
*1952 &ndash; Dave Carter, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2002)
* 1952 &ndash; Gary Gibbs, American football player and coach
* 1952 &ndash; Suzanne Muldowney, American performance artist<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://muldowneyville.tripod.com/profile.htm|titleMuldowneyville: Profile.|websitemuldowneyville.tripod.com|access-date2018-04-12|archive-date2018-04-13|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180413043830/http://muldowneyville.tripod.com/profile.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
* 1952 &ndash; Herb Ritts, American photographer and director (d. 2002)
* 1952 &ndash; Hughie Thomasson, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2007)
* 1952 &ndash; Eugenio Lopez III, Filipino businessperson, CEO and chairman of ABS-CBN Corporation
*1953 &ndash; Tom Cohen, American philosopher, theorist, and academic
* 1953 &ndash; Ron Hilditch, Australian rugby league player and coach
* 1953 &ndash; Thomas Pogge, German philosopher and academic
* 1953 &ndash; Peter Wright, English historian and author
*1954 &ndash; Nico Assumpção, Brazilian bass player (d. 2001)
*1955 &ndash; Keith Ahlers, English race car driver
* 1955 &ndash; Hideo Fukuyama, Japanese race car driver
* 1955 &ndash; Paul Greengrass, English director and screenwriter
*1956 &ndash; Rohinton Fali Nariman, Judge of the Supreme Court of India<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://main.sci.gov.in/chief-justice-judges |titleChief Justice & Judges |websiteSupreme Court of India |access-date2021-03-12 |archive-date2021-02-22 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210222203708/https://main.sci.gov.in/chief-justice-judges |url-status=live }}</ref>
*1958 &ndash; David Feherty, Northern Irish golfer and sportscaster
* 1958 &ndash; Feargal Sharkey, Northern Irish singer-songwriter
* 1958 &ndash; Randy Shughart, American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1993)
*1959 &ndash; Danny Bonaduce, American actor and wrestler<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1959 &ndash; Bruce French, English cricketer and coach
* 1959 &ndash; Tom Niedenfuer, American baseball player
*1960 &ndash; Ivar Stukolkin, Estonian swimmer
*1961 &ndash; Koji Kondo, Japanese composer and sound director
* 1961 &ndash; Dawnn Lewis, American actress<ref name"AP">{{cite web |last1Rose |first1Mike |titleToday's famous birthdays list for August 13, 2022 includes celebrities Sebastian Stan, John Slattery |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/entertainment/2022/08/todays-famous-birthdays-list-for-august-13-2022-includes-celebrities-sebastian-stan-john-slattery.html |websiteThe Plain Dealer |publisherAssociated Press |access-date11 August 2023 |date=13 August 2022}}</ref>
* 1961 &ndash; Neil Mallender, English cricketer and umpire
* 1961 &ndash; Tom Perrotta, American novelist and screenwriter
*1962 &ndash; John Slattery, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1963 &ndash; Steve Higgins, American talk show co-host and announcer, writer, producer, comedian and impressionist
* 1963 &ndash; Valerie Plame, American CIA agent and author
* 1963 &ndash; Sridevi, Indian actress (d. 2018)
*1964 &ndash; Jay Buhner, American baseball player and sportscaster
* 1964 &ndash; Debi Mazar, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1964 &ndash; Tom Prince, American baseball player and manager
*1965 &ndash; Mark Lemke, American baseball player, coach, and radio host
* 1965 &ndash; Hayato Matsuo, Japanese composer and conductor
*1966 &ndash; Scooter Barry, American basketball player
* 1966 &ndash; Shayne Corson, Canadian ice hockey player
*1967 &ndash; Quinn Cummings, American actress, author, and entrepreneur<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1967 &ndash; Dave Jamerson, American basketball player
* 1967 &ndash; Digna Ketelaar, Dutch tennis player
*1968 &ndash; Tal Bachman, Canadian singer-songwriter
* 1968 &ndash; Todd Hendricks, American football player and coach
* 1968 &ndash; Tony Jarrett, English sprinter and hurdler
*1969 &ndash; Midori Ito, Japanese figure skater
*1970 &ndash; Will Clarke, American author
* 1970 &ndash; Elvis Grbac, American football player and coach
* 1970 &ndash; Seana Kofoed, American actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
* 1970 &ndash; Alan Shearer, English footballer and manager<ref>{{cite news |titleTimeline: Alan Shearer's career |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/newsid_4930000/newsid_4930200/4930224.stm |access-date10 August 2020 |workBBC News |date21 April 2006 |archive-date4 October 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201004033121/http://news.bbc.co.uk/cbbcnews/hi/newsid_4930000/newsid_4930200/4930224.stm |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Patrick Carpentier, Canadian race car driver
* 1971 &ndash; Adam Housley, American baseball player and journalist
* 1971 &ndash; Moritz Bleibtreu, German actor <ref>{{Cite web |date2009-05-31 |titleMoritz Bleibtreu: Ist Vater geworden |urlhttps://www.bild.de/unterhaltung/leute/ist-vater-geworden-6715346.bild.html |access-date2022-11-28 |websitebild.de |languagede}}</ref>
*1972 &ndash; Kevin Plank, American businessman, founded Under Armour
*1973 &ndash; Molly Henneberg, American journalist
* 1973 &ndash; Eric Medlen, American race car driver (d. 2007)
*1974 &ndash; Scott MacRae, American baseball player and coach
* 1974 &ndash; Joe Perry, English snooker player
* 1974 &ndash; Niklas Sundin, Swedish musician and artist
* 1974 &ndash; Jarrod Washburn, American baseball player and coach
*1975 &ndash; Shoaib Akhtar, Pakistani cricketer
* 1975 &ndash; Marty Turco, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster<ref name="NHL_Aug13"/>
*1976 &ndash; Geno Carlisle, American basketball player
* 1976 &ndash; Nicolás Lapentti, Ecuadorian tennis player
*1977 &ndash; Michael Klim, Polish-Australian swimmer
* 1977 &ndash; Kenyan Weaks, American basketball player and coach
*1978 &ndash; Dwight Smith, American football player
*1979 &ndash; Román Colón, Dominican baseball player
* 1979 &ndash; Corey Patterson, American baseball player
* 1979 &ndash; Taizō Sugimura, Japanese politician
*1980 &ndash; Murtz Jaffer, Canadian journalist
*1982 &ndash; Christopher Raeburn, English fashion designer
* 1982 &ndash; Sarah Huckabee Sanders, Governor of Arkansas, American political consultant and press secretary
* 1982 &ndash; Sebastian Stan, Romanian-American actor<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1983 &ndash; Dallas Braden, American baseball player
* 1983 &ndash; Aleš Hemský, Czech ice hockey player
* 1983 &ndash; Ľubomír Michalík, Slovak footballer
* 1983 &ndash; Christian Müller, German footballer
*1984 &ndash; Alona Bondarenko, Ukrainian tennis player
* 1984 &ndash; Niko Kranjčar, Croatian footballer
* 1984 &ndash; Boone Logan, American baseball player
* 1984 &ndash; James Morrison, English singer-songwriter and guitarist<ref name="AP"></ref>
*1985 &ndash; Gerrit van Look, German rugby player and coach
*1987 &ndash; Jose Lorenzo Diokno, Filipino director, producer, and screenwriter
* 1987 &ndash; Devin McCourty, American football player
* 1987 &ndash; Jason McCourty, American football player
* 1987 &ndash; Jamie Reed, Welsh footballer
*1988 &ndash; Keith Benson, American basketball player
* 1988 &ndash; Jerry Hughes, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleJerry Hughes |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/13245/jerry-hughes |publisherESPN |access-date11 August 2023}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Brandon Workman, American baseball player
*1989 &ndash; Greg Draper, New Zealand footballer
* 1989 &ndash; Justin Greene, American basketball player
* 1989 &ndash; Israel Jiménez, Mexican footballer
*1990 &ndash; DeMarcus Cousins, American basketball player
* 1990 &ndash; Benjamin Stambouli, French footballer
*1991 &ndash; Dave Days, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1991 &ndash; Lesley Doig, Scottish lawn bowler<ref>{{cite web |titleLesley Doig |urlhttps://www.teamscotland.scot/athlete/lesley-doig/ |websiteTeam Scotland |access-date9 February 2020 |languageen |archive-date14 March 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200314231643/https://www.teamscotland.scot/athlete/lesley-doig/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Katrina Gorry, Australian football player
* 1992 &ndash; Lucas Moura, Brazilian footballer
* 1992 &ndash; Alicja Tchórz, Polish swimmer
* 1992 &ndash; Taijuan Walker, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleTaijuan Walker |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/taijuan-walker-592836 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date11 August 2023}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Johnny Gaudreau, American ice hockey player (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite web |titleJohnny Gaudreau Stats And News |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/player/johnny-gaudreau-8476346 |websiteNHL.com |access-dateAugust 30, 2024}}</ref>
* 1993 &ndash; Moses Mbye, Australian rugby league player
*1994 &ndash; Filip Forsberg, Swedish ice hockey player
*1996 &ndash; Antonia Lottner, German tennis player
*1998 &ndash; Dalma Gálfi, Hungarian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleDalma Galfi {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/321106/dalma-galfi |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Lennon Stella, Canadian singer and actress<ref name="AP"></ref>
*2000 &ndash; Na Jaemin, South Korean rapper, singer, dancer and actor<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://a.longinestiming.com/File/0000100100FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF01 |titleEntry List by NOC |publishera.longinestiming.com |access-date7 June 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612143607/http://a.longinestiming.com/File/0000100100FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF01 |archive-date12 June 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
<!--Please do not add yourself or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information.-->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 587 &ndash; Radegund, Frankish princess and saint (b. 520)
* 604 &ndash; Wen, emperor of the Sui Dynasty (b. 541)
* 612 &ndash; Fabia Eudokia, Byzantine empress (b. 580)
* 662 &ndash; Maximus the Confessor, Byzantine theologian
* 696 &ndash; Takechi, Japanese prince
* 900 &ndash; Zwentibold, king of Lotharingia (b. 870)
* 908 &ndash; Al-Muktafi, Abbasid caliph
* 981 &ndash; Gyeongjong, king of Goryeo (Korea) (b. 955)
*1134 &ndash; Irene of Hungary, Byzantine empress (b. 1088)
*1297 &ndash; Nawrūz, Mongol emir
*1311 &ndash; Pietro Gradenigo, doge of Venice
*1382 &ndash; Eleanor of Aragon, queen of Castile (b. 1358)
*1447 &ndash; Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan (b. 1392)
*1523 &ndash; Gerard David, Flemish painter (b. 1460)
1601–1900
*1608 &ndash; Giambologna, Italian sculptor (b. 1529)
*1617 &ndash; Johann Jakob Grynaeus, Swiss clergyman and theologian (b. 1540)
*1667 &ndash; Jeremy Taylor, Irish bishop and saint (b. 1613)
*1686 &ndash; Louis Maimbourg, French priest and historian (b. 1610)
*1721 &ndash; Jacques Lelong, French priest and author (b. 1665)
*1744 &ndash; John Cruger, Danish-American businessman and politician, 39th Mayor of New York City (b. 1678)
*1749 &ndash; Johann Elias Schlegel, German poet and critic (b. 1719)
*1766 &ndash; Margaret Fownes-Luttrell, English painter (b. 1726)
*1795 &ndash; Ahilyabai Holkar, Queen of Indore (b. 1725)<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idhqE8AAAAIAAJ&pgPA63|titleMadhya Pradesh District Gazetteers: Hoshangabad|lastPradesh (India)|firstMadhya|date1827|publisherGovernment Central Press|pages64|languageen|access-date2019-02-22|archive-date2020-03-20|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200320055858/https://books.google.com/books?idhqE8AAAAIAAJ&pgPA63|url-statuslive}}</ref>
*1826 &ndash; René Laennec, French physician, invented the stethoscope (b. 1781)
*1863 &ndash; Eugène Delacroix, French painter and lithographer (b. 1798)
*1865 &ndash; Ignaz Semmelweis, Hungarian physician and obstetrician (b. 1818)
*1900 &ndash; Collis Potter Huntington, American railway magnate (b. 1821)<ref>{{cite book|titleProminent and progressive Americans: an encyclopædia of contemporaneous biography|urlhttps://archive.org/details/prominentandpro01harrgoog|access-dateOctober 24, 2011|year1902|publisherNew York Tribune|page[https://archive.org/details/prominentandpro01harrgoog/page/n305 184]}}</ref>
1901–present
*1910 &ndash; Florence Nightingale, Italian-English nurse and theologian (b. 1820)<ref>{{cite book|firstJoyce J.|lastFitzpatrick|titleEncyclopedia of Nursing Research|locationNew York|publisherSpringer|year2017|page343|isbn978-0-82613-304-5}}</ref>
*1912 &ndash; Jules Massenet, French composer (b. 1842)
*1917 &ndash; Eduard Buchner, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1860)
*1934 &ndash; Mary Hunter Austin, American author and playwright (b. 1868)
*1937 &ndash; Sigizmund Levanevsky, Soviet aircraft pilot of Polish origin (b. 1902)
*1946 &ndash; H. G. Wells, English novelist, historian, and critic (b. 1866)
*1954 &ndash; Demetrius Constantine Dounis, Greek violinist and mandolin player (b. 1886)
*1958 &ndash; Francis J. McCormick, American football, basketball player, and coach (b. 1903)
*1963 &ndash; Louis Bastien, French cyclist and fencer (b. 1881)
*1965 &ndash; Hayato Ikeda, Japanese lawyer and politician, 58th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1899)
*1971 &ndash; W. O. Bentley, English race car driver and engineer, founded Bentley Motors Limited (b. 1888)
*1974 &ndash; Ida McNeil, American broadcaster and designer of the flag of South Dakota (b. 1888)<ref>{{cite news |titlePioneer Broadcaster Dies In Rapid City |urlhttps://www.newspapers.com/article/argus-leader-obituary-for-ida-mcneil-ag/99076549/ |access-dateApril 4, 2024 |workSioux Falls Argus-Leader |agencyAssociated Press |dateAugust 15, 1974 |locationRapid City |page17 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref>
*1975 &ndash; Murilo Mendes, Brazilian poet and telegrapher (b. 1901)
*1978 &ndash; Lonnie Mayne, American wrestler (b. 1944)
*1979 &ndash; Andrew Dasburg, American painter and sculptor (b. 1887)
*1984 &ndash; Tigran Petrosian, Georgian-Armenian chess player (b. 1929)
*1986 &ndash; Helen Mack, American actress (b. 1913)
*1989 &ndash; Tim Richmond, American race car driver (b. 1955)
* 1989 &ndash; Larkin I. Smith, American police officer and politician (b. 1944)
*1991 &ndash; James Roosevelt, American general and politician (b. 1907)
*1995 &ndash; Alison Hargreaves, English mountaineer (b. 1963)
* 1995 &ndash; Jan Křesadlo, Czech-English psychologist and author (b. 1926)
* 1995 &ndash; Mickey Mantle, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1931)
*1996 &ndash; António de Spínola, Portuguese general and politician, 14th President of Portugal (b. 1910)
*1998 &ndash; Nino Ferrer, Italian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1934)
* 1998 &ndash; Edward Ginzton, Ukrainian-American physicist and academic (b. 1915)
* 1998 &ndash; Julien Green, American author (b. 1900)
* 1998 &ndash; Rafael Robles, Dominican-American baseball player (b. 1947)
*1999 &ndash; Ignatz Bubis, German Jewish religious leader (b. 1927)
* 1999 &ndash; Jaime Garzón, Colombian journalist and lawyer (b. 1960)
*2000 &ndash; Nazia Hassan, Pakistani singer-songwriter (b. 1965)<ref>{{cite news |last1Kumar |first1Jai |titleNazia Hassan |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/aug/23/guardianobituaries |access-date4 April 2023 |workThe Guardian |date=23 August 2000}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Otto Stuppacher, Austrian race car driver (b. 1947)
* 2001 &ndash; Jim Hughes, American baseball player and manager (b. 1923)
* 2001 &ndash; Betty Cavanna, American author (b. 1909)<ref name"obit">{{cite news |titleBetty Cavanna, 92, Author for Teenagers |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/15/arts/betty-cavanna-92-author-for-teenagers.html |access-date25 August 2019 |workThe New York Times |date15 Aug 2001 |archive-date25 August 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190825210227/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/15/arts/betty-cavanna-92-author-for-teenagers.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Ed Townsend, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1929)
*2004 &ndash; Julia Child, American chef, author, and television host (b. 1912)
*2005 &ndash; Miguel Arraes, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b. 1916)
* 2005 &ndash; David Lange, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1942)
*2006 &ndash; Tony Jay, English actor and singer (b. 1933)
* 2006 &ndash; Jon Nödtveidt, Swedish musician (b. 1975)
*2007 &ndash; Brian Adams, American wrestler (b. 1964)
* 2007 &ndash; Brooke Astor, American philanthropist and socialite (b. 1902)
* 2007 &ndash; Phil Rizzuto, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1917)
*2008 &ndash; Henri Cartan, French mathematician and academic (b. 1904)
* 2008 &ndash; Bill Gwatney, American politician (b. 1959)
* 2008 &ndash; Jack Weil, American businessman (b. 1901)
*2009 &ndash; Lavelle Felton, American basketball player (b. 1980)
*2010 &ndash; Panagiotis Bachramis, Greek footballer (b. 1976)
* 2010 &ndash; Lance Cade, American wrestler (b. 1981)
* 2010 &ndash; Edwin Newman, American journalist and author (b. 1919)
*2011 &ndash; Tareque Masud, Bangladeshi director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1957)
* 2011 &ndash; Mishuk Munier, Bangladeshi journalist and cinematographer (b. 1959)
*2012 &ndash; Hugo Adam Bedau, American philosopher and academic (b. 1926)
* 2012 &ndash; Helen Gurley Brown, American journalist and author (b. 1922)
* 2012 &ndash; Ray Jordon, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1937)
* 2012 &ndash; Johnny Pesky, American baseball player and manager (b. 1919)
* 2012 &ndash; Joan Roberts, American actress and singer (b. 1917)
*2013 &ndash; Lothar Bisky, German politician (b. 1941)
* 2013 &ndash; Aaron Selber, Jr., American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1927)
* 2013 &ndash; Jean Vincent, French footballer and manager (b. 1930)
*2014 &ndash; Frans Brüggen, Dutch flute player and conductor (b. 1934)
* 2014 &ndash; Eduardo Campos, Brazilian politician, 14th Brazilian Minister of Science and Technology (b. 1965)
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1130 | Avicenna | {{Short description|Persian polymath, physician and philosopher (c. 980–1037)}}
{{for|the crater|Avicenna (crater)}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Ibn Sīnā|Ali Sina (disambiguation){{!}}Ali Sina|Ibn Sina Peak}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Avicenna<br />{{transliteration|fa|Ibn Sina}}
| native_name = ابن سینا
| native_name_lang = ar
| image = 1950 "Avicenna" stamp of Iran.jpg
| caption = Portrait of Avicenna on a 1950 Iranian postage stamp
| birth_date = {{circa|980}}
| birth_place = Afshana, Transoxiana, Samanid Empire
| death_date {{death date and age|1037|6|22|980||dfy}}<ref name="Islam p. 562">Encyclopedia of Islam: Vol 1, p. 562, Edition I, 1964, Lahore, Pakistan</ref>
| death_place = Hamadan, Kakuyid Emirate
| monuments = Avicenna Mausoleum
| other_names = {{flatlist |<!--[Already above:] Avicenna-->
*Sharaf al-Mulk ({{lang|ar|شرف الملك}})
*Hujjat al-Haq ({{lang|ar|حجة الحق}})
*al-Sheikh al-Ra'is ({{lang|ar|الشيخ الرئيس}})
*{{lang|uz|Ibn-Sino (Abu Ali Abdulloh Ibn-Sino)|italics=no}}
*Bu Alī Sīnā&nbsp;({{lang|fa|بو علی سینا}})
}}
| module = {{Infobox philosopher
|embed =yes
| region = Middle Eastern philosophy
* Persian philosophy
| era = Islamic Golden Age
| main_interests {{startplainlist|classnowrap}}
* {{hlist |Medicine |Aromatherapy}}
* Philosophy and logic
* Kalām (Islamic theology)
* {{hlist |Science |Poetry}}
{{endplainlist}}
| notable_works {{startplainlist|classnowrap}}
* The Book of Healing
* The Canon of Medicine
{{endplainlist}}
| school_tradition = Aristotelianism, Avicennism
}}
}}
{{special characters}}
{{Avicenna sidebar}}
Ibn Sina ({{langx|ar|ابن سینا|translitIbn Sīnā}}; {{circa|980}} – 22 June 1037), commonly known in the West as Avicenna ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|æ|v|ɪ|ˈ|s|ɛ|n|ə|,_|ˌ|ɑː|v|ɪ|-}}), was a preeminent philosopher and physician of the Muslim world,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|urlhttps://iep.utm.edu/avicenna-ibn-sina/|titleAvicenna (Ibn Sina)|encyclopediaInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|access-date13 October 2022|archive-date6 October 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221006135059/https://iep.utm.edu/avicenna-ibn-sina/|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ibn-sina/ |encyclopediaStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |titleIbn Sina [Avicenna] |date15 September 2016}}</ref> flourishing during the Islamic Golden Age, serving in the courts of various Iranian rulers.<ref>* {{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=113,117,206}}.<br/>(page 113) "For one thing, it means that he[Avicenna] had a Persian cultural background...he spoke Persian natively and did use it to write philosophy."<br/>(page 117) "But for the time being, it was a Persian from Khurasan who would have commentaries lavished upon him. Avicenna would be known by the honorific of "leading master" (al-shaykh al-raʾis)."<br/>(page 206) "Persians like Avicenna"
* {{harvnb|Bennison|2009|p=[https://archive.org/details/greatcaliphsgold00benn/page/n205 195]}}. "Avicenna was a Persian whose father served the Samanids of Khurasan and Transoxania as the administrator of a rural district outside Bukhara."
* {{cite book |titleA brief history of medicine: from Hippocrates to gene therapy |authorPaul Strathern |publisherRunning Press |year2005 |page58 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofme0000stra/page/58/mode/ |isbn=978-0-7867-1525-1}}
* {{cite book |titleMedieval Philosophy |authorBrian Duignan |publisherThe Rosen Publishing Group |year2010 |page89 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idp9eh18dRTwAC&qAvicenna+ethnic&pgPA89 |isbn978-1-61530-244-4 }}
* {{cite book |titleCentral Asian republics |authorMichael Kort |publisherInfobase Publishing |page24 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idEPCcSZ2dzckC&qAvicenna+ethnic&pgPA24 |isbn978-0-8160-5074-1 |year2004 }}
* {{harvnb|Goichon|1986|p=941}}. "He was born in 370/980 in Afshana, his mother's home, near Bukhara. His native language was Persian."
* "Avicenna was the greatest of all Persian thinkers; as physician and metaphysician&nbsp;..." ([https://books.google.com/books?id=A8PzaQZwzZQC excerpt] from A.J. Arberry, Avicenna on Theology, Kazi Publications Inc, 1995).
* {{harvnb|Corbin|1998|p[https://books.google.com/books?idA8PzaQZwzZQC&qis%20generally%20listed%20as%20chronologically%20first%20among%20noteworthy%20Iranian%20philosophers&pgPA74 74]}}. "Whereas the name of Avicenna (Ibn Sina, died 1037) is generally listed as chronologically first among noteworthy Iranian philosophers, recent evidence has revealed previous existence of Ismaili philosophical systems with a structure no less complete than of Avicenna."</ref> He is often described as the father of early modern medicine.<ref>{{Cite web |titleDid You Know?: Silk Roads Exchange and the Development of the Medical Sciences {{!}} Programme des Routes de la Soie |urlhttps://fr.unesco.org/silkroad/node/10757 |access-date14 January 2023 |websitefr.unesco.org |quoteScholars from this period include Avicenna (Ibn Sina, 980–1037 CE), who is often described as the father of early modern medicine, the polymath Al-Biruni (973–1050 CE), and the botanist and pharmacist Ibn al-Baitar (1197–1248 CE). |archive-date14 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230114145935/https://fr.unesco.org/silkroad/node/10757 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Saffari |first1Mohsen |last2Pakpour |first2Amir |date1 December 2012 |titleAvicenna's Canon of Medicine: A Look at Health, Public Health, and Environmental Sanitation |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/233825605 |journalArchives of Iranian Medicine |volume15 |issue12 |pages785–9 |quoteAvicenna was a well-known Persian and a Muslim scientist who was considered to be the father of early modern medicine. |pmid23199255 |access-date11 August 2018 |archive-date29 March 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200329203255/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/233825605 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDoMVs4HuDAoC&qavicenna+father+of+modern+medicine&pgPA33 |titleAdvice to the Young Physician: On the Art of Medicine |lastColgan |firstRichard |date19 September 2009 |publisherSpringer Science & Business Media |isbn978-1-4419-1034-9 |page33 |languageen |quoteAvicenna is known as the father of early modern medicine.}}</ref> His philosophy was of the Peripatetic school derived from Aristotelianism.<ref name"MacTutor Biography|idAvicenna"/>
His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopedia<ref name"Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |year2007 |titleAvicenna |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica Online |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011433/Avicenna |access-date5 November 2007 |lastNasr |firstSeyyed Hossein |author-linkSeyyed Hossein Nasr |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071031092920/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9011433/Avicenna |archive-date31 October 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>Edwin Clarke, Charles Donald O'Malley (1996), [https://books.google.com/books?idQ_rO4ZFpUcgC&pgPA20 The human brain and spinal cord: a historical study illustrated by writings from antiquity to the twentieth century], Norman Publishing, p.&nbsp;20 ({{ISBN|0-930405-25-0}}).</ref><ref>Iris Bruijn (2009), [https://books.google.com/books?id2UT89SgQHGgC&pgPA26 ''Ship's Surgeons of the Dutch East India Company: Commerce and the progress of medicine in the eighteenth century''], Amsterdam University Press, p.&nbsp;26 ({{ISBN|90-8728-051-3}}).</ref> which became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html |titleAvicenna 980–1037 |publisherHcs.osu.edu |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081007070250/http://hcs.osu.edu/hort/history/023.html |archive-date7 October 2008 |access-date19 January 2010}}</ref> and remained in use as late as 1650.<ref>e.g. at the universities of Montpellier and Leuven (see {{Cite web |urlhttp://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/etexts/medicine/#MD02007 |titleMedicine: an exhibition of books relating to medicine and surgery from the collection formed by J.K. Lilly |publisherIndiana.edu |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091214041352/http://www.indiana.edu/~liblilly/etexts/medicine/ |archive-date14 December 2009 |access-date19 January 2010|date31 August 2004 }}).</ref> Besides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, and works of poetry.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-index |titleAvicenna", in Encyclopædia Iranica, Online Version 2006 |publisherIranica.com |access-date19 January 2010 |archive-date29 April 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110429170220/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-index |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Avicenna wrote most of his philosophical and scientific works in Arabic, but also wrote several key works in Persian, while his poetic works were written in both languages. Of the 450 works <!--[implied by "polymath":] across a wide range of subjects--> he is believed to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.<ref name"MacTutor Biography|idAvicenna">{{MacTutor Biography|idAvicenna}}</ref> Name {{lang|la|Avicenna}} is a Latin corruption of the Arabic patronym Ibn Sīnā ({{lang|ar|ابن سينا|rtlyes}}),<ref>{{Citation |lastByrne |firstJoseph Patrick |titleEncyclopedia of the Black Death, Vol. I |date2012 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5KtDfvlSrDAC |contributionAvicenna |contribution-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5KtDfvlSrDAC&pgPA29 |placeSanta Barbara, CA |publisherABC-CLIO |isbn978-1-59884-253-1}}.</ref> meaning "Son of Sina". However, Avicenna was not the son but the great-great-grandson of a man named Sina.<ref>{{Citation |titleClassical Arabic Literature |date2013 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrpM266Jd4OoC |editor-lastVan Gelder |editor-firstGeert Jan |seriesLibrary of Arabic Literature |contributionIntroduction |placeNew York |publisherNew York University Press |isbn978-0-8147-7120-4 |page[https://books.google.com/books?idrpM266Jd4OoC&pgPR22 xxii]}}</ref> His formal Arabic name was Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn bin ʿAbdullāh ibn al-Ḥasan bin ʿAlī bin Sīnā al-Balkhi al-Bukhari ({{lang|ar|أبو علي الحسين بن عبد الله بن الحسن بن علي بن سينا البلخي البخاري}}).<ref>{{Citation| titleAvicenna| urlhttps://data.cerl.org/thesaurus/cnp01316451| websiteConsortium of European Research Libraries| access-date19 August 2021| archive-date19 August 2021| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210819161217/https://data.cerl.org/thesaurus/cnp01316451| url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |authorAvicenna |titleMajmoo' rasaa'il al-sheikh al-ra'iis abi Ali al-Hussein ibn Abdullah ibn Sina al-Bukhari |script-titlear:مجموع رسائل الشيخ الرئيس اب علي الحسين ابن عبدالله ابن سينا البخاري |trans-titleThe Grand Sheikh Ibn Sina's Collection of Treatises |publisherEncyclopedia of the Ottoman Press |placeHaydarabad Al-Dakan |editionfirst |urlhttps://www.wdl.org/en/item/7461/ |websiteWorld Digital Library |year1935 |access-date19 August 2021 |archive-date19 August 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210819161215/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/7461/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Circumstances
Avicenna created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the Islamic Golden Age, in which the translations of Byzantine, Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman (Middle Platonic, Neoplatonic, and Aristotelian) texts translated by the Kindi school were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and medicine.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year2007 |titleMajor periods of Muslim education and learning |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica Online |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47496/education |access-date16 December 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071212112030/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-47496/education |archive-date12 December 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
The Samanid Empire in the eastern part of Persia, Greater Khorasan, and Central Asia, as well as the Buyid dynasty in the western part of Persia and Iraq, provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, Bukhara rivaled Baghdad for cultural capital of the Muslim world.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year2007 |titleIran |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica Online |urlhttp://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId106324&fullArticletrue&tocId9106324 |access-date16 December 2007 |lastAfary |firstJanet |author-linkJanet Afary |archive-date13 August 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130813184232/http://p2.www.britannica.com/oscar/print?articleId106324&fullArticletrue&tocId9106324 |url-status=live }}</ref> There, Avicenna had access to the great libraries of Balkh, Khwarazm, Gorgan, Rey, Isfahan and Hamadan.
Various texts (such as the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar) show that Avicenna debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time. Nizami Aruzi described how before ibn Sina left Khwarazm, he had met al-Biruni (a scientist and astronomer), Abu Nasr Mansur (a renowned mathematician), Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi (a respected philosopher) and ibn al-Khammar (a great physician). The study of the Quran and the Hadith also thrived, and Islamic philosophy, fiqh "jurisprudence", and kalam "speculative theology" were all further developed by ibn Sina and his opponents at this time.
Biography
Early life and education
Avicenna was born in {{circa|980}} in the village of Afshana in Transoxiana to a Persian family.<ref>According to {{harvnb|El-Bizri|2006|p369}}, Avicenna was "of Persian descent". According to {{harvnb|Khalidi|2005|pxviii}}, Avicenna was "born of Persian parentage". According to {{harvnb|Copleston|1993|p190}}, Avicenna was "Persian by birth". {{harvnb|Gutas|2014|ppxi,310}}, mentions Avicenna as an example for "Persian-born authors" and speaks of "presumed Persian origins" for Avicenna. {{harvnb|Glick|Livesey|Wallis|2005|p256}}, states "An ethnic Persian, he [Avicenna] was born in Kharmaithen, near Bukhara".</ref> The village was near the Samanid capital of Bukhara, which was his mother's hometown.{{sfn|Goichon|1986|p941}} His father Abd Allah was a native of the city of Balkh in Bactria.{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p11}} An official of the Samanid bureaucracy, he had served as the governor of a village of the royal estate of Harmaytan near Bukhara during the reign of Nuh II ({{reign|976|997}}).{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p11}} Avicenna also had a younger brother. A few years later, the family settled in Bukhara, a center of learning, which attracted many scholars. It was there that Avicenna was educated, which early on was seemingly administered by his father.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}}{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p12}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=8}}
Although both Avicenna's father and brother had converted to Isma'ilism, he himself did not follow the faith.{{sfn|Daftary|2017|p191}}{{sfn|Daftary|2007|pp202–203}} He was instead a Hanafi Sunni, the same school followed by the Samanids.{{sfn|Gutas|1988|pp=330–331}}
Avicenna was first schooled in the Quran and literature, and by the age of 10, he had memorized the entire Quran.{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p12}} He was later sent by his father to an Indian greengrocer, who taught him arithmetic.{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p13}} Afterwards, he was schooled in fiqh by the Hanafi jurist Ismail al-Zahid. Sometime later, his father invited the physician and philosopher al-Natili to their house to educate ibn Sina.{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p12}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p8}} Together, they studied the Isagoge of Porphyry (died 305) and possibly the Categories of Aristotle (died 322 BCE) as well. After Avicenna had read the Almagest of Ptolemy (died 170) and Euclid's Elements, al-Natili told him to continue his research independently.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p8}} By the time Avicenna was eighteen, he was well-educated in Greek sciences. Although ibn Sina only mentions al-Natili as his teacher in his autobiography, he most likely had other teachers as well, such as the physicians Qumri and Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}}{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p13}} Career In Bukhara and Gurganj
and Transoxiana]]
At the age of seventeen, Avicenna was made a physician of Nuh II. By the time Avicenna was at least 21 years old, his father died. He was subsequently given an administrative post, possibly succeeding his father as the governor of Harmaytan. Avicenna later moved to Gurganj, the capital of Khwarazm, which he reports that he did due to "necessity". The date he went to the place is uncertain, as he reports that he served the Khwarazmshah, the ruler of Khwarazm, the Ma'munid ruler Abu al-Hasan Ali. The latter ruled from 997 to 1009, which indicates that Avicenna moved sometime during that period.
He may have moved in 999, the year in which the Samanid Empire fell after the Kara-Khanid Khanate captured Bukhara and imprisoned the Samanid emir Abd al-Malik II. Due to his high position and strong connection with the Samanids, ibn Sina may have found himself in an unfavorable position after the fall of his suzerain.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp=67–70}}
It was through the minister of Gurganj, Abu'l-Husayn as-Sahi, a patron of Greek sciences, that Avicenna entered into the service of Abu al-Hasan Ali.{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p19 (see also note 28)}} Under the Ma'munids, Gurganj became a centre of learning, attracting many prominent figures, such as ibn Sina and his former teacher Abu Sahl al-Masihi, the mathematician Abu Nasr Mansur, the physician ibn al-Khammar, and the philologist al-Tha'alibi.{{sfn|Bosworth|1978|p1066}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984a|pp762–764}} In Gorgan Avicenna later moved due to "necessity" once more (in 1012), this time to the west. There he travelled through the Khurasani cities of Nasa, Abivard, Tus, Samangan and Jajarm. He was planning to visit the ruler of the city of Gorgan, the Ziyarid Qabus ({{reign|977|981|997|1012}}), a cultivated patron of writing, whose court attracted many distinguished poets and scholars. However, when Avicenna eventually arrived, he discovered that the ruler had been dead since the winter of 1013.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}}{{sfn|Madelung|1975|p215}} Avicenna then left Gorgan for Dihistan, but returned after becoming ill. There he met Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani (died 1070) who became his pupil and companion.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}}{{sfn|Gutas|2014|pp19, 29}} Avicenna stayed briefly in Gorgan, reportedly serving Qabus's son and successor Manuchihr ({{reign|1012|1031}}) and resided in the house of a patron.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}}
In Ray and Hamadan
({{reign|997|1029}}), the amir (ruler) of the Buyid branch of Ray]]
In {{circa|1014}}, Avicenna went to the city of Ray, where he entered into the service of the Buyid amir Majd al-Dawla ({{reign|997|1029}}) and his mother Sayyida Shirin, the de facto ruler of the realm. There he served as the physician at the court, treating Majd al-Dawla, who was suffering from melancholia. Avicenna reportedly later served as the "business manager" of Sayyida Shirin in Qazvin and Hamadan, though details regarding this tenure are unclear.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p14}} During this period, Avicenna finished writing The Canon of Medicine and started writing his The Book of Healing.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=14}}
In 1015, during Avicenna's stay in Hamadan, he participated in a public debate, as was customary for newly arrived scholars in western Iran at that time. The purpose of the debate was to examine one's reputation against a prominent resident.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|pp15–16}} The person whom Avicenna debated against was Abu'l-Qasim al-Kirmani, a member of the school of philosophers of Baghdad.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p15}} The debate became heated, resulting in ibn Sina accusing Abu'l-Qasim of lack of basic knowledge in logic, while Abu'l-Qasim accused ibn Sina of impoliteness.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|pp=15–16}}
After the debate, Avicenna sent a letter to the Baghdad Peripatetics, asking if Abu'l-Qasim's claim that he shared the same opinion as them was true. Abu'l-Qasim later retaliated by writing a letter to an unknown person in which he made accusations so serious that ibn Sina wrote to Abu Sa'd, the deputy of Majd al-Dawla, to investigate the matter. The accusation made towards Avicenna may have been the same as he had received earlier, in which he was accused by the people of Hamadan of copying the stylistic structures of the Quran in his Sermons on Divine Unity.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|pp16–18}} The seriousness of this charge, in the words of the historian Peter Adamson, "cannot be underestimated in the larger Muslim culture".{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p17}}
Not long afterwards, Avicenna shifted his allegiance to the rising Buyid amir Shams al-Dawla, the younger brother of Majd al-Dawla, which Adamson suggests was due to Abu'l-Qasim also working under Sayyida Shirin.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p18}}{{sfn|Madelung|1975|p293}} Avicenna had been called upon by Shams al-Dawla to treat him, but after the latter's campaign in the same year against his former ally, the Annazid ruler Abu Shawk ({{reign|1010|1046}}), he forced Avicenna to become his vizier.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p=18 (see also note 45)}}
Although Avicenna would sometimes clash with Shams al-Dawla's troops, he remained vizier until the latter died of colic in 1021. Avicenna was asked to stay as vizier by Shams al-Dawla's son and successor Sama' al-Dawla ({{reign|1021|1023}}), but he instead went into hiding with his patron, Abu Ghalib al-Attar, to wait for better opportunities to emerge. It was during this period that Avicenna was secretly in contact with Ala al-Dawla Muhammad ({{reign|1008|1041}}), the Kakuyid ruler of Isfahan and uncle of Sayyida Shirin.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p22}}{{sfn|Bosworth|1984b|pp=773–774}}
It was during his stay at Attar's home that Avicenna completed The Book of Healing, writing 50 pages a day.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|pp22–23}} The Buyid court in Hamadan, particularly the Kurdish vizier Taj al-Mulk, suspected Avicenna of correspondence with Ala al-Dawla, and as a result, had the house of Attar ransacked and ibn Sina imprisoned in the fortress of Fardajan, outside Hamadan. Juzjani blames one of ibn Sina's informers for his capture. He was imprisoned for four months until Ala al-Dawla captured Hamadan, ending Sama al-Dawla's reign.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p23}} In Isfahan
({{reign|1008|1041}}), the Kakuyid ruler of Isfahan]]
Avicenna was subsequently released, and went to Isfahan, where he was well received by Ala al-Dawla. In the words of Juzjani, the Kakuyid ruler gave Avicenna "the respect and esteem which someone like him deserved".{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}} Adamson also says that Avicenna's service under Ala al-Dawla "proved to be the most stable period of his life".{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p25}} Avicenna served as the advisor, if not vizier of Ala al-Dawla, accompanying him in many of his military expeditions and travels.{{sfn|Gutas|1987|pp67–70}}{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p25}} Avicenna dedicated two Persian works to him, a philosophical treatise named ''Danish-nama-yi Ala'i ("Book of Science for Ala"), and a medical treatise about the pulse.{{sfn|Lazard|1975|p=630}}
, Hamadan, Iran]]
During the brief occupation of Isfahan by the Ghaznavids in January 1030, Avicenna and Ala al-Dawla relocated to the southwestern Iranian region of Khuzistan, where they stayed until the death of the Ghaznavid ruler Mahmud ({{reign|998|1030}}), which occurred two months later. It was seemingly when Avicenna returned to Isfahan that he started writing his Pointers and Reminders.{{sfn|Gutas|2014|p133}} In 1037, while Avicenna was accompanying Ala al-Dawla to a battle near Isfahan, he contracted a severe colic, having suffered from colic throughout his life. He died shortly afterwards in Hamadan, where he was buried.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p26}}
{{clear|left}}
Philosophy
Avicenna wrote extensively on early Islamic philosophy, especially the subjects logic, ethics and metaphysics, including treatises named Logic and Metaphysics. Most of his works were written in Arabic, then the language of science in the Muslim world, and some in Early New Persian. Of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in Persian, particularly the Danishnama''. Avicenna's commentaries on Aristotle often criticized the philosopher,<ref>{{Cite journal |lastStroumsa |firstSarah |date1992 |titleAvicenna's Philosophical Stories: Aristotle's Poetics Reinterpreted |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/4057059 |journalArabica |volume39 |issue2 |pages183–206 |doi10.1163/157005892X00166 |jstor4057059 |issn0570-5398 |access-date13 October 2022 |archive-date13 October 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221013112327/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4057059 |url-statuslive }}</ref> encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad.
Avicenna's Neoplatonic scheme of emanations became fundamental in kalam in the 12th century.<ref>Nahyan A.G. Fancy (2006), pp.&nbsp;80–81, "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", Electronic Theses and Dissertations, [http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615 University of Notre Dame] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150404020329/http://etd.nd.edu/ETD-db/theses/available/etd-11292006-152615/ |date4 April 2015 }} {{page needed|date=February 2015}}</ref>
The Book of Healing became available in Europe in a partial Latin translation some fifty years after its composition under the title Sufficientia, and some authors have identified a "Latin Avicennism" as flourishing for some time paralleling the more influential Latin Averroism, but it was suppressed by the Parisian decrees of 1210 and 1215.<ref><!--there is apparently a whole body of scholarly controversy behind this, and you shouldn't just drop this stuff in passing as if it were factual. Google "Latin Avicennism" and you get material for a giant and involved article in its own right-->
cf. e.g.
Henry Corbin, History of Islamic Philosophy, Routledge, 2014, [https://books.google.com/books?idl9bgAwAAQBAJ&pgPA174 p. 174].
Henry Corbin, Avicenna and the Visionary Recital, Princeton University Press, 2014, [https://books.google.com/books?id1P3_AwAAQBAJ&pgPA103 p. 103].</ref>
Avicenna's psychology and theory of knowledge influenced the theologian William of Auvergne<ref name"IEP">{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm#H5 |titleThe Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) (c. 980–1037) |date6 January 2006 |publisherIep.utm.edu |access-date19 January 2010 |archive-date6 April 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090406100921/http://iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm#H5 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and Albertus Magnus,<ref nameIEP /> while his metaphysics influenced the thought of Thomas Aquinas.<ref nameIEP /> Metaphysical doctrine {{Technical|section|dateJanuary 2014}}
Early Islamic philosophy and Islamic metaphysics, imbued as it is with kalam, distinguishes between essence and existence more clearly than Aristotelianism. Whereas existence is the domain of the contingent and the accidental, essence endures within a being beyond the accidental. The philosophy of Avicenna, particularly that part relating to metaphysics, owes much to al-Farabi. The search for a definitive Islamic philosophy separate from Occasionalism can be seen in what is left of his work.
Following al-Farabi's lead, Avicenna initiated a full-fledged inquiry into the question of being, in which he distinguished between essence ({{langx|ar|ماهية|māhiya|linkno}}) and existence ({{langx|ar|وجود|wujūd|linkno}}). He argued that the fact of existence cannot be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things, and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things. Existence must, therefore, be due to an agent-cause that necessitates, imparts, gives, or adds existence to an essence. To do so, the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect.<ref name"Islam in Britannica">{{Cite encyclopedia |year2007 |titleIslam |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Britannica Online |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/eb/article-69190/Islam |access-date27 November 2007 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071222082832/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-69190/Islam |archive-date22 December 2007 |url-statuslive}}</ref>Impossibility, contingency, necessity
{{see also|Necessity and sufficiency|Contingency (philosophy)|Metaphysical necessity|Potentiality and actuality}}
{{further|Modal logic}}
Avicenna's consideration of the essence-attributes question may be elucidated in terms of his ontological analysis of the modalities of being; namely impossibility, contingency and necessity. Avicenna argued that the impossible being is that which cannot exist, while the contingent in itself (mumkin bi-dhatihi) has the potentiality to be or not to be without entailing a contradiction. When actualized, the contingent becomes a 'necessary existent due to what is other than itself' (wajib al-wujud bi-ghayrihi). Thus, contingency-in-itself is potential beingness that could eventually be actualized by an external cause other than itself. The metaphysical structures of necessity and contingency are different. Necessary being due to itself (wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi) is true in itself, while the contingent being is 'false in itself' and 'true due to something else other than itself'. The necessary is the source of its own being without borrowed existence. It is what always exists.<ref>Avicenna, ''Kitab al-shifa', Metaphysics II'', (eds.) G.C. Anawati, Ibrahim Madkour, Sa'id Zayed (Cairo, 1975), p. 36</ref><ref>Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism," Review of Metaphysics, Vol. 54 (2001), pp.&nbsp;753–778</ref>
Differentia
{{see also|Differentia}}
The Necessary exists 'due-to-Its-Self', and has no quiddity/essence other than existence. Furthermore, It is 'One' (wahid ahad)<ref>Avicenna, Metaphysica of Avicenna, trans. Parviz Morewedge (New York, 1973), p. 43.</ref> since there cannot be more than one 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' without differentia (fasl) to distinguish them from each other. Yet, to require differentia entails that they exist 'due-to-themselves' as well as 'due to what is other than themselves'; and this is contradictory. <!--However, i-->If no differentia distinguishes them from each other, then, in no sense are these 'Existents' not the same.<ref name"Nader El-Bizri 2000">Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000)</ref> Avicenna adds that the 'Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself' has no genus (jins), nor a definition (hadd), nor a counterpart (nadd), nor an opposite (did), and is detached (bari) from matter (madda), quality (kayf), quantity (kam), place (ayn), situation (wad) and time (waqt).<ref>Avicenna, Kitab al-Hidaya, ed. Muhammad 'Abdu (Cairo, 1874), pp.&nbsp;262–263</ref><ref>Salem Mashran, ''al-Janib al-ilahi 'ind Ibn Sina'' (Damascus, 1992), p. 99</ref><ref>Nader El-Bizri, "Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna's Metaphysics and Cosmology," in Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2006), pp.&nbsp;243–261</ref>ReceptionAvicenna's theology on metaphysical issues (ilāhiyyāt) has been criticized by some Islamic scholars, among them al-Ghazali, ibn Taymiyya, and ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyya.<ref>Ibn al-Qayyim, Eghaathat al-Lahfaan, Published: Al Ashqar University (2003) Printed by International Islamic Publishing House: Riyadh.</ref>{{page needed|dateApril 2016}} While discussing the views of the theists among the Greek philosophers, namely Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Al-Munqidh min ad-Dalal "Deliverance from Error", al-Ghazali noted:
{{quote|[the Greek philosophers] must be taxed with unbelief, as must their partisans among the Muslim philosophers, such as Avicenna and al-Farabi and their likes. None, however, of the Muslim philosophers engaged so much in transmitting Aristotle's lore as did the two men just mentioned. [...] The sum of what we regard as the authentic philosophy of Aristotle, as transmitted by al-Farabi and Avicenna, can be reduced to three parts: a part which must be branded as unbelief; a part which must be stigmatized as innovation; and a part which need not be repudiated at all.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://www.aub.edu.lb/fas/cvsp/Documents/reading_selections/CVSP%20202/Al-ghazali.pdf |titleal-Munqidh min al-Dalal |lastIbn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī |firstAbū Ḥāmid Muḥammad |publisherAmerican University of Beirut |year1980 |locationBoston |page10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304095350/https://www.aub.edu.lb/fas/cvsp/Documents/reading_selections/CVSP%20202/Al-ghazali.pdf |archive-date4 March 2016 |url-statusdead}}</ref>}} Argument for God's existence
{{Main|Proof of the Truthful}}
Avicenna made an argument for the existence of God which would be known as the "Proof of the Truthful" (wajib al-wujud). Avicenna argued that there must be a Proof of the Truthful, an entity that cannot not exist{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p170}} and through a series of arguments, he identified it with God in Islam.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p171}} Present-day historian of philosophy Peter Adamson called this argument one of the most influential medieval arguments for God's existence, and Avicenna's biggest contribution to the history of philosophy.{{sfn|Adamson|2013|p170}} Al-Biruni correspondence Correspondence between ibn Sina with his student Ahmad ibn ʿAli al-Maʿsumi and al-Biruni has survived in which they debated Aristotelian natural philosophy and the Peripatetic school. al-Biruni began by asking eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of Aristotle's On the Heavens.<ref>Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina—Al-Biruni correspondence", Islam & Science, June 2003.</ref> Theology Ibn Sina was a devout Muslim and sought to reconcile rational philosophy with Islamic theology. He aimed to prove the existence of God and His creation of the world scientifically and through reason and logic.<ref name"Goodman-8-9">Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, pp.&nbsp;8–9, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-513580-6}}.</ref> His views on Islamic theology and philosophy were enormously influential, forming part of the core of the curriculum at Islamic religious schools until the 19th century.<ref>James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, {{ISBN|978-0-932885-07-4}}, Chapter 4, Cambridge Harvard University Press, pp. 152–198 [p. 156].</ref>
Avicenna wrote several short treatises dealing with Islamic theology. These included treatises on the prophets and messengers in Islam, whom he viewed as "inspired philosophers", and also on various scientific and philosophical interpretations of the Quran, such as how Quranic cosmology corresponds to his philosophical system. In general, these treatises linked his philosophical writings to Islamic religious ideas; for example, the body's afterlife.
There are occasional brief hints and allusions in his longer works, however, that Avicenna considered philosophy as the only sensible way to distinguish real prophecy from illusion. He did not state this more clearly because of the political implications of such a theory if prophecy could be questioned, and also because most of the time he was writing shorter works which concentrated on explaining his theories on philosophy and theology clearly, without digressing to consider epistemological matters which could only be properly considered by other philosophers.<ref>James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, Chapter 4, Cambridge Harvard University Press, pp. 152–198 [pp. &nbsp;160–161].</ref>
Later interpretations of Avicenna's philosophy split into three different schools; those (such as al-Tusi) who continued to apply his philosophy as a system to interpret later political events and scientific advances; those (such as al-Razi) who considered Avicenna's theological works in isolation from his wider philosophical concerns; and those (such as al-Ghazali) who selectively used parts of his philosophy to support their own attempts to gain greater spiritual insights through a variety of mystical means. It was the theological interpretation championed by those such as al-Razi which eventually came to predominate in the madrasahs.<ref>James W. Morris (1992), "The Philosopher-Prophet in Avicenna's Political Philosophy", in C. Butterworth (ed.), The Political Aspects of Islamic Philosophy, Chapter 4, Cambridge Harvard University Press, pp. 152–198 [pp.&nbsp;156–158].</ref>
Avicenna memorized the Quran by the age of ten, and as an adult, wrote five treatises commenting on surahs of the Quran. One of these texts included the Proof of Prophecies, in which he comments on several Quranic verses and holds the Quran in high esteem. Avicenna argued that the Islamic prophets should be considered higher than philosophers.<ref>Jules Janssens (2004), "Avicenna and the Qur'an: A Survey of his Qur'anic commentaries", MIDEO 25, p.&nbsp;177–192.</ref>
Avicenna is generally understood to have been aligned with the Hanafi school of Sunni thought.<ref name"Aisha Khan">{{Cite book |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idB8k3fsvGRyEC&pgPA38 |titleAvicenna (Ibn Sina): Muslim physician and philosopher of the eleventh century |lastAisha Khan |publisherThe Rosen Publishing Group |year2006 |isbn978-1-4042-0509-3 |page38}}</ref><ref name"Janssens91" /> Avicenna studied Hanafi law, many of his notable teachers were Hanafi jurists, and he served under the Hanafi court of Ali ibn Mamun.<ref>{{Citation |lastDIMITRI GUTAS |publisherIstituto per l'Oriente C. A. Nallino|jstor25802612 |titleAvicenna's "maḏhab" with an Appendix on the Question of His Date of Birth |journalQuaderni di Studi Arabi |volume5/6 |pages323–336 |year1987 }}</ref><ref name"Aisha Khan" /> Avicenna said at an early age that he remained "unconvinced" by Ismaili missionary attempts to convert him.<ref name="Aisha Khan" />
Medieval historian Ẓahīr al-dīn al-Bayhaqī (d. 1169) believed Avicenna to be a follower of the Brethren of Purity.<ref name"Janssens91">{{Cite book |lastJanssens |firstJules L. |titleAn annotated bibliography on Ibn Sînâ (1970–1989): including Arabic and Persian publications and Turkish and Russian references |publisherLeuven University Press |year1991 |isbn978-90-6186-476-9 |pages89–90}} excerpt: "...&nbsp;Dimitri Gutas's ''Avicenna's maḏhab'' convincingly demonstrates that I.S. was a sunnî-Ḥanafî."[https://books.google.com/books?id3KizrKA5YJ8C&qibn%20sina%20hanafi&pgPA90] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220627124106/https://books.google.com/books?id3KizrKA5YJ8C&pgPA90&qibn%20sina%20hanafi|date27 June 2022}}</ref>
Thought experiments
{{Main|Floating man}}
While he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, Avicenna wrote his famous "floating man"—literally falling man—a thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and the substantiality and immateriality of the soul. Avicenna believed his "Floating Man" thought experiment demonstrated that the soul is a substance, and claimed humans cannot doubt their own consciousness, even in a situation that prevents all sensory data input. The thought experiment told its readers to imagine themselves created all at once while suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. He argued that, in this scenario, one would still have self-consciousness. Because it is conceivable that a person, suspended in air while cut off from sense experience, would still be capable of determining his own existence, the thought experiment points to the conclusions that the soul is a perfection, independent of the body, and an immaterial substance.<ref>See a discussion of this in connection with an analytic take on the philosophy of mind in: Nader El-Bizri, 'Avicenna and the Problem of Consciousness', in Consciousness and the Great Philosophers, eds. S. Leach and J. Tartaglia (London: Routledge, 2016), 45–53</ref> The conceivability of this "Floating Man" indicates that the soul is perceived intellectually, which entails the soul's separateness from the body. Avicenna referred to the living human intelligence, particularly the active intellect, which he believed to be the hypostasis by which God communicates truth to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature. Following is an English translation of the argument:
{{blockquote|One of us (i.e. a human being) should be imagined as having been created in a single stroke; created perfect and complete but with his vision obscured so that he cannot perceive external entities; created falling through air or a void, in such a manner that he is not struck by the firmness of the air in any way that compels him to feel it, and with his limbs separated so that they do not come in contact with or touch each other. Then contemplate the following: can he be assured of the existence of himself? He does not have any doubt in that his self exists, without thereby asserting that he has any exterior limbs, nor any internal organs, neither heart nor brain, nor any one of the exterior things at all; but rather he can affirm the existence of himself, without thereby asserting there that this self has any extension in space. Even if it were possible for him in that state to imagine a hand or any other limb, he would not imagine it as being a part of his self, nor as a condition for the existence of that self; for as you know that which is asserted is different from that which is not asserted and that which is inferred is different from that which is not inferred. Therefore the self, the existence of which has been asserted, is a unique characteristic, in as much that it is not as such the same as the body or the limbs, which have not been ascertained. Thus that which is ascertained (i.e. the self), does have a way of being sure of the existence of the soul as something other than the body, even something non-bodily; this he knows, this he should understand intuitively, if it is that he is ignorant of it and needs to be beaten with a stick [to realize it].|Ibn Sina|Kitab Al-Shifa, On the Soul<ref name="Nader El-Bizri 2000" /><ref>Ibn Sina, الفن السادس من الطبيعيات من كتاب الشفاء القسم الأول (Beirut, Lebanon.: M.A.J.D Enterprise Universitaire d'Etude et de Publication S.A.R.L)
{{blockquote|{{lang|ar|يجب أن يتوهم الواحد منا كأنه خلق دفعةً وخلق كاملاً لكنه حجب بصره عن مشاهدة الخارجات وخلق يهوى في هواء أو خلاء هوياً لا يصدمه فيه قوام الهواء صدماً ما يحوج إلى أن يحس وفرق بين أعضائه فلم تتلاق ولم تتماس ثم يتأمل هل أنه يثبت وجود ذاته ولا يشكك في إثباته لذاته موجوداً ولا يثبت مع ذلك طرفاً من أعضائه ولا باطناً من أحشائه ولا قلباً ولا دماغاً ولا شيئاً من الأشياء من خارج بل كان يثبت ذاته ولا يثبت لها طولاً ولا عرضاً ولا عمقاً ولو أنه أمكنه في تلك الحالة أن يتخيل يداً أو عضواً آخر لم يتخيله جزء من ذاته ولا شرطاً في ذاته وأنت تعلم أن المثبت غير الذي لم يثبت والمقربه غير الذي لم يقربه فإذن للذات التي أثبت وجودها خاصية على أنها هو بعينه غير جسمه وأعضائه التي لم تثبت فإذن المثبت له سبيل إلى أن يثبته على وجود النفس شيئاً غير الجسم بل غير جسم وأنه عارف به مستشعر له وإن كان ذاهلاً عنه يحتاج إلى أن يقرع عصاه.}}|Ibn Sina|Kitab Al-Shifa, On the Soul}}</ref>}}
However, Avicenna posited the brain as the place where reason interacts with sensation. Sensation prepares the soul to receive rational concepts from the universal Agent Intellect. The first knowledge of the flying person would be "I am," affirming his or her essence. That essence could not be the body, obviously, as the flying person has no sensation. Thus, the knowledge that "I am" is the core of a human being: the soul exists and is self-aware.<ref>{{Cite book |titleAvicenna's De Anima in the Latin West |lastHasse |firstDag Nikolaus |publisherWarburg Institute |year2000 |locationLondon |page81}}</ref> Avicenna thus concluded that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing, and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance. The body is unnecessary; in relation to it, the soul is its perfection.<ref name"Nader El-Bizri 2000 pp. 149-171" /><ref name"elbizri67-89" /><ref>{{Cite book |titleHistory of Islamic philosophy |last1Nasr |first1Seyyed Hossein |first2Oliver|last2Leaman |publisherRoutledge |year1996 |isbn978-0-415-05667-0 |pages315, 1022–1023}}</ref> In itself, the soul is an immaterial substance.<ref>{{Cite book |titleAvicenna's De Anima in the Latin West |lastHasse |firstDag Nikolaus |publisherWarburg Institute |year2000 |locationLondon |page92}}</ref>Principal works The Canon of Medicine
{{Main|The Canon of Medicine}}
]]
Avicenna authored a five-volume medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine ({{langx|ar|القانون في الطب|italicyes|al-Qānūn fī l-ṭibb}}). It was used as the standard medical textbook in the Islamic world and Europe up to the 18th century.<ref>{{Cite book |titleAvicenna |urlhttps://archive.org/details/avicennagreatmed00mcgi |url-accesslimited |lastMcGinnis |firstJon |publisherOxford University Press |year2010 |isbn978-0-19-533147-9 |locationOxford |page[https://archive.org/details/avicennagreatmed00mcgi/page/n140 227]}}</ref><ref name"jacb1">{{Cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/12 |titleMisquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy |lastA.C. Brown |firstJonathan |date2014 |publisherOneworld Publications |isbn978-1-78074-420-9 |page[https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/12 12] |author-linkJonathan A.C. Brown }}</ref> The Canon still plays an important role in Unani medicine.<ref>Indian Studies on Ibn Sina's Works by Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Avicenna (Scientific and Practical International Journal of Ibn Sino International Foundation, Tashkent/Uzbekistan. 1–2; 2003: 40–42</ref> Liber Primus Naturalium Avicenna considered whether events like rare diseases or disorders have natural causes.<ref>Avicenna Latinus. 1992. Liber Primus Naturalium: Tractatus Primus, De Causis et Principiis Naturalium. Leiden (The Netherlands): E.J. Brill.</ref> He used the example of polydactyly to explain his perception that causal reasons exist for all medical events. This view of medical phenomena anticipated developments in the Enlightenment by seven centuries.<ref>Axel Lange and Gerd B. Müller. Polydactyly in Development, Inheritance, and Evolution. The Quarterly Review of Biology Vol. 92, No. 1, Mar. 2017, pp. 1–38. {{doi|10.1086/690841}}.</ref> The Book of Healing
{{Main|The Book of Healing}}
{{Summary too long|The Book of Healing|dateJuly 2016}} Earth sciences Avicenna wrote on Earth sciences such as geology in The Book of Healing.<ref name"Goodfield">Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield (1965), The Ancestry of Science: The Discovery of Time, p. 64, University of Chicago Press</ref> While discussing the formation of mountains, he explained:
{{blockquote|Either they are the effects of upheavals of the crust of the earth, such as might occur during a violent earthquake, or they are the effect of water, which, cutting itself a new route, has denuded the valleys, the strata being of different kinds, some soft, some hard&nbsp;... It would require a long period of time for all such changes to be accomplished, during which the mountains themselves might be somewhat diminished in size.<ref nameGoodfield />}} Philosophy of science In the Al-Burhan (On Demonstration) section of The Book of Healing, Avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry. He discussed Aristotle's Posterior Analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points. Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of "How does one acquire the first principles of a science?" He asked how a scientist would arrive at "the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?" He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a "relation holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty". Avicenna then added two further methods for arriving at the first principles: the ancient Aristotelian method of induction (istiqra), and the method of examination and experimentation (tajriba). Avicenna criticized Aristotelian induction, arguing that "it does not lead to the absolute, universal, and certain premises that it purports to provide." In its place, he developed a "method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry."<ref>{{Cite journal |lastMcGinnis |firstJon |dateJuly 2003 |titleScientific Methodologies in Medieval Islam |urlhttps://irl.umsl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1003&contextphilosophy-faculty |journalJournal of the History of Philosophy |volume41 |issue3 |pages307–327 |doi10.1353/hph.2003.0033 |s2cid30864273 |access-date24 September 2019 |archive-date9 August 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210809100418/https://irl.umsl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article1003&contextphilosophy-faculty |url-statuslive |issn0022-5053}}</ref> Logic An early formal system of temporal logic was studied by Avicenna.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928 History of logic: Arabic logic] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071012144108/http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-65928 |date12 October 2007 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> Although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions, he did study the relationship between temporalis and the implication.<ref>{{Cite book |titleTemporal Logic: From Ancient Ideas to Artificial Intelligence |last1Peter Øhrstrøm |last2Per Hasle |publisherSpringer |year1995 |page72}}</ref> Avicenna's work was further developed by Najm al-Dīn al-Qazwīnī al-Kātibī and became the dominant system of Islamic logic until modern times.<ref>{{Citation |firstTony|lastStreet |titleToward a History of Syllogistic After Avicenna: Notes on Rescher's Studies on Arabic Modal Logic |journalJournal of Islamic Studies |volume11 |issue2 |pages209–228 |year2000 |doi10.1093/jis/11.2.209}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |titleThe Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy |urlhttps://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00adam |url-accesslimited |lastStreet |firstTony |date1 January 2005 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-52069-0 |editor-lastPeter Adamson |pages[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00adam/page/n265 247]–265 |chapterLogic |editor-last2Richard C. Taylor |name-list-styleamp}}</ref> Avicennian logic also influenced several early European logicians such as Albertus Magnus<ref>{{Cite journal |lastWashell |firstRichard F. |date1973 |titleLogic, Language, and Albert the Great |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/2708963 |journalJournal of the History of Ideas |volume34 |issue3 |pages445–450 |doi10.2307/2708963 |issn0022-5037 |jstor2708963}}</ref> and William of Ockham.<ref>Kneale p. 229</ref><ref>Kneale: p. 266; Ockham: Summa Logicae i. 14; Avicenna: Avicennae Opera Venice 1508 f87rb</ref> Avicenna endorsed the law of non-contradiction proposed by Aristotle, that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used. He stated, "Anyone who denies the law of non-contradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten, and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned."<ref>Avicenna, Metaphysics, I; commenting on Aristotle, Topics I.11.105a4–5</ref> Physics In mechanics, Avicenna, in The Book of Healing, developed a theory of motion, in which he made a distinction between the inclination (tendency to motion) and force of a projectile, and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination (mayl) transferred to the projectile by the thrower, and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease.<ref name"Espinoza">Fernando Espinoza (2005). "An analysis of the historical development of ideas about motion and its implications for teaching", Physics Education 40 (2), p. 141.</ref> He viewed inclination as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as air resistance.<ref>A. Sayili (1987), "Ibn Sīnā and Buridan on the Motion of the Projectile", Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 500 (1), pp. 477–482: "It was a permanent force whose effect got dissipated only as a result of external agents such as air resistance. He is apparently the first to conceive such a permanent type of impressed virtue for non-natural motion."</ref>
The theory of motion presented by Avicenna was probably influenced by the 6th-century Alexandrian scholar John Philoponus. Avicenna's is a less sophisticated variant of the theory of impetus developed by Buridan in the 14th century. It is unclear if Buridan was influenced by Avicenna, or by Philoponus directly.<ref>Jack Zupko, "John Buridan" in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2014
([http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buridan/notes.html#48 fn. 48] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180911164449/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buridan/notes.html#48 |date11 September 2018 }})
"We do not know precisely where Buridan got the idea of impetus, but a less sophisticated notion of impressed forced can be found in Avicenna's doctrine of mayl (inclination). In this he was possibly influenced by Philoponus, who was developing the Stoic notion of hormé (impulse). For discussion, see Zupko (1997) ['What Is the Science of the Soul? A Case Study in the Evolution of Late Medieval Natural Philosophy,' Synthese, 110(2): 297–334]."</ref>
In optics, Avicenna was among those who argued that light had a speed, observing that "if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source, the speed of light must be finite."<ref>George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science, Vol. 1, p. 710.</ref> He also provided a wrong explanation of the rainbow phenomenon. Carl Benjamin Boyer described Avicenna's ("Ibn Sīnā") theory on the rainbow as follows:
{{blockquote|Independent observation had demonstrated to him that the bow is not formed in the dark cloud but rather in the very thin mist lying between the cloud and the sun or observer. The cloud, he thought, serves as the background of this thin substance, much as a quicksilver lining is placed upon the rear surface of the glass in a mirror. Ibn Sīnā would change the place not only of the bow, but also of the color formation, holding the iridescence to be merely a subjective sensation in the eye.<ref>Carl Benjamin Boyer (1954). "Robert Grosseteste on the Rainbow", Osiris 11, pp.&nbsp;247–258 [248].</ref>}}
In 1253, a Latin text entitled Speculum Tripartitum stated the following regarding Avicenna's theory on heat:
{{blockquote|Avicenna says in his book of heaven and earth, that heat is generated from motion in external things.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastGutman |firstOliver |year1997 |titleOn the Fringes of the Corpus Aristotelicum: the Pseudo-Avicenna Liber Celi Et Mundi |journalEarly Science and Medicine |volume2 |issue2 |pages109–128 |doi10.1163/157338297X00087}}</ref>}} Psychology Avicenna's legacy in classical psychology is primarily embodied in the Kitab al-nafs parts of his Kitab al-shifa (The Book of Healing) and Kitab al-najat (The Book of Deliverance). These were known in Latin under the title De Anima (treatises "on the soul").{{dubious|dateOctober 2012}} Notably, Avicenna develops what is called the Flying Man argument in the Psychology of The Cure I.1.7 as defence of the argument that the soul is without quantitative extension, which has an affinity with Descartes's cogito argument (or what phenomenology designates as a form of an "epoche").<ref name"Nader El-Bizri 2000 pp. 149-171">Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, NY: Global Publications SUNY, 2000), pp.&nbsp;149–171.</ref><ref name"elbizri67-89">Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna's De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl," in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), pp.&nbsp;67–89.</ref>
Avicenna's psychology requires that connection between the body and soul be strong enough to ensure the soul's individuation, but weak enough to allow for its immortality. Avicenna grounds his psychology on physiology, which means his account of the soul is one that deals almost entirely with the natural science of the body and its abilities of perception. Thus, the philosopher's connection between the soul and body is explained almost entirely by his understanding of perception; in this way, bodily perception interrelates with the immaterial human intellect. In sense perception, the perceiver senses the form of the object; first, by perceiving features of the object by our external senses. This sensory information is supplied to the internal senses, which merge all the pieces into a whole, unified conscious experience. This process of perception and abstraction is the nexus of the soul and body, for the material body may only perceive material objects, while the immaterial soul may only receive the immaterial, universal forms. The way the soul and body interact in the final abstraction of the universal from the concrete particular is the key to their relationship and interaction, which takes place in the physical body.<ref>{{Cite book |titleAvicenna's Psychology. An English translation of Kitāb al-Najāt, Book II, Chapter VI, with Historico-Philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo edition |lastAvicenna |publisherOxford University Press, Geoffrey Cumberlege |year1952 |editor-lastF. Rahman |locationLondon |page=41}}</ref>
The soul completes the action of intellection by accepting forms that have been abstracted from matter. This process requires a concrete particular (material) to be abstracted into the universal intelligible (immaterial). The material and immaterial interact through the Active Intellect, which is a "divine light" containing the intelligible forms.<ref>{{Cite book |titleAvicenna's Psychology. An English translation of Kitāb al-Najāt, Book II, Chapter VI, with Historico-Philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo edition |lastAvicenna |publisherOxford University Press, Geoffrey Cumberlege |year1952 |editor-lastF. Rahman |locationLondon |pages68–69}}</ref> The Active Intellect reveals the universals concealed in material objects much like the sun makes colour available to our eyes. Other contributions Astronomy and astrology
{{main|Astrology in the medieval Islamic world}}
]]
Avicenna wrote an attack on astrology titled Missive on the Champions of the Rule of the Stars ({{lang|ar|رسالة في ابطال احكم النجوم}}) in which he cited passages from the Quran to dispute the power of astrology to foretell the future.<ref>George Saliba (1994), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, pp. 60, 67–69. New York University Press, {{ISBN|0-8147-8023-7}}.</ref> He believed that each classical planet had some influence on the Earth but argued against current astrological practices.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-viii |titleAvicenna |lastSaliba |firstGeorge |author-linkGeorge Saliba |year2011 |websiteEncyclopædia Iranica, Online Edition |access-date18 January 2012 |archive-date20 February 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200220161012/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-viii |url-status=live }}</ref>
Avicenna's astronomical writings had some influence on later writers, although in general his work could be considered less developed than that of ibn al-Haytham or al-Biruni. One important feature of his writing is that he considers mathematical astronomy a separate discipline from astrology.<ref nameRagep /> He criticized Aristotle's view of the stars receiving their light from the Sun, stating that the stars are self-luminous, and believed that the planets are also self-luminous.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastAriew |firstRoger |dateMarch 1987 |titleThe phases of venus before 1610 |journalStudies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A |volume18 |issue1 |pages81–92 |doi10.1016/0039-3681(87)90012-4|bibcode1987SHPSA..18...81A }}</ref> He claimed to have observed the transit of Venus. This is possible as there was a transit on 24 May 1032, but ibn Sina did not give the date of his observation and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time; he may have mistaken a sunspot for Venus. He used his transit observation to help establish that Venus was, at least sometimes, below the Sun in the geocentric model,<ref name"Ragep">{{Cite encyclopedia |urlhttp://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.htm |titleIbn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā |lastSally P. Ragep |encyclopediaThe Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |publisherSpringer Science+Business Media |year2007 |editor-lastThomas Hockey |pages570–572 |access-date15 October 2011 |archive-date21 September 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200921050851/https://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref> i.e. the sphere of Venus comes before the sphere of the Sun when moving out from the Earth.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastGoldstein|firstBernard R. |year1969 |titleSome Medieval Reports of Venus and Mercury Transits |journalCentaurus |volume14 |issue1 |pages49–59 |bibcode1969Cent...14...49G |doi10.1111/j.1600-0498.1969.tb00135.x }}</ref><ref name"Goldstein">{{Cite journal |lastGoldstein |firstBernard R. |dateMarch 1972 |titleTheory and Observation in Medieval Astronomy |journalIsis |volume63 |issue1 |pages39–47 [44] |doi10.1086/350839|bibcode1972Isis...63...39G |s2cid120700705 }}</ref>
He also wrote the Summary of the Almagest based on Ptolemy's Almagest with an appended treatise "to bring that which is stated in the Almagest and what is understood from Natural Science into conformity". For example, ibn Sina considers the motion of the solar apsis, which Ptolemy had taken to be fixed.<ref nameRagep /> Chemistry Avicenna was first to derive the attar of flowers from distillation<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idWMvVBi5EbhMC&qattar+perfume+muslim&pgPA70|titleStudies in Islamic Civilization: The Muslim Contribution to the Renaissance|last1Essa|first1Ahmed|last2Ali|first2Othman|date2010|publisherInternational Institute of Islamic Thought (IIIT)|isbn978-1-56564-350-5|languageen|page70}}</ref> and used steam distillation to produce essential oils such as rose essence, which he used as aromatherapeutic treatments for heart conditions.<ref name"Marlene">Marlene Ericksen (2000). Healing with Aromatherapy, p. 9. McGraw-Hill Professional. {{ISBN|0-658-00382-8}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite book |titleThe Traditional Healer's Handbook: A Classic Guide to the Medicine of Avicenna |lastGhulam Moinuddin Chishti |year1991 |isbn978-0-89281-438-1 |page239|publisherInner Traditions / Bear & Co }}</ref>
Unlike al-Razi, Avicenna explicitly disputed the theory of the transmutation of substances commonly believed by alchemists:
{{blockquote|Those of the chemical craft know well that no change can be effected in the different species of substances, though they can produce the appearance of such change.<ref>Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, p.&nbsp;196–197.</ref>}}
Four works on alchemy attributed to Avicenna were translated into Latin as:<ref name="Anawati">Georges C. Anawati (1996), "Arabic alchemy", in Roshdi Rashed, ed., Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science, Vol. 3, pp.&nbsp;853–885 [875]. Routledge, London and New York.</ref>
* {{lang|la|Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae}}
* {{lang|la|Declaratio Lapis physici Avicennae filio sui Aboali}}
* {{lang|la|Avicennae de congelatione et conglutinatione lapidum}}
* {{lang|la|Avicennae ad Hasan Regem epistola de Re recta}}
{{lang|la|Liber Aboali Abincine de Anima in arte Alchemiae}} was the most influential, having influenced later medieval chemists and alchemists such as Vincent of Beauvais. However, Anawati argues (following Ruska) that the de Anima is a fake by a Spanish author. Similarly the Declaratio is believed not to be actually by Avicenna. The third work (The Book of Minerals) is agreed to be Avicenna's writing, adapted from the Kitab al-Shifa (Book of the Remedy).<ref nameAnawati /> Avicenna classified minerals into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs and salts, building on the ideas of Aristotle and Jabir.<ref>{{Citation |lastLeicester |firstHenry Marshall |titleThe Historical Background of Chemistry |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idaJZVQnqcwv4C&pgPA70 |page70 |year1971 |publisherCourier Dover Publications |isbn978-0-486-61053-5 |quoteThere was one famous Arab physician who doubted even the reality of transmutation. This was 'Abu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (980–1037), called Avicenna in the West, the greatest physician of Islam.&nbsp;... Many of his observations on chemistry are included in the Kitab al-Shifa, the "Book of the Remedy". In the physical section of this work he discusses the formation of minerals, which he classifies into stones, fusible substances, sulfurs, and salts. Mercury is classified with the fusible substances, metals}}</ref> The epistola de Re recta is somewhat less sceptical of alchemy; Anawati argues that it is by Avicenna, but written earlier in his career when he had not yet firmly decided that transmutation was impossible.<ref nameAnawati /> Poetry
Almost half of Avicenna's works are versified.<ref>E.G. Browne, Islamic Medicine (sometimes also printed under the title Arabian medicine), 2002, Goodword Pub., {{ISBN|81-87570-19-9}}, p61</ref> His poems appear in both Arabic and Persian. As an example, Edward Granville Browne claims that the following Persian verses are incorrectly attributed to Omar Khayyám, and were originally written by Ibn Sīnā:<ref>E.G. Browne, Islamic Medicine (sometimes also printed under the title Arabian medicine), 2002, Goodword Pub., {{ISBN|81-87570-19-9}}, pp.&nbsp;60–61)</ref>
{{Verse translation|italicsoffy|rtl1y|
{{lang|fa|rtl=yes|از قعر گل سیاه تا اوج زحل
کردم همه مشکلات گیتی را حل
بیرون جستم زقید هر مکر و حیل
هر بند گشاده شد مگر بند اجل}}
|
From the depth of the black earth up to Saturn's apogee,
All the problems of the universe have been solved by me.
I have escaped from the coils of snares and deceits;
I have unraveled all knots except the knot of Death.<ref>Gabrieli, F. (1950). Avicenna's Millenary. East and West, 1(2), 87–92.</ref>{{rp|91}}
}}
Legacy
Classical Islamic civilization
Robert Wisnovsky, a scholar of Avicenna attached to McGill University, says that "Avicenna was the central figure in the long history of the rational sciences in Islam, particularly in the fields of metaphysics, logic and medicine" but that his works didn't only have an influence in these "secular" fields of knowledge alone, as "these works, or portions of them, were read, taught, copied, commented upon, quoted, paraphrased and cited by thousands of post-Avicennian scholars—not only philosophers, logicians, physicians and specialists in the mathematical or exact sciences, but also by those who specialized in the disciplines of ʿilm al-kalām (rational theology, but understood to include natural philosophy, epistemology and philosophy of mind) and usūl al-fiqh (jurisprudence, but understood to include philosophy of law, dialectic, and philosophy of language)."<ref>{{Cite journal |lastWisnovsky |firstRobert |date2012-10-01 |titleIndirect Evidence for Establishing the Text of the Shifā |urlhttps://brill.com/abstract/journals/orie/40/2/article-p257_4.xml |journalOriens |languageen |volume40 |issue2 |pages257–258 |doi10.1163/18778372-00402004 |issn0078-6527}}</ref>
Medieval and Renaissance Europe
in 1945–1950]]
As early as the 14th century when Dante Alighieri depicted him in Limbo alongside the virtuous non-Christian thinkers in his Divine Comedy such as Virgil, Averroes, Homer, Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Socrates, Plato and Saladin. Avicenna has been recognized by both East and West as one of the great figures in intellectual history. Johannes Kepler cites Avicenna's opinion when discussing the causes of planetary motions in Chapter 2 of Astronomia Nova.<ref name=Kepler>Johannes Kepler, New Astronomy, translated by William H. Donahue, Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., 1992. {{ISBN|0-521-30131-9}}</ref>
George Sarton, the author of The History of Science, described Avicenna as "one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history"<ref nameZahoor>George Sarton, Introduction to the History of Science.<br />(cf. A. Zahoor and Z. Haq (1997). [http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html Quotations From Famous Historians of Science] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080203140704/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/Introl1.html |date=3 February 2008 }}, Cyberistan.)</ref> and called him "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times". He was one of the Islamic world's leading writers in the field of medicine.
by Walenty z Pilzna, Kraków (ca 1479–1480)]]
Along with Rhazes, Abulcasis, Ibn al-Nafis and al-Ibadi, Avicenna is considered an important compiler of early Muslim medicine. He is remembered in the Western history of medicine as a major historical figure who made important contributions to medicine and the European Renaissance. His medical texts were unusual in that where controversy existed between Galen and Aristotle's views on medical matters (such as anatomy), he preferred to side with Aristotle, where necessary updating Aristotle's position to take into account post-Aristotelian advances in anatomical knowledge.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year2011 |titleAvicenna Medicine and Biology |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Iranica |urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x |access-date9 November 2011 |lastMusallam |firstB. |archive-date1 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191201044959/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x |url-statuslive }}</ref> Aristotle's dominant intellectual influence among medieval European scholars meant that Avicenna's linking of Galen's medical writings with Aristotle's philosophical writings in the Canon of Medicine (along with its comprehensive and logical organisation of knowledge) significantly increased Avicenna's importance in medieval Europe in comparison to other Islamic writers on medicine. His influence following translation of the Canon was such that from the early fourteenth to the mid-sixteenth centuries he was ranked with Hippocrates and Galen as one of the acknowledged authorities, {{lang|la|princeps medicorum}} ("prince of physicians").<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year2011 |titleAvicenna The influence of Avicenna on medical studies in the West |encyclopediaEncyclopædia Iranica |urlhttp://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x |access-date9 November 2011 |lastWeisser |firstU. |archive-date1 December 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191201044959/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-x |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Modern reception
, Azerbaijan]]
in 1980 published a stamp entitled "1000th anniversary of the birth of Ibn Sina"]]
]]
Institutions in a variety of counties have been named after Avicenna in honour of his scientific accomplishments, including the Avicenna Mausoleum and Museum, Bu-Ali Sina University, Avicenna Research Institute and Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.amch.edu.pk |titleHome Page |date28 March 2014 |websiteamch.edu.pk |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131108132952/http://www.amch.edu.pk/ |archive-date=8 November 2013}}</ref> There is also a crater on the Moon named Avicenna.
The Avicenna Prize, established in 2003, is awarded every two years by UNESCO and rewards individuals and groups for their achievements in the field of ethics in science.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/events/prizes-and-celebrations/unesco-prizes/avicenna-prize/|titleUNESCO: The Avicenna Prize for Ethics in Science|date4 September 2019|access-date27 May 2016|archive-date1 June 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160601004148/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/events/prizes-and-celebrations/unesco-prizes/avicenna-prize/|url-status=live}}</ref>
as a part of the Persian Scholars Pavilion donated by Iran]]
The Avicenna Directories (2008–15; now the World Directory of Medical Schools) list universities and schools where doctors, public health practitioners, pharmacists and others, are educated. The original project team stated: {{blockquote|Why Avicenna? Avicenna&nbsp;... was&nbsp;... noted for his synthesis of knowledge from both east and west. He has had a lasting influence on the development of medicine and health sciences. The use of Avicenna's name symbolises the worldwide partnership that is needed for the promotion of health services of high quality.<ref>"Educating health professionals: the Avicenna project" The Lancet, March 2008. Volume 371 pp. 966–967.</ref>}}
In June 2009, Iran donated a "Persian Scholars Pavilion" to the United Nations Office in Vienna. It now sits in the Vienna International Center.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2009/unisvic167.html |titleMonument to Be Inaugurated at the Vienna International Centre, 'Scholars Pavilion' donated to International Organizations in Vienna by Iran |websiteunvienna.org |access-date6 January 2015 |archive-date26 December 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181226190250/http://www.unis.unvienna.org/unis/pressrels/2009/unisvic167.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>In popular cultureThe 1982 Soviet film Youth of Genius ({{langx|ru|Юность гения|Yunost geniya|linksno}}) by {{Interlanguage link|Elyor Ishmukhamedov|ru|3Ишмухамедов, Эльёр Мухитдинович}} recounts Avicenna's younger years. The film is set in Bukhara at the turn of the millennium.<ref>"Youth of Genius" (USSR, Uzbekfilm and Tajikfilm, 1982): 1984&nbsp;– State Prize of the USSR (Elyer Ishmuhamedov); 1983&nbsp;– VKF (All-Union Film Festival) Grand Prize (Elyer Ishmuhamedov); 1983&nbsp;– VKF (All-Union Film Festival) Award for Best Cinematography (Tatiana Loginov). See [http://kino-teatr.ru/kino/movie/sov/8140/annot/ annotation on kino-teatr.ru] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141020141148/http://kino-teatr.ru/kino/movie/sov/8140/annot/ |date=20 October 2014 }}.</ref>
In Louis L'Amour's 1985 historical novel The Walking Drum, Kerbouchard studies and discusses Avicenna's The Canon of Medicine.
In his book The Physician (1988) Noah Gordon tells the story of a young English medical apprentice who disguises himself as a Jew to travel from England to Persia and learn from Avicenna, the great master of his time. The novel was adapted into a feature film, The Physician, in 2013. Avicenna was played by Ben Kingsley.
List of works
The treatises of Avicenna influenced later Muslim thinkers in many areas including theology, philology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and music. His works numbered almost 450 volumes on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 volumes of his surviving works concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine.<ref name"MacTutor Biography|idAvicenna" /> His most famous works are The Book of Healing, and The Canon of Medicine.
Avicenna wrote at least one treatise on alchemy, but several others have been falsely attributed to him. His Logic, Metaphysics, Physics, and De Caelo, are treatises giving a synoptic view of Aristotelian doctrine,<ref name"EB1911">{{EB1911|inliney|wstitleAvicenna|volume3|pages62–63}}</ref> though Metaphysics demonstrates a significant departure from the brand of Neoplatonism known as Aristotelianism in Avicenna's world; Arabic philosophers{{who|dateFebruary 2015}}{{year needed|date=February 2015}} have hinted at the idea that Avicenna was attempting to "re-Aristotelianise" Muslim philosophy in its entirety, unlike his predecessors, who accepted the conflation of Platonic, Aristotelian, Neo- and Middle-Platonic works transmitted into the Muslim world.
The Logic and Metaphysics have been extensively reprinted, the latter, e.g., at Venice in 1493, 1495 and 1546. Some of his shorter essays on medicine, logic, etc., take a poetical form (the poem on logic was published by Schmoelders in 1836).<ref>Thought Experiments: Popular Thought Experiments in Philosophy, Physics, Ethics, Computer Science & Mathematics by Fredrick Kennard, p. 115</ref> Two encyclopedic treatises, dealing with philosophy, are often mentioned. The larger, Al-Shifa' (Sanatio), exists nearly complete in manuscript in the Bodleian Library and elsewhere; part of it on the De Anima appeared at Pavia (1490) as the Liber Sextus Naturalium, and the long account of Avicenna's philosophy given by Muhammad al-Shahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis, and in many places a reproduction, of the Al-Shifa'. A shorter form of the work is known as the An-najat (Liberatio). The Latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied. There is also a {{lang|ar|حكمت مشرقيه|rtlyes}} (hikmat-al-mashriqqiyya, in Latin Philosophia Orientalis), mentioned by Roger Bacon, the majority of which is lost in antiquity, which according to Averroes was pantheistic in tone.<ref name"EB1911" />
Avicenna's works further include:<ref name"Works">{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ibn%20Sina-REP.htm#islw |titleIbn Sina Abu 'Ali Al-Husayn |publisherMuslimphilosophy.com |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100102091147/http://muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ibn%20Sina-REP.htm |archive-date2 January 2010 |access-date19 January 2010}}</ref><ref>Tasaneef lbn Sina by Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tabeeb Haziq, Gujarat, Pakistan, 1986, pp. 176–198</ref>
* ''Sirat al-shaykh al-ra'is (The Life of Avicenna''), ed. and trans. WE. Gohlman, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1974. (The only critical edition of Avicenna's autobiography, supplemented with material from a biography by his student Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani. A more recent translation of the Autobiography appears in D. Gutas, ''Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works, Leiden: Brill, 1988; second edition 2014.)<ref name="Works" />
* Al-isharat wa al-tanbihat (Remarks and Admonitions), ed. S. Dunya, Cairo, 1960; parts translated by S.C. Inati, Remarks and Admonitions, Part One: Logic, Toronto, Ont.: Pontifical Institute for Mediaeval Studies, 1984, and Ibn Sina and Mysticism, Remarks and Admonitions: Part 4, London: Kegan Paul International, 1996.<ref name="Works" />
* Al-Qanun fi'l-tibb (The Canon of Medicine), ed. I. a-Qashsh, Cairo, 1987. (Encyclopedia of medicine.)<ref name"Works" /> manuscript,<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718 |titleThe Canon of Medicine |date1 January 1597 |websiteWdl.org |access-date1 March 2014 |archive-date24 June 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170624071006/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| title = The Canon of Medicine
| work = World Digital Library
| access-date = 1 March 2014
| year = 1597
| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718
| archive-date = 24 June 2017
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170624071006/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/9718/
| url-status = live
}}</ref> Latin translation, Flores Avicenne,<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttp://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035 |titleFlowers of Avicenna |date1 January 1508 |publisherPrinted by Claude Davost alias de Troys, for Bartholomeus Trot |access-date1 March 2014 |archive-date4 March 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140304195134/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Michael de Capella, 1508,<ref>{{cite web
| title = Flowers of Avicenna&nbsp;– Flores Avicenne
| work = World Digital Library
| access-date = 1 March 2014
| url http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035/#languageslat&page=6
| archive-date = 4 March 2014
| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140304195134/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/3035/#languageslat&page=6
| url-status = live
}}</ref> Modern text.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttp://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429 |title"The Book of Simple Medicine and Plants" from "The Canon of Medicine" |date1 January 1900 |publisherKnowledge Foundation |access-date1 March 2014 |archive-date23 February 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140223040410/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Ahmed Shawkat Al-Shatti, Jibran Jabbur.<ref>{{cite web
| last = Avicenna
| title = The Canon of Medicine
| work = World Digital Library
| access-date = 1 March 2014
| url = http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429
| archive-date = 23 February 2014
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140223040410/http://www.wdl.org/en/item/7429/
| url-status = live
}}</ref>
* Risalah fi sirr al-qadar (Essay on the Secret of Destiny), trans. G. Hourani in Reason and Tradition in Islamic Ethics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985.<ref name="Works" />
* Danishnama "The Book of Scientific Knowledge", ed. and trans. P. Morewedge, The Metaphysics of Avicenna, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973.<ref name="Works" />
* The Book of Healing'', Avicenna's major work on philosophy. He probably began to compose al-Shifa' in 1014, and completed it in 1020. Critical editions of the Arabic text have been published in Cairo, 1952–83, originally under the supervision of I. Madkour.<ref name="Works" />
* Kitab al-Najat "The Book of Salvation", trans. F. Rahman, ''Avicenna's Psychology: An English Translation of Kitab al-Najat, Book II, Chapter VI with Historical-philosophical Notes and Textual Improvements on the Cairo Edition'', Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1952. (The psychology of al-Shifa'.) (Digital version of the Arabic text)
* ''Risala fi'l-Ishq'' "A Treatise on Love". Translated by Emil L. Fackenheim.
Persian works
Avicenna's most important Persian work is the Danishnama ({{lang|fa|دانشنامه علائی}}, "Book of Knowledge". Avicenna created a new scientific vocabulary that had not previously existed in Persian. The Danishnama covers such topics as logic, metaphysics, music theory and other sciences of his time. It has been translated into English by Parwiz Morewedge in 1977.<ref>Avicenna, Danish Nama-i 'Alai. trans. Parviz Morewedge as The Metaphysics of Avicenna (New York: Columbia University Press), 1977.</ref> The book is also important in respect to Persian scientific works.
Andar Dānish-i Rag ({{lang|fa|اندر دانش رگ}}, "On the Science of the Pulse") contains nine chapters on the science of the pulse and is a condensed synopsis.
Persian poetry from Avicenna is recorded in various manuscripts and later anthologies such as Nozhat al-Majales.
See also
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Al-Qumri (possibly Avicenna's teacher)
* Abdol Hamid Khosro Shahi (Iranian theologian)
* Mummia (Persian medicine)
* Eastern philosophy
* Iranian philosophy
* Islamic philosophy
* Contemporary Islamic philosophy
* Science in the medieval Islamic world
* List of scientists in medieval Islamic world
* Sufi philosophy
* Science and technology in Iran
* Ancient Iranian medicine
* List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars
{{div col end}}
Namesakes of Ibn Sina
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences in Aligarh
* Avicenna Bay in Antarctica
* Avicenna (crater) on the far side of the Moon
* Avicenna Cultural and Scientific Foundation
* Avicenne Hospital in Paris, France
* Avicenna International College in Budapest, Hungary
* Avicenna Mausoleum (complex dedicated to Avicenna) in Hamadan, Iran
* Avicenna Research Institute in Tehran, Iran
* Avicenna Tajik State Medical University in Dushanbe, Tajikistan
* Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamedan, Iran
* Ibn Sina Peak – named after the Scientist, on the Kyrgyzstan–Tajikistan border
* Ibn Sina Foundation in Houston, Texas<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.ibnsinafoundation.org/our-story/|titleOur Story|websiteIbn Sina Foundation|access-date14 December 2020|archive-date1 December 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201201085558/https://www.ibnsinafoundation.org/our-story/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Ibn Sina Hospital, Baghdad, Iraq
* Ibn Sina Hospital, Istanbul, Turkey<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.ibnisina.com.tr/|titleIbn Sina Hospital|websiteIbn Sina Hospital, Turkey|access-date14 December 2020|archive-date25 February 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225051352/https://ibnisina.com.tr/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Ibn Sina Medical College Hospital, Dhaka, Bangladesh
* Ibn Sina University Hospital of Rabat-Salé at Mohammed V University in Rabat, Morocco
* Ibne Sina Hospital, Multan, Punjab, Pakistan<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://ibn-e-siena.org.pk/|titleIbne Sina Hospital|websiteIbn e Siena|access-date14 December 2020|archive-date19 July 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200719113704/http://ibn-e-siena.org.pk/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* International Ibn Sina Clinic, Dushanbe, Tajikistan
{{div col end}}
References
Citations
{{Reflist}}
Sources
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |last1Adamson |first1Peter |author-linkPeter Adamson (philosopher) |titleInterpreting Avicenna: Critical Essays |year2013 |publisherBrill |locationLeiden |isbn978-0-521-19073-2 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idOeVribsJbgUC }}
* {{cite book |last1Adamson |first1Peter |author1-linkPeter Adamson (philosopher) |titlePhilosophy in the Islamic World: A history of philosophy without any gaps, Volume 3 |date2016 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-957749-1}}
* {{cite book |last1Bennison |first1Amira K. |titleThe great caliphs: the golden age of the 'Abbasid Empire |urlhttps://archive.org/details/greatcaliphsgold00benn |url-accesslimited |date2009 |publisherYale University Press |locationNew Haven |isbn=978-0-300-15227-2 }}
* {{EI2 |last1Bosworth |first1Clifford Edmund |volume4 |titleK̲h̲wārazm-S̲h̲āhs |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/khwarazm-shahs-SIM_4206}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1Bosworth |first1Clifford Edmund |titleĀl-e Maʾmūn |urlhttps://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/al-e-mamun |encyclopediaEncyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7 |pages762–764 |year1984a |access-date18 September 2021 |archive-date19 October 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211019104714/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/al-e-mamun |url-status=live }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1Bosworth |first1Clifford Edmund |titleʿAlāʾ-al-dawla Moḥammad |urlhttps://iranicaonline.org/articles/ala-al-dawla-abu-jafar-mohammad-b |encyclopediaEncyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. I, Fasc. 7 |pages773–774 |year1984b |access-date18 September 2021 |archive-date3 September 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210903015700/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/ala-al-dawla-abu-jafar-mohammad-b |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1Copleston |first1Frederick |author1-linkFrederick Copleston |titleA History of Philosophy, Volume 2: Medieval Philosophy – From Augustine to Duns Scotus |date1993 |publisherImage Books |isbn978-0-385-46844-2 |title-linkA History of Philosophy (Copleston)}}
* {{cite book |last1Corbin |first1Henry |titleThe Voyage and the messenger: Iran and philosophy |date1998 |publisherNorth Atlantic Books |isbn9781556432699}}
* {{Cite book |last1Corbin |first1Henry |urlhttps://press.princeton.edu/titles/2761.html |titleAvicenna and the Visionary Recital |languageen |access-date12 August 2018 |isbn978-0-691-63054-0 |date19 April 2016 |publisherPrinceton University Press |archive-date24 May 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190524093639/https://press.princeton.edu/titles/2761.html |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite book |lastDaftary |firstFarhad |titleIsmaili History and Intellectual Traditions |year2007 |publisherThe Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines |author-linkFarhad Daftary |isbn978-0-521-85084-1 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=Fl4ptwAACAAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1Daftary |first1Farhad |titleIsmaili History and Intellectual Traditions |year2017 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-138-28810-2 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsxIwDwAAQBAJ }}
* {{Cite book |last1Daly |first1Jonathan |titleThe Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization |date19 December 2013 |publisherA&C Black |isbn978-1-4411-1851-6 |language=en}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1El-Bizri |first1Nader |author1-linkNader El-Bizri |date2006 |titleIbn Sina, or Avicenna |editor1-lastMeri |editor1-firstJosef W. |encyclopediaMedieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia |volume1 |pages369–370 |locationNew York |publisherRoutledge |isbn=978-0-415-96691-7}}
* {{cite book |last1Glick |first1Thomas F. |author-link1Thomas F. Glick |last2Livesey |first2Steven John |last3Wallis |first3Faith |titleMedieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia |year2005 |publisherPsychology Press |isbn=978-1-138-05670-1}}
* {{EI2 |last1Goichon |first1A.M |volume3 |titleIbn Sīnā |pp941-947 |year1986 |url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/ibn-sina-COM_0342}}
* {{Encyclopædia Iranica |lastGutas |firstDimitri |author-linkDimitri Gutas |volume3 |fascicle1 |titleAvicenna ii. Biography |urlhttps://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-ii |pages67–70}}
* {{cite journal |last1Gutas |first1Dimitri |author-linkDimitri Gutas |year1988 |titleAvicenna's Maḏhab with an appendix on the question of his date of Birth |journalQuaderni di Studi Arabi |volume6 |pages323–336 |jstor=25802612}} {{Registration required}}
* {{cite book |last1Gutas |first1Dimitri |author-linkDimitri Gutas |titleAvicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works. Second, Revised and Enlarged Edition, Including an Inventory of Avicenna's Authentic Works |year2014 |publisherBrill |locationLeiden |isbn978-9004201729 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idQgYSBQAAQBAJ }}
* {{cite book |last1Khalidi |first1Muhammad Ali |titleMedieval Islamic Philosophical Writings |date2005 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-0-521-82243-5}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran |last1Lazard |first1G. |volume4 |chapterThe Rise of the New Persian Language |pages=595–633}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran |last1Madelung |first1Wilferd |authorlinkWilferd Madelung |volume4 |chapterThe Minor Dynasties of Northern Iran |pages595–633}}
* {{cite book |last1Pasnau |first1Robert |last2Dyke |first2Christina Van |titleCambridge History of Medieval Philosophy, Volume 1 |date2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
{{refbegin|30em}}
Encyclopedic articles
* {{Cite book |titleAn Educational Encyclopedia of Islam |lastSyed Iqbal |firstZaheer |publisherIqra Publishers |year2010 |isbn978-603-90004-4-0 |edition2nd |locationBangalore |page=1280}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
| last = Flannery
| first = Michael
| encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica
| title = Avicenna
| url = https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45755/Avicenna
| access-date = 2 June 2022
| archive-date = 4 May 2015
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150504224831/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/45755/Avicenna
| url-status = live
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
| last = Goichon
| first = A.-M.
| author-link = A.-M. Goichon
| encyclopedia = Encyclopedia of Islam
| publisher = Brill Publishers
| title = Ibn Sina, Abu 'Ali al-Husayn b. 'Abd Allah b. Sina, known in the West as Avicenna
| url = http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ei-is.htm
| year = 1999
| access-date = 15 February 2007
| archive-date = 28 February 2007
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070228032655/http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/sina/art/ei-is.htm
| url-status = live
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
| last1 = Mahdi
| first1 = M.
| author-link = M. Mahdi
| first2 = D
| last2 = Gutas
| first3 = Sh.B.
| last3 = Abed
| first4 = M.E.
| last4 = Marmura
| first5 = F.
| last5 = Rahman
| first6 = G.
| last6 = Saliba
| first7 = O.
| last7 = Wright
| first8 = B.
| last8 = Musallam
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| last9 = Achena
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| last10 = Van Riet
| first11 = U.
| last11 = Weisser
| encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Iranica
| title = Avicenna
| url = http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-index
| year = 1987
| access-date = 15 January 2012
| archive-date = 29 April 2011
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110429170220/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/avicenna-index
| url-status = live
}}
* {{CathEncy|wstitle=Avicenna}}
* {{MacTutor Biography|idAvicenna|titleAbu Ali al-Husain ibn Abdallah ibn Sina (Avicenna)}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2007 |titleIbn Sīnā: Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn ibn ʿAbdallāh ibn Sīnā |encyclopediaThe Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers |publisherSpringer |locationNew York |urlhttp://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.htm |lastRagep |firstSally P. |editor1-firstThomas |editor1-lastHockey |pages570–572 |isbn978-0-387-31022-0 |display-editorsetal |access-date15 October 2011 |archive-date21 September 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200921050851/https://islamsci.mcgill.ca/RASI/BEA/Ibn_Sina_BEA.htm |url-status=live }} (PDF version)
* [http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/ Avicenna] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120603023507/http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/ |date3 June 2012 }} entry by Sajjad H. Rizvi in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
*{{cite encyclopedia |last1M. Alper |first1Ömer |last2Durusoy |first2Ali |last3Terzioğlu |first3Arslan |last4H.Turabi |first4Ahmet |last5Karliğa |first5H.Bekir |last6Görgün |first6Tahsin |titleİBN SÎNÂ – An article published in Turkish Encyclopedia of Islam |date1999 |publisherTDV Encyclopedia of Islam |isbn978-97-53-89447-0 |pages319–358 |volume20 (Ibn Haldun - Ibnu'l Cezeri) |urlhttps://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ibn-sina |langtr |access-date20 May 2022 |archive-date26 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210226032614/https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/ibn-sina |url-statuslive }}
Primary literature
* For an old list of other extant works, C. Brockelmann's Geschichte der arabischen Litteratur (Weimar 1898), vol. i. pp.&nbsp;452–458. (XV. W.; G. W. T.)
* For a current list of his works see A. Bertolacci (2006) and D. Gutas (2014) in the section "Philosophy".
* {{Cite book |titleThe Metaphysics of The Healing |lastAvicenna |publisherBrigham Young University |othersMichael E. Marmura (trans.) |year2005 |isbn978-0-934893-77-0 |edition1 |seriesA parallel English-Arabic text translation}}
* {{Cite book |titleThe Canon of Medicine (al-Qānūn fī'l-ṭibb), vol. 1 |lastAvicenna |publisherGreat Books of the Islamic World |othersLaleh Bakhtiar (ed.), Oskar Cameron Gruner (trans.), Mazhar H. Shah (trans.) |year1999 |isbn978-1-871031-67-6}}
* Avicenne: ''Réfutation de l'astrologie''. Edition et traduction du texte arabe, introduction, notes et lexique par Yahya Michot. Préface d'Elizabeth Teissier (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2006) {{ISBN|2-84161-304-6}}.
* William E. Gohlam (ed.), The Life of Ibn Sina. A Critical Edition and Annotated Translation, Albany, State of New York University Press, 1974.
* For Ibn Sina's life, see Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, translated by de Slane (1842); F. Wüstenfeld's Geschichte der arabischen Aerzte und Naturforscher (Göttingen, 1840).
* Madelung, Wilferd and Toby Mayer (ed. and tr.), ''Struggling with the Philosopher: A Refutation of Avicenna's Metaphysics.'' A New Arabic Edition and English Translation of Shahrastani's Kitab al-Musara'a.
Secondary literature
* {{cite book
| first = Soheil M.
| last = Afnan
| author-link = Soheil Afnan
| title = Avicenna: His Life and Works
| url = https://archive.org/details/avicennahislifea033070mbp
| year = 1958
| publisher = G. Allen & Unwin
| location = London
| oclc = 31478971
}}
:: This is, on the whole, an informed and good account of the life and accomplishments of one of the greatest influences on the development of thought both Eastern and Western.&nbsp;... It is not as philosophically thorough as the works of D. Saliba, A.M. Goichon, or L. Gardet, but it is probably the best essay in English on this important thinker of the Middle Ages. (Julius R. Weinberg, The Philosophical Review, Vol. 69, No. 2, Apr. 1960, pp.&nbsp;255–259)
* {{cite book
| title = Avicenna
| url = https://archive.org/details/avicenna00good
| url-access = registration
| first = Lenn E.
| last = Goodman
| author-link = Lenn Evan Goodman
| year = 2006
| publisher = Cornell University Press
| edition = Updated
| isbn = 978-0-415-01929-3
}}
:: This is a distinguished work which stands out from, and above, many of the books and articles which have been written in this century on Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā) (980–1037). It has two main features on which its distinction as a major contribution to Avicennan studies may be said to rest: the first is its clarity and readability; the second is the comparative approach adopted by the author.&nbsp;... (Ian Richard Netton, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 4, No. 2, July 1994, pp.&nbsp;263–264)
* {{Cite journal |lastGutas |firstDimitri |year1987 |titleAvicenna's maḏhab, with an Appendix on the question of his date of birth |journalQuaderni di Studi Arabi |volume5–6 |pages323–336 |refnone}}
* Y.T. Langermann (ed.), Avicenna and his Legacy. A Golden Age of Science and Philosophy, Brepols Publishers, 2010, {{ISBN|978-2-503-52753-6}}
* For a new understanding of his early career, based on a newly discovered text, see also: Michot, Yahya, ''Ibn Sînâ: Lettre au vizir Abû Sa'd. Editio princeps'' d'après le manuscrit de Bursa, traduction de l'arabe, introduction, notes et lexique (Beirut-Paris: Albouraq, 2000) {{ISBN|2-84161-150-7}}.
* {{Cite book |titleAvicenna |lastStrohmaier |firstGotthard |publisherC.H. Beck |year2006 |isbn978-3-406-54134-6 |languagede |author-linkGotthard Strohmaier}}
:: This German publication is both one of the most comprehensive general introductions to the life and works of the philosopher and physician Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā, d. 1037) and an extensive and careful survey of his contribution to the history of science. Its author is a renowned expert in Greek and Arabic medicine who has paid considerable attention to Avicenna in his recent studies.&nbsp;... (Amos Bertolacci, Isis, Vol. 96, No. 4, December 2005, p.&nbsp;649)
* {{Cite book |titleResalah Judiya of Ibn Sina (First edition 1971), Literary Research Unit, CCRIH, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh; (Second edition 1981) Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi; (Fourth edition 1999), Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Govt. of India, New Delhi |firstHakim Syed Zillur |last=Rahman}}
* {{Cite book |titleAI-Advia al-Qalbia of Ibn Sina |firstHakim Syed Zillur |lastRahman |publisherPublication Division, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh |year=1996}}
* {{Cite book |titleIlmul Amraz of Ibn Sina (First edition 1969), Tibbi Academy, Delhi (Second edition 1990), (Third edition 1994), Tibbi Academy, Aligarh |firstHakim Syed Zillur |last=Rahman}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year1986 |titleQanoon lbn Sina Aur Uskey Shareheen wa Mutarjemeen |publisherPublication Division, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh |authorHakim Syed Zillur Rahman}}
* {{Citation |firstHakim Syed Zillur |lastRahman |titleQānūn-i ibn-i Sīnā aur us ke shārḥīn va mutarajimīn |date1986 |locationʻAlīgaṛh |publisherPablīkeshan Dīvīzan, Muslim Yūnīvarsiṭī|ol=1374509M }}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2004 |titleQanun Ibn Sina and its Translation and Commentators (Persian Translation; 203pp) |publisherSociety for the Appreciation of Cultural Works and Dignitaries, Tehran, Iran |authorHakim Syed Zillur Rahman}}
* Shaikh al Rais Ibn Sina (Special number) 1958–59, Ed. Hakim Syed Zillur Rahman, Tibbia College Magazine, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India.
Medicine
* Browne, Edward G. Islamic Medicine. Fitzpatrick Lectures Delivered at the Royal College of Physicians in 1919–1920, reprint: New Delhi: Goodword Books, 2001. {{ISBN|81-87570-19-9}}
* Pormann, Peter & Savage-Smith, Emilie. Medieval Islamic Medicine, Washington: Georgetown University Press, 2007.
* Prioreschi, Plinio. Byzantine and Islamic Medicine, A History of Medicine, Vol. 4, Omaha: Horatius Press, 2001.
* Syed Ziaur Rahman. Pharmacology of Avicennian Cardiac Drugs (Metaanalysis of researches and studies in Avicennian Cardiac Drugs along with English translation of Risalah al Adwiya al Qalbiyah), Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences, Aligarh, India, 2020 {{ISBN|978-93-80610-43-6}}
Philosophy
* Amos Bertolacci, ''The Reception of Aristotle's Metaphysics in Avicenna's Kitab al-Sifa'. A Milestone of Western Metaphysical Thought, Leiden: Brill 2006, (Appendix C contains an Overview of the Main Works by Avicenna on Metaphysics in Chronological Order).
* Dimitri Gutas, Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition: Introduction to Reading Avicenna's Philosophical Works'', Leiden, Brill 2014, second revised and expanded edition (first edition: 1988), including an inventory of Avicenna' Authentic Works.
* Andreas Lammer: ''The Elements of Avicenna's Physics. Greek Sources and Arabic Innovations. Scientia graeco-arabica 20. Berlin / Boston: Walter de Gruyter, 2018.
* Jon McGinnis and David C. Reisman (eds.) Interpreting Avicenna: Science and Philosophy in Medieval Islam: Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Avicenna Study Group, Leiden: Brill, 2004.
* {{in lang|fr}} Michot, Jean R., La destinée de l'homme selon Avicenne, Louvain: Aedibus Peeters, 1986, {{ISBN|978-90-6831-071-9}}.
* Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger, Binghamton, N.Y.: Global Publications SUNY, 2000 (reprinted by SUNY Press in 2014 with a new Preface).
* Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism," Review of Metaphysics'', Vol. 54 (June 2001), pp.&nbsp;753–778.
* Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna's De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl," in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2003, pp.&nbsp;67–89.
* Nader El-Bizri, "Being and Necessity: A Phenomenological Investigation of Avicenna's Metaphysics and Cosmology," in Islamic Philosophy and Occidental Phenomenology on the Perennial Issue of Microcosm and Macrocosm, ed. Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2006, pp.&nbsp;243–261.
* Nader El-Bizri, 'Ibn Sīnā's Ontology and the Question of Being', Ishrāq: Islamic Philosophy Yearbook 2 (2011), 222–237
* Nader El-Bizri, 'Philosophising at the Margins of 'Sh'i Studies': Reflections on Ibn Sīnā's Ontology', in ''The Study of Sh'i Islam. History, Theology and Law, eds. F. Daftary and G. Miskinzoda (London: I.B. Tauris, 2014), pp.&nbsp;585–597.
* Reisman, David C. (ed.), Before and After Avicenna: Proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna Study Group'', Leiden: Brill, 2003.
{{refend}}
External links
{{Sister project links|nno|bno|vno|wiktno}}
* {{Iranica|avicenna-index}}
* {{Gutenberg author|id=49814}}
* {{Librivox author |id=15890}}
* {{Cite SEP|url-idibn-sina/|titleIbn Sina [Avicenna]|firstDimitri|lastGutas}}
* {{Cite SEP|url-idibn-sina-metaphysics/|titleIbn Sina's Metaphysics|firstOlga|lastLizzini}}
* {{Cite SEP|url-idibn-sina-logic/|titleIbn Sina's Logic|firstRiccardo|lastStrobino}}
* {{Cite SEP|url-idibn-sina-natural/|titleIbn Sina's Natural Philosophy|firstJon|lastMcGinnis}}
* {{Cite IEP|url-idavicenna |titleAvicenna (Ibn Sina) |firstSajjad H. |lastRizvi}}
* {{Cite IEP|url-idav-logic |titleAvicenna (Ibn Sina): Logic |firstSaloua |lastChatti}}
* [https://www.ontology.co/avicenna.htm Avicenna (Ibn-Sina) on the Subject and the Object of Metaphysics] with a list of translations of the logical and philosophical works and an annotated bibliography
* {{In Our Time|Avicenna|b00855lt|Avicenna}}
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1132 | The Ashes | {{Short description|International cricket series}}
{{about|the Ashes in cricket|the women's equivalent|The Women's Ashes|other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox cricket tournament main
| name = The Ashes
| image = Ashes Urn.jpg
| caption = The Ashes urn, made of terracotta and about 10.5
cm (4") tall, is reputed to contain the ashes of a burnt cricket bail.
| country = {{cr|AUS}}<br>{{cr|ENG}}
| administrator = International Cricket Council
| cricket format = Test cricket
| first = 1882–83 <small>(Australia)</small>
| last = 2023 <small>(England)</small>
| next = 2025–26 <small>(Australia)</small>
| tournament format = 5-match series
| participants = 2
| trophyholder = {{cr|AUS}} (Series drawn) (2023)
| most successful = {{cr|AUS}} (34 series wins, six retentions)
| most runs = {{flagicon|AUS}} Donald Bradman (5,028)
| most wickets = {{flagicon|AUS}} Shane Warne (195)
}}
The Ashes is a Test cricket series played biennially between England and Australia. The term originated in a satirical obituary published in a British newspaper, The Sporting Times, immediately after Australia's 1882 victory at The Oval, its first Test win on English soil. The obituary stated that English cricket had died, and that "the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia".<ref>{{cite book | authorWendy Lewis | author-linkWendy Lewis | author2Simon Balderstone | author3John Bowan | name-list-styleamp | titleEvents That Shaped Australia | page75 | publisherNew Holland | year2006 | isbn978-1-74110-492-9 }}</ref> The mythical ashes immediately became associated with the 1882–83 series played in Australia, before which the English captain Ivo Bligh had vowed to "regain those ashes". The English media therefore dubbed the tour the quest to regain the Ashes.
After England won two of the three Tests on the tour, a small urn was presented to Bligh in Melbourne.<ref nameevents>{{Cite news |date20 February 1884 |titleSummary of Events |newspaperThe Illustrated Australian News |locationMelbourne |urlhttp://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article63185850 |page18}}</ref> The contents of the urn are reputed to be the ashes of a wooden bail, and were humorously described as "the ashes of Australian cricket".<ref>{{Cite news |date4 June 1908 |titleCricket |newspaperThe Mercury |locationHobart |urlhttp://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article12673335 |page=8}}</ref> It is not clear whether that "tiny silver urn" is the same as the small terracotta urn given to Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) by Bligh's widow after his death in 1927.
The Ashes urn has never been the official trophy of the series, having been a personal gift to Bligh,<ref>{{cite web|titleThe Ashes History|urlhttp://www.lords.org/history/mcc-history/the-ashes|publisherLords|access-date21 December 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181009142619/https://www.lords.org/history/mcc-history/the-ashes/|archive-date9 October 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> but replicas of the urn have often been held aloft by the winning team as a symbol of their victory. Since the 1998–99 Ashes series, the Ashes Trophy, a Waterford Crystal trophy modelled on the Ashes urn, has been presented to the winners of the series. Irrespective of which side holds the trophy, the original urn remains in the MCC Museum at Lord's. It has been taken to Australia twice to be put on touring display, as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations in 1988 and to accompany the Ashes series in 2006–07.
Ashes series have usually consisted of five Tests, hosted in turn by England and Australia approximately every two years. The Ashes are regarded as being held by the team that most recently won the series. If the series is drawn, the team that currently holds the Ashes "retains" the trophy.
There have been 73 Ashes series. Australia have won 34 and retained six times from draws (40); England have won 32 and retained once (33).
1882 origins
{{main|Australian cricket team in England in 1882}}
, "The Demon Bowler", was instrumental in Australia's 1882 victory over England with 14 wickets for 90.]]
The first Test match between England and Australia was played in Melbourne, Australia, in 1877, though the Ashes legend started later, after the ninth Test, played in 1882. On their tour of England that year the Australians played just one Test, at the Oval in London. It was a low-scoring affair on a difficult wicket.<ref>Fred Spofforth, however, contended that, the fourth innings aside, it played perfectly well.</ref> Australia made a mere 63 runs in their first innings, and England, led by A. N. Hornby, took a 38-run lead with a total of 101. In their second innings, Australia, boosted by a spectacular 55 runs off 60 deliveries from Hugh Massie, managed 122, which left England only 85 runs to win. The Australians were greatly demoralised by the manner of their second-innings collapse, but fast bowler Fred Spofforth, spurred on by the gamesmanship of his opponents, in particular W. G. Grace, refused to give in. "This thing can be done," he declared. Spofforth went on to devastate the English batting, taking his final four wickets for only two runs to leave England just eight runs short of victory.
When Ted Peate, England's last batsman, came to the crease, his side needed just ten runs to win, but Peate managed only two before he was bowled by Harry Boyle. An astonished Oval crowd fell silent, struggling to believe that England could possibly have lost on home soil. When it finally sank in, the crowd swarmed onto the field, cheering loudly and chairing Boyle and Spofforth to the pavilion.
When Peate returned to the pavilion he was reprimanded by his captain for not allowing his partner, Charles Studd (one of the best batsmen in England, having already hit two centuries that season against the colonists), to get the runs. Peate humorously replied, "I had no confidence in Mr Studd, sir, so thought I had better do my best."<ref>
{{cite news
|first=Jack
|last=Worrall
|url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article83580262
|title=A Great Bowlers' Victory
|page=11
|newspaper=Daily News
|locationPerth, WA |date23 August 1930
|access-date=25 August 2013
}}
</ref>
The momentous defeat was widely recorded in the British press, which praised the Australians for their plentiful "pluck" and berated the Englishmen for their lack thereof. A celebrated poem appeared in Punch on Saturday, 9 September. The first verse, quoted most frequently, reads:
<blockquote>
<poem>
Well done, Cornstalks! Whipt us
Fair and square,
Was it luck that tript us?
Was it scare?
Kangaroo Land's 'Demon', or our own
Want of 'devil', coolness, nerve, backbone?
</poem></blockquote>
On 31 August, in the Charles Alcock-edited magazine Cricket: A Weekly Record of The Game, there appeared a mock obituary:
{{poemquote|
SACRED TO THE MEMORY
OF
ENGLAND'S SUPREMACY IN THE
CRICKET-FIELD
WHICH EXPIRED
ON THE 29TH DAY OF AUGUST, AT THE OVAL
"ITS END WAS PEATE"
}}
]]
On 2 September a more celebrated mock obituary, written by Reginald Shirley Brooks, appeared in The Sporting Times''. It read:
{{poemquote|
In Affectionate Remembrance
of
ENGLISH CRICKET,
which died at the Oval
on
29th August, 1882,
Deeply lamented by a large circle of sorrowing
friends and acquaintances.
R.I.P.
N.B.—The body will be cremated and the
ashes taken to Australia.
}}
Ivo Bligh promised that on the 1882–83 tour of Australia, he would, as England's captain, "recover those Ashes". He spoke of them several times over the course of the tour, and the Australian media quickly caught on. The three-match series resulted in a two-one win to England, notwithstanding a fourth match, won by the Australians, whose status remains a matter of ardent dispute.<ref>{{Cite book |lastHilton |firstChristopher |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/123232899 |titleThe birth of the Ashes : the amazing story of the first Ashes test |date2006 |publisherRenniks Publications |isbn978-0-9752245-4-0 |locationBanksmeadow, N.S.W. |oclc123232899}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/930079935 |titleWisden on the Ashes : the authoritative story of cricket's greatest rivalry : updated to include the 2015 series |date2015 |editor-firstSteven |editor-lastLynch |isbn978-1-4729-1353-1 |edition |locationLondon |oclc930079935}}</ref>
In the 20 years following Bligh's campaign the term "the Ashes" largely disappeared from public use. There is no indication that this was the accepted name for the series, at least not in England. The term became popular again in Australia first, when George Giffen, in his memoirs (With Bat and Ball, 1899), used the term as if it were well known.<ref>Gibson, A., Cricket Captains of England, p. 26.</ref>
The true and global revitalisation of interest in the concept dates from 1903, when Pelham Warner took a team to Australia with the promise that he would regain "the ashes". As had been the case on Bligh's tour 20 years before, the Australian media latched fervently onto the term and, this time, it stuck. Having fulfilled his promise, Warner published a book entitled How We Recovered the Ashes. Although the origins of the term are not referred to in the text, the title served (along with the general hype created in Australia) to revive public interest in the legend. The first mention of "the Ashes" in ''Wisden Cricketers' Almanack occurs in 1905, while Wisden's first account of the legend is in the 1922 edition.
Urn
{{Main|The Ashes urn}}
, from The Illustrated London News, 1921]]
outside Melbourne, where the urn was presented to Bligh]]
It took many years before the contests between England and Australia were consistently called "The Ashes", and so there was no concept of either a trophy or a physical representation of the ashes. As late as 1925, the following verse appeared in The Cricketers Annual'':
<blockquote>
<poem>
So here's to Chapman, Hendren and Hobbs,
Gilligan, Woolley and Hearne
May they bring back to the Motherland,
The ashes which have no urn!
</poem></blockquote>
Nevertheless, several attempts had been made to embody the Ashes in a physical memorial. Examples include one presented to Warner in 1904, another to Australian captain M. A. Noble in 1909, and another to Australian captain W. M. Woodfull in 1934.
The oldest, and the one to enjoy enduring fame, was the one presented to Bligh, later Lord Darnley, during the 1882–83 tour. The precise nature of the origin of this urn is a matter of dispute. Based on a statement by Darnley in 1894, it was believed that a group of Victorian ladies, including Darnley's later wife Florence Morphy, made the presentation after the victory in the Third Test in 1883. More recent researchers, in particular Ronald Willis<ref>{{Cite book| firstRonald | lastWillis | titleCricket's Biggest Mystery: The Ashes | year1982 | publisherRigby | isbn0-7270-1768-3}}</ref> and Joy Munns<ref>{{Cite book| firstJoy | lastMunns | titleBeyond Reasonable Doubt: The birthplace of the Ashes | year1994 | publisherJ. Munns | isbn0-646-22153-1}}</ref> have studied the tour in detail and concluded that the presentation was made after a private cricket match played over Christmas 1882 when the English team were guests of Sir William Clarke, at his property "Rupertswood", in Sunbury, Victoria. This was before the matches had started. The prime evidence for this theory was provided by a descendant of Clarke.
In August 1926 Ivo Bligh (now Lord Darnley) displayed the Ashes urn at the Morning Post Decorative Art Exhibition held in the Central Hall, Westminster. He made the following statement about how he was given the urn:<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article58247421?searchTermdarnley%20cricket%20ashes&searchLimits|titleSunday Times (Perth) 15 August 1926 page 9S. Online Reference |publisherTrove.nla.gov.au |date15 August 1926 |access-date=22 July 2013}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|When in the autumn the English Eleven went to Australia it was said that they had come to Australia to "fetch" the ashes. England won two out of the three matches played against Murdoch's Australian Eleven, and after the third match some Melbourne ladies put some ashes into a small urn and gave them to me as captain of the English Eleven.}}
A more detailed account of how the Ashes were given to Ivo Bligh was outlined by his wife, the Countess of Darnley, in 1930 during a speech at a cricket luncheon. Her speech was reported by the Times as follows:<ref>The Times (London), 27 June 1930. page 7.</ref>
{{Blockquote|In 1882, she said, it was first spoken of when the Sporting Times, after the Australians had thoroughly beaten the English at the Oval, wrote an obituary in affectionate memory of English cricket "whose demise was deeply lamented and the body would be cremated and taken to Australia". Her husband, then Ivo Bligh, took a team to Australia in the following year. Punch had a poem containing the words "When Ivo comes back with the urn" and when Ivo Bligh wiped out the defeat Lady Clarke, wife of Sir W. J. Clarke, who entertained the English so lavishly, found a little wooden urn, burnt a bail, put the ashes in the urn, and wrapping it in a red velvet bag, put it into her husband's (Ivo Bligh's) hands. He had always regarded it as a great treasure.}}
There is another statement which is not totally clear made by Lord Darnley in 1921 about the timing of the presentation of the urn. He was interviewed in his home at Cobham Hall by Montague Grover and the report of this interview was as follows:<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article66512851?searchTerm%22cobham%20hall%22%20urn&searchLimitsl-decade192 |titleGeraldton Guardian 15 February 1921, page 1. Online reference |publisherTrove.nla.gov.au |date15 February 1921 |access-date22 July 2013}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|This urn was presented to Lord Darnley by some ladies of Melbourne after the final defeat of his team, and before he returned with the members to England.}}
He made a similar statement in 1926. The report of this statement in the Brisbane Courier was as follows:<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article21053463?searchTermdarnley%20ashes%20urn&searchLimitsl-decade192|titleBrisbane Courier, 9 June 1926, page 7. Online reference |publisherTrove.nla.gov.au |date9 June 1926 |access-date22 July 2013}}</ref>
{{Blockquote|The proudest possession of Lord Darnley is an earthenware urn containing the ashes which were presented to him by Melbourne residents when he captained the Englishmen in 1882. Though the team did not win, the urn containing the ashes was sent to him just before leaving Melbourne.}}
The contents of the urn are also problematic; they were variously reported to be the remains of a stump, bail or the outer casing of a ball, but in 1998 Darnley's 82-year-old daughter-in-law said they were the remains of her mother-in-law's veil, casting a further layer of doubt on the matter. However, during the tour of Australia in 2006/7, the MCC official accompanying the urn said the veil legend had been discounted, and it was now "95% certain" that the urn contains the ashes of a cricket bail. Speaking on Channel Nine TV on 25 November 2006, he said x-rays of the urn had shown the pedestal and handles were cracked, and repair work had to be carried out. The urn is made of terracotta and is about {{convert|6|in|mm}} tall and may originally have been a perfume jar.
, the fourth verse of which is pasted onto the urn]]
A label containing a six-line verse is pasted on the urn. This is the fourth verse of a song-lyric published in the Melbourne Punch'' on 1 February 1883:
<blockquote>
<poem>
When Ivo goes back with the urn, the urn;
Studds, Steel, Read and Tylecote return, return;
The welkin will ring loud,
The great crowd will feel proud,
Seeing Barlow and Bates with the urn, the urn;
And the rest coming home with the urn.
</poem></blockquote>
In February 1883, just before the disputed Fourth Test, a velvet bag made by Mrs Ann Fletcher, the daughter of Joseph Hines Clarke and Marion Wright, both of Dublin, was given to Bligh to contain the urn. During Darnley's lifetime there was little public knowledge of the urn, and no record of a published photograph exists before 1921. The Illustrated London News published this photo in January 1921 (shown above). When Darnley died in 1927 his widow presented the urn to the Marylebone Cricket Club and that was the key event in establishing the urn as the physical embodiment of the legendary ashes. MCC first displayed the urn in the Long Room at Lord's and since 1953 in the MCC Cricket Museum at the ground. MCC's wish for it to be seen by as wide a range of cricket enthusiasts as possible has led to its being mistaken for an official trophy. It is in fact a private memento, and for this reason it is never awarded to either England or Australia, but is kept permanently in the MCC Cricket Museum where it can be seen together with the specially made red and gold velvet bag and the scorecard of the 1882 match.
Because the urn itself is so delicate, it has been allowed to travel to Australia only twice. The first occasion was in 1988 for a museum tour as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations; the second was for the 2006/7 Ashes series.<ref>{{cite news | urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/6052544.stm | titleAshes urn heads to Australia | workBBC Sport | date15 October 2006 | access-date8 November 2007 | archive-date6 November 2006 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20061106114633/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/6052544.stm | url-statuslive }}</ref> The urn arrived on 17 October 2006, going on display at the Museum of Sydney. It then toured to other states, with the final appearance at the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery on 21 January 2007.
In the 1990s, given Australia's long dominance of the Ashes and the popular acceptance of the Darnley urn as "the Ashes", the idea was mooted that the victorious team should be awarded the urn as a trophy and allowed to retain it until the next series. As its condition is fragile and it is a prized exhibit at the MCC Cricket Museum, the MCC would not agree. Furthermore, in 2002, Bligh's great-great-grandson Lord Clifton, the heir-apparent to the Earldom of Darnley, argued that the Ashes urn should not be returned to Australia because it belonged to his family and was given to the MCC only for safe keeping.
As a compromise, the MCC commissioned a larger replica of the urn in Waterford Crystal, known as the Ashes Trophy, to award to the winning team of each series starting with the 1998–99 Ashes.<ref>{{Cite web |titleWhat is the Ashes Trophy? |urlhttp://www.lords.org/news/our-blogs/the-cricket-history-blog/what-is-the-ashes-trophy/ |firstRhys |lastHayward |publisherLord's |date23 August 2013 |access-date12 June 2023 |archive-date10 September 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130910205923/http://www.lords.org/news/our-blogs/the-cricket-history-blog/what-is-the-ashes-trophy}}</ref> This did little to diminish the status of the Darnley urn as the most important icon in cricket, the symbol of this old and keenly fought contest.Series and matches{{further|List of Ashes series}}Quest to "recover those ashes"
{{See also|History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883#The Ashes legend}}
Later in 1882, following the famous Australian victory at The Oval, Bligh led an England team to Australia, as he said, to "recover those ashes". Publicity surrounding the series was intense, and it was at some time during this series that the Ashes urn was crafted. Australia won the First Test by nine wickets, but in the next two England were victorious. At the end of the Third Test, England were generally considered to have "won back the Ashes" 2–1. A fourth match was played, against a "United Australian XI", which was arguably stronger than the Australian sides that had competed in the previous three matches; this game, however, is not generally considered part of the 1882–83 series. It is counted as a Test, but as a standalone. This match ended in a victory for Australia.
1884 to 1896
After Bligh's victory, there was an extended period of English dominance. The tours generally had fewer Tests in the 1880s and 1890s than people have grown accustomed to in more recent years, the first five-Test series taking place only in 1894–95. England lost only four Ashes Tests in the 1880s out of 23 played, and they won all the seven series contested.
There was more chopping and changing in the teams, given that there was no official board of selectors for each country (in 1887–88, two separate English teams were on tour in Australia) and popularity with the fans varied. The 1890s games were more closely fought, Australia taking its first series win since 1882 with a 2–1 victory in 1891–92. But England dominated, winning the next three series to 1896 despite continuing player disputes.
The 1894–95 series began in sensational fashion when England won the First Test at Sydney by just 10 runs having followed on. Australia had scored a massive 586 (Syd Gregory 201, George Giffen 161) and then dismissed England for 325. But England responded with 437 and then dramatically dismissed Australia for 166 with Bobby Peel taking 6 for 67. At the close of the second last day's play, Australia were 113–2, needing only 64 more runs. But heavy rain fell overnight and next morning the two slow left-arm bowlers, Peel and Johnny Briggs, were all but unplayable. England went on to win the series 3–2 after it had been all square before the Final Test, which England won by 6 wickets. The English heroes were Peel, with 27 wickets in the series at an average of 26.70, and Tom Richardson, with 32 at 26.53.
In 1896, England under the captaincy of W. G. Grace won the series 2–1, and this marked the end of England's longest period of Ashes dominance.
1897 to 1902
Australia resoundingly won the 1897–98 series by 4–1 under the captaincy of Harry Trott. His successor Joe Darling won the next three series in 1899, 1901–02, and the classic 1902 series, which became one of the most famous in the history of Test cricket.
Five matches were played in 1902 but the first two were drawn after being hit by bad weather. In the First Test (the first played at Edgbaston), after scoring 376 England bowled out Australia for 36 (Wilfred Rhodes 7/17) and reduced them to 46–2 when they followed on. Australia won the Third and Fourth Tests at Bramall Lane and Old Trafford respectively. At Old Trafford, Australia won by just 3 runs after Victor Trumper had scored 104 on a "bad wicket", reaching his hundred before lunch on the first day. England won the last Test at The Oval by one wicket. Chasing 263 to win, they slumped to 48–5 before Gilbert Jessop's 104 gave them a chance. He reached his hundred in just 75 minutes. The last-wicket pair of George Hirst and Rhodes were required to score 15 runs for victory. When Rhodes joined him, Hirst reportedly said: "We'll get them in singles, Wilfred." In fact, they scored thirteen singles and a two.<ref>{{cite web |date29 June 2019 |titleWisden, 1974 edition – The glorious uncertainty |urlhttps://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/152487.html |websiteespncricinfo.com |access-date20 February 2023 |archive-date20 February 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230220123247/https://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/152487.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The period of Darling's captaincy saw the emergence of outstanding Australian players such as Trumper, Warwick Armstrong, James Kelly, Monty Noble, Clem Hill, Hugh Trumble and Ernie Jones.
Reviving the legend
After what the MCC saw as the problems of the earlier professional and amateur series they decided to take control of organising tours themselves, and this led to the first MCC tour of Australia in 1903–04. England won it against the odds, and Plum Warner, the England captain, wrote up his version of the tour in his book How We Recovered The Ashes.<ref>Plum Warner, How We Recovered The Ashes, Longman, 1905</ref> The title of this book revived the Ashes legend and it was after this that England v Australia series were customarily referred to as "The Ashes".
1905 to 1912
England and Australia were evenly matched until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Five more series took place between 1905 and 1912. In 1905, England's captain Stanley Jackson not only won the series 2–0, but also won the toss in all five matches and headed both the batting and the bowling averages. Monty Noble led Australia to victory in both 1907–08 and 1909. Then England won in 1911–12 by four matches to one. Jack Hobbs establishing himself as England's first-choice opening batsman with three centuries, while Frank Foster (32 wickets at 21.62) and Sydney Barnes (34 wickets at 22.88) formed a formidable bowling partnership.
England retained the Ashes when it won the 1912 Triangular Tournament, which also featured South Africa. The Australian touring party had been severely weakened by a dispute between the board and players that caused Clem Hill, Victor Trumper, Warwick Armstrong, Tibby Cotter, Sammy Carter and Vernon Ransford to be omitted.<ref>Harte, pp. 251–256.</ref>
1920 to 1933
After the war, Australia took firm control of both the Ashes and world cricket. For the first time, the tactic of using two express bowlers in tandem paid off as Jack Gregory and Ted McDonald crippled the English batting on a regular basis. Australia recorded overwhelming victories both in England and on home soil. It won the first eight matches in succession including a 5–0 whitewash in 1920–1921 at the hands of Warwick Armstrong's team.
The ruthless and belligerent Armstrong led his team back to England in 1921 where his men lost only two games late in the tour to narrowly miss out of being the first team to complete a tour of England without defeat.
sweeps Arthur Mailey during the first Ashes Test in Sydney, 1924.]]
England won only one Test out of 15 from the end of the war until 1925.<ref>Harte, pp. 274–276.</ref><ref nameauslist>{{cite web |urlhttp://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdbteam;teamAUS;classtestteam;filterbasic;opposition0;notopposition0;decade0;homeaway0;continent0;country0;notcountry0;groundid0;season0;startdefault1877-03-15;start1877-03-15;enddefault2007-11-20;end2007-11-20;tourneyid0;finals0;daynight0;toss0;scheduledovers0;scheduleddays0;innings0;followon0;result0;seriesresult0;captainid0;recent;viewtyperesultlist;runslow;runshigh;wicketslow;wicketshigh;ballslow;ballshigh;overslow;overshigh;bpo0;batevent;conclow;conchigh;takenlow;takenhigh;ballsbowledlow;ballsbowledhigh;oversbowledlow;oversbowledhigh;bpobowled0;bowlevent;submit1;.cgifieldsviewtype |titleStatsguru – Australia – Tests – Results list |publisherCricinfo |access-date21 December 2007 |archive-date9 March 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210309063345/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/guru?sdbteam;teamAUS;classtestteam;filterbasic;opposition0;notopposition0;decade0;homeaway0;continent0;country0;notcountry0;groundid0;season0;startdefault1877-03-15;start1877-03-15;enddefault2007-11-20;end2007-11-20;tourneyid0;finals0;daynight0;toss0;scheduledovers0;scheduleddays0;innings0;followon0;result0;seriesresult0;captainid0;recent;viewtyperesultlist;runslow;runshigh;wicketslow;wicketshigh;ballslow;ballshigh;overslow;overshigh;bpo0;batevent;conclow;conchigh;takenlow;takenhigh;ballsbowledlow;ballsbowledhigh;oversbowledlow;oversbowledhigh;bpobowled0;bowlevent;submit1;.cgifieldsviewtype |url-statuslive }}</ref>
In a rain-hit series in 1926, England managed to eke out a 1–0 victory with a win in the final Test at The Oval. Because the series was at stake, the match was to be "timeless", i.e., played to a finish. Australia had a narrow first innings lead of 22. Jack Hobbs and Herbert Sutcliffe took the score to 49–0 at the end of the second day, a lead of 27. Heavy rain fell overnight, and next day the pitch soon developed into a traditional sticky wicket. England seemed doomed to be bowled out cheaply and to lose the match. In spite of the very difficult batting conditions, however, Hobbs and Sutcliffe took their partnership to 172 before Hobbs was out for exactly 100. Sutcliffe went on to make 161 and England won the game comfortably.<ref>Harte, pp. 298–301.</ref> Australian captain Herbie Collins was stripped of all captaincy positions down to club level, and some accused him of throwing the match.
Australia's ageing post-war team broke up after 1926, with Collins, Charlie Macartney and Warren Bardsley all departing, and Gregory breaking down at the start of the 1928–29 series.
Despite the debut of Donald Bradman, the inexperienced Australians, led by Jack Ryder, were heavily defeated, losing 4–1.<ref>Harte, pp. 312–316.</ref> England had a very strong batting side, with Wally Hammond contributing 905 runs at an average of 113.12, and Hobbs, Sutcliffe and Patsy Hendren all scoring heavily; the bowling was more than adequate, without being outstanding.
In 1930, Bill Woodfull led an extremely inexperienced team to England.
Bradman fulfilled his promise in the 1930 series when he scored 974 runs at 139.14, which remains a world record Test series aggregate. A modest Bradman can be heard in a 1930 recording saying "I have always endeavoured to do my best for the side, and the few centuries that have come my way have been achieved in the hope of winning matches. My one idea when going into bat was to make runs for Australia."<ref name"Don Bradman on australianscreen online">{{cite web|urlhttp://aso.gov.au/titles/spoken-word/1930-australian-xi-ashes/|titleDon Bradman in 'The 1930 Australian XI: Winners of the Ashes'|websiteAso.gov.au|access-date23 February 2011|archive-date1 December 2011|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111201123853/http://aso.gov.au/titles/spoken-word/1930-australian-xi-ashes/|url-statuslive}}</ref> In the Headingley Test, he made 334, reaching 309* at the end of the first day, including a century before lunch. Bradman himself thought that his 254 in the preceding match, at Lord's, was a better innings. England managed to stay in contention until the deciding final Test at The Oval, but yet another double hundred by Bradman, and 7/92 by Percy Hornibrook in England's second innings, enabled Australia to win by an innings and take the series 2–1. Clarrie Grimmett's 29 wickets at 31.89 for Australia in this high-scoring series were also important.
Australia had one of the strongest batting line-ups ever in the early 1930s, with Bradman, Archie Jackson, Stan McCabe, Bill Woodfull, Bill Ponsford and Jack Fingleton. It was the prospect of bowling at this line-up that caused England's 1932–33 captain Douglas Jardine to adopt the tactic of fast leg theory, better known as Bodyline.
evades a ball from Harold Larwood with Bodyline field settings.]]
Jardine instructed his fast bowlers, most notably Harold Larwood and Bill Voce, to bowl at the bodies of the Australian batsmen, with the goal of forcing them to defend their bodies with their bats, thus providing easy catches to a stacked leg-side field. Jardine insisted that the tactic was legitimate and called it "leg theory" but it was widely disparaged by its opponents, who dubbed it "Bodyline" (from "on the line of the body"). Although England decisively won the Ashes 4–1, Bodyline caused such a furore in Australia that diplomats had to intervene to prevent serious harm to Anglo-Australian relations, and the MCC eventually changed the Laws of cricket to curtail the number of leg side fielders.
Jardine's comment was: "I've not travelled 6,000 miles to make friends. I'm here to win the Ashes".<ref>{{cite news | urlhttp://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/more_sport/article2387560.ece | locationLondon | workThe Times | titleTop 50 British achievements | firstPatrick | lastKidd | date4 September 2007 | url-statusdead | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080821160249/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/more_sport/article2387560.ece | archive-date21 August 2008}}</ref>
Some of the Australians wanted to use Bodyline in retaliation, but Woodfull flatly refused. He famously told England manager Pelham Warner, "There are two teams out there. One is playing cricket; the other is making no attempt to do so" after the latter had come into the Australian rooms to express sympathy after a Larwood bouncer had struck the Australian skipper in the heart and felled him.<ref>{{Cite book| author Cashman| author2 Franks| author3 Maxwell| author4 Sainsbury| author5 Stoddart| author6 Weaver| author7 Webster | date 1997 | title The A-Z of Australian cricketers|pages 322–323}}</ref>
1934 to 1953
On the batting-friendly wickets that prevailed in the late 1930s, most Tests up to the Second World War still gave results. It should be borne in mind that Tests in Australia prior to the war were all played to a finish, with many batting records set during this period. {{Citation needed|date=April 2021}}
The 1934 Ashes series began with the notable absence of Larwood, Voce and Jardine. The MCC had made it clear, in light of the revelations of the bodyline series, that these players would not face Australia. The MCC, although it had earlier condoned and encouraged<ref>{{Cite book|lastFrith|firstDavid|titleBodyline autopsy: the full story of the most sensational test cricket series: Australia vs England 1932-33|publisherABC Books for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation|year2002|isbn0733311725|locationSydney|pages47}}</ref> bodyline tactics in the 1932–33 series, laid the blame on Larwood when relations turned sour. Larwood was forced by the MCC to either apologise or be removed from the Test side. He went for the latter.
Australia recovered the Ashes in 1934 and held them until 1953, though no Test cricket was played during the Second World War.
As in 1930, the 1934 series was decided in the final Test at The Oval. Australia, batting first, posted a massive 701 in the first innings. Bradman (244) and Ponsford (266) were in record-breaking form with a partnership of 451 for the second wicket. England eventually faced a massive 707-run target for victory and failed, Australia winning the series 2–1.<ref>Harte, pp. 356–357.</ref> This made Woodfull the only captain to regain the Ashes and he retired upon his return to Australia.
In 1936–37 Bradman succeeded Woodfull as Australian captain. He started badly, losing the first two Tests heavily after Australia were caught on sticky wickets. However, the Australians fought back and Bradman won his first series in charge 3–2.
The 1938 series was a high-scoring affair with two high-scoring draws, resulting in a 1–1 result, Australia retaining the Ashes. After the first two matches ended in stalemate and the Third Test at Old Trafford never started due to rain, Australia then scraped home by five wickets inside three days in a low-scoring match at Headingley to retain the urn. In the timeless Fifth Test at The Oval, the highlight was Len Hutton's then world-record score of 364 as England made 903-7 declared. Bradman and Jack Fingleton injured themselves during Hutton's marathon effort, and with only nine men, Australia fell to defeat by an innings and 579 runs,<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/cricket/england/6109836.stm |titleClassic Ashes clashes – 1938, The Oval |websiteBBC Sport |date5 November 2006 |access-date12 June 2023 |archive-date2 April 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402131542/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/england/6109836.stm|url-statuslive}}</ref> the heaviest in Test history.
The Ashes resumed after the war when England toured in 1946–47 and, as in 1920–21, found that Australia had made the better post-war recovery. Still captained by Bradman and now featuring the potent new-ball partnership of Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller, Australia were convincing 3–0 winners.
Aged 38 and having been unwell during the war, Bradman had been reluctant to play. He batted unconvincingly and reached 28 when he hit a ball to Jack Ikin; England believed it was a catch, but Bradman stood his ground, believing it to be a bump ball. The umpire ruled in the Australian captain's favour and he appeared to regain his fluency of yesteryear, scoring 187. Australia promptly seized the initiative, won the First Test convincingly and inaugurated a dominant post-war era. The controversy over the Ikin catch was one of the biggest disputes of the era.
In 1948, Australia set new standards, completely outplaying its hosts to win 4–0 with one draw. This Australian team, led by Bradman, who turned 40 during his final tour of England, has gone down in history as The Invincibles. Playing 34 matches on tour—three of which were not first-class—and including the five Tests, they remained unbeaten, winning 27 and drawing 7.
Bradman's men were greeted by packed crowds across the country, and records for Test attendances in England were set in the Second and Fourth Tests at Lord's and Headingley respectively. Before a record attendance of spectators at Headingley, Australia set a world record by chasing down 404 on the last day for a seven-wicket victory.
The 1948 series ended with one of the most poignant moments in cricket history, as Bradman played his final innings for Australia in the Fifth Test at The Oval, needing to score only four runs to end with a career batting average of exactly 100. However, Bradman made a second-ball duck, bowled by an Eric Hollies googly<ref>{{Cite news|date27 May 2009|title1948 – Bradman's final innings duck|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/8036237.stm|websiteBBC Sport|access-date12 June 2023|archive-date2 April 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150402185229/http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/8036237.stm|url-statuslive}}</ref> that sent him into retirement with a career average of 99.94.
Bradman was succeeded as Australian captain by Lindsay Hassett, who led the team to a 4–1 series victory in 1950–51. The series was not as one-sided as the number of wins suggest, with several tight matches.
The tide finally turned in 1953 when England won the final Test at The Oval to take the series 1–0, having narrowly avoided defeat in the preceding Test at Headingley. This was the beginning of one of the greatest periods in English cricket history with players such as captain Len Hutton, batsmen Denis Compton, Peter May, Tom Graveney, Colin Cowdrey, bowlers Fred Trueman, Brian Statham, Alec Bedser, Jim Laker, Tony Lock, wicket-keeper Godfrey Evans and all-rounder Trevor Bailey.
1954 to 1971
driving Bill Johnston on his way to a century at Sydney.]]
In 1954–55, Australia's batsmen had no answer to the pace of Frank Tyson and Statham. After winning the First Test by an innings after being controversially sent in by Hutton, Australia lost its way and England took a hat-trick of victories to win the series 3–1.<ref>Harte, pp. 435–437.</ref>
A dramatic series in 1956 saw a record that will probably never be beaten: off-spinner Jim Laker's monumental effort at Old Trafford when he bowled 68 of 191 overs to take 19 out of 20 possible Australian wickets in the Fourth Test.<ref>Harte, pp. 444–446.</ref> It was Australia's second consecutive innings defeat in a wet summer, and the hosts were in strong positions in the two drawn Tests, in which half the playing time was washed out. Bradman rated the team that won the series 2–1 as England's best ever.
England's dominance was not to last. Australia won 4–0 in 1958–59, having found a high-quality spinner of their own in new skipper Richie Benaud, who took 31 wickets in the five-Test series, and paceman Alan Davidson, who took 24 wickets at 19.00. The series was overshadowed by the furore over various Australian bowlers, most notably Ian Meckiff, whom the English management and media accused of illegally throwing Australia to victory.
In 1961, Australia won a hard-fought series 2–1, their first Ashes series win in England for 13 years. After narrowly winning the Second Test at Lord's, dubbed "The Battle of the Ridge" because of a protrusion on the pitch that caused erratic bounce, Australia mounted a comeback on the final day of the Fourth Test at Old Trafford and sealed the series with Richie Benaud taking 6-70 during the English runchase.
The tempo of the play changed over the next four series in the 1960s, held in 1962–63, 1964, 1965–66 and 1968. The powerful array of bowlers that both countries boasted in the preceding decade moved into retirement, and their replacements were of lesser quality, making it more difficult to force a result. England failed to win any series during the 1960s, a period dominated by draws as teams found it more prudent to save face than risk losing. Of the 20 Tests played during the four series, Australia won four and England three. As they held the Ashes, Australia's captains Bob Simpson and Bill Lawry were happy to adopt safety-first tactics and their strategy of sedate batting saw many draws. During this period, spectator attendances dropped and media condemnation increased, but Simpson and Lawry flatly disregarded the public dissatisfaction.
It was in the 1960s that the bipolar dominance of England and Australia in world cricket was seriously challenged for the first time. West Indies defeated England twice in the mid-1960s and South Africa, in two series before they were banned for apartheid, completely outplayed Australia 3–1 and 4–0. Australia had lost 2–1 during a tour of the West Indies in 1964–65, the first time it had lost a series to any team other than England.
In 1970–71, Ray Illingworth led England to a 2–0 win in Australia, mainly due to John Snow's fast bowling, and the prolific batting of Geoffrey Boycott and John Edrich. It was not until the last session of what was the 7th Test (one match having been abandoned without a ball bowled) that England's success was secured. Lawry was sacked after the Sixth Test after the selectors finally lost patience with Australia's lack of success and dour strategy. Lawry was not informed of the decision privately and heard his fate over the radio.<ref>Harte, pp. 526–530.</ref>
1972 to 1987
The 1972 series finished 2–2, with England under Illingworth retaining the Ashes.<ref>Harte, pp. 538–540.</ref>
In the 1974–75 series, with the England team breaking up and their best batsman Geoff Boycott refusing to play, Australian pace bowlers Jeff Thomson and Dennis Lillee wreaked havoc. A 4–1 result was a fair reflection as England were left shell shocked.<ref>Harte, pp. 557–559.</ref> England then lost the 1975 series 0–1, but at least restored some pride under new captain Tony Greig.<ref>Harte, pp. 561–563.</ref>
Australia won the 1977 Centenary Test<ref>Harte, pp. 580–581.</ref> which was not an Ashes contest, but then a storm broke as Kerry Packer announced his intention to form World Series Cricket.<ref>Harte, pp. 579–590</ref> WSC affected all Test-playing nations but it weakened Australia especially as the bulk of its players had signed up with Packer; the Australian Cricket Board (ACB) would not select WSC-contracted players and an almost completely new Test team had to be formed. WSC came after an era during which the duopoly of Australian and English dominance dissipated; the Ashes had long been seen as a cricket world championship but the rise of the West Indies in the late 1970s challenged that view. The West Indies would go on to record resounding Test series wins over Australia and England and dominated world cricket until the 1990s.
With Greig having joined WSC, England appointed Mike Brearley as its captain and he enjoyed great success against Australia. Largely assisted by the return of Boycott, Brearley's men won the 1977 series 3–0 and then completed an overwhelming 5–1 series win against an Australian side missing its WSC players in 1978–79. Allan Border made his Test debut for Australia in 1978–79.
Brearley retired from Test cricket in 1980 and was succeeded by Ian Botham, who started the 1981 series as England captain, by which time the WSC split had ended. After Australia took a 1–0 lead in the first two Tests, Botham was forced to resign or was sacked (depending on the source). Brearley surprisingly agreed to be reappointed before the Third Test at Headingley. This was a remarkable match in which Australia looked certain to take a 2–0 series lead after it had forced England to follow-on 227 runs behind. England, despite being 135 for 7, produced a second innings total of 356, Botham scoring 149*. Chasing just 130, Australia were sensationally dismissed for 111, Bob Willis taking 8–43. It was the first time since 1894–95 that a team following on had won a Test match. Under Brearley's leadership, England went on to win the next two matches before a drawn final match at The Oval.<ref>Harte, pp. 627–628.</ref> This series became known as 'Botham's Ashes' for his extraordinary feats with both bat and ball, after being dismissed as captain.
In 1982–83 Australia had Greg Chappell back from WSC as captain, while the England team was weakened by the enforced omission of their South African tour rebels, particularly Graham Gooch and John Emburey. Australia went 2–0 up after three Tests, but England won the Fourth Test by 3 runs (after a 70-run last wicket stand) to set up the final decider, which was drawn.<ref>Harte, pp. 636–637.</ref>
In 1985, David Gower's England team was strengthened by the return of Gooch and Emburey as well as the emergence at international level of Tim Robinson and Mike Gatting. Australia, now captained by Allan Border, had itself been weakened by a rebel South African tour, the loss of Terry Alderman being a particular factor. England won 3–1.
Despite suffering heavy defeats against the West Indies during the 1980s, England continued to do well in the Ashes. Mike Gatting was the captain in 1986–87 but his team started badly and attracted some criticism.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttp://content-aus.cricinfo.com/columns/content/story/268042.html | titleCan't bat, can't bowl, can't field | publisherCricinfo | lastMiller | firstAndrew | author2Martin Williamson | date16 November 2006 | access-date8 November 2007 | archive-date15 October 2007 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071015131726/http://content-aus.cricinfo.com/columns/content/story/268042.html | url-statuslive }}</ref> Then Chris Broad scored three hundreds in successive Tests and bowling successes from Graham Dilley and Gladstone Small meant England won the series 2–1.<ref>Harte, pp. 662–664.</ref>1989 to 2005
Boxing Day Test 1998]]
The Australian team of 1989 was comparable to the great Australian teams of the past, and resoundingly defeated England 4–0.<ref>Harte, pp. 679–682.</ref> Well led by Allan Border, the team included the young cricketers Mark Taylor, Merv Hughes, David Boon, Ian Healy and Steve Waugh, who were all to prove long-serving and successful Ashes competitors. England, now led once again by David Gower, suffered from injuries and poor form. During the Fourth Test news broke that prominent England players had agreed to take part in a "rebel tour" of South Africa the following winter; three of them (Tim Robinson, Neil Foster and John Emburey) were playing in the match, and were subsequently dropped from the England side.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://content-www.cricinfo.com/wisdencricketer/content/story/139086.html|titleRebels take a step too far (English rebel tour to South Africa, 1989)|firstNick|lastHoult|publisherCricinfo|dateJuly 2004|access-date22 October 2007|archive-date7 July 2012|archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20120707220351/http://content-www.cricinfo.com/wisdencricketer/content/story/139086.html|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Australia reached a cricketing peak in the 1990s and early 2000s, coupled with a general decline in England's fortunes. After re-establishing its credibility in 1989, Australia underlined its superiority with victories in the 1990–91, 1993, 1994–95, 1997, 1998–99, 2001 and 2002–03 series, all by convincing margins.
Great Australian players in the early years included batsmen Border, Boon, Taylor and Steve Waugh. The captaincy passed from Border to Taylor in the mid-1990s and then to Steve Waugh before the 2001 series. In the latter part of the 1990s Waugh himself, along with his twin brother Mark, scored heavily for Australia and fast bowlers Glenn McGrath and Jason Gillespie made a serious impact, especially the former. The wicketkeeper-batsman position was held by Ian Healy for most of the 1990s and by Adam Gilchrist from 2001 to 2006–07. In the 2000s, batsmen Justin Langer, Damien Martyn and Matthew Hayden became noted players for Australia. But the most dominant Australian player was leg-spinner Shane Warne, whose first delivery in Ashes cricket in 1993, to dismiss Mike Gatting, became known as the Ball of the Century.
Australia's record between 1989 and 2005 had a significant impact on the statistics between the two sides. Before the 1989 series began, the win–loss ratio was almost even, with 87 test wins for Australia to England's 86, 74 tests having been drawn.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://stats.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/stats/index.html?class1;filteradvanced;opposition1;orderbywon;spanmax21+Apr+1989;spanval2span;team2;templateresults;trophy1;typeteam |titleTeam records &#124; Test matches &#124; Cricinfo Statsguru &#124; ESPN Cricinfo |publisherStats.cricinfo.com |access-date22 July 2013}}</ref> By the 2005 series Australia's test wins had increased to 115 whereas England's had increased to only 93 (with 82 draws).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://stats.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/stats/index.html?class1;filteradvanced;opposition1;orderbywon;spanmax21+Apr+2005;spanval2span;team2;templateresults;trophy1;typeteam |titleTeam records &#124; Test matches &#124; Cricinfo Statsguru &#124; ESPN Cricinfo |publisherStats.cricinfo.com |access-date22 July 2013}}</ref> In the period between 1989 and the beginning of the 2005 series, the two sides had played 43 times; Australia winning 28 times, England 7 times, with 8 draws. Only a single England victory had come in a match in which the Ashes were still at stake, namely the First Test of the 1997 series. All others were consolation victories when the Ashes had been secured by Australia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://stats.cricinfo.com/guru?sdbteam;teamAUS;classtestteam;filterbasic;oppositionENG;notopposition0;decade0;homeaway0;continent0;country0;notcountry0;groundid0;season0;startdefault1877-03-15;start1877-03-15;enddefault2005-03-29;end2005-03-29;tourneyid0;finals0;daynight0;toss0;scheduledovers0;scheduleddays0;innings0;followon0;result0;seriesresult0;captainid0;recent;viewtypeseries;runslow;runshigh;wicketslow;wicketshigh;ballslow;ballshigh;overslow;overshigh;bpo0;batevent;conclow;conchigh;takenlow;takenhigh;ballsbowledlow;ballsbowledhigh;oversbowledlow;oversbowledhigh;bpobowled0;bowlevent;submit1;.cgifieldsviewtype |titleCricinfo – Statsguru – Australia – Tests – Series record |publisherStats.cricinfo.com |date17 June 2008 |access-date22 July 2013}}</ref>2005 to 2015
reaches 100 at Trent Bridge in 2005]]
England were undefeated in Test matches through the 2004 calendar year. This elevated them to second in the ICC Test Championship. Hopes that the 2005 Ashes series would be closely fought proved well-founded, the series remaining undecided as the closing session of the final Test began. Experienced journalists including Richie Benaud rated the series as the most exciting in living memory. It has been compared with the great series of the distant past, such as 1894–95 and 1902.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://sport.y2u.co.uk/Cricket/Cricket_The_Ashes.htm|titleTHE ASHES, a battle of wills between English and Australian Cricket|websitesport.y2u.co.uk|access-date2017-01-16|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160104233724/http://sport.y2u.co.uk/Cricket/Cricket_The_Ashes.htm|archive-date4 January 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The First Test at Lord's was convincingly won by Australia, but in the remaining four matches the teams were evenly matched and England fought back to win the Second Test by 2 runs, the smallest winning margin in Ashes history, and the second-smallest in all Tests. The rain-affected Third Test ended with the last two Australian batsmen holding out for a draw; and England won the Fourth Test by three wickets after forcing Australia to follow-on for the first time in 191 Tests. A draw in the final Test gave England victory in an Ashes series for the first time in 18 years and their first Ashes victory at home since 1985.
Australia regained the Ashes on its home turf in the 2006–07 series with a convincing 5–0 victory, only the second time an Ashes series had been won by that margin. Shane Warne, Glenn McGrath and Justin Langer retired from Test cricket after that series, while Damien Martyn retired during the series.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://content-usa.cricinfo.com/australia/content/player/6513.html|titleDamien Martyn|publishercricinfo|access-date17 February 2008|archive-date7 February 2009|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090207001217/http://content-usa.cricinfo.com/australia/content/player/6513.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
bowls Michael Beer to complete England's 3–1 Ashes victory on 7 January 2011]]
The 2009 series began with a tense draw in the First Test at SWALEC Stadium in Cardiff, with England's last-wicket batsmen James Anderson and Monty Panesar surviving 69 balls. England then achieved its first Ashes win at Lord's since 1934 to go 1–0 up. After a rain-affected draw at Edgbaston, the fourth match at Headingley was convincingly won by Australia by an innings and 80 runs to level the series. Finally, England won the Fifth Test at The Oval by a margin of 197 runs to regain the Ashes. Andrew Flintoff retired from Test cricket soon afterwards.
The 2010–11 series was played in Australia. The First Test at Brisbane ended in a draw, but England won the Second Test, at Adelaide, by an innings and 71 runs. Australia came back with a victory at Perth in the Third Test. In the Fourth Test at Melbourne Cricket Ground, England batting second scored 513 to defeat Australia (98 and 258) by an innings and 157 runs. This gave England an unbeatable 2–1 lead in the series and so it retained the Ashes. England went on to win the series 3–1, beating Australia by an innings and 83 runs at Sydney in the Fifth Test, including their highest innings total since 1938 (644). England's series victory was its first on Australian soil for 24 years. The 2010–11 Ashes series was the only one in which a team had won three Tests by innings margins and it was the first time England had scored 500 or more four times in a single series. England opener Cook scored 766 runs at average 127.66 in the series, the most dominant batsman in an Ashes series since Bradman in 1930.
Australia's build-up to the 2013 Ashes series was far from ideal. Darren Lehmann took over as coach from Mickey Arthur<ref>{{Cite news |date24 June 2013 |titleAshes 2013: Darren Lehmann replaces Mickey Arthur as Australia coach; Clarke steps down as selector |workABC News|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-24/lehmann-named-australian-coach/4777030|access-date12 June 2023|archive-date23 February 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230223034811/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2013-06-24/lehmann-named-australian-coach/4777030|url-statuslive}}</ref> following a string of poor results. A batting line-up weakened by the previous year's retirements of former captain Ricky Ponting and Mike Hussey was also shorn of opener David Warner, who was suspended for the start of the series following an off-field incident.<ref>{{cite news |titleAshes 2013: David Warner set for southern Africa match practice |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/23261135 |workBBC Sport |date10 July 2013 |access-date11 July 2013 |archive-date10 July 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130710225656/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/23261135 |url-statuslive }}</ref> England won a closely fought First Test by 14 runs, despite 19-year-old debutant Ashton Agar making a world-record 98 for a number 11 in the first innings. England then won a very one-sided Second Test by 347 runs while the rain-affected Third Test, held at a newly refurbished Old Trafford, was drawn, ensuring that England retained the Ashes.<ref>{{cite news |lastSheringham |firstSam |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/23579840 |titleAshes 2013: England retain Ashes as rain forces Old Trafford draw |workBBC Sport |date5 August 2013 |access-date17 August 2013 |archive-date12 August 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130812110007/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/23579840 |url-statuslive }}</ref> England won the Fourth Test by 74 runs after Australia lost their last eight second-innings wickets for only 86 runs. The final Test was drawn,<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/23836394 |titleAshes 2013: Ashes 2013: England win series 3–0 after bad light ends Oval Test |workBBC Sport |date25 August 2013 |access-date29 August 2013 |archive-date28 August 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130828061619/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/cricket/23836394 |url-statuslive }}</ref> giving England a 3–0 series win.
In the second of two Ashes series held in 2013 (the series ended in 2014), this time hosted by Australia, the home team won the series five test matches to nil. This was the third time Australia has completed a clean sweep (or "whitewash") in Ashes history, a feat never matched by England. All six Australian specialist batsmen scored more runs than any Englishman with 10 centuries among them, with only debutant Ben Stokes scoring a century for England. Mitchell Johnson took 37 English wickets at 13.97 and Ryan Harris 22 wickets at 19.31 in the 5-Test series.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/708507.html;typeseries|titleThe best series for fast bowlers|workCricinfo|date10 January 2014|access-date3 September 2017|url-statusdead|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151109234522/http://www.espncricinfo.com/magazine/content/story/708507.html|archive-date=9 November 2015}}</ref> Only Stuart Broad and all-rounder Stokes bowled effectively for England, with their spinner Graeme Swann retiring due to a chronic elbow injury after the decisive Third Test.
Australia came into the 2015 Ashes series in England as favourites to retain the Ashes. Although England won the first Test in Cardiff, Australia won comfortably in the second Test at Lords. In the next two Tests, the Australian batsmen struggled, being bowled out for 136 in the first innings at Edgbaston, with England proceeding to win by eight wickets. This was followed by Australia being bowled out for 60 as Stuart Broad took 8 for 15 in the first innings at Trent Bridge, the quickest – in terms of balls faced – a team has been bowled out in the first innings of a Test match. With victory by an innings and 78 runs on the morning of the third day of the Fourth Test, England regained the Ashes.
2017 to present
During the buildup, the 2017–18 Ashes series was regarded as a turning point for both sides. Australia were criticised for being too reliant on captain Steve Smith and vice-captain David Warner, while England was said to have a shoddy middle to lower order.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/97160/australia-cricket-team-over-reliant-on-steve-smith-david-warner-feels-michael-slater |titleAustralia over-reliant on Smith, Warner, feels Slater |websiteCricBuzz |date18 September 2017 |access-date2 May 2020 |archive-date13 August 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210813144424/https://www.cricbuzz.com/cricket-news/97160/australia-cricket-team-over-reliant-on-steve-smith-david-warner-feels-michael-slater |url-statuslive }}</ref> Off the field, England all-rounder Ben Stokes was ruled out of the side indefinitely due to a police investigation.
Australia won the first Test match in Brisbane by 10 wickets<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/42132855|titleAshes: Australia beat England by 10 wickets in first Test|workBBC Sport|date27 November 2017|access-date19 June 2018|archive-date19 June 2018|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180619161907/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/42132855|url-statuslive}}</ref> and the second Test at Adelaide by 120 runs in the first ever day-night Ashes test match. Australia regained The Ashes with an innings and 41 run win in the third Test at Perth; the final Ashes Test at the WACA Ground.<ref name"reclaim">{{Cite news |urlhttp://www.cricket.com.au/news/match-report/day-five-australia-england-third-magellan-ashes-test-video-highlights-live-scores-stream-waca/2017-12-18 |titleRuthless Australia regain the Ashes |workCricket Australia |access-date18 December 2017 |archive-date26 January 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180126190949/http://www.cricket.com.au/news/match-report/day-five-australia-england-third-magellan-ashes-test-video-highlights-live-scores-stream-waca/2017-12-18 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Prior to the 2019 Ashes series, both teams were considered to have very strong bowling attacks but struggling batting orders. Australia had its top-order batsmen David Warner, Steve Smith and Cameron Bancroft available for international selection after being banned from international cricket for 9–12 months following the ball-tampering scandal in South Africa, during which time India had won its first ever Test series in Australia.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.icc-cricket.com/news/969301 |titleIndia secure historic series victory |workInternational Cricket Council |access-date24 July 2019 |archive-date7 January 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190107232946/https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/969301 |url-statuslive }}</ref> However, Australia recovered to win the Test series against Sri Lanka 2–0.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.icc-cricket.com/news/1047647 |titleStarc takes ten as Australia sweep series |workInternational Cricket Council |access-date24 July 2019 |archive-date4 February 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190204174352/https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/1047647 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Despite winning the Cricket World Cup in July 2019 for the first time, England had also been criticised for its fragile top-order in Tests. The retirement of opener Alastair Cook in August 2018 ensured potential top-order batsmen Rory Burns, Joe Denly and Jason Roy were able to secure a place in the side. Despite losing a Test series 2–1 in their tour of the West Indies,<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/47217347 |titleEngland in West Indies: Tourists claim consolation 232-run victory as hosts win series 2-1 |workBBC Sport |access-date12 February 2019 |archive-date12 February 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190212210303/https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/cricket/47217347 |url-status=live }}</ref> England then improved to win the one-off Test against Ireland, by 143 runs. The 2019 series was eventually drawn 2–2, with Australia retaining the Ashes.
The 2021-22 Ashes series was played from December 2021 through January 2022,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.cricket.com.au/news/2021-2022-summer-of-cricket-schedule-fixture-season-australia-ashes-dates-venues-england-india/2021-05-19 |titleFixture confirmed for dual Ashes series, Afghan Test |workCricket Australia |access-date19 May 2021 |archive-date18 May 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210518203135/https://www.cricket.com.au/news/2021-2022-summer-of-cricket-schedule-fixture-season-australia-ashes-dates-venues-england-india/2021-05-19 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and featured the first Ashes Test match to be played in Tasmania, at Hobart's Bellerive Oval.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-14/tasmanians-celebrate-fifth-ashes-test-beginning-in-hobart/100757020|titleTasmanians gather to watch historic fifth Ashes Test at Bellerive Oval in Hobart|date14 January 2022|access-date17 January 2022|publisherABC News|archive-date17 January 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220117011141/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-14/tasmanians-celebrate-fifth-ashes-test-beginning-in-hobart/100757020|url-status=live}}</ref> Australia retained the Ashes in the 2021–22 Ashes series, after comfortably beating England 4–0.
England were the hosts of the five Test matches of the 2023 Ashes series. The series got off to a good start for Australia as they won the first two Tests to go 0–2 up. The hosts won the third Test to put the series at 1-2 for the visitors. England needed to win the fourth Test in a hope to not only level the series but prevent Australia from retaining the Ashes. The match looked good for England to win, but rain intervened on the last two days and forced a draw, thus Australia retained the Ashes with the series at 1–2 after four Tests.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAustralia retain Ashes after fourth test washout |urlhttps://supersport.com/cricket/england-v-australia-the-ashes-2023/news/636db311-c468-424b-b952-a6ee74799793/australia-retain-ashes-after-fourth-test-washout |access-date2023-08-01 |websiteSuperSport |languageen}}</ref> The fifth and final Test was played at The Oval. During the contest Stuart Broad announced that he would retire from cricket at the end of the match.<ref>{{Cite web |titleWorld reacts to stunning Stuart Broad retirement news |urlhttps://www.icc-cricket.com/news/3610356 |access-date2023-08-01 |websitewww.icc-cricket.com |languageen}}</ref> England went on to win the final Test match to draw the series at 2-2.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Ashes {{!}} 2023 The Ashes {{!}} Live Score, Schedule, News |urlhttps://www.espncricinfo.com/series/the-ashes-2023-1336037 |access-date2023-08-01 |websiteESPNcricinfo |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titleWorld reacts to thrilling drawn Ashes series |urlhttps://www.icc-cricket.com/news/3612212 |access-date2023-08-01 |websitewww.icc-cricket.com |languageen}}</ref>
Summary of results and statistics
{{for|a full listing of all the Ashes series since 1882|List of Ashes series}}
In the 140 years since 1883, Australia have held the Ashes for approximately 84.5 years, and England for 55.5 years:
{{Ashes timeline}}
Test results, up to and including 31 July 2023:<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://stats.cricinfo.com/statsguru/engine/stats/index.html?class1;filteradvanced;opposition1;orderbywon;team2;templateresults;trophy1;typeteam |titleTeam records &#124; Test matches |publisherStats.cricinfo.com |access-date18 October 2022 |url-statuslive |archive-date12 June 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230612092214/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class1;filteradvanced;opposition1;orderbywon;team2;templateresults;trophy1;typeteam}}</ref>{{refn|groupnote|Australia and England have played an additional 16 Tests: nine prior to the Ashes, and a further 7 where the Ashes were not at stake. Including these Tests, the win–loss record stands at 152 Australian wins, 111 English wins, and 97 draws (up to and including the 4th Test of the 2023 series).<ref>{{Cite web |titleTeam records &#124; Test matches |urlhttp://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class1;filteradvanced;opposition1;orderbywon;team2;templateresults;typeteam|access-date23 February 2023 |publisherStats.cricinfo.com |archive-date23 February 2023|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230223034915/http://stats.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/stats/index.html?class1;filteradvanced;opposition1;orderbywon;team2;templateresults;typeteam|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
{|classwikitable style"text-align:center"
|+ Overall Test Results
! scope="col" | Tests played
! scope="col" | {{flagicon|AUS}} Australia wins
! scope="col" | {{flagicon|ENG}} England wins
! scope="col" | Draws
|-
| 361 || 152 || 111 || 98
|-
|}
Series results, up to and including 31 July 2023:
{|classwikitable style"text-align:center"
|+ Overall Series Results
! scope="col" | Series played
! scope="col" | {{flagicon|AUS}} Australia wins
! scope="col" | {{flagicon|ENG}} England wins
! scope="col" | Draws
|-
| 73 || 34 || 32 || 7
|-
|}
A team must win a series to gain the right to hold the Ashes. A drawn series results in the previous holders retaining the Ashes. Ashes series have generally been played over five Test matches, although there have been four-match series (1938 and 1975) and six-match series (1970–71, 1974–75, 1978–79, 1981, 1985, 1989, 1993 and 1997). Australians have made 264 centuries in Ashes Tests, of which 23 have been scores over 200, while Englishmen have scored 212 centuries, of which 10 have been over 200. Australians have taken 10 wickets in a match on 41 occasions, Englishmen 38 times.{{citation needed|dateAugust 2013}}Match venues
The series alternates between England (and Wales) and Australia, and each match of a series is held at a different ground.
{{location map+|Australia|floatright|width500|captionLocations of all Ashes tests within Australia, Manuka Oval is the only current Test Ground in Australia not to hold an Ashes Test. Perth Stadium was due to hold the fifth Test in 2021–22, but due to the COVID-19 pandemic it was played at Bellerive Oval.|places
{{location map~|Australia|label<small>MCG</small>|positionright|lat-37.82|long144.9834}}
{{location map~|Australia|label<small>SCG</small>|positionright|lat-33.89151|long151.22518}}
{{location map~|Australia|label<small>The Gabba/<s>Brisbane Exhibition Ground</s></small>|positionleft|lat-27.4858376|long153.0380853}}
{{location map~|Australia|label<small>Adelaide Oval</small>|positionleft|lat-34.9166072|long138.596565}}
{{location map~|Australia|label<small><s>WACA</s></small>|positionleft|lat-31.9530044|long115.8574693}}
{{location map~|Australia|label<small>Bellerive Oval</small>|positionright|lat-42.877566|long147.373505}}
{{location map~|Australia|label<small>Perth Stadium</small>|positionright|lat-31.574|long115.53205}}
{{location map~|Australia|label<small>Manuka Oval</small>|positionright|lat-35.3191676|long149.1336799}}
}}
{{location map+|England|AlternativeMapEngland and Wales location map.svg|floatright|width500|captionLocations of all Ashes tests within England and Wales, The Rose Bowl is the only current Test Ground in England not to hold an Ashes Test.|places{{location map~|England|label<small><s>Bramall Lane</s></small>|positionright|lat53.370278|long=-1.470833}}
{{location map~|England|label<small>Edgbaston</small>|positionleft|lat52.455814|long-1.902489}}
{{location map~|England|label<small>Headingley</small>|positionright|lat53.816353|long-1.582172}}
{{location map~|England|label<small>The Oval</small>|positionright|lat51.483719|long-0.114981}}
{{location map~|England|label<small>Lord's</small>|positiontop|lat51.5294|long-0.1727}}
{{location map~|England|label<small>Old Trafford</small>|positionleft|lat53.456347|long-2.286761}}
{{location map~|England|label<small>The Riverside</small>|positionright|lat54.849644|long-1.560706}}
{{location map~|England|label<small>Sophia Gardens</small>|positionleft|lat51.487222|long-3.191389}}
{{location map~|England|label<small>Trent Bridge</small>|positionright|lat52.95 |long-1.133333}}
{{location map~|England|label<small>The Rose Bowl</small>|positionbottom|lat50.924|long-1.3219}}
}}
Australia
In Australia, the grounds currently used are The Gabba in Brisbane (first staged an England–Australia Test in the 1932–33 season), Adelaide Oval (1884–85), the Melbourne Cricket Ground (MCG) (1876–77), and the Sydney Cricket Ground (SCG) (1881–82). A single Test was held at the Brisbane Exhibition Ground in 1928–29. Traditionally, Melbourne hosts the Boxing Day Test and Sydney hosts the New Year's Day Test.
Additionally the WACA in Perth (1970–71) hosted its final Ashes Test in 2017–18 and was due to be replaced by Perth Stadium for the 2021–22 series. However, Western Australian border restrictions and quarantine requirements during the COVID-19 pandemic led to a change in venue for the final Ashes Test to Bellerive Oval in Hobart. This was the first Ashes Test match to be held in Tasmania.
Cricket Australia proposed that the 2010–11 series consist of six Tests, with the additional game to be played at Bellerive Oval in Hobart. The England and Wales Cricket Board declined and the series was played over five Tests.
England
In England and Wales, the grounds currently used are: Old Trafford in Manchester (1884), The Oval in Kennington, South London (1884); Lord's in St John's Wood, North London (1884); Headingley in Leeds (1899) and Edgbaston in Birmingham (1902). Additionally Sophia Gardens in Cardiff, Wales (2009); the Riverside Ground in Chester-le-Street, County Durham (2013) and Trent Bridge at West Bridgford (1899), have been used and one Test was also held at Bramall Lane in Sheffield in 1902. Traditionally the final Test of the series is played at the Oval.
Sophia Gardens and the Riverside were excluded as Test grounds between the years of 2020 and 2031 and therefore will not host an Ashes Test until at least 2035. The ECB announced the 2027 and 2031 Ashes series venues will be held at Lord's (2027 and 2031), The Oval (2027 and 2031), Edgbaston (2027), Trent Bridge (2027 and 2031), The Rose Bowl (2027), Old Trafford (2031) and Headingley (2031).<ref>[https://www.kiaoval.com/england-cricket-major-match-venues-for-2025-31-announced/ Kia Oval]</ref>
{|
|-
| * || Including abandoned tests
|-
| † || County cricket clubs who play at the grounds
|-
| ‡ || Former grounds which no longer host Test Matches
|}
{{sticky header}}{{table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable sticky-header defaultcenter col1left col2left"
|+ In Australia
! scope="col"| Stadium
! scope="col"| State
! scope="col"| First Test
! scope="col"| Last Test
! scope="colgroup"| Played
! scope"col" colspan2|{{cr|Australia}} wins
! scope="col"| Draws*
! scope"colgroup" colspan2|{{cr|England}} wins
! scope="col"| Ref
|-
| MCG, Melbourne
| {{flag|Victoria}}
| 1882–83
| 2021–22
| 51
| 25
| 2021
| 7
| 19
| 2010
| <ref>{{cite web|titleMelbourne Cricket Ground|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56441.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209195116/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56441.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| SCG, Sydney
| {{flag|New South Wales}}
| 1882–83
| 2021–22
| 52
| 23
| 2018
| 7
| 22
| 2011
| <ref>{{cite web|titleSydney Cricket Ground|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56544.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209152929/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56544.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| Adelaide Oval, Adelaide
| {{flag|South Australia}}
| 1884–85
| 2021–22
| 33
| 19
| 2021
| 5
| 9
| 2010
| <ref>{{cite web|titleAdelaide Oval|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56293.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209195445/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56293.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|- bgcolor=LightGrey
| align=left|Brisbane Exhibition Ground, Brisbane‡
| align=left|{{flag|Queensland}}
| 1928–29
| 1928–29
| 1
| 0
| –
| 0
| 1
| 1928
| <ref>{{cite web|titleBrisbane Exhibition Ground|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56338.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209152917/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56338.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| The Gabba, Brisbane
| {{flag|Queensland}}
| 1932–33
| 2021–22
| 22
| 13
| 2021
| 5
| 4
| 1986
| <ref>{{cite web|titleThe Gabba|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56336.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209152905/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56336.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|- bgcolor=LightGrey
| WACA Ground, Perth‡
| {{flag|Western Australia}}
| 1970–71
| 2017–18
| 13
| 9
| 2017
| 3
| 1
| 1978
| <ref>{{cite web|titleWACA Ground|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56490.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209153709/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56490.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| Bellerive Oval, Hobart
| {{flag|Tasmania}}
| 2021–22
| 2021–22
| 1
| 1
| 2021
| 0
| 0
| –
| <ref>{{cite web|titleBellerive Oval|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56407.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date21 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211221165112/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56407.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
|}
{{sticky header}}{{table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable sticky-header defaultcenter col1left col2left"
|+ In England and Wales
! scope="col"| Stadium
! scope="col"| County†
! scope="col"| First Test
! scope="col"| Last Test
! scope="col"| Played
! scope"colgroup" colspan2|{{cr|England}} wins
! scope="col"| Draws*
! scope"colgroup" colspan2|{{cr|Australia}} wins
! scope="col"| Ref
|-
| Old Trafford, Manchester
| {{flag|Lancashire}}
| 1884
| 2023
| 33
| 7
| 1981
| 18
| 8
| 2019
| <ref>{{cite web|titleOld Trafford|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57160.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209185302/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57160.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| Lord's, London
| {{flag|Middlesex}}
| 1884
| 2023
| 37
| 7
| 2013
| 14
| 16
| 2023
| <ref>{{cite web|titleLord's|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57129.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date10 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211210085152/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57129.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| The Oval, London
| {{flag|Surrey}}
| 1884
| 2023
| 37
| 17
| 2023
| 14
| 6
| 2015
| <ref>{{cite web|titleThe Oval|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57127.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209185303/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57127.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| Trent Bridge, Nottingham
| {{flag|Nottinghamshire}}
| 1899
| 2015
| 22
| 6
| 2015
| 9
| 7
| 2001
| <ref>{{cite web|titleTrent Bridge|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57219.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209194824/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57219.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| Headingley, Leeds
| {{flag|Yorkshire}}
| 1899
| 2023
| 26
| 9
| 2023
| 8
| 9
| 2009
| <ref>{{cite web|titleHeadingley|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57092.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209194831/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57092.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| Edgbaston, Birmingham
| {{flag|Warwickshire}}
| 1902
| 2023
| 16
| 6
| 2015
| 5
| 5
| 2023
| <ref>{{cite web|titleEdgbaston|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56788.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209191058/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56788.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|- bgcolor=LightGrey
| Bramall Lane, Sheffield‡
| {{flag|Yorkshire}}
| 1902
| 1902
| 1
| 0
| –
| 0
| 1
| 1902
| <ref>{{cite web|titleBramall Lane|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57296.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209194836/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/57296.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
| Sophia Gardens, Cardiff
| {{flag|Glamorgan}}
| 2009
| 2015
| 2
| 1
| 2015
| 1
| 0
| –
| <ref>{{cite web |titleSophia Gardens |urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56874.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults |workESPN Cricinfo |date9 December 2021 |access-date9 December 2021 |archive-date9 December 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209191035/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56874.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults |url-statuslive }}</ref>
|-
| The Riverside, Chester-le-Street
| {{flag|County Durham|name=Durham}}
| 2013
| 2013
| 1
| 1
| 2013
| 0
| 0
| –
| <ref>{{cite web|titleThe Riverside|urlhttps://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56901.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|workESPN Cricinfo|date9 December 2021|access-date9 December 2021|archive-date9 December 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211209191046/https://stats.espncricinfo.com/ci/engine/ground/56901.html?class1;filteradvanced;orderbystart;templateresults;trophy1;typeaggregate;viewresults|url-statuslive}}</ref>
|-
|}
Cultural references
]]
The popularity and reputation of the cricket series has led to other sports and games using the name "Ashes" for contests between England/Great Britain and Australia. The best-known and longest-running of these events is the rugby league Ashes competition between Great Britain now England and Australia national rugby league teams. Use of the name "Ashes" was suggested by the Australian team when rugby league matches between the two countries commenced in 1908. Other examples included the television game shows Gladiators and Sale of the Century, both of which broadcast special editions containing contestants from the Australian and English versions of the shows competing against each other.
The term was further genericised in Australia in the first half of the twentieth century, and was used to describe the most prominent rivalry or competition within a sport even if outside the context of Australia vs England. The Australian rules football interstate carnival, and the small silver casket which served as its trophy, were symbolically known as "the Ashes" of Australian football,<ref>{{cite news|newspaperDaily Herald|publication-placeAdelaide, SA|titleCarnival champions – presentation of the Ashes|page9}}</ref> and was spoken of as such until at least the 1940s.<ref>{{cite news|newspaperBarrier Daily Truth|publication-placeBroken Hill, NSW|page6|titleVictoria's football ashes|date11 August 1947}}</ref> The soccer rivalry between Australia and New Zealand was described as "the soccer ashes of Australasia" until as late as the 1950s;<ref>{{cite news|newspaperThe Sporting Globe|publication-placeMelbourne, VIC|titleKiwis to win the Ashes|authorJ. O. Wishaw|page7|date25 August 1954}}</ref> ashes from cigars smoked by the two countries' captains were put into a casket in 1923 to make the trophy literal.<ref>{{cite news|newspaperReferee|publication-placeSydney, NSW|page16|titleThe soccer ashes of Australasia|date16 April 1924}}</ref> The interstate rugby league rivalry between Queensland and New South Wales was known for a time as Australia's rugby league ashes, and bowls competitions between the two states also regularly used the term.<ref>{{cite news|newspaperThe Brisbane Courier|publication-placeBrisbane, QLD|titleBowls – N.S.W. "Knuts" retain the "Ashes"|page3|date14 July 1920}}</ref> Even some local rivalries, such as southern Western Australia's annual Great Southern Football Carnival, were locally described as "the ashes".<ref>{{cite news|newspaperGreat Southern Herald|publication-placeKatanning, WA|page3|date21 September 1935|titleGreat Southern Football Carnival}}</ref> This genericised usage is no longer common, and "the Ashes" would today be assumed only to apply to a contest between Australia and England.
The Ashes featured in the film The Final Test, released in 1953, based on a television play by Terence Rattigan. It stars Jack Warner as an England cricketer playing the last Test of his career, which is the last of an Ashes series; the film includes cameo appearances of English captain Len Hutton and other players<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.imdb.com/title/tt0045769/|titleThe Final Test (1953)|publisherInternet Movie Database|access-date13 July 2013|archive-date4 November 2012|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121104033237/http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0045769/|url-status=live}}</ref> who were part of England's 1953 triumph.
Douglas Adams's 1982 science fiction comedy novel Life, the Universe and Everything – the third part of ''The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy series – features the urn containing the Ashes as a significant element of its plot. The urn is stolen by alien robots, as the burnt stump inside is part of a key needed to unlock the "Wikkit Gate" and release an imprisoned world called Krikkit.
Bodyline, a fictionalised television miniseries based on the "Bodyline" Ashes series of 1932–33, was screened in Australia in 1984. The cast included Gary Sweet as Donald Bradman and Hugo Weaving as England captain Douglas Jardine.<ref>{{cite book|last1Frith|first1David|titleBodyline Autopsy: The full story of the most sensational Test cricket series: Australia v England 1932–33|date24 June 2013|publisherAurum Press|isbn9781781311936|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idijnLAgAAQBAJ|language=en}}</ref>
In the 1938 film The Lady Vanishes'', Charters and Caldicott, played by Basil Radford and Naunton Wayne are two cricket fans who are desperate to get home from Europe in order to see the last day's play in the Third Test at Manchester. It is not until they see a newsboy's poster near the end of the film that they discover that the match had been abandoned, due to floods.
See also
{{Portal|Cricket}}
* History of Test cricket from 1877 to 1883
* History of Test cricket from 1884 to 1889
* History of Test cricket from 1890 to 1900
* The Women's Ashes
* Ella-Mobbs Trophy (the Rugby Union equivalent of England-Australia matches)
* Rugby League Ashes
* Soccer Ashes
Notes
{{reflist|groupnote}}References{{Reflist|30em}}Further reading* {{Cite book| last Berry | first S. | year 2006 | title Cricket's Burning Passion | location London | publisherMethuen | isbn 0-413-77627-1 }}
* {{Cite book | last Birley | first D. | year 2003 | title A Social History of English Cricket | location London | publisher Aurum Press | isbn 1-85410-941-3 | url-access registration | url = https://archive.org/details/socialhistoryofe0000birl }}
* {{Cite book| last Frith | first David | year 1990 | title Australia versus England: A Pictorial History of Every Test Match Since 1877 | location Victoria (Australia) | publisherPenguin Books | isbn = 0-670-90323-X }}
* {{Cite book| last Frith | first David | year 2002 | title Bodyline Autopsy: The Full Story of the Most Sensational Test Cricket Series – England v Australia 1932–3 | location London | publisherAurum Press | isbn = 978-1-8541-0896-8 }}
* {{Cite book| last Gibb | first J. | year 1979 | title Test Cricket Records From 1877 | location London | publisherCollins | isbn = 0-00-411690-9 }}
* {{Cite book| last Gibson | first A. | year 1989 | title Cricket Captains of England | location London | publisherPavilion Books | isbn = 1-85145-395-4 }}
* {{Cite book| last Green | first B. | year 1979 | title Wisden Anthology 1864–1900 | location London | publisherM & J/QA Press | isbn = 0-356-10732-9 }}
* {{Cite book| last Harte | first Chris | year 2003 | title Penguin History of Australian Cricket | publisherPenguin Books | isbn 0-670-04133-5 }}
* {{Cite book| last Munns | first J. | year 1994 | title Beyond Reasonable Doubt – Rupertswood, Sunbury – The Birthplace of the Ashes | location Australia | publisherJoy Munns | isbn = 0-646-22153-1 }}
* {{Cite book| last Warner | first P. | year 1987 | title Lord's 1787–1945 | location London | publisherPavilion Books | isbn = 1-85145-112-9 }}
* {{Cite book| last Warner | first P. | year 2004 | title How We Recovered the Ashes: MCC Tour 1903–1904 | location London | publisherMethuen | isbn = 0-413-77399-X }}
* Willis, R. [http://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php?products_id486 ''Cricket's Biggest Mystery: The Ashes] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130514084152/http://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php?products_id486 |date14 May 2013 }}, The Lutterworth Press (1987), {{ISBN|978-0-7188-2588-1}}.
* {{Cite book| last Wynne-Thomas | first P. | year 1989 | title The Complete History of Cricket Tours at Home and Abroad |location London | publisherHamlyn | isbn 0-600-55782-0 }}Other* Wisden's Cricketers Almanack'' (various editions)External links
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|The Ashes}}
* [https://studio.youtube.com/video/JR3_PmSjKgI/edit Ashes to Ashes] An audio history of the first hundred years of the Ashes, narrated by John Arlott
* [http://www.cricinfo.com/engvaus2009/content/story/259985.html Cricinfo's Ashes] website
* [http://www.mcc.org.au/News/Club%20Publications/~/media/Files/Origin%20of%20the%20Ashes.ashx The Origin of the Ashes – Rex Harcourt]
* Listen to a young [http://aso.gov.au/titles/spoken-word/1930-australian-xi-ashes/ Don Bradman speaking] after the 1930 Ashes tour
{{Ashes Test series}}
{{Compton–Miller Medal winners}}
{{Named Test Cricket series}}
{{authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ashes}}
Category:Australia in international cricket
Category:Cricket awards and rankings
Category:Cricket rivalries
Category:England in international cricket
Category:Recurring events established in 1882
Category:Recurring sporting events established in 1882
Category:Test cricket competitions | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Ashes | 2025-04-05T18:25:32.940743 |
1134 | Analysis | {{Short description|Process of understanding a complex topic or substance}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{morefootnotes|date=December 2020}}
{{Unfocused|date=February 2023}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
, "Analysis" (1666)]]
{{research}}
Analysis ({{plural form}}: analyses) is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 BC), though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleAnalysis|urlhttp://plato.stanford.edu/entries/analysis/|encyclopediaThe Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|publisherMetaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date23 May 2012|first1Michael| last1Beaney|dateSummer 2012}}</ref>
The word comes from the Ancient Greek {{Lang|grc-Grek|ἀνάλυσις|italicno}} (analysis, "a breaking-up" or "an untying" from ana- "up, throughout" and lysis "a loosening").<ref>{{cite web |authorDouglas Harper |year2001–2012 |titleanalysis (n.) |urlhttp://www.etymonline.com/index.php?termanalysis |access-date23 May 2012 |workOnline Etymology Dictionary |publisher=Douglas Harper}}</ref> From it also comes the word's plural, analyses.
As a formal concept, the method has variously been ascribed to René Descartes (Discourse on the Method), and Galileo Galilei. It has also been ascribed to Isaac Newton, in the form of a practical method of physical discovery (which he did not name).
The converse of analysis is synthesis: putting the pieces back together again in a new or different whole.
Science and technology
Chemistry
{{See also|Analytical chemistry|List of chemical analysis methods|Chemical synthesis}}
The field of chemistry uses analysis in three ways: to identify the components of a particular chemical compound (qualitative analysis),<ref>{{Cite web |titleQualitative Analysis |urlhttps://www.lahc.edu/classes/chemistry/arias/Lab1QualAnaF11.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.lahc.edu/classes/chemistry/arias/Lab1QualAnaF11.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref> to identify the proportions of components in a mixture (quantitative analysis),<ref>{{cite book|publisherOpenStaxCollege |titleStoichiometry of Chemical Reactions|chapterQuantitative Chemical Analysis |dateOctober 2014 |urlhttps://pressbooks-dev.oer.hawaii.edu/chemistry/chapter/quantitative-chemical-analysis/ |languageen}}</ref> and to break down chemical processes and examine chemical reactions between elements of matter.<ref>{{Cite web |dateSpring 2018 |titleCHEMICAL AND BIOMOLECULAR ENGINEERING |urlhttps://axs.berkeley.edu/classdes/CBE%20140.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://axs.berkeley.edu/classdes/CBE%20140.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive}}</ref> For an example of its use, analysis of the concentration of elements is important in managing a nuclear reactor, so nuclear scientists will analyze neutron activation to develop discrete measurements within vast samples. A matrix can have a considerable effect on the way a chemical analysis is conducted and the quality of its results. Analysis can be done manually or with a device. Types of Analysis
<u>A) Qualitative Analysis</u>: It is concerned with which components are in a given sample or compound.
Example: Precipitation reaction
<u>B) Quantitative Analysis:</u> It is to determine the quantity of individual component present in a given sample or compound.
Example: To find concentration by uv-spectrophotometer.
Isotopes
{{See also|Isotope analysis|Isotope geochemistry}}
Chemists can use isotope analysis to assist analysts with issues in anthropology, archeology, food chemistry, forensics, geology, and a host of other questions of physical science. Analysts can discern the origins of natural and man-made isotopes in the study of environmental radioactivity.
Computer science
* Requirements analysis – encompasses those tasks that go into determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product, taking account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders, such as beneficiaries or users.
* Competitive analysis (online algorithm) – shows how online algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms
* Lexical analysis – the process of processing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols
* Object-oriented analysis and design&nbsp;– à la Booch
* Program analysis (computer science)&nbsp;– the process of automatically analysing the behavior of computer programs
* Semantic analysis (computer science)&nbsp;– a pass by a compiler that adds semantical information to the parse tree and performs certain checks
* Static code analysis&nbsp;– the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that
* Structured systems analysis and design methodology&nbsp;– à la Yourdon
* Syntax analysis&nbsp;– a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages, also known as parsing
* Worst-case execution time&nbsp;– determines the longest time that a piece of software can take to run
Engineering
{{See also|Engineering analysis|Systems analysis}}
Analysts in the field of engineering look at requirements, structures, mechanisms, systems and dimensions. Electrical engineers analyse systems in electronics. Life cycles and system failures are broken down and studied by engineers. It is also looking at different factors incorporated within the design.
Mathematics
{{Main|Mathematical analysis}}
Modern mathematical analysis is the study of infinite processes. It is the branch of mathematics that includes calculus. It can be applied in the study of classical concepts of mathematics, such as real numbers, complex variables, trigonometric functions, and algorithms, or of non-classical concepts like constructivism, harmonics, infinity, and vectors.
Florian Cajori explains in A History of Mathematics (1893) the difference between modern and ancient mathematical analysis, as distinct from logical analysis, as follows:
<blockquote>
The terms synthesis and analysis are used in mathematics in a more special sense than in logic. In ancient mathematics they had a different meaning from what they now have. The oldest definition of mathematical analysis as opposed to synthesis is that given in [appended to] Euclid, XIII. 5, which in all probability was framed by Eudoxus: "Analysis is the obtaining of the thing sought by assuming it and so reasoning up to an admitted truth; synthesis is the obtaining of the thing sought by reasoning up to the inference and proof of it."
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
The analytic method is not conclusive, unless all operations involved in it are known to be reversible. To remove all doubt, the Greeks, as a rule, added to the analytic process a synthetic one, consisting of a reversion of all operations occurring in the analysis. Thus the aim of analysis was to aid in the discovery of synthetic proofs or solutions.
</blockquote>
James Gow uses a similar argument as Cajori, with the following clarification, in his [https://books.google.com/books?id=KSe_ZEmHaXEC& A Short History of Greek Mathematics] (1884):
<blockquote>
The synthetic proof proceeds by shewing that the proposed new truth involves certain admitted truths. An analytic proof begins by an assumption, upon which a synthetic reasoning is founded. The Greeks distinguished theoretic from problematic analysis. A theoretic analysis is of the following kind. To prove that A is B, assume first that A is B. If so, then, since B is C and C is D and D is E, therefore A is E. If this be known a falsity, A is not B. But if this be a known truth and all the intermediate propositions be convertible, then the reverse process, A is E, E is D, D is C, C is B, therefore A is B, constitutes a synthetic proof of the original theorem. Problematic analysis is applied in all cases where it is proposed to construct a figure which is assumed to satisfy a given condition. The problem is then converted into some theorem which is involved in the condition and which is proved synthetically, and the steps of this synthetic proof taken backwards are a synthetic solution of the problem.
</blockquote>
Psychotherapy
* Psychoanalysis&nbsp;– seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients' mental processes
* Transactional analysis
** Transactional analysis is used by therapists to try to gain a better understanding of the unconscious. It focuses on understanding and intervening human behavior.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Hargaden |first1Helena |titleTransactional Analysis |last2Sills |first2Charlotte |date2014-04-23 |isbn9781315820279 |doi10.4324/9781315820279}}</ref>
Signal processing
* Finite element analysis&nbsp;– a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis
* Independent component analysis
* Link quality analysis&nbsp;– the analysis of signal quality
* Path quality analysis
* Fourier analysis
Statistics
In statistics, the term analysis may refer to any method used
for data analysis. Among the many such methods, some are:
* Analysis of variance (ANOVA)&nbsp;– a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts
* Boolean analysis&nbsp;– a method to find deterministic dependencies between variables in a sample, mostly used in exploratory data analysis
* Cluster analysis&nbsp;– techniques for finding groups (called clusters), based on some measure of proximity or similarity
* Factor analysis&nbsp;– a method to construct models describing a data set of observed variables in terms of a smaller set of unobserved variables (called factors)
* Meta-analysis&nbsp;– combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses
* Multivariate analysis&nbsp;– analysis of data involving several variables, such as by factor analysis, regression analysis, or principal component analysis
* Principal component analysis&nbsp;– transformation of a sample of correlated variables into uncorrelated variables (called principal components), mostly used in exploratory data analysis
* Regression analysis&nbsp;– techniques for analysing the relationships between several predictive variables and one or more outcomes in the data
* Scale analysis (statistics)&nbsp;– methods to analyse survey data by scoring responses on a numeric scale
* Sensitivity analysis&nbsp;– the study of how the variation in the output of a model depends on variations in the inputs
* Sequential analysis&nbsp;– evaluation of sampled data as it is collected, until the criterion of a stopping rule is met
* Spatial analysis&nbsp;– the study of entities using geometric or geographic properties
* Time-series analysis&nbsp;– methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals
Business
* Financial statement analysis&nbsp;– the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm
* Financial analysis&nbsp;– refers to an assessment of the viability, stability, and profitability of a business, sub-business or project
* Gap analysis – involves the comparison of actual performance with potential or desired performance of an organization
* Business analysis – involves identifying the needs and determining the solutions to business problems
* Price analysis – involves the breakdown of a price to a unit figure
* Market analysis – consists of suppliers and customers, and price is determined by the interaction of supply and demand
* Sum-of-the-parts analysis – method of valuation of a multi-divisional company
* Opportunity analysis – consists of customers trends within the industry, customer demand and experience determine purchasing behavior
Economics
* Agroecosystem analysis
* Input–output model if applied to a region, is called Regional Impact Multiplier System
Government
Intelligence
{{See also|Intelligence analysis}}
The field of intelligence employs analysts to break down and understand a wide array of questions. Intelligence agencies may use heuristics, inductive and deductive reasoning, social network analysis, dynamic network analysis, link analysis, and brainstorming to sort through problems they face. Military intelligence may explore issues through the use of game theory, Red Teaming, and wargaming. Signals intelligence applies cryptanalysis and frequency analysis to break codes and ciphers. Business intelligence applies theories of competitive intelligence analysis and competitor analysis to resolve questions in the marketplace. Law enforcement intelligence applies a number of theories in crime analysis.
Policy
* Policy analysis&nbsp;– The use of statistical data to predict the effects of policy decisions made by governments and agencies
** Policy analysis includes a systematic process to find the most efficient and effective option to address the current situation.<ref>{{Citation |titleWho's Who |date2012-12-01 |chapterDye, Dr Christopher |publisherOxford University Press |doi=10.1093/ww/9780199540884.013.256626}}</ref>
* Qualitative analysis – The use of anecdotal evidence to predict the effects of policy decisions or, more generally, influence policy decisions
Humanities and social sciences
Linguistics
{{See also|Linguistics}}
Linguistics explores individual languages and language in general. It breaks language down and analyses its component parts: theory, sounds and their meaning, utterance usage, word origins, the history of words, the meaning of words and word combinations, sentence construction, basic construction beyond the sentence level, stylistics, and conversation. It examines the above using statistics and modeling, and semantics. It analyses language in context of anthropology, biology, evolution, geography, history, neurology, psychology, and sociology. It also takes the applied approach, looking at individual language development and clinical issues.
Literature
Literary criticism is the analysis of literature. The focus can be as diverse as the analysis of Homer or Freud. While not all literary-critical methods are primarily analytical in nature, the main approach to the teaching of literature in the west since the mid-twentieth century, literary formal analysis or close reading, is. This method, rooted in the academic movement labelled The New Criticism, approaches texts – chiefly short poems such as sonnets, which by virtue of their small size and significant complexity lend themselves well to this type of analysis – as units of discourse that can be understood in themselves, without reference to biographical or historical frameworks. This method of analysis breaks up the text linguistically in a study of prosody (the formal analysis of meter) and phonic effects such as alliteration and rhyme, and cognitively in examination of the interplay of syntactic structures, figurative language, and other elements of the poem that work to produce its larger effects.
Music
* Musical analysis&nbsp;– a process attempting to answer the question "How does this music work?"
**Musical Analysis is a study of how the composers use the notes together to compose music. Those studying music will find differences with each composer's musical analysis, which differs depending on the culture and history of music studied. An analysis of music is meant to simplify the music for you.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal|lastWarfield|firstScott|dateNovember 2014|titleLady in the Dark: Biography of a Musical. By bruce d. mcclung. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. - Oklahoma!: The Making of an American Musical. By Tim Carter. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2007. - South Pacific: Paradise Rewritten. By Jim Lovensheimer. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. - Wicked: A Musical Biography. By Paul R. Laird. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2011.|journalJournal of the Society for American Music|volume8|issue4|pages587–596|doi10.1017/s1752196314000443|s2cid232401945|issn1752-1963}}</ref>
* Schenkerian analysis
**Schenkerian analysis is a collection of music analysis that focuses on the production of the graphic representation. This includes both analytical procedure as well as the notational style.<ref>{{cite book |last1Neumeyer |first1David |titleGuide to Schenkerian Analysis |dateNovember 2018 |urlhttp://hdl.handle.net/2152/70263 |doi10.15781/T2D21S443|publisherThe University of Texas at Austin; University of Texas Libraries|hdl2152/70263 }}</ref> Simply put, it analyzes tonal music which includes all chords and tones within a composition.<ref name":0" />Philosophy
* Philosophical analysis&nbsp;– a general term for the techniques used by philosophers
**Philosophical analysis refers to the clarification and composition of words put together and the entailed meaning behind them.<ref name":1" /> Philosophical analysis dives deeper into the meaning of words and seeks to clarify that meaning by contrasting the various definitions. It is the study of reality, justification of claims, and the analysis of various concepts. Branches of philosophy include logic, justification, metaphysics, values and ethics. If questions can be answered empirically, meaning it can be answered by using the senses, then it is not considered philosophical. Non-philosophical questions also include events that happened in the past, or questions science or mathematics can answer.<ref name":1">{{Cite book|lastHospers|firstJohn|date2013-04-15|titleAn Introduction to Philosophical Analysis|doi10.4324/9780203714454|isbn9780203714454}}</ref>
* Analysis is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy.
Other
* Aura analysis&nbsp;– a pseudoscientific technique in which supporters of the method claim that the body's aura, or energy field is analysed
* Bowling analysis&nbsp;– Analysis of the performance of cricket players
* Lithic analysis&nbsp;– the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques
**Lithic analysis is most often used by archeologists in determining which types of tools were used at a given time period pertaining to current artifacts discovered.<ref>{{Cite journal|lastMcCall|firstGrant|dateMarch 2012|titleIn Memory of George H. Odell|journalLithic Technology|volume37|issue1|pages3–4|doi10.1179/lit.2012.37.1.3|s2cid108647958|issn=0197-7261}}</ref>
* Protocol analysis – a means for extracting persons' thoughts while they are performing a task
See also
* Formal analysis
* Metabolism in biology
* Methodology
* Scientific method
* Synthesis (disambiguation) – list of terms related to synthesis, the converse of analysis
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{Commons category|Analysis}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary|Analysis|analysis}}
*{{InPho|idea|1508}}
*{{SEP|url-id=analysis}}
*{{PhilPapers|category|conceptual-analysis}}
{{Authority control}}
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Category:Critical thinking skills
Category:Emergence
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Category:Epistemological theories
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Category:Research methods
Category:Scientific method
Category:Theory of mind | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis | 2025-04-05T18:25:32.951631 |
1135 | Abner Doubleday | {{short description|Union Army general (1819–1893)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2013}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Abner Doubleday
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1819|06|26}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1893|01|26|1819|06|26}}
| image = Doubledayo.jpg
| caption = Doubleday, c. 1855-65
| birth_place = Ballston Spa, New York, US
| death_place = Mendham, New Jersey, US
| placeofburial = Arlington National Cemetery
| placeofburial_label = Place of burial
| allegiance = United States<br />Union
| branch = United States Army<br />Union Army
| serviceyears = 1842–1873
| rank = Major General
| commands = I Corps<br />35th U.S. Infantry<br />24th U.S. Infantry
| battles = Mexican–American War<br />Third Seminole War<br />American Civil War<br />American Indian Wars
}}
{{Theosophy}}
Abner Doubleday (June 26, 1819&nbsp;– January 26, 1893)<ref>{{Britannica|170070}}</ref> was a career United States Army officer and Union major general in the American Civil War. He fired the first shot in defense of Fort Sumter, the opening battle of the war, and had a pivotal role in the early fighting at the Battle of Gettysburg. Gettysburg was his finest hour, but his relief by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade caused lasting enmity between the two men. In San Francisco, after the war, he obtained a patent on the cable car railway that still runs there. In his final years in New Jersey, he was a prominent member and later president of the Theosophical Society.
In 1908, 15 years after his death, the Mills Commission declared that Doubleday had invented the game of baseball, although Doubleday never made such a claim. This claim has been thoroughly debunked by baseball historians.<ref name"Kirschxiiixiv">Kirsch, pp. xiii–xiv.</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://baseballhall.org/museum/experience/history |titleThe Doubleday myth is Cooperstown's gain: Pastoral village has become the heart of baseball folklore |publisherNational Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum |access-dateSeptember 20, 2012 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140926001539/http://baseballhall.org/museum/experience/history |archive-dateSeptember 26, 2014 }}</ref>
Early years
Doubleday, the son of Ulysses F. Doubleday and Hester Donnelly, was born in Ballston Spa, New York, in a small house on the corner of Washington and Fenwick streets. As a child, Abner was very short. The family all slept in the attic loft of the one-room house. His paternal grandfather, also named Abner, had fought in the American Revolutionary War. His maternal grandfather Thomas Donnelly had joined the army at 14 and was a mounted messenger for George Washington. His great-grandfather Peter Donnelly was a Minuteman. His father, Ulysses F., fought in the War of 1812, published newspapers and books, and represented Auburn, New York, for four years in the United States Congress.<ref name"Beckenbaugh">Beckenbaugh, pp. 611–612.</ref> Abner spent his childhood in Auburn and later was sent to Cooperstown to live with his uncle and attend a private preparatory high school. He practiced as a surveyor and civil engineer for two years before entering the United States Military Academy<ref name"Tagg">Tagg, pp. 25–27.</ref> in 1838. He graduated in 1842, 24th in a class of 56 cadets, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 3rd U.S. Artillery.<ref name"Eicher">Eicher, p. 213.</ref> In 1852, he married Mary Hewitt of Baltimore, the daughter of a local lawyer.<ref name"TX">[http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fdo39 Texas Handbook]</ref>
Early commands and Fort Sumter
National Monument in Charleston harbor]]
Medal bearing the likeness of Major Robert Anderson which was presented to Abner Doubleday]]
Doubleday initially served in coastal garrisons and then in the Mexican–American War from 1846 to 1848 and the Seminole Wars from 1856 to 1858. In 1858, he was transferred to Fort Moultrie in Charleston Harbor serving under Colonel John L. Gardner. By the start of the Civil War, he was a captain and second in command in the garrison at Fort Sumter, under Major Robert Anderson.<ref nameBeckenbaugh/> He aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the Confederate bombardment on April 12, 1861. He subsequently referred to himself as the "hero of Sumter" for this role.<ref nameTagg/> Of note, although Doubleday did not invent baseball, by sheer coincidence the Fort Sumter Garrison Flag (or Storm Flag) has the star pattern arranged in a diamond shape, which by that time in history, was the shape of the baseball infield.
Brigade and division command in Virginia
Doubleday was promoted to major on May 14, 1861, and commanded the Artillery Department in the Shenandoah Valley from June to August, and then the artillery for Major General Nathaniel Banks's division of the Army of the Potomac. He was appointed brigadier general of volunteers on February 3, 1862, and was assigned to duty in northern Virginia while the Army of the Potomac conducted the Peninsula Campaign. His first combat assignment was to lead the 2nd Brigade, 1st Division, III Corps of the Army of Virginia during the Northern Virginia Campaign. In the actions at Brawner's farm, just before the Second Battle of Bull Run, he took the initiative to send two of his regiments to reinforce Brigadier General John Gibbon's brigade against a larger Confederate force, fighting it to a standstill. Personal initiative was required since his division commander, Brig. Gen. Rufus King, was incapacitated by an epileptic seizure at the time. He was replaced by Brigadier General John P. Hatch.<ref>Langellier, pp. 43, 45, 49.</ref> His men were routed when they encountered Major General James Longstreet's corps, but by the following day, August 30, he took command of the division when Hatch was wounded, and he led his men to cover the retreat of the Union Army.<ref name=Tagg/>
Doubleday again led the division, now assigned to the I Corps of the Army of the Potomac, after South Mountain, where Hatch was wounded again. At Antietam, he led his men into the deadly fighting in the Cornfield and the West Woods, and one colonel described him as a "gallant officer ... remarkably cool and at the very front of battle."<ref nameTagg/> He was wounded when an artillery shell exploded near his horse, throwing him to the ground in a violent fall. He received a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the regular army for his actions at Antietam and was promoted in March 1863 to major general of volunteers, to rank from November 29, 1862.<ref>Eicher, p. 703.</ref> At Fredericksburg in December 1862, his division mostly sat idle. During the winter, the I Corps was reorganized and Doubleday assumed command of the 3rd Division. At Chancellorsville in May 1863, the division was kept in reserve.<ref nameTagg/>
Gettysburg
At the start of the Battle of Gettysburg, July 1, 1863, Doubleday's division was the second infantry division on the field to reinforce the cavalry division of Brigadier General John Buford. When his corps commander, Major General John F. Reynolds, was killed very early in the fighting, Doubleday found himself in command of the corps at 10:50 am. His men fought well in the morning, putting up a stout resistance, but as overwhelming Confederate forces massed against them, their line eventually broke and they retreated back through the town of Gettysburg to the relative safety of Cemetery Hill south of town. It was Doubleday's finest performance during the war, five hours leading 9,500 men against ten Confederate brigades that numbered more than 16,000. Seven of those brigades sustained casualties that ranged from 35 to 50 percent, indicating the ferocity of the Union defense. On Cemetery Hill, however, the I Corps could muster only a third of its men as effective for duty, and the corps was essentially destroyed as a combat force for the rest of the battle; it would be decommissioned in March 1864, its surviving units consolidated into other corps.<ref name=Tagg/>
On July 2, 1863, Army of the Potomac commander Maj. Gen. George G. Meade replaced Doubleday with Major General John Newton, a more junior officer from another corps. The ostensible reason was a false report by XI Corps commander Major General Oliver O. Howard that Doubleday's corps broke first, causing the entire Union line to collapse, but Meade also had a long history of disdain for Doubleday's combat effectiveness, dating back to South Mountain. Doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against Meade, but he returned to division command and fought well for the remainder of the battle.<ref nameTagg/> He was wounded in the neck on the second day of Gettysburg and received a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army for his service.<ref nameEicher/> He formally requested reinstatement as I Corps commander, but Meade refused, and Doubleday left Gettysburg on July 7 for Washington.<ref>Coddington, pp. 690–691.</ref>
Doubleday's staff nicknamed him "Forty-Eight Hours" as a compliment to recognize his tendency to avoid reckless or impulsive actions and his thoughtfulness and deliberateness in considering circumstances and possible responses.<ref nameBarthel>Barthel, p. 127</ref> In recent years, biographers have turned the nickname into an insult, incorrectly claiming "Forty-Eight Hours" was coined to highlight Doubleday's supposed incompetence and slowness to act.<ref nameBarthel />
Washington
Doubleday assumed administrative duties in the defenses of Washington, D.C., where he was in charge of courts martial, which gave him legal experience that he used after the war. His only return to combat was directing a portion of the defenses against the attack by Confederate Lieutenant General Jubal A. Early in the Valley Campaigns of 1864. Also while in Washington, Doubleday testified against George Meade at the United States Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War, criticizing him harshly over his conduct of the Battle of Gettysburg.<ref nameBeckenbaugh/> While in Washington, Doubleday remained a loyal Republican and staunch supporter of President Abraham Lincoln. Doubleday rode with Lincoln on the train to Gettysburg for the Gettysburg Address and Col. and Mrs. Doubleday attended events with Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln in Washington.Postbellum careerAfter the Civil War, Doubleday mustered out of the volunteer service on August 24, 1865, reverted to the rank of lieutenant colonel, and became the colonel of the 35th U.S. Infantry in September 1867. He was stationed in San Francisco from 1869 through 1871 and he took out a patent for the cable car railway that still runs there, receiving a charter for its operation, but signing away his rights when he was reassigned.{{citation needed|dateSeptember 2024}} In 1871, he commanded the 24th U.S. Infantry, an all African-American regiment with headquarters at Fort McKavett, Texas.<ref name=TX/> He retired in 1873.
In the 1870s, he was listed in the New York business directory as a lawyer.
Doubleday spent much of his time writing. He published two important works on the Civil War: Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie (1876), and Chancellorsville and Gettysburg (1882), the latter being a volume of the series Campaigns of the Civil War.<ref nameEicher/>TheosophyIn the summer of 1878, Doubleday lived in Mendham Township, New Jersey, and became a prominent member of the Theosophical Society. When two of the founders of that society, Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott, moved to India at the end of that year, he was constituted as the president of the American body.{{Citation needed|dateOctober 2024}}
Death
Doubleday died of heart disease in Mendham Township on January 26, 1893. Doubleday's body was laid in state in New York's City Hall and then was taken to Washington by train<ref nameTagg/> from Mendham, and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington County, Virginia.<ref nameEicher/> He was survived by his wife.<ref namenytobit/>Baseball
{{Main|Doubleday myth}}
Although Doubleday achieved minor fame as a competent combat general with experience in many important Civil War battles, he is more widely known as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball, in Elihu Phinney's cow pasture in Cooperstown, New York, in 1839.
The Mills Commission, chaired by Abraham G. Mills, the fourth president of the National League, was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball. The committee's final report, on December 30, 1907, stated, in part, that "the first scheme for playing baseball, according to the best evidence obtainable to date, was devised by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839." It concluded by saying, "in the years to come, in the view of the hundreds of thousands of people who are devoted to baseball, and the millions who will be, Abner Doubleday's fame will rest evenly, if not quite as much, upon the fact that he was its inventor ... as upon his brilliant and distinguished career as an officer in the Federal Army."<ref>Kirsch, p. xiii.</ref>
However, there is considerable evidence to dispute this claim. Baseball historian George B. Kirsch has described the results of the Mills Commission as a "myth". He wrote, "Robert Henderson, Harold Seymour, and other scholars have since debunked the Doubleday-Cooperstown myth, which nonetheless remains powerful in the American imagination because of the efforts of Major League Baseball and the Hall of Fame in Cooperstown." At his death, Doubleday left many letters and papers, none of which describe baseball or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game, and his New York Times obituary did not mention the game at all.<ref namenytobit>{{cite news|titleObituary – Gen. Abner Doubleday|workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1893/01/28/archives/obituary-gen-abner-double-day.html|dateJanuary 28, 1893|page2|access-dateOctober 4, 2021}}</ref> Chairman Mills himself, who had been a Civil War colleague of Doubleday and a member of the honor guard for Doubleday's body as it lay in state in New York City, never recalled hearing Doubleday describe his role as the inventor. Doubleday was a cadet at West Point in the year of the alleged invention and his family had moved away from Cooperstown the prior year. Furthermore, the primary testimony to the commission that connected baseball to Doubleday was that of Abner Graves, whose credibility is questionable; a few years later, he shot his wife to death and was committed to an institution for the criminally insane for the rest of his life.<ref name"Kirschxiiixiv">Kirsch, pp. xiii–xiv.</ref> Part of the confusion could stem from there being another man by the same name in Cooperstown in 1839.<ref>Morris, Peter. ''But Didn't We Have Fun. Ivan R. Dee Publishing. 2008</ref>
Despite the lack of solid evidence linking Doubleday to the origins of baseball, Cooperstown, New York, became the new home of what is today the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum in 1937.
There may have been some relationship to baseball as a national sport and Abner Doubleday. While the modern rules of baseball were formulated in New York during the 1840s, it was the scattering of New Yorkers exposed to these rules throughout the country, that spread not only baseball, but also the "New York Rules", thereby harmonizing the rules, and being a catalyst for its growth. Doubleday was a high-ranking officer, whose duties included seeing to provisions for the US Army fighting throughout the south and border states. For the morale of the men, he is said to have provisioned balls and bats for the men.<ref>"Bats, Balls, and Bullets". Essay by George B. Kirsch Civil War Times Illustrated''. May 1998, pp. 30-37</ref>
Namesakes and honors
Doubleday's men, admirers, and the state of New York erected a monument to him at Gettysburg.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://gettysburgsculptures.com/major_general_doubleday_monument |titleFeatured Monument: Major-General Abner Doubleday Monument |websiteGettysburg Sculptures |access-date2019-06-07 |dfmdy-all}}</ref> There is a {{convert|7|ft|m|adjon}} obelisk monument at Arlington National Cemetery where he is buried.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://ancexplorer.army.mil/publicwmv/#/arlington-national/search/results/1/Cglkb3VibGVkYXkSBWFibmVy/ |titleBurial Detail: Doubleday, Abner|website=ANC Explorer}}<!-- This is the official ANC website --></ref>
Doubleday Field is a 9,791-seat baseball stadium named for Abner Doubleday, located in Cooperstown, New York, near the Baseball Hall of Fame.<ref>{{cite web | titleCooperstown Connection: Doubleday Field, A Diamond in the Pasture | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20051214030357/http://baseballhalloffame.org/news/2005/050906.htm | archive-date2005-12-14 | access-date2012-05-07| urlhttp://baseballhalloffame.org/news/2005/050906.htm |dfdmy-all |publisherNational Baseball Hall of Fame}}</ref> It hosted the annual Hall of Fame Game, an exhibition game between two major league teams that was played from 1940 until 2008.<ref>{{cite magazine |titleBaseball Hall of Fame Game in Cooperstown will end after this year |magazineSports Illustrated |urlhttp://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/baseball/mlb/wires/01/29/2010.ap.bbo.hall.of.fame.game.0131/ |dateJanuary 29, 2008 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080202075649/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/baseball/mlb/wires/01/29/2010.ap.bbo.hall.of.fame.game.0131/ |archive-dateFebruary 2, 2008 }}</ref> It has hosted the Hall of Fame Classic since 2009.<ref>{{Cite web|titleHistory of Doubleday Field|urlhttps://baseballhall.org/about-the-hall/history/history-of-doubleday-field|access-date2021-08-31|websiteBaseball Hall of Fame|language=en}}</ref>
The Auburn Doubledays are a collegiate summer baseball team based in Doubleday's hometown of Auburn, New York.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.milb.com/content/page.jsp?sidt458&ymd20130212&content_id41565628&vkeyteam1 |titleAuburn Baseball History |websiteAuburn Doubledays |publisherMinor League Baseball |dfmdy-all |access-date2019-06-07}}{{dead link|dateMarch 2025|botmedic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
Doubleday Field at the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, where the Army Black Knights play at Johnson Stadium, is named in Doubleday's honor.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://goarmywestpoint.com/sports/2015/3/6/GEN_20140101122.aspx?id122 |titleJohnson Stadium at Doubleday Field |websiteArmy West Point |dfmdy-all |access-date2019-06-07}}</ref>
The Abner Doubleday Little League and Babe Ruth Fields in Ballston Spa, New York, the town of his birth. The house of his birth still stands in the middle of town and there is a monument to him on Front Street.
A sign at the Doubleday Hill Monument, erected in Williamsport, Maryland, to commemorate Doubleday's occupation of a hill there during the Civil War, claims he invented the game in 1835.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.mdhistoricdistrict.com/doubleday-hill/ |titleDoubleday Hill |websiteMaryland Historic District |dfmdy-all |access-date=2019-06-07}}</ref>
Mendham Borough and Mendham Township, New Jersey has held a municipal holiday known as "Abner Doubleday Day" for numerous years in the General's honor<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.dailyrecord.com/story/life/good-life/things-we-love/2016/02/18/1-thing-we-love-morris-baseball-spring-training/80496684/ |title1 Thing We Love About Morris: Baseball spring training |date2016-02-18 |workMorristown Daily Record |access-date2019-06-07 |dfmdy-all}}</ref> and commissioned a plaque near the site of his home in the borough in 1998, even though the borough was known as Mendham Township back then.<ref>{{Cite book |lastBarthel |firstThomas |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/646066586 |titleAbner Doubleday : a Civil War biography |date2010 |publisherMcFarland & Co |isbn978-0-7864-5616-1 |locationJefferson, N.C. |oclc=646066586}}</ref>
In 2004, the Abner Doubleday Society erected a monument to Doubleday in Iron Spring Park, Ballston Spa, near his birthplace.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.saratogian.com/news/abner-doubleday-s-presence-still-felt-in-ballston-spa/article_436ebb5f-22cf-5aa6-81ef-ac18f45bb69a.html |titleAbner Doubleday's presence still felt in Ballston Spa |lastPost |firstPaul |date2011-04-09 |workThe Saratogian |access-date2019-06-07 |dfmdy-all |archive-dateJune 7, 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190607212717/https://www.saratogian.com/news/abner-doubleday-s-presence-still-felt-in-ballston-spa/article_436ebb5f-22cf-5aa6-81ef-ac18f45bb69a.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
{{libship honor|nameAbner Doubleday|typehis}}
See also
{{EB1911 poster|Doubleday, Abner}}{{Portal|Biography|American Civil War}}
* List of American Civil War generals (Union)
* William Webb Ellis, sometimes apocryphally credited with inventing rugby football
Notes
{{Reflist|30em}}
References
* {{cite book |lastBarthel |firstThomas |date2010 |titleAbner Doubleday: A Civil War Biography |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ido8daLJ1XkiMC&pgPA127 |locationJefferson, NC |publisherMcFarland & Company |isbn978-0-7864-4561-5}}
* {{cite book| lastCoddington |firstEdwin B. | title The Gettysburg Campaign: A Study in Command| year 1968| placeNew York |publisher Simon & Schuster }}
* {{cite book| last Doubleday| first Abner| title My Life in the Old Army: The Reminiscences of Abner Doubleday | year 1998|placeFort Worth | publisher Texas Christian University Press| isbn = 978-0-87565-185-9 }}
* {{cite book|last1Eicher |first1John H. |last2Eicher |first2David J. | title Civil War High Commands| year 2001|placeStanford, California | publisher Stanford University Press| isbn = 978-0-8047-3641-1 }}
* Gomes, Michael. "[http://www.theosociety.org/pasadena/sunrise/40-90-1/th-tsgom.htm Abner Doubleday and Theosophy in America: 1879–1884]". Sunrise, April/May 1991.
* {{cite book| last1Heidler |first1David Stephen |last2Heidler |first2Jeanne T. |last3Coles |first3David J. |title Encyclopedia of the American Civil War: A Political, Social, and Military History| year 2000|placeSanta Barbara, California | publisher ABC-CLIO| isbn = 978-0-393-04758-5 }}
* {{cite book| lastKirsch|firstGeorge B. | title Baseball in Blue and Gray: The National Pastime During the Civil War| url https://archive.org/details/baseballinbluegr0000kirs| url-accessregistration|placePrinceton, N.J. |publisherPrinceton University Press | year 2002| isbn = 978-0-691-05733-0 }}
* {{cite book|lastLangellier |firstJohn P. | title Second Manassas 1862: Robert E. Lee's Greatest Victory|placeOxford, Eng. |publisherOsprey Military | year 2002|isbn = 978-1-84176-230-2 }}
* {{cite book| last Tagg| first Larry| title The Generals of Gettysburg: The Leaders of America's Greatest Battle| place Campbell, California| year 1998| publisher Savas Publishing Company| isbn 978-1-882810-30-7| url http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/| url-status dead| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20141022014655/http://www.rocemabra.com/~roger/tagg/generals/| archive-date October 22, 2014| df mdy-all}}
* "[http://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fdo39 Doubleday, Abner]" in The Handbook of Texas.
Further reading
* {{cite book| last Doubleday| first Abner| title Chancellorsville and Gettysburg| url https://archive.org/details/chancellorsvill02doubgoog|placeNew York | year 1882| publisher = C. Scribner's Sons }}
* {{cite book | last Doubleday | first Abner | title Reminiscences of Forts Sumter and Moultrie in 1860-61 | publisher Nautical & Aviation Publishing Company | year 1998 | location Charleston, South Carolina | url https://play.google.com/books/reader?idmEwIAAAAQAAJ&printsecfrontcover&outputreader&hlen&pgGBS.PA13 | isbn = 1-877853-40-2 }}
* {{cite book| last Hyde| first Bill| title The Union Generals Speak: The Meade Hearings on the Battle of Gettysburg|placeBaton Rouge, La. | year 2003| publisher Louisiana State University Press| isbn = 978-0-8071-2581-6 }}
* Silkenat, David. Raising the White Flag: How Surrender Defined the American Civil War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2019. {{ISBN|978-1-4696-4972-6}}.
External links
{{Commons category}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=9508}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Abner Doubleday}}
* {{Librivox author |id=1867}}
* [http://www.blavatskyarchives.com/doubledaygeneralindefense.htm Defense of Madame Blavatsky]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060208234024/http://baseballhalloffame.com/about/history.htm Baseball Hall of Fame]
* [https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/6397/view Photo of Abner Doubleday and wife Mary], taken by Mathew Brady, owned by University of Michigan Museum of Art
* [http://www.mchistory.org/research/resources/ulysses-freeman-doubleday.php Ulysses Freeman Doubleday] – McLean County Museum of History
{{S-start}}
{{S-mil}}
{{s-bef|before=John F. Reynolds}}
{{s-ttl|titleCommander of the I Corps (Army of the Potomac)|yearsJuly 1, 1863{{snd}}July 2, 1863}}
{{s-aft|after=John Newton}}
{{S-end}}
{{Gettysburg figures|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Doubleday, Abner}}
Category:1819 births
Category:1893 deaths
Category:American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Category:People from Auburn, New York
Category:People from Ballston Spa, New York
Category:People of New York (state) in the American Civil War
Category:Union army generals
Category:United States Military Academy alumni
Category:Writers from New York (state)
Category:New York (state) Republicans
Category:American Theosophists
Category:People from Mendham Township, New Jersey | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abner_Doubleday | 2025-04-05T18:25:32.962999 |
1136 | America's National Game | right|thumb
America's National Game is a book by Albert Spalding, published in 1911, that details the early history of the sport of baseball. It is one of the defining books in the early formative years of modern baseball.
Much of the story is told first-hand; since the 1850s, Spalding had been involved in the game, first as a pitcher and later a manager and club owner. Later he branched out to become a leading manufacturer of sporting goods.
In addition to his personal recollections, he had access to the records of Henry Chadwick, the game's first statistician and archivist. Much of his early history of the game is considered to be reliable. Spalding was, however, said to aggrandize his role in the major moments in baseball's history. Early editions of the book include quality full-page photo-plates of important players.
See also
History of baseball
References
Category:1911 non-fiction books
Category:Baseball books | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America's_National_Game | 2025-04-05T18:25:32.964693 |
1140 | Amplitude modulation | thumb|right|250px|An audio signal (top) carried by a carrier signal using amplitude modulation (middle) and frequency modulation (bottom).|alt=Animation of audio, AM and FM modulated carriers.
Amplitude modulation (AM) is a modulation technique used in electronic communication, most commonly for transmitting messages with a radio wave. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude (signal strength) of the wave is varied in proportion to that of the message signal, such as an audio signal. This technique contrasts with angle modulation, in which either the frequency of the carrier wave is varied, as in frequency modulation, or its phase, as in phase modulation.
AM was the earliest modulation method used for transmitting audio in radio broadcasting. It was developed during the first quarter of the 20th century beginning with Roberto Landell de Moura and Reginald Fessenden's radiotelephone experiments in 1900. This original form of AM is sometimes called double-sideband amplitude modulation (DSBAM), because the standard method produces sidebands on either side of the carrier frequency. Single-sideband modulation uses bandpass filters to eliminate one of the sidebands and possibly the carrier signal, which improves the ratio of message power to total transmission power, reduces power handling requirements of line repeaters, and permits better bandwidth utilization of the transmission medium.
AM remains in use in many forms of communication in addition to AM broadcasting: shortwave radio, amateur radio, two-way radios, VHF aircraft radio, citizens band radio, and in computer modems in the form of quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).
Foundation
In electronics, telecommunications and mechanics, modulation means varying some aspect of a continuous wave carrier signal with an information-bearing modulation waveform, such as an audio signal which represents sound, or a video signal which represents images. In this sense, the carrier wave, which has a much higher frequency than the message signal, carries the information. At the receiving station, the message signal is extracted from the modulated carrier by demodulation.
In general form, a modulation process of a sinusoidal carrier wave may be described by the following equation:
m(t) = A(t) \cdot \cos(\omega t + \phi(t))\,.
A(t) represents the time-varying amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave and the cosine-term is the carrier at its angular frequency \omega, and the instantaneous phase deviation \phi(t). This description directly provides the two major groups of modulation, amplitude modulation and angle modulation. In angle modulation, the term A(t) is constant and the second term of the equation has a functional relationship to the modulating message signal. Angle modulation provides two methods of modulation, frequency modulation and phase modulation.
In amplitude modulation, the angle term is held constant and the first term, A(t), of the equation has a functional relationship to the modulating message signal.
The modulating message signal may be analog in nature, or it may be a digital signal, in which case the technique is generally called amplitude-shift keying.
For example, in AM radio communication, a continuous wave radio-frequency signal has its amplitude modulated by an audio waveform before transmission. The message signal determines the envelope of the transmitted waveform. In the frequency domain, amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands. Each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal, and is a mirror image of the other. Standard AM is thus sometimes called "double-sideband amplitude modulation" (DSBAM).
A disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques, not only standard AM, is that the receiver amplifies and detects noise and electromagnetic interference in equal proportion to the signal. Increasing the received signal-to-noise ratio, say, by a factor of 10 (a 10 decibel improvement), thus would require increasing the transmitter power by a factor of 10. This is in contrast to frequency modulation (FM) and digital radio where the effect of such noise following demodulation is strongly reduced so long as the received signal is well above the threshold for reception. For this reason AM broadcast is not favored for music and high fidelity broadcasting, but rather for voice communications and broadcasts (sports, news, talk radio etc.).
AM is also inefficient in power usage; at least two-thirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal. The carrier signal contains none of the original information being transmitted (voice, video, data, etc.). However its presence provides a simple means of demodulation using envelope detection, providing a frequency and phase reference to extract the modulation from the sidebands. In some modulation systems based on AM, a lower transmitter power is required through partial or total elimination of the carrier component, however receivers for these signals are more complex because they must provide a precise carrier frequency reference signal (usually as shifted to the intermediate frequency) from a greatly reduced "pilot" carrier (in reduced-carrier transmission or DSB-RC) to use in the demodulation process. Even with the carrier eliminated in double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, carrier regeneration is possible using a Costas phase-locked loop. This does not work for single-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (SSB-SC), leading to the characteristic "Donald Duck" sound from such receivers when slightly detuned. Single-sideband AM is nevertheless used widely in amateur radio and other voice communications because it has power and bandwidth efficiency (cutting the RF bandwidth in half compared to standard AM). On the other hand, in medium wave and short wave broadcasting, standard AM with the full carrier allows for reception using inexpensive receivers. The broadcaster absorbs the extra power cost to greatly increase potential audience.
Shift keying
A simple form of digital amplitude modulation which can be used for transmitting binary data is on–off keying, the simplest form of amplitude-shift keying, in which ones and zeros are represented by the presence or absence of a carrier. On–off keying is likewise used by radio amateurs to transmit Morse code where it is known as continuous wave (CW) operation, even though the transmission is not strictly "continuous". A more complex form of AM, quadrature amplitude modulation is now more commonly used with digital data, while making more efficient use of the available bandwidth.
Analog telephony
A simple form of amplitude modulation is the transmission of speech signals from a traditional analog telephone set using a common battery local loop. The direct current provided by the central office battery is a carrier with a frequency of 0 Hz. It is modulated by a microphone (transmitter) in the telephone set according to the acoustic signal from the speaker. The result is a varying amplitude direct current, whose AC-component is the speech signal extracted at the central office for transmission to another subscriber.
Amplitude reference
An additional function provided by the carrier in standard AM, but which is lost in either single or double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission, is that it provides an amplitude reference. In the receiver, the automatic gain control (AGC) responds to the carrier so that the reproduced audio level stays in a fixed proportion to the original modulation. On the other hand, with suppressed-carrier transmissions there is no transmitted power during pauses in the modulation, so the AGC must respond to peaks of the transmitted power during peaks in the modulation. This typically involves a so-called fast attack, slow decay circuit which holds the AGC level for a second or more following such peaks, in between syllables or short pauses in the program. This is very acceptable for communications radios, where compression of the audio aids intelligibility. However, it is absolutely undesired for music or normal broadcast programming, where a faithful reproduction of the original program, including its varying modulation levels, is expected.
ITU type designations
In 1982, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) designated the types of amplitude modulation:
DesignationDescriptionA3Edouble-sideband a full-carrier – the basic amplitude modulation schemeR3Esingle-sideband reduced-carrierH3Esingle-sideband full-carrierJ3Esingle-sideband suppressed-carrierB8Eindependent-sideband emissionC3Fvestigial-sidebandLincompexlinked compressor and expander (a submode of any of the above ITU Emission Modes)
History
thumb|One of the crude pre-vacuum tube AM transmitters, a Telefunken arc transmitter from 1906. The carrier wave is generated by 6 electric arcs in the vertical tubes, connected to a tuned circuit. Modulation is done by the large carbon microphone (cone shape) in the antenna lead.
thumb|One of the first vacuum tube AM radio transmitters, built by Meissner in 1913 with an early triode tube by Robert von Lieben. He used it in a historic voice transmission from Berlin to Nauen, Germany. Compare its small size with the arc transmitter above.
Amplitude modulation was used in experiments of multiplex telegraph and telephone transmission in the late 1800s. However, the practical development of this technology is identified with the period between 1900 and 1920 of radiotelephone transmission, that is, the effort to send audio signals by radio waves. The first radio transmitters, called spark gap transmitters, transmitted information by wireless telegraphy, using pulses of the carrier wave to spell out text messages in Morse code. They could not transmit audio because the carrier consisted of strings of damped waves, pulses of radio waves that declined to zero, and sounded like a buzz in receivers. In effect they were already amplitude modulated.
Continuous waves
The first AM transmission was made by Canadian-born American researcher Reginald Fessenden on December 23, 1900 using a spark gap transmitter with a specially designed high frequency 10 kHz interrupter, over a distance of at Cobb Island, Maryland, US. His first transmitted words were, "Hello. One, two, three, four. Is it snowing where you are, Mr. Thiessen?".
Low-level generation
In modern radio systems, modulated signals are generated via digital signal processing (DSP). With DSP many types of AM are possible with software control (including DSB with carrier, SSB suppressed-carrier and independent sideband, or ISB). Calculated digital samples are converted to voltages with a digital-to-analog converter, typically at a frequency less than the desired RF-output frequency. The analog signal must then be shifted in frequency and linearly amplified to the desired frequency and power level (linear amplification must be used to prevent modulation distortion).
This low-level method for AM is used in many Amateur Radio transceivers.
AM may also be generated at a low level, using analog methods described in the next section.
High-level generation
High-power AM transmitters (such as those used for AM broadcasting) are based on high-efficiency class-D and class-E power amplifier stages, modulated by varying the supply voltage.
Older designs (for broadcast and amateur radio) also generate AM by controlling the gain of the transmitter's final amplifier (generally class-C, for efficiency). The following types are for vacuum tube transmitters (but similar options are available with transistors):
Plate modulation In plate modulation, the plate voltage of the RF amplifier is modulated with the audio signal. The audio power requirement is 50 percent of the RF-carrier power.
Heising (constant-current) modulation RF amplifier plate voltage is fed through a choke (high-value inductor). The AM modulation tube plate is fed through the same inductor, so the modulator tube diverts current from the RF amplifier. The choke acts as a constant current source in the audio range. This system has a low power efficiency.
Control grid modulation The operating bias and gain of the final RF amplifier can be controlled by varying the voltage of the control grid. This method requires little audio power, but care must be taken to reduce distortion.
Clamp tube (screen grid) modulation The screen-grid bias may be controlled through a clamp tube, which reduces voltage according to the modulation signal. It is difficult to approach 100-percent modulation while maintaining low distortion with this system.
Doherty modulation One tube provides the power under carrier conditions and another operates only for positive modulation peaks. Overall efficiency is good, and distortion is low.
Outphasing modulation Two tubes are operated in parallel, but partially out of phase with each other. As they are differentially phase modulated their combined amplitude is greater or smaller. Efficiency is good and distortion low when properly adjusted.
Pulse-width modulation (PWM) or pulse-duration modulation (PDM) A highly efficient high voltage power supply is applied to the tube plate. The output voltage of this supply is varied at an audio rate to follow the program. This system was pioneered by Hilmer Swanson and has a number of variations, all of which achieve high efficiency and sound quality.
Digital methods The Harris Corporation obtained a patent for synthesizing a modulated high-power carrier wave from a set of digitally selected low-power amplifiers, running in phase at the same carrier frequency. The input signal is sampled by a conventional audio analog-to-digital converter (ADC), and fed to a digital exciter, which modulates overall transmitter output power by switching a series of low-power solid-state RF amplifiers on and off. The combined output drives the antenna system.
Demodulation methods
The simplest form of AM demodulator consists of a diode which is configured to act as envelope detector. Another type of demodulator, the product detector, can provide better-quality demodulation with additional circuit complexity.
See also
Airband
AM stereo
Amplitude modulation signalling system (AMSS)
Double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC)
Modulation sphere
Shortwave radio
Types of radio emissions
References
Bibliography
Newkirk, David and Karlquist, Rick (2004). Mixers, modulators and demodulators. In D. G. Reed (ed.), The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications (81st ed.), pp. 15.1–15.36. Newington: ARRL. .
External links
Amplitude Modulation by Jakub Serych, Wolfram Demonstrations Project.
Amplitude Modulation, by S Sastry.
Amplitude Modulation, an introduction by Federation of American Scientists.
Amplitude Modulation tutorial including related topics of modulators, demodulators, etc...
Analog Modulation online interactive demonstration using Python in Google Colab Platform, by C Foh.
Category:Radio modulation modes | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation | 2025-04-05T18:25:32.986772 |
1141 | Augustin-Jean Fresnel | {{Short description|French optical physicist (1788–1827)}}
{{Redirect|Fresnel}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Augustin-Jean Fresnel
| image = Augustin Fresnel.jpg
| caption = Portrait of "Augustin Fresnel" from the frontispiece of his collected works, 1866
| birth_date {{Birth date|dfyes|1788|5|10}}
| birth_place = Broglie, Normandy, France
| death_date {{Death date and age|dfyes|1827|7|14|1788|5|10}}
| death_place = Ville-d'Avray, Île-de-France, France
| resting_place = Père Lachaise Cemetery
| relatives = {{ubl|Fulgence Fresnel (brother)|Léonor Mérimée (uncle)|Prosper Mérimée (cousin)}}
| fields = Physics, engineering
| workplaces = {{ublist
| Corps des Ponts
| Athénée (1819–1820)
| École Polytech (1821–1824)}}
| education = {{ublist
| École polytechnique (1804–1806)
| École des Ponts}}
| known_for = {{ublist
| Birefringence
| Diffraction
| Fresnel–Arago laws
| Fresnel equations
| Fresnel integrals
| Fresnel lens
| Fresnel number
| Fresnel rhomb
| Fresnel zone
| Huygens–Fresnel principle
| Phasor representation
| Polarization
| Wave optics}}
| awards = {{ublist
| 1819: Academy Grand Prix
| 1824: ''Légion d'Honneur''
| 1825: ForMemRS
| 1827 for '24: Rumford Medal}}
}}
Augustin-Jean Fresnel{{#tag:ref|English pronunciation varies: {{IPAc-en|'|f|r|ei|n|ɛ|l|,_|-|n|əl}} {{respell|FRAY|nel|,_|-|nəl}}, or {{IPAc-en|'|f|r|ɛ|n|ɛ|l|,_|-|əl}} {{respell|FREN|el|,_|-|əl}}, or {{IPAc-en|f|r|eɪ|ˈ|n|ɛ|l}} {{respell|fray|NEL}}.<ref>{{cite book|modecs2|authorJ.&nbsp;Wells|author-linkJohn C. Wells|titleLongman Pronunciation Dictionary|publisherPearson Longman|edition3rd|date2008|isbn978-1-4058-8118-0}}.</ref> {{IPA|fr|oɡystɛ̃ ʒɑ̃ fʁɛnɛl|lang}};<ref>[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/fresnel "Fresnel"], Collins English Dictionary / ''Webster's New World College Dictionary''.</ref>|group=Note}} (10 May 1788&nbsp;– 14 July 1827) was a French civil engineer and physicist whose research in optics led to the almost unanimous acceptance of the wave theory of light, excluding any remnant of Newton's corpuscular theory, from the late 1830s{{hsp}}<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;220–223.</ref> until the end of the 19th century. He is perhaps better known for inventing the catadioptric (reflective/refractive) Fresnel lens and for pioneering the use of "stepped" lenses to extend the visibility of lighthouses, saving countless lives at sea. The simpler dioptric (purely refractive) stepped lens, first proposed by Count Buffon{{hsp}}{{r|chisholm-1911-lighthouse}} and independently reinvented by Fresnel, is used in screen magnifiers and in condenser lenses for overhead projectors.
By expressing Huygens's principle of secondary waves and Young's principle of interference in quantitative terms, and supposing that simple colors consist of sinusoidal waves, Fresnel gave the first satisfactory explanation of diffraction by straight edges, including the first satisfactory wave-based explanation of rectilinear propagation.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;205.</ref> Part of his argument was a proof that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. By further supposing that light waves are purely transverse, Fresnel explained the nature of polarization, the mechanism of chromatic polarization, and the transmission and reflection coefficients at the interface between two transparent isotropic media. Then, by generalizing the direction-speed-polarization relation for calcite, he accounted for the directions and polarizations of the refracted rays in doubly-refractive crystals of the biaxial class (those for which Huygens's secondary wavefronts are not axisymmetric). The period between the first publication of his pure-transverse-wave hypothesis, and the submission of his first correct solution to the biaxial problem, was less than a year.
Later, he coined the terms linear polarization, circular polarization, and elliptical polarization, explained how optical rotation could be understood as a difference in propagation speeds for the two directions of circular polarization, and (by allowing the reflection coefficient to be complex) accounted for the change in polarization due to total internal reflection, as exploited in the Fresnel rhomb. Defenders of the established corpuscular theory could not match his quantitative explanations of so many phenomena on so few assumptions.
Fresnel had a lifelong battle with tuberculosis, to which he succumbed at the age of 39. Although he did not become a public celebrity in his lifetime, he lived just long enough to receive due recognition from his peers, including (on his deathbed) the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society of London, and his name is ubiquitous in the modern terminology of optics and waves. After the wave theory of light was subsumed by Maxwell's electromagnetic theory in the 1860s, some attention was diverted from the magnitude of Fresnel's contribution. In the period between Fresnel's unification of physical optics and Maxwell's wider unification, a contemporary authority, Humphrey Lloyd, described Fresnel's transverse-wave theory as "the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science, Newton's system of the universe alone excepted."{{hsp}}{{r|lloyd-1841}}
Early life
(facing Rue Jean François Mérimée),{{r|martan-2014}} inaugurated on 14 September 1884.{{r|bibmed|academie}} The inscription, when translated, says:<br>"Augustin Fresnel, engineer of Bridges and Roads, member of the Academy of Sciences, creator of lenticular lighthouses, was born in this house on 10 May 1788. The theory of light owes to this emulator of Newton the highest concepts and the most useful applications."{{hsp}}{{r|martan-2014|perchet-2011}}]]
Family
Augustin-Jean Fresnel (also called Augustin Jean or simply Augustin), born in Broglie, Normandy, on 10 May 1788, was the second of four sons of the architect Jacques Fresnel{{r|favre}} and his wife Augustine, née Mérimée.{{r|jeanelie}} The family moved twice—in 1789/90 to Cherbourg,<ref>Levitt (2013, p.&nbsp;23) says "in 1790". Silliman (1967, p.&nbsp;7) says "by 1790". Boutry (1948, p.&nbsp;590) says the family left Broglie in 1789.</ref> and in 1794{{hsp}}<ref name=silliman-p166>Silliman, 2008, p.&nbsp;166.</ref> to Jacques's home town of Mathieu, where Augustine would spend 25 years as a widow,<ref>Boutry, 1948, p.&nbsp;590.</ref> outliving two of her sons.
The first son, Louis, was admitted to the École Polytechnique, became a lieutenant in the artillery, and was killed in action at Jaca, Spain.{{r|jeanelie}} The third, Léonor,{{r|favre}} followed Augustin into civil engineering, succeeded him as secretary of the Lighthouse Commission,<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;99.</ref> and helped to edit his collected works.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70.</ref> The fourth, Fulgence Fresnel, became a linguist, diplomat, and orientalist, and occasionally assisted Augustin with negotiations.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;72.</ref><ref name":0">{{Cite book|lastPillet|firstMaurice (1881–1964)|urlhttps://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k5730001x|titleL'expédition scientifique et artistique de Mésopotamie et de Médie, 1851–1855|date1922|publisherLibraire Ancienne Honoré Champion |locationAccessed from Gallica – Bibliothèque nationale de France|languageFR}}</ref> Fulgence died in Bagdad in 1855 having led a mission to explore Babylon.<ref name":0" />
Madame Fresnel's younger brother, Jean François "Léonor" Mérimée,{{r|jeanelie}} father of the writer Prosper Mérimée, was a painter who turned his attention to the chemistry of painting. He became the Permanent Secretary of the École des Beaux-Arts and (until 1814) a professor at the École Polytechnique,<ref>Levitt, 2009, p.&nbsp;49.</ref> and was the initial point of contact between Augustin and the leading optical physicists of the day {{crossreference|(see below)}}.
Education
The Fresnel brothers were initially home-schooled by their mother. The sickly Augustin was considered the slow one, not inclined to memorization;<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;24–25; Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;111.</ref> but the popular story that he hardly began to read until the age of eight is disputed.<ref>That age was given by Arago in his elegy (Arago, 1857, p.&nbsp;402) and widely propagated (Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911; Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;111; Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;24; etc.). But the reprint of the elegy at the end of Fresnel's collected works bears a footnote, presumably by Léonor Fresnel, saying that "eight" should be "five or six", and regretting "the haste with which we had to collect the notes that were belatedly requested for the biographical part of this speech" (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;3, p.&nbsp;477n). Silliman (1967, p.&nbsp;9n) accepts the correction.</ref> At the age of nine or ten he was undistinguished except for his ability to turn tree-branches into toy bows and guns that worked far too well, earning himself the title ''l'homme de génie (the man of genius) from his accomplices, and a united crackdown from their elders.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;25; Arago, 1857, p.&nbsp;402; Boutry, 1948, pp.&nbsp;590–591.</ref>
In 1801, Augustin was sent to the École Centrale'' at Caen, as company for Louis. But Augustin lifted his performance: in late 1804 he was accepted into the École Polytechnique, being placed 17th in the entrance examination.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;25–26; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;9–11.</ref>{{r|chisholm-1911-fresnel}} As the detailed records of the École Polytechnique begin in 1808, we know little of Augustin's time there, except that he made few if any friends and—in spite of continuing poor health—excelled in drawing and geometry:<ref>Boutry, 1948, p.&nbsp;592.</ref> in his first year he took a prize for his solution to a geometry problem posed by Adrien-Marie Legendre.<ref>Silliman, 1967, p.&nbsp;14; Arago, 1857, p.&nbsp;403. Fresnel's solution was printed in the ''Correspondance sur l'École polytechnique, No.&nbsp;4 (June–July 1805), [https://books.google.com/books?idIbU-AAAAcAAJ&pgPA78 pp.&nbsp;78–80], and reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;681–684. Boutry (1948, p.&nbsp;591) takes this story as referring to the entrance examination.</ref> Graduating in 1806, he then enrolled at the École Nationale des Ponts et Chaussées (National School of Bridges and Roads, also known as "ENPC" or "École des Ponts"), from which he graduated in 1809, entering the service of the Corps des Ponts et Chaussées as an ingénieur ordinaire aspirant'' (ordinary engineer in training). Directly or indirectly, he was to remain in the employment of the "Corps des Ponts" for the rest of his life.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;26–27; Silliman, 2008, p.&nbsp;166; Boutry, 1948, pp.&nbsp;592,{{tsp}}601.</ref>
Religious formation
Fresnel's parents were Roman Catholics of the Jansenist sect, characterized by an extreme Augustinian view of original sin. Religion took first place in the boys' home-schooling. In&nbsp;1802, his mother said:
{{Blockquote|I pray God to give my son the grace to employ the great talents, which he has received, for his own benefit, and for the God of all. Much will be asked from him to whom much has been given, and most will be required of him who has received most.<ref>Kneller, tr.&nbsp;Kettle, 1911, p.&nbsp;147.&nbsp; Kneller interprets the quote as referring to Augustin; but Verdet (in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;xcviii–xcix), cited by Silliman (1967, p.&nbsp;8), gives it a different context, referring to Louis's academic success.</ref>}}
Augustin remained a Jansenist.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;24.</ref> He regarded his intellectual talents as gifts from God, and considered it his duty to use them for the benefit of others.<ref>Kneller, 1911, p.&nbsp;148.</ref> According to his fellow engineer Alphonse Duleau, who helped to nurse him through his final illness, Fresnel saw the study of nature as part of the study of the power and goodness of God. He placed virtue above science and genius. In his last days he prayed for "strength of soul," not against death alone, but against "the interruption of discoveries… of which he hoped to derive useful applications."{{hsp}}<ref>Kneller, 1911, pp.&nbsp;148–149n; cf.&nbsp;Arago, 1857, p.&nbsp;470.</ref>
Jansenism is considered heretical by the Roman Catholic Church, and Grattan-Guinness suggests this is why Fresnel never gained a permanent academic teaching post;<ref>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp.&nbsp;914–915.</ref> his only teaching appointment was at the Athénée in the winter of 1819–20.{{r|brock-1909}}<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;xcvii.</ref> The article on Fresnel in the Catholic Encyclopedia does not mention his Jansenism, but describes him as "a deeply religious man and remarkable for his keen sense of duty."{{hsp}}{{r|brock-1909}}
Engineering assignments
Fresnel was initially posted to the western département of Vendée. There, in 1811, he anticipated what became known as the Solvay process for producing soda&nbsp;ash, except that recycling of the ammonia was not considered.{{r|reilly-1951}} That difference may explain why leading chemists, who learned of his discovery through his uncle Léonor, eventually thought it uneconomic.<ref>Cf.{{tsp}} Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;28–33; Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;29; Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;113–114.&nbsp; The surviving correspondence on soda ash extends from August 1811 to April 1812; see Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;810–817.</ref>
About 1812, Fresnel was sent to Nyons, in the southern département of Drôme, to assist with the imperial highway that was to connect Spain and Italy.<ref name=silliman-p166 /> It is from Nyons that we have the first evidence of his interest in optics. On 15 May 1814, while work was slack due to Napoleon's defeat,<ref>Boutry, 1948, pp.&nbsp;593–594.</ref> Fresnel wrote a "P.S." to his brother Léonor, saying in part:
{{blockquote|I would also like to have papers that might tell me about the discoveries of French physicists on the polarization of light. I&nbsp;saw in the Moniteur of a few months ago that Biot had read to the Institute a very interesting memoir on the polarization of light. Though I&nbsp;break my head, I&nbsp;cannot guess what that is.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, p.&nbsp;819; emphasis in original.</ref>}}
As late as 28 December he was still waiting for information, but by 10 February 1815 he had received Biot's memoir.<ref>Boutry, 1948, p.&nbsp;593; Arago, 1857, pp.&nbsp;407–408; Fresnel, 1815a.</ref> (The Institut de France had taken over the functions of the French Académie des Sciences and other académies in 1795. In&nbsp;1816 the Académie des Sciences regained its name and autonomy, but remained part of the institute.{{r|academie-hist}})
In March 1815, perceiving Napoleon's return from Elba as "an attack on civilization",<ref>Arago, 1857, p.&nbsp;405; Silliman, 2008, p.&nbsp;166.&nbsp; Arago does not use quotation marks.</ref> Fresnel departed without leave, hastened to Toulouse and offered his services to the royalist resistance, but soon found himself on the sick list. Returning to Nyons in defeat, he was threatened and had his windows broken. During the Hundred Days he was placed on suspension, which he was eventually allowed to spend at his mother's house in Mathieu. There he used his enforced leisure to begin his optical experiments.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;38–39; Boutry, 1948, p.&nbsp;594; Arago, 1857, pp.&nbsp;405–406; Kipnis, 1991, p.&nbsp;167.</ref>
Contributions to physical optics
Historical context: From Newton to Biot
The appreciation of Fresnel's reconstruction of physical optics might be assisted by an overview of the fragmented state in which he found the subject. In this subsection, optical phenomena that were unexplained or whose explanations were disputed are named in bold&nbsp;type.
are shown in blue before refraction, and in green after refraction. For ordinary refraction, the secondary wavefronts (gray curves) are spherical, so that the rays (straight gray lines) are perpendicular to the wavefronts.]]
The corpuscular theory of light, favored by Isaac Newton and accepted by nearly all of Fresnel's seniors, easily explained rectilinear propagation: the corpuscles obviously moved very fast, so that their paths were very nearly straight. The wave theory, as developed by Christiaan Huygens in his Treatise on Light (1690), explained rectilinear propagation on the assumption that each point crossed by a traveling wavefront becomes the source of a secondary wavefront. Given the initial position of a traveling wavefront, any later position (according to Huygens) was the common tangent surface (envelope) of the secondary wavefronts emitted from the earlier position.<ref>Huygens, 1690, tr.&nbsp;Thompson, pp.&nbsp;20–21.</ref> As the extent of the common tangent was limited by the extent of the initial wavefront, the repeated application of Huygens's construction to a plane wavefront of limited extent (in a uniform medium) gave a straight, parallel beam. While this construction indeed predicted rectilinear propagation, it was difficult to reconcile with the common observation that wavefronts on the surface of water can bend around obstructions, and with the similar behavior of sound waves—causing Newton to maintain, to the end of his life, that if light consisted of waves it would "bend and spread every way" into the shadows.<ref>Newton, 1730, p.&nbsp;362.</ref>
Huygens's theory neatly explained the law of ordinary reflection and the law of ordinary refraction ("Snell's law"), provided that the secondary waves traveled slower in denser media (those of higher refractive index).<ref>Huygens, 1690, tr.&nbsp;Thompson, pp.&nbsp;22–38.</ref> The corpuscular theory, with the hypothesis that the corpuscles were subject to forces acting perpendicular to surfaces, explained the same laws equally well,<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;93–94,{{tsp}}103.</ref> albeit with the implication that light traveled faster in denser media; that implication was wrong, but could not be directly disproven with the technology of Newton's time or even Fresnel's time {{crossreference|(see Foucault's measurements of the speed of light)}}.
Similarly inconclusive was stellar aberration—that is, the apparent change in the position of a star due to the velocity of the earth across the line of sight (not to be confused with stellar parallax, which is due to the displacement of the earth across the line of sight). Identified by James Bradley in 1728, stellar aberration was widely taken as confirmation of the corpuscular theory. But it was equally compatible with the wave theory, as Euler noted in 1746—tacitly assuming that the aether (the supposed wave-bearing medium) near the earth was not disturbed by the motion of the earth.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;129–130,{{tsp}}258.</ref>
The outstanding strength of Huygens's theory was his explanation of the birefringence (double refraction) of "Iceland crystal" (transparent calcite), on the assumption that the secondary waves are spherical for the ordinary refraction (which satisfies Snell's law) and spheroidal for the extraordinary refraction (which does not).<ref>Huygens, 1690, tr.&nbsp;Thompson, pp.&nbsp;52–105.</ref> In general, Huygens's common-tangent construction implies that rays are paths of least time between successive positions of the wavefront, in accordance with Fermat's principle.{{r|deWitte-1959}}<ref>Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;225–226,{{tsp}}229.</ref> In the special case of isotropic media, the secondary wavefronts must be spherical, and Huygens's construction then implies that the rays are perpendicular to the wavefront; indeed, the law of ordinary refraction can be separately derived from that premise, as Ignace-Gaston Pardies did before Huygens.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;62–64.</ref>
'' (formerly called "thin-plate" interference)]]
Although Newton rejected the wave theory, he noticed its potential to explain colors, including the colors of "thin plates" (e.g., "Newton's rings", and the colors of skylight reflected in soap bubbles), on the assumption that light consists of periodic waves, with the lowest frequencies (longest wavelengths) at the red end of the spectrum, and the highest frequencies (shortest wavelengths) at the violet end. In&nbsp;1672 he published a heavy hint to that effect,<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;87.</ref>{{r|newton-1672e|pp5088–5089}} but contemporary supporters of the wave theory failed to act on it: Robert Hooke treated light as a periodic sequence of pulses but did not use frequency as the criterion of color,<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;53–56.</ref> while Huygens treated the waves as individual pulses without any periodicity;<ref>Huygens, 1690, tr.&nbsp;Thompson, p.&nbsp;17.</ref> and Pardies died young in 1673. Newton himself tried to explain colors of thin plates using the corpuscular theory, by supposing that his corpuscles had the wavelike property of alternating between "fits of easy transmission" and "fits of easy reflection",<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;98–100; Newton, 1730, p.&nbsp;281.</ref> the distance between like "fits" depending on the color and the medium{{hsp}}<ref>Newton, 1730, p.&nbsp;284.</ref> and, awkwardly, on the angle of refraction or reflection into that medium.<ref>Newton, 1730, pp.&nbsp;283,{{px2}}287.</ref>{{r|kipnis-2003|p1144}} More awkwardly still, this theory required thin plates to reflect only at the back surface, although thick plates manifestly reflected also at the front surface.<ref>Newton, 1730, pp.&nbsp;279,{{tsp}}281–282.</ref> It was not until 1801 that Thomas Young, in the Bakerian Lecture for that year, cited Newton's hint,{{r|young-1801|pp18–19}} and accounted for the colors of a thin plate as the combined effect of the front and back reflections, which reinforce or cancel each other according to the wavelength and the thickness.{{r|young-1801|pp37–39}} Young similarly explained the colors of "striated surfaces" (e.g., gratings) as the wavelength-dependent reinforcement or cancellation of reflections from adjacent lines.{{r|young-1801|pp=35–37}} He described this reinforcement or cancellation as interference.
Neither Newton nor Huygens satisfactorily explained diffraction—the blurring and fringing of shadows where, according to rectilinear propagation, they ought to be sharp. Newton, who called diffraction "inflexion", supposed that rays of light passing close to obstacles were bent ("inflected"); but his explanation was only qualitative.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;101–102; Newton, 1730, Book&nbsp;{{serif|III}}, Part&nbsp;{{serif|I}}.</ref> Huygens's common-tangent construction, without modifications, could not accommodate diffraction at all. Two such modifications were proposed by Young in the same 1801 Bakerian Lecture: first, that the secondary waves near the edge of an obstacle could diverge into the shadow, but only weakly, due to limited reinforcement from other secondary waves;{{r|young-1801|pp25–27}} and second, that diffraction by an edge was caused by interference between two rays: one reflected off the edge, and the other inflected while passing near the edge. The latter ray would be undeviated if sufficiently far from the edge, but Young did not elaborate on that case.{{r|young-1801|pp42–44}} These were the earliest suggestions that the degree of diffraction depends on wavelength.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;177–179.</ref> Later, in the 1803 Bakerian Lecture, Young ceased to regard inflection as a separate phenomenon,<ref>Young, 1855, p.&nbsp;188.</ref> and produced evidence that diffraction fringes inside the shadow of a narrow obstacle were due to interference: when the light from one side was blocked, the internal fringes disappeared.<ref>Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;179–181.</ref> But Young was alone in such efforts until Fresnel entered the field.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;187.</ref>
Huygens, in his investigation of double refraction, noticed something that he could not explain: when light passes through two similarly oriented calcite crystals at normal incidence, the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the ordinary refraction in the second, while the extraordinary ray emerging from the first suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second; but when the second crystal is rotated 90° about the incident rays, the roles are interchanged, so that the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second, and vice versa.<ref>Huygens, 1690, tr.&nbsp;Thompson, pp.&nbsp;92–94. For simplicity, the above text describes a special case; Huygens's description has greater generality.</ref> This discovery gave Newton another reason to reject the wave theory: rays of light evidently had "sides".<ref>Newton, 1730, pp.&nbsp;358–361.</ref> Corpuscles could have sides{{hsp}}<ref>Newton, 1730, pp.&nbsp;373–374.</ref> (or poles, as they would later be called); but waves of light could not,<ref>Newton, 1730, p.&nbsp;363.</ref> because (so it seemed) any such waves would need to be longitudinal (with vibrations in the direction of propagation). Newton offered an alternative "Rule" for the extraordinary refraction,<ref>Newton, 1730, p.&nbsp;356.</ref> which rode on his authority through the 18th century, although he made "no known attempt to deduce it from any principles of optics, corpuscular or otherwise."{{hsp}}{{r|buchwald-1980|p=327}}
In 1808, the extraordinary refraction of calcite was investigated experimentally, with unprecedented accuracy, by Étienne-Louis Malus, and found to be consistent with Huygens's spheroid construction, not Newton's "Rule".{{r|buchwald-1980}} Malus, encouraged by Pierre-Simon Laplace,{{r|kipnis-2003|p1146}} then sought to explain this law in corpuscular terms: from the known relation between the incident and refracted ray directions, Malus derived the corpuscular velocity (as a function of direction) that would satisfy Maupertuis's "least action" principle. But, as Young pointed out, the existence of such a velocity law was guaranteed by Huygens's spheroid, because Huygens's construction leads to Fermat's principle, which becomes Maupertuis's principle if the ray speed is replaced by the reciprocal of the particle speed! The corpuscularists had not found a force law that would yield the alleged velocity law, except by a circular argument in which a force acting at the surface of the crystal inexplicably depended on the direction of the (possibly subsequent) velocity within the crystal. Worse, it was doubtful that any such force would satisfy the conditions of Maupertuis's principle.<ref>Frankel (1974) and Young (1855, pp.&nbsp;225–228) debunk Laplace's claim to have established the existence of such a force. Fresnel (1827, tr.&nbsp;Hobson, pp.&nbsp;239–241) more comprehensively addresses the mechanical difficulties of this claim. Admittedly, the particular statement that he attributes to Laplace is not found in the relevant passage from Laplace's writings (appended to Fresnel's memoir by the translator), which is similar to the passage previously demolished by Young; however, an equivalent statement is found in the works of Malus (''Mémoires de Physique et de Chimie, de la Société d'Arcueil, vol.&nbsp;2, 1809, [https://books.google.com/books?idNl87AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA266 p.&nbsp;266], quoted in translation by Silliman, 1967, p.&nbsp;131).</ref> In contrast, Young proceeded to show that "a&nbsp;medium more easily compressible in one direction than in any direction perpendicular to it, as if it consisted of an infinite number of parallel plates connected by a substance somewhat less elastic" admits spheroidal longitudinal wavefronts, as Huygens supposed.<ref>Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;228–232; cf.&nbsp;Whewell, 1857, p.&nbsp;329.</ref>
But Malus, in the midst of his experiments on double refraction, noticed something else: when a ray of light is reflected off a non-metallic surface at the appropriate angle, it behaves like one of the two rays emerging from a calcite crystal.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;191–192; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;125–127.</ref> It was Malus who coined the term polarization to describe this behavior, although the polarizing angle became known as 'Brewster's angle' after its dependence on the refractive index was determined experimentally by David Brewster in 1815.{{r|brewster-1815b}} Malus also introduced the term plane of polarization. In the case of polarization by reflection, his "plane of polarization" was the plane of the incident and reflected rays; in modern terms, this is the plane normal to the electric vibration. In&nbsp;1809, Malus further discovered that the intensity of light passing through two polarizers is proportional to the squared cosine of the angle between their planes of polarization ('Malus's law'),<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;192; Silliman, 1967, p.&nbsp;128.</ref> whether the polarizers work by reflection or double refraction, and that all birefringent crystals produce both extraordinary refraction and polarization.<ref>Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;249–250.</ref> As the corpuscularists started trying to explain these things in terms of polar "molecules" of light, the wave-theorists had no working hypothesis'' on the nature of polarization, prompting Young to remark that Malus's observations "present greater difficulties to the advocates of the undulatory theory than any other facts with which we are acquainted."{{hsp}}<ref>Young, 1855, p.&nbsp;233.</ref>
Malus died in February 1812, at the age of 36, shortly after receiving the Rumford Medal for his work on polarization.
In August 1811, François Arago reported that if a thin plate of mica was viewed against a white polarized backlight through a calcite crystal, the two images of the mica were of complementary colors (the overlap having the same color as the background). The light emerging from the mica was "depolarized" in the sense that there was no orientation of the calcite that made one image disappear; yet it was not ordinary ("unpolarized") light, for which the two images would be of the same color. Rotating the calcite around the line of sight changed the colors, though they remained complementary. Rotating the mica changed the saturation (not the hue) of the colors. This phenomenon became known as chromatic polarization. Replacing the mica with a much thicker plate of quartz, with its faces perpendicular to the optic axis (the axis of Huygens's spheroid or Malus's velocity function), produced a similar effect, except that rotating the quartz made no difference. Arago tried to explain his observations in corpuscular terms.<ref>Levitt, 2009, p.&nbsp;37; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;193–194,{{tsp}}290.</ref>
In 1812, as Arago pursued further qualitative experiments and other commitments, Jean-Baptiste Biot reworked the same ground using a gypsum lamina in place of the mica, and found empirical formulae for the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images. The formulae contained two coefficients, supposedly representing colors of rays "affected" and "unaffected" by the plate—the "affected" rays being of the same color mix as those reflected by amorphous thin plates of proportional, but lesser, thickness.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;194–195 (ordinary intensity); Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;148 (both intensities).</ref>
Arago protested, declaring that he had made some of the same discoveries but had not had time to write them up. In fact the overlap between Arago's work and Biot's was minimal, Arago's being only qualitative and wider in scope (attempting to include polarization by reflection). But the dispute triggered a notorious falling-out between the two men.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;79–88; Levitt, 2009, pp.&nbsp;33–54.</ref>{{r|buchwald-1989b}}<!-- Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;156; Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;194; Buchwald, 2013, p.&nbsp;450. -->
Later that year, Biot tried to explain the observations as an oscillation of the alignment of the "affected" corpuscles at a frequency proportional to that of Newton's "fits", due to forces depending on the alignment. This theory became known as mobile polarization. To reconcile his results with a sinusoidal oscillation, Biot had to suppose that the corpuscles emerged with one of two permitted orientations, namely the extremes of the oscillation, with probabilities depending on the phase of the oscillation.<ref>Frankel, 1976, pp.&nbsp;149–150; Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;99–103; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;195–196.</ref> Corpuscular optics was becoming expensive on assumptions. But in 1813, Biot reported that the case of quartz was simpler: the observable phenomenon (now called optical rotation or optical activity or sometimes rotary polarization) was a gradual rotation of the polarization direction with distance, and could be explained by a corresponding rotation (not oscillation) of the corpuscles.<ref>Frankel, 1976, pp.&nbsp;151–152; Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;196.</ref>
Early in 1814, reviewing Biot's work on chromatic polarization, Young noted that the periodicity of the color as a function of the plate thickness—including the factor by which the period exceeded that for a reflective thin plate, and even the effect of obliquity of the plate (but not the role of polarization)—could be explained by the wave theory in terms of the different propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves through the plate.<ref>Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;269–272.</ref> But Young was then the only public defender of the wave theory.<ref name=frankel-p176>Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;176; cf.&nbsp;Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;142–143.</ref>
In summary, in the spring of 1814, as Fresnel tried in vain to guess what polarization was, the corpuscularists thought that they knew, while the wave-theorists (if we may use the plural) literally had no idea. Both theories claimed to explain rectilinear propagation, but the wave explanation was overwhelmingly regarded as unconvincing. The corpuscular theory could not rigorously link double refraction to surface forces; the wave theory could not yet link it to polarization. The corpuscular theory was weak on thin plates and silent on gratings;<ref groupNote>Newton (1730) observed feathers acting as reflection gratings and as a transmission gratings, but classified the former case under thin plates (p.&nbsp;252), and the latter, more vaguely, under inflection (p.&nbsp;322). In retrospect, the latter experiment (p.&nbsp;322, end of Obs.&nbsp;2) is dangerous to eyesight and should not be repeated as written.</ref> the wave theory was strong on both, but under-appreciated. Concerning diffraction, the corpuscular theory did not yield quantitative predictions, while the wave theory had begun to do so by considering diffraction as a manifestation of interference, but had only considered two rays at a time. Only the corpuscular theory gave even a vague insight into Brewster's angle, Malus's law, or optical rotation. Concerning chromatic polarization, the wave theory explained the periodicity far better than the corpuscular theory, but had nothing to say about the role of polarization; and its explanation of the periodicity was largely ignored.<ref>Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;155.</ref> And Arago had founded the study of chromatic polarization, only to lose the lead, controversially, to Biot. Such were the circumstances in which Arago first heard of Fresnel's interest in optics. Rêveries
of Fresnel's uncle Léonor Mérimée (1757–1836), on the same wall as the Fresnel monument in Broglie{{r|martan-2014}}]]
Fresnel's letters from later in 1814 reveal his interest in the wave theory, including his awareness that it explained the constancy of the speed of light and was at least compatible with stellar aberration. Eventually he compiled what he called his rêveries (musings) into an essay and submitted it via Léonor Mérimée to André-Marie Ampère, who did not respond directly. But on 19 December, Mérimée dined with Ampère and Arago, with whom he was acquainted through the École Polytechnique; and Arago promised to look at Fresnel's essay.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;116–117; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;40–45; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, p.&nbsp;831; Levitt, 2009, p.&nbsp;49.</ref><ref group=Note>The story that Ampère lost the essay (propagated from Boutry, 1948, p.&nbsp;593?) is implicitly contradicted by Darrigol (2012, p.&nbsp;198), Buchwald (1989, p.&nbsp;117), Mérimée's letter to Fresnel dated 20 December 1814 (in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;830–831), and two footnotes in Fresnel's collected works (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;xxix–xxx, note&nbsp;4, and p.&nbsp;6n).</ref>
In mid 1815, on his way home to Mathieu to serve his suspension, Fresnel met Arago in Paris and spoke of the wave theory and stellar aberration. He was informed that he was trying to break down open doors ("il enfonçait des portes ouvertes"), and directed to classical works on optics.<ref>Boutry, 1948, pp.&nbsp;594–595.</ref>
Diffraction
First attempt (1815)
On 12 July 1815, as Fresnel was about to leave Paris, Arago left him a note on a new topic:
{{blockquote|I do not know of any book that contains all the experiments that physicists are doing on the diffraction of light. M'sieur Fresnel will only be able to get to know this part of the optics by reading the work by Grimaldi, the one by Newton, the English treatise by Jordan,{{r|jordan-1799}} and the memoirs of Brougham and Young, which are part of the collection of the Philosophical Transactions.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;6n; Kipnis, 1991, p.&nbsp;167; emphasis added.</ref>}}
Fresnel would not have ready access to these works outside Paris, and could not read English.<ref name=readings-english>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;6–7.</ref> But, in Mathieu—with a point-source of light made by focusing sunlight with a drop of honey, a crude micrometer of his own construction, and supporting apparatus made by a local locksmith—he began his own experiments.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;xxxi (micrometer, locksmith {{bracket|serrurier}}, supports), 6n (locksmith); Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;122 (honey drop), 125–126 (micrometer, with diagram); Boutry 1948, p.&nbsp;595 and Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;40 (locksmith, honey drop, micrometer); Darrigol 2012, pp.&nbsp;198–199 (locksmith, honey drop).</ref> His technique was novel: whereas earlier investigators had projected the fringes onto a screen, Fresnel soon abandoned the screen and observed the fringes in space, through a lens with the micrometer at its focus, allowing more accurate measurements while requiring less light.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;122,{{hsp}}126; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;147–149.</ref>
Later in July, after Napoleon's final defeat, Fresnel was reinstated with the advantage of having backed the winning side. He requested a two-month leave of absence, which was readily granted because roadworks were in abeyance.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;39,{{px2}}239.</ref>
On 23 September he wrote to Arago, beginning "I&nbsp;think I&nbsp;have found the explanation and the law of colored fringes which one notices in the shadows of bodies illuminated by a luminous point." In the same paragraph, however, Fresnel implicitly acknowledged doubt about the novelty of his work: noting that he would need to incur some expense in order to improve his measurements, he wanted to know "whether this is not useless, and whether the law of diffraction has not already been established by sufficiently exact experiments."{{hsp}}<ref>Kipnis, 1991, p.&nbsp;167; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;5–6.</ref> He explained that he had not yet had a chance to acquire the items on his reading lists,<ref namereadings-english /> with the apparent exception of "Young's book", which he could not understand without his brother's help.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;198. Silliman (1967, p.&nbsp;146) identifies the brother as Fulgence, then in Paris; cf.&nbsp;Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;7n.</ref><ref groupNote>"Young's book", which Fresnel distinguished from the Philosophical Transactions, is presumably A&nbsp;Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts (2&nbsp;volumes, 1807). In [https://archive.org/details/lecturescourseof01younrich vol.&nbsp;1], the relevant illustrations are Plate&nbsp;{{serif|XX}} (facing p.&nbsp;777), including the famous two-source interference pattern (Fig.&nbsp;267), and Plate&nbsp;{{serif|XXX}} (facing p.&nbsp;787), including the hyperbolic paths of the fringes in that pattern (Fig.&nbsp;442) followed by sketches of other diffraction patterns and thin-plate patterns, with no visual hints on their physical causes. In [https://archive.org/details/lecturescourseof02younrich vol.&nbsp;2], which includes the Bakerian lectures from the Philosophical Transactions, Fig.&nbsp;108 (p.&nbsp;632) shows just one case of an undeviated direct ray intersecting a reflected ray.</ref>&nbsp; Not surprisingly, he had retraced many of Young's steps.
In a memoir sent to the institute on 15 October 1815, Fresnel mapped the external and internal fringes in the shadow of a wire. He noticed, like Young before him, that the internal fringes disappeared when the light from one side was blocked, and concluded that "the vibrations of two rays that cross each other under a very small angle can contradict each other…"{{hsp}}<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;199.</ref> But, whereas Young took the disappearance of the internal fringes as confirmation of the principle of interference, Fresnel reported that it was the internal fringes that first drew his attention to the principle. To explain the diffraction pattern, Fresnel constructed the internal fringes by considering the intersections of circular wavefronts emitted from the two edges of the obstruction, and the external fringes by considering the intersections between direct waves and waves reflected off the nearer edge. For the external fringes, to obtain tolerable agreement with observation, he had to suppose that the reflected wave was inverted; and he noted that the predicted paths of the fringes were hyperbolic. In the part of the memoir that most clearly surpassed Young, Fresnel explained the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction in terms of interference, noting that if two parallel rays were reflected or refracted at other than the prescribed angle, they would no longer have the same phase in a common perpendicular plane, and every vibration would be cancelled by a nearby vibration. He noted that his explanation was valid provided that the surface irregularities were much smaller than the wavelength.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;119,{{tsp}}131–132; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;199–201; Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;175–176.</ref>
On 10 November, Fresnel sent a supplementary note dealing with Newton's rings and with gratings,<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;201.</ref> including, for the first time, transmission gratings—although in that case the interfering rays were still assumed to be "inflected", and the experimental verification was inadequate because it used only two threads.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;48–49; Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;176–178.</ref>
As Fresnel was not a member of the institute, the fate of his memoir depended heavily on the report of a single member. The reporter for Fresnel's memoir turned out to be Arago (with Poinsot as the other reviewer).<ref>Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;158; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;9n.</ref> On 8 November, Arago wrote to Fresnel:
{{blockquote|I have been instructed by the Institute to examine your memoir on the diffraction of light; I have studied it carefully, and found many interesting experiments, some of which had already been done by Dr.&nbsp;Thomas Young, who in general regards this phenomenon in a manner rather analogous to the one you have adopted. But what neither he nor anyone had seen before you is that the external colored bands do not travel in a straight line as one moves away from the opaque body. The results you have achieved in this regard seem to me very important; perhaps they can serve to prove the truth of the undulatory system, so often and so feebly combated by physicists who have not bothered to understand it.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;38; italics added.</ref>}}
Fresnel was troubled, wanting to know more precisely where he had collided with Young.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;137–139.</ref> Concerning the curved paths of the "colored bands", Young had noted the hyperbolic paths of the fringes in the two-source interference pattern, corresponding roughly to Fresnel's internal fringes, and had described the hyperbolic fringes that appear on the screen within rectangular shadows.<ref>Young, 1807, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;787 & Figs.&nbsp;442,{{px2}}445; Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;180–181,{{tsp}}184.</ref> He had not mentioned the curved paths of the external fringes of a shadow; but, as he later explained,<ref>Young to Arago (in&nbsp;English), 12 January 1817, in Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;380–384, at p.&nbsp;381; quoted in Silliman, 1967, p.&nbsp;171.</ref> that was because Newton had already done so.<ref>Newton, 1730, p.&nbsp;321, Fig.&nbsp;1, where the straight rays {{serif|DG,{{tsp}}EH,{{tsp}}FI}} contribute to the curved path of a fringe, so that the same fringe is made by different rays at different distances from the obstacle{{tsp}} (cf.&nbsp;Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;101, Fig.&nbsp;3.11 – where, in the caption, "1904" should be "1704" and "{{serif|CFG}}" should be "{{serif|CFI}}").</ref> Newton evidently thought the fringes were caustics. Thus Arago erred in his belief that the curved paths of the fringes were fundamentally incompatible with the corpuscular theory.<ref>Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;204–205.</ref>
Arago's letter went on to request more data on the external fringes. Fresnel complied, until he exhausted his leave and was assigned to Rennes in the département of Ille-et-Vilaine. At this point Arago interceded with Gaspard de Prony, head of the École des Ponts, who wrote to Louis-Mathieu Molé, head of the Corps des Ponts, suggesting that the progress of science and the prestige of the Corps would be enhanced if Fresnel could come to Paris for a time. He arrived in March 1816, and his leave was subsequently extended through the middle of the year.<ref>Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;163–164; Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;158; Boutry, 1948, p.&nbsp;597; Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;41–43,{{tsp}}239.</ref>
Meanwhile, in an experiment reported on 26 February 1816, Arago verified Fresnel's prediction that the internal fringes were shifted if the rays on one side of the obstacle passed through a thin glass lamina. Fresnel correctly attributed this phenomenon to the lower wave velocity in the glass.<ref>Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;165–166; Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;137; Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;178,{{tsp}}207,{{tsp}}213.</ref> Arago later used a similar argument to explain the colors in the scintillation of stars.<ref group=Note>Silliman (1967, p.&nbsp;163) and Frankel (1976, p.&nbsp;156) give the date of Arago's note on scintillation as 1814; but the sequence of events implies 1816, in agreement with Darrigol (2012, pp.&nbsp;201,{{px2}}290).&nbsp; Kipnis (1991, pp.&nbsp;202–203,{{tsp}}206) proves the later date and explains the origin and propagation of the incorrect earlier date.</ref>
Fresnel's updated memoir{{hsp}}<ref>Fresnel, 1816.</ref> was eventually published in the March 1816 issue of Annales de Chimie et de Physique, of which Arago had recently become co-editor.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;201; Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;159.</ref> That issue did not actually appear until May.<ref>Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;166n,{{px2}}214n.</ref> In&nbsp;March, Fresnel already had competition: Biot read a memoir on diffraction by himself and his student Claude Pouillet, containing copious data and arguing that the regularity of diffraction fringes, like the regularity of Newton's rings, must be linked to Newton's "fits". But the new link was not rigorous, and Pouillet himself would become a distinguished early adopter of the wave theory.<ref>Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;212–214; Frankel, 1976, pp.&nbsp;159–160,{{tsp}}173.</ref>
"Efficacious ray", double-mirror experiment (1816)
On 24 May 1816, Fresnel wrote to Young (in French), acknowledging how little of his own memoir was new.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;201; the letter is printed in Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;376–378, and its conclusion is translated by Silliman (1967, p.&nbsp;170).</ref> But in a "supplement" signed on 14 July and read the next day,<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;129–170.</ref> Fresnel noted that the internal fringes were more accurately predicted by supposing that the two interfering rays came from some distance outside the edges of the obstacle. To explain this, he divided the incident wavefront at the obstacle into what we now call Fresnel zones, such that the secondary waves from each zone were spread over half a cycle when they arrived at the observation point. The zones on one side of the obstacle largely canceled out in pairs, except the first zone, which was represented by an "efficacious ray". This approach worked for the internal fringes, but the superposition of the efficacious ray and the direct ray did not work for the external fringes.<ref>Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;177–179; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;201–203.</ref>
The contribution from the "efficacious ray" was thought to be only partly canceled, for reasons involving the dynamics of the medium: where the wavefront was continuous, symmetry forbade oblique vibrations; but near the obstacle that truncated the wavefront, the asymmetry allowed some sideways vibration towards the geometric shadow. This argument showed that Fresnel had not (yet) fully accepted Huygens's principle, which would have permitted oblique radiation from all portions of the front.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;134–135,{{tsp}}144–145; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;176–177.</ref>
In the same supplement, Fresnel described his well-known double mirror, comprising two flat mirrors joined at an angle of slightly less than 180°, with which he produced a two-slit interference pattern from two virtual images of the same slit. A conventional double-slit experiment required a preliminary single slit to ensure that the light falling on the double slit was coherent (synchronized). In Fresnel's version, the preliminary single slit was retained, and the double slit was replaced by the double mirror—which bore no physical resemblance to the double slit and yet performed the same function. This result (which had been announced by Arago in the March issue of the Annales) made it hard to believe that the two-slit pattern had anything to do with corpuscles being deflected as they passed near the edges of the slits.<ref>Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;173–175; Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;137–138; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;201–2; Boutry, 1948, p.&nbsp;597; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;123–128 (Arago's announcement).</ref>
But 1816 was the "Year Without a Summer": crops failed; hungry farming families lined the streets of Rennes; the central government organized "charity workhouses" for the needy; and in October, Fresnel was sent back to Ille-et-Vilaine to supervise charity workers in addition to his regular road crew.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;43; Boutry, 1948, p.&nbsp;599.</ref> According to Arago,
{{blockquote|with Fresnel conscientiousness was always the foremost part of his character, and he constantly performed his duties as an engineer with the most rigorous scrupulousness. The mission to defend the revenues of the state, to obtain for them the best employment possible, appeared to his eyes in the light of a question of honour. The functionary, whatever might be his rank, who submitted to him an ambiguous account, became at once the object of his profound contempt.{{hsp}}… Under such circumstances the habitual gentleness of his manners disappeared…<ref>Arago, 1857, pp.&nbsp;404–405.</ref>}}
Fresnel's letters from December 1816 reveal his consequent anxiety. To Arago he complained of being "tormented by the worries of surveillance, and the need to reprimand…" And to Mérimée he wrote: "I&nbsp;find nothing more tiresome than having to manage other men, and I&nbsp;admit that I&nbsp;have no idea what I'm doing."{{hsp}}<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;28,{{tsp}}237.</ref>
Prize memoir (1818) and sequel
On 17 March 1817, the Académie des Sciences announced that diffraction would be the topic for the biannual physics Grand Prix to be awarded in 1819.<ref>Kipnis, 1991, p.&nbsp;218; Buchwald, 2013, p.&nbsp;453; Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;44.&nbsp; Frankel (1976, pp.&nbsp;160–161) and Grattan-Guinness (1990, p.&nbsp;867) note that the topic was first proposed on 10 February 1817. Darrigol alone (2012, p.&nbsp;203) says that the competition was "opened" on 17 March 1818. Prizes were offered in odd-numbered years for physics and in even-numbered years for mathematics (Frankel, 1974, p.&nbsp;224n).</ref><!-- Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;169. {{r|watson-2016|p=142}} --> The deadline for entries was set at 1 August 1818 to allow time for replication of experiments. Although the wording of the problem referred to rays and inflection and did not invite wave-based solutions, Arago and Ampère encouraged Fresnel to enter.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;169–171; Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;161; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;183–184; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;xxxvi–xxxvii.</ref>
In the fall of 1817, Fresnel, supported by de&nbsp;Prony, obtained a leave of absence from the new head of the Corp des Ponts, Louis Becquey, and returned to Paris.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;xxxv; Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;44.</ref> He resumed his engineering duties in the spring of 1818; but from then on he was based in Paris,<ref>Silliman, 2008, p.&nbsp;166; Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;159.</ref> first on the Canal de l'Ourcq,<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;xxxv,{{tsp}}xcvi; Boutry, 1948, pp.&nbsp;599,{{px2}}601.&nbsp; Silliman (1967, p.&nbsp;180) gives the starting date as 1 May 1818.</ref> and then (from May 1819) with the cadastre of the pavements.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;xcvi; Arago, 1857, p.&nbsp;466.</ref>{{r|ripley-dana-1879|p=486}}
On 15 January 1818, in a different context (revisited below), Fresnel showed that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions.{{r|fresnel-1818jan}} His method was similar to the phasor representation, except that the "forces" were plane vectors rather than complex numbers; they could be added, and multiplied by scalars, but not (yet) multiplied and divided by each other. The explanation was algebraic rather than geometric.
Knowledge of this method was assumed in a preliminary note on diffraction,<ref>Printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;171–181.</ref> dated 19 April 1818 and deposited on 20 April, in which Fresnel outlined the elementary theory of diffraction as found in modern textbooks. He restated Huygens's principle in combination with the superposition principle, saying that the vibration at each point on a wavefront is the sum of the vibrations that would be sent to it at that moment by all the elements of the wavefront in any of its previous positions, all elements acting separately {{crossreference|(see Huygens–Fresnel principle)}}. For a wavefront partly obstructed in a previous position, the summation was to be carried out over the unobstructed portion. In directions other than the normal to the primary wavefront, the secondary waves were weakened due to obliquity, but weakened much more by destructive interference, so that the effect of obliquity alone could be ignored.<ref>Cf. Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;174–175; Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;157–158.</ref> For diffraction by a straight edge, the intensity as a function of distance from the geometric shadow could then be expressed with sufficient accuracy in terms of what are now called the normalized Fresnel integrals:
::<math>C(x) \!\int_0^x \!\cos\big(\tfrac{1}{2}\pi z^2\big)\,dz</math>{{quad}}<math>S(x) \!\int_0^x \!\sin\big(\tfrac{1}{2}\pi z^2\big)\,dz\,.</math>
The same note included a table of the integrals, for an upper limit ranging from 0 to 5.1 in steps of 0.1, computed with a mean error of 0.0003,<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;167; 2013, p.&nbsp;454.</ref> plus a smaller table of maxima and minima of the resulting intensity.
In his final "Memoir on the diffraction of light",<ref>Fresnel, 1818b.</ref> deposited on 29 July{{hsp}}<ref>See Fresnel, 1818b, in ''Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences…, vol.&nbsp;{{serif|V}}, p.&nbsp;339n, and in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;247, note{{tsp}}1.</ref> and bearing the Latin epigraph "Natura simplex et fecunda''" ("Nature simple and fertile"),<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;247; Crew, 1900, p.&nbsp;79; Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;46.</ref> Fresnel slightly expanded the two tables without changing the existing figures, except for a correction to the first minimum of intensity. For completeness, he repeated his solution to "the problem of interference", whereby sinusoidal functions are added like vectors. He acknowledged the directionality of the secondary sources and the variation in their distances from the observation point, chiefly to explain why these things make negligible difference in the context, provided of course that the secondary sources do not radiate in the retrograde direction. Then, applying his theory of interference to the secondary waves, he expressed the intensity of light diffracted by a single straight edge (half-plane) in terms of integrals which involved the dimensions of the problem, but which could be converted to the normalized forms above. With reference to the integrals, he explained the calculation of the maxima and minima of the intensity (external fringes), and noted that the calculated intensity falls very rapidly as one moves into the geometric shadow.<ref>Crew, 1900, pp.&nbsp;101–108 (vector-like representation), 109 (no retrograde radiation), 110–111 (directionality and distance), 118–122 (derivation of integrals), 124–125 (maxima & minima), 129–131 (geometric shadow).</ref> The last result, as Olivier Darrigol says, "amounts to a proof of the rectilinear propagation of light in the wave theory, indeed the first proof that a modern physicist would still accept."{{hsp}}<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;204–205.</ref>
For the experimental testing of his calculations, Fresnel used red light with a wavelength of 638{{nbsp}}nm, which he deduced from the diffraction pattern in the simple case in which light incident on a single slit was focused by a cylindrical lens. For a variety of distances from the source to the obstacle and from the obstacle to the field point, he compared the calculated and observed positions of the fringes for diffraction by a half-plane, a slit, and a narrow strip—concentrating on the minima, which were visually sharper than the maxima. For the slit and the strip, he could not use the previously computed table of maxima and minima; for each combination of dimensions, the intensity had to be expressed in terms of sums or differences of Fresnel integrals and calculated from the table of integrals, and the extrema had to be calculated anew.<ref>Crew, 1900, pp.&nbsp;127–128 (wavelength), 129–131 (half-plane), 132–135 (extrema, slit); Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;350–355 (narrow strip).</ref> The agreement between calculation and measurement was better than 1.5% in almost every case.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;179–182.</ref>
Near the end of the memoir, Fresnel summed up the difference between Huygens's use of secondary waves and his own: whereas Huygens says there is light only where the secondary waves exactly agree, Fresnel says there is complete darkness only where the secondary waves exactly cancel out.<ref>Crew, 1900, p.&nbsp;144.</ref>
The judging committee comprised Laplace, Biot, and Poisson (all corpuscularists), Gay-Lussac (uncommitted), and Arago, who eventually wrote the committee's report.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;xlii; Worrall, 1989, p.&nbsp;136; Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;171,{{nbsp}}183; Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;45–46.</ref> Although entries in the competition were supposed to be anonymous to the judges, Fresnel's must have been recognizable by the content.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;46.</ref> There was only one other entry, of which neither the manuscript nor any record of the author has survived.<ref>Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;162. However, Kipnis (1991, pp.&nbsp;222–224) offers evidence that the unsuccessful entrant was Honoré Flaugergues (1755–1830?) and that the essence of his entry is contained in a "supplement" published in Journal de Physique, vol.&nbsp;89 (September 1819), pp.&nbsp;161–186.</ref> That entry (identified as "no.{{nbsp}}1") was mentioned only in the last paragraph of the judges' report,<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;236–237.</ref> noting that the author had shown ignorance of the relevant earlier works of Young and Fresnel, used insufficiently precise methods of observation, overlooked known phenomena, and made obvious errors. In the words of John&nbsp;Worrall, "The competition facing Fresnel could hardly have been less stiff."{{hsp}}<ref>Worrall, 1989, pp.&nbsp;139–140.</ref> We may infer that the committee had only two options: award the prize to Fresnel&nbsp;("no.&nbsp;2"), or withhold it.<ref>Cf. Worrall, 1989, p.&nbsp;141.</ref>
The committee deliberated into the new year.{{r|watson-2016|p=144}} Then Poisson, exploiting a case in which Fresnel's theory gave easy integrals, predicted that if a circular obstacle were illuminated by a point-source, there should be (according to the theory) a bright spot in the center of the shadow, illuminated as brightly as the exterior. This seems to have been intended as a reductio ad absurdum. Arago, undeterred, assembled an experiment with an obstacle 2{{nbsp}}mm in diameter—and there, in the center of the shadow, was Poisson's spot.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;205; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;xlii.</ref>
The unanimous{{hsp}}<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;xlii; Worrall, 1989, p.&nbsp;141.</ref> report of the committee,<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;229–246.</ref> read at the meeting of the Académie on 15 March 1819,<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;229, note{{tsp}}1; Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p.&nbsp;867; Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;47.</ref> awarded the prize to "the memoir marked no.&nbsp;2, and bearing as epigraph: Natura simplex et fecunda."{{hsp}}<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;237; Worrall, 1989, p.&nbsp;140.</ref> At the same meeting,{{r|academie-pv6|p427}} after the judgment was delivered, the president of the Académie opened a sealed note accompanying the memoir, revealing the author as Fresnel.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;230n.</ref> The award was announced at the public meeting of the Académie a week later, on 22 March.{{r|academie-pv6|p432}}
Arago's verification of Poisson's counter-intuitive prediction passed into folklore as if it had decided the prize.<ref>Worrall, 1989, pp.&nbsp;135–138; Kipnis, 1991, p.&nbsp;220.</ref> That view, however, is not supported by the judges' report, which gave the matter only two sentences in the penultimate paragraph.<ref>Worrall, 1989, pp.&nbsp;143–145. The printed version of the report also refers to a note&nbsp;(E), but this note concerns further investigations that took place after the prize was decided (Worrall, 1989, pp.&nbsp;145–146; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;236,{{tsp}}245–246). According to Kipnis (1991, pp.&nbsp;221–222), the real significance of Poisson's spot and its complement (at the center of the disk of light cast by a circular aperture) was that they concerned the intensities of fringes, whereas Fresnel's measurements had concerned only the positions of fringes; but, as Kipnis also notes, this issue was pursued only after the prize was decided.</ref> Neither did Fresnel's triumph immediately convert Laplace, Biot, and Poisson to the wave theory,<ref>Concerning their later{{hsp}} views, see{{hsp}} §{{px2}}Reception.</ref> for at least four reasons. First, although the professionalization of science in France had established common standards, it was one thing to acknowledge a piece of research as meeting those standards, and another thing to regard it as conclusive.<ref namefrankel-p176 /> Second, it was possible to interpret Fresnel's integrals as rules for combining rays. Arago even encouraged that interpretation, presumably in order to minimize resistance to Fresnel's ideas.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;183–184; Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;205.</ref> Even Biot began teaching the Huygens-Fresnel principle without committing himself to a wave basis.<ref>Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;219–220,{{tsp}}224,{{tsp}}232–233; Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p.&nbsp;870.</ref> Third, Fresnel's theory did not adequately explain the mechanism of generation of secondary waves or why they had any significant angular spread; this issue particularly bothered Poisson.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;186–198; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;205–206; Kipnis, 1991, p.&nbsp;220.</ref> Fourth, the question that most exercised optical physicists at that time was not diffraction, but polarization—on which Fresnel had been working, but was yet to make his critical breakthrough. Polarization Background: Emissionism and selectionism An emission theory of light was one that regarded the propagation of light as the transport of some kind of matter. While the corpuscular theory was obviously an emission theory, the converse did not follow: in principle, one could be an emissionist without being a corpuscularist. This was convenient because, beyond the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction, emissionists never managed to make testable quantitative predictions from a theory of forces acting on corpuscles of light. But they did make quantitative predictions from the premises that rays were countable objects, which were conserved in their interactions with matter (except absorbent media), and which had particular orientations with respect to their directions of propagation. According to this framework, polarization and the related phenomena of double refraction and partial reflection involved altering the orientations of the rays and/or selecting them according to orientation, and the state of polarization of a beam (a&nbsp;bundle of rays) was a question of how many rays were in what orientations: in a fully polarized beam, the orientations were all the same. This approach, which Jed Buchwald has called selectionism, was pioneered by Malus and diligently pursued by Biot.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;50–51,{{tsp}}63–5,{{tsp}}103–104; 2013, pp.&nbsp;448–449.</ref>{{r|buchwald-1989b|p110–113}}
Fresnel, in contrast, decided to introduce polarization into interference experiments.
Interference of polarized light, chromatic polarization (1816–21)
In July or August 1816, Fresnel discovered that when a birefringent crystal produced two images of a single slit, he could not obtain the usual two-slit interference pattern, even if he compensated for the different propagation times. A more general experiment, suggested by Arago, found that if the two beams of a double-slit device were separately polarized, the interference pattern appeared and disappeared as the polarization of one beam was rotated, giving full interference for parallel polarizations, but no interference for perpendicular polarizations {{crossreference|(see Fresnel–Arago laws)}}.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;203,{{px2}}205; Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;206; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;203–205.</ref> These experiments, among others, were eventually reported in a brief memoir published in 1819 and later translated into English.<ref>Arago & Fresnel, 1819.</ref>
In a memoir drafted on 30 August 1816 and revised on 6 October, Fresnel reported an experiment in which he placed two matching thin laminae in a double-slit apparatus—one over each slit, with their optic axes perpendicular—and obtained two interference patterns offset in opposite directions, with perpendicular polarizations. This, in combination with the previous findings, meant that each lamina split the incident light into perpendicularly polarized components with different velocities—just like a normal (thick) birefringent crystal, and contrary to Biot's "mobile polarization" hypothesis.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;207; Frankel, 1976, pp.&nbsp;163–164,{{tsp}}182.</ref>
Accordingly, in the same memoir, Fresnel offered his first attempt at a wave theory of chromatic polarization. When polarized light passed through a crystal lamina, it was split into ordinary and extraordinary waves (with intensities described by Malus's law), and these were perpendicularly polarized and therefore did not interfere, so that no colors were produced (yet). But if they then passed through an analyzer (second polarizer), their polarizations were brought into alignment (with intensities again modified according to Malus's law), and they would interfere.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;206.</ref> This explanation, by itself, predicts that if the analyzer is rotated 90°, the ordinary and extraordinary waves simply switch roles, so that if the analyzer takes the form of a calcite crystal, the two images of the lamina should be of the same hue (this issue is revisited below). But in fact, as Arago and Biot had found, they are of complementary colors. To correct the prediction, Fresnel proposed a phase-inversion rule whereby one of the constituent waves of one of the two images suffered an additional 180° phase shift on its way through the lamina. This inversion was a weakness in the theory relative to Biot's, as Fresnel acknowledged,<ref>Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;164.</ref> although the rule specified which of the two images had the inverted wave.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;386.</ref> Moreover, Fresnel could deal only with special cases, because he had not yet solved the problem of superposing sinusoidal functions with arbitrary phase differences due to propagation at different velocities through the lamina.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;216,{{px2}}384.</ref>
He solved that problem in a "supplement" signed on 15 January 1818{{hsp}}{{r|fresnel-1818jan}} (mentioned above). In the same document, he accommodated Malus's law by proposing an underlying law: that if polarized light is incident on a birefringent crystal with its optic axis at an angle θ to the "plane of polarization", the ordinary and extraordinary vibrations (as functions of time) are scaled by the factors cos{{tsp}}θ and sin{{tsp}}θ, respectively. Although modern readers easily interpret these factors in terms of perpendicular components of a transverse oscillation, Fresnel did not (yet) explain them that way. Hence he still needed the phase-inversion rule. He applied all these principles to a case of chromatic polarization not covered by Biot's formulae, involving two successive laminae with axes separated by 45°, and obtained predictions that disagreed with Biot's experiments (except in special cases) but agreed with his own.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;333–336; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;207–208. (Darrigol gives the date as 1817, but the page numbers in his footnote 95 fit his reference "1818b", not "1817".)</ref>
Fresnel applied the same principles to the standard case of chromatic polarization, in which one birefringent lamina was sliced parallel to its axis and placed between a polarizer and an analyzer. If the analyzer took the form of a thick calcite crystal with its axis in the plane of polarization, Fresnel predicted that the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images of the lamina were respectively proportional to
::<math>I_o = \cos^2i\,\cos^2(i{-}s) + \sin^2i\,\sin^2(i{-}s) + \tfrac{1}{2}\sin 2i\,\sin 2(i{-}s)\cos\phi\,,</math>
::<math>I_e = \cos^2i\,\sin^2(i{-}s) + \sin^2i\,\cos^2(i{-}s) - \tfrac{1}{2}\sin 2i\,\sin 2(i{-}s)\cos\phi\,,</math>
where <math>i</math> is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the optic axis of the lamina,{{tsp}} <math>s</math> is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the plane of polarization of the final ordinary image, and <math>\phi</math> is the phase lag of the extraordinary wave relative to the ordinary wave due to the difference in propagation times through the lamina. The terms in <math>\phi</math> are the frequency-dependent terms and explain why the lamina must be thin in order to produce discernible colors: if the lamina is too thick, <math>\cos\phi</math> will pass through too many cycles as the frequency varies through the visible range, and the eye (which divides the visible spectrum into only three bands) will not be able to resolve the cycles.
From these equations it is easily verified that <math>\,I_o+I_e=1\,</math> for all <math>\phi,</math> so that the colors are complementary. Without the phase-inversion rule, there would be a plus sign in front of the last term in the second equation, so that the <math>\phi</math>-dependent term would be the same in both equations, implying (incorrectly) that the colors were of the same hue.
These equations were included in an undated note that Fresnel gave to Biot,<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;533–537. On the provenance of the note, see p.&nbsp;523. In the above text, φ is an abbreviation for Fresnel's {{nowrap|2π(e{{hsp}}−{{hsp}}o)}}, where e and o are the numbers of cycles taken by the extraordinary and ordinary waves to travel through the lamina.</ref> to which Biot added a few lines of his own. If we substitute
::<math>U\cos^2\tfrac{\phi}{2}</math> &nbsp;and&nbsp; <math>A\sin^2\tfrac{\phi}{2}\,,</math>
then Fresnel's formulae can be rewritten as
::<math> \!I_o = U\cos^2 s + A\cos^2(2i-s)\,,</math>
::<math> I_e = U\sin^2 s + A\sin^2(2i-s)\,,</math>
which are none other than Biot's empirical formulae of 1812,<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;97; Frankel, 1976, p. 148.</ref> except that Biot interpreted <math>U</math> and <math>A</math> as the "unaffected" and "affected" selections of the rays incident on the lamina. If Biot's substitutions were accurate, they would imply that his experimental results were more fully explained by Fresnel's theory than by his own.
Arago delayed reporting on Fresnel's works on chromatic polarization until June 1821, when he used them in a broad attack on Biot's theory. In his written response, Biot protested that Arago's attack went beyond the proper scope of a report on the nominated works of Fresnel. But Biot also claimed that the substitutions for <math>U</math> and <math>A,</math> and therefore Fresnel's expressions for <math>I_o</math> and <math>I_e,</math> were empirically wrong because when Fresnel's intensities of spectral colors were mixed according to Newton's rules, the squared cosine and sine functions varied too smoothly to account for the observed sequence of colors. That claim drew a written reply from Fresnel,<ref>Fresnel, 1821b.</ref> who disputed whether the colors changed as abruptly as Biot claimed,<ref>Fresnel, 1821b, §3.</ref> and whether the human eye could judge color with sufficient objectivity for the purpose. On the latter question, Fresnel pointed out that different observers may give different names to the same color. Furthermore, he said, a single observer can only compare colors side by side; and even if they are judged to be the same, the identity is of sensation, not necessarily of composition.<ref>Fresnel, 1821b, §1 & footnotes.</ref> Fresnel's oldest and strongest point—that thin crystals were subject to the same laws as thick ones and did not need or allow a separate theory—Biot left unanswered.&nbsp; Arago and Fresnel were seen to have won the debate.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;237–251; Frankel, 1976, pp.&nbsp;165–168; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;208–209.</ref>
Moreover, by this time Fresnel had a new, simpler explanation of his equations on chromatic polarization.
Breakthrough: Pure transverse waves (1821)
In the draft memoir of 30 August 1816, Fresnel mentioned two hypotheses—one of which he attributed to Ampère—by which the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams could be explained if polarized light waves were partly transverse. But Fresnel could not develop either of these ideas into a comprehensive theory. As early as September 1816, according to his later account,<ref>Fresnel, 1821a, §10.</ref> he realized that the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams, together with the phase-inversion rule in chromatic polarization, would be most easily explained if the waves were purely transverse, and Ampère "had the same thought" on the phase-inversion rule. But that would raise a new difficulty: as natural light seemed to be unpolarized and its waves were therefore presumed to be longitudinal, one would need to explain how the longitudinal component of vibration disappeared on polarization, and why it did not reappear when polarized light was reflected or refracted obliquely by a glass plate.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;394n; Fresnel, 1821a, §10; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;209–210; Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;205–206,{{tsp}}208,{{tsp}}212,{{tsp}}218–219.</ref>
Independently, on 12 January 1817, Young wrote to Arago (in&nbsp;English) noting that a transverse vibration would constitute a polarization, and that if two longitudinal waves crossed at a significant angle, they could not cancel without leaving a residual transverse vibration.<ref>Young, 1855, p.&nbsp;383.</ref> Young repeated this idea in an article published in a supplement to the Encyclopædia Britannica in February 1818, in which he added that Malus's law would be explained if polarization consisted in a transverse motion.{{r|young-1818|p=333–335}}
Thus Fresnel, by his own testimony, may not have been the first person to suspect that light waves could have a transverse component, or that polarized waves were exclusively transverse. And it was Young, not Fresnel, who first published the idea that polarization depends on the orientation of a transverse vibration. But these incomplete theories had not reconciled the nature of polarization with the apparent existence of unpolarized light; that achievement was to be Fresnel's alone.
In a note that Buchwald dates in the summer of 1818, Fresnel entertained the idea that unpolarized waves could have vibrations of the same energy and obliquity, with their orientations distributed uniformly about the wave-normal, and that the degree of polarization was the degree of non-uniformity in the distribution. Two pages later he noted, apparently for the first time in writing, that his phase-inversion rule and the non-interference of orthogonally-polarized beams would be easily explained if the vibrations of fully polarized waves were "perpendicular to the normal to the wave"—that is, purely transverse.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;225–226; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;526–527,{{tsp}}529.</ref>
But if he could account for lack of polarization by averaging out the transverse component, he did not also need to assume a longitudinal component. It was enough to suppose that light waves are purely transverse, hence always polarized in the sense of having a particular transverse orientation, and that the "unpolarized" state of natural or "direct" light is due to rapid and random variations in that orientation, in which case two coherent portions of "unpolarized" light will still interfere because their orientations will be synchronized.
It is not known exactly when Fresnel made this last step, because there is no relevant documentation from 1820 or early 1821{{hsp}}<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;226.</ref> (perhaps because he was too busy working on lighthouse-lens prototypes; see below). But he first published the idea in a paper on "Calcul des teintes…" ("calculation of the tints…"), serialized in Arago's Annales for May, June, and July 1821.<ref>Fresnel, 1821a.</ref> In the first installment, Fresnel described "direct" (unpolarized) light as "the rapid succession of systems of waves polarized in all directions",<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;227; Fresnel, 1821a, §1.</ref> and gave what is essentially the modern explanation of chromatic polarization, albeit in terms of the analogy between polarization and the resolution of forces in a plane, mentioning transverse waves only in a footnote. The introduction of transverse waves into the main argument was delayed to the second installment, in which he revealed the suspicion that he and Ampère had harbored since 1816, and the difficulty it raised.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;212; Fresnel, 1821a, §10.</ref> He continued:
{{blockquote|It has only been for a few months that in meditating more attentively on this subject, I have realized that it was very probable that the oscillatory movements of light waves were executed solely along the plane of these waves, for direct light as well as for polarized light.<ref>Fresnel, 1821a, §10; emphasis added.</ref><ref group=Note>In the same installment, Fresnel acknowledged a letter from Young to Arago, dated 29 April 1818 (and lost before 1866), in which Young suggested that light waves could be analogous to waves on stretched strings. But Fresnel was dissatisfied with the analogy because it suggested both transverse and longitudinal modes of propagation and was hard to reconcile with a fluid medium (Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;214–215; Fresnel, 1821a, §13).</ref>}}
According to this new view, he wrote, "the act of polarization consists not in creating these transverse movements, but in decomposing them into two fixed perpendicular directions and in separating the two components".<ref>Fresnel, 1821a, §13;{{tsp}} cf.&nbsp;Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;228.</ref>
While selectionists could insist on interpreting Fresnel's diffraction integrals in terms of discrete, countable rays, they could not do the same with his theory of polarization. For a selectionist, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the distribution of orientations over the population of rays, and that distribution was presumed to be static. For Fresnel, the state of polarization of a beam concerned the variation of a displacement over time. That displacement might be constrained but was not static, and rays were geometric constructions, not countable objects. The conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had become unbridgeable.<ref>Cf. Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;230.</ref>
The other difficulty posed by pure transverse waves, of course, was the apparent implication that the aether was an elastic solid, except that, unlike other elastic solids, it was incapable of transmitting longitudinal waves.<ref groupNote>Fresnel, in an effort to show that transverse waves were not absurd, suggested that the aether was a fluid comprising a lattice of molecules, adjacent layers of which would resist a sliding displacement up to a certain point, beyond which they would gravitate towards a new equilibrium. Such a medium, he thought, would behave as a solid for sufficiently small deformations, but as a perfect liquid for larger deformations. Concerning the lack of longitudinal waves, he further suggested that the layers offered incomparably greater resistance to a change of spacing than to a sliding motion (Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;216–218; Fresnel, 1821a, §§&nbsp;11–12; cf.&nbsp;Fresnel, 1827, tr.&nbsp;Hobson, pp.&nbsp;258–262).</ref> The wave theory was cheap on assumptions, but its latest assumption was expensive on credulity.<ref>"This hypothesis of Mr.{{nnbsp}}Fresnel is at least very ingenious, and may lead us to some satisfactory computations: but it is attended by one circumstance which is perfectly appalling in its consequences. The substances on which Mr.{{nnbsp}}Savart made his experiments were solids only; and it is only to solids that such a lateral resistance has ever been attributed: so that if we adopted the distinctions laid down by the reviver of the undulatory system himself, in his Lectures, it might be inferred that the luminiferous ether, pervading all space, and penetrating almost all substances, is not only highly elastic, but absolutely solid!!!" — Thomas&nbsp;Young (written January 1823), Sect.{{nnbsp}}{{serif|XIII}} in "Refraction, double, and polarisation of light", Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica, vol.{{nnbsp}}6 (1824), at p.{{nnbsp}}862, reprinted in Young, 1855, at p.{{nnbsp}}415 (italics and exclamation marks in the original). The "Lectures" that Young quotes next are his own (Young, 1807, vol.{{nnbsp}}1, p.{{nnbsp}}627).</ref> If that assumption was to be widely entertained, its explanatory power would need to be impressive. Partial reflection (1821) In the second installment of "Calcul des teintes" (June 1821), Fresnel supposed, by analogy with sound waves, that the density of the aether in a refractive medium was inversely proportional to the square of the wave velocity, and therefore directly proportional to the square of the refractive index. For reflection and refraction at the surface between two isotropic media of different indices, Fresnel decomposed the transverse vibrations into two perpendicular components, now known as the s and p components, which are parallel to the surface and the plane of incidence, respectively; in other words, the s and p components are respectively square and parallel to the plane of incidence.<ref groupNote>The s originally comes from the German senkrecht, meaning perpendicular (to the plane of incidence).</ref> For the s component, Fresnel supposed that the interaction between the two media was analogous to an elastic collision, and obtained a formula for what we now call the reflectivity: the ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity. The predicted reflectivity was non-zero at all angles.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;388–390; Fresnel, 1821a, §18.</ref>
The third installment (July 1821) was a short "postscript" in which Fresnel announced that he had found, by a "mechanical solution", a formula for the reflectivity of the p component, which predicted that the reflectivity was zero at the Brewster angle. So polarization by reflection had been accounted for—but with the proviso that the direction of vibration in Fresnel's model was perpendicular to the plane of polarization as defined by Malus. (On the ensuing controversy, see Plane of polarization.) The technology of the time did not allow the s and p reflectivities to be measured accurately enough to test Fresnel's formulae at arbitrary angles of incidence. But the formulae could be rewritten in terms of what we now call the reflection coefficient: the signed ratio of the reflected amplitude to the incident amplitude. Then, if the plane of polarization of the incident ray was at 45° to the plane of incidence, the tangent of the corresponding angle for the reflected ray was obtainable from the ratio of the two reflection coefficients, and this angle could be measured. Fresnel had measured it for a range of angles of incidence, for glass and water, and the agreement between the calculated and measured angles was better than 1.5° in all cases.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;390–391; Fresnel, 1821a, §§&nbsp;20–22.</ref>
Fresnel gave details of the "mechanical solution" in a memoir read to the Académie des Sciences on 7 January 1823.{{r|fresnel-1823a}} Conservation of energy was combined with continuity of the tangential vibration at the interface.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;391–393; Whittaker, 1910, pp.&nbsp;133–135.</ref> The resulting formulae for the reflection coefficients and reflectivities became known as the Fresnel equations. The reflection coefficients for the s and p polarizations are most succinctly expressed as
::<math>r_s-\frac{\sin(i-r)}{\sin(i+r)}</math>{{quad}}and{{quad}}<math>r_p\frac{\tan(i-r)}{\tan(i+r)}\,,</math><!-- PLEASE DON'T CHANGE THE SIGN OF THE LATTER FORMULA JUST BECAUSE YOUR FAVORITE TEXTBOOK HAPPENS TO USE A DIFFERENT SIGN CONVENTION FROM THE HISTORICAL SOURCES CITED HERE! Besides, the convention used here is also used by Hecht, by Jenkins & White, and by Born & Wolf. -->
where <math>i</math> and <math>r</math> are the angles of incidence and refraction; these equations are known respectively as ''Fresnel's sine law and Fresnel's tangent law.<ref>Whittaker, 1910, p.&nbsp;134; Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;213; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;773,{{px2}}757.</ref> By allowing the coefficients to be complex, Fresnel even accounted for the different phase shifts of the s and p components due to total internal reflection.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;393–394; Whittaker, 1910, pp.&nbsp;135–136; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;760–761,{{tsp}}792–796.</ref>
This success inspired James MacCullagh and Augustin-Louis Cauchy, beginning in 1836, to analyze reflection from metals by using the Fresnel equations with a complex refractive index.<ref>Whittaker, 1910, pp.&nbsp;177–179; Buchwald, 2013, p.&nbsp;467.</ref> The same technique is applicable to non-metallic opaque media. With these generalizations, the Fresnel equations can predict the appearance of a wide variety of objects under illumination—for example, in computer graphics {{crossreference|(see Physically based rendering)}}.
Circular and elliptical polarization, optical rotation (1822)
In a memoir dated 9 December 1822,{{r|fresnel-1822z}} Fresnel coined the terms linear polarization (French: polarisation rectiligne) for the simple case in which the perpendicular components of vibration are in phase or 180° out of phase, circular polarization for the case in which they are of equal magnitude and a quarter-cycle (±90°) out of phase, and elliptical polarization for other cases in which the two components have a fixed amplitude ratio and a fixed phase difference. He then explained how optical rotation could be understood as a species of birefringence. Linearly-polarized light could be resolved into two circularly-polarized components rotating in opposite directions. If these components propagated at slightly different speeds, the phase difference between them—and therefore the direction of their linearly-polarized resultant—would vary continuously with distance.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;230–232,{{tsp}}442.</ref>
These concepts called for a redefinition of the distinction between polarized and unpolarized light. Before Fresnel, it was thought that polarization could vary in direction, and in degree (e.g., due to variation in the angle of reflection off a transparent body), and that it could be a function of color (chromatic polarization), but not that it could vary in kind. Hence it was thought that the degree of polarization was the degree to which the light could be suppressed by an analyzer with the appropriate orientation. Light that had been converted from linear to elliptical or circular polarization (e.g., by passage through a crystal lamina, or by total internal reflection) was described as partly or fully "depolarized" because of its behavior in an analyzer. After Fresnel, the defining feature of polarized light was that the perpendicular components of vibration had a fixed ratio of amplitudes and a fixed difference in phase. By that definition, elliptically or circularly polarized light is fully polarized although it cannot be fully suppressed by an analyzer alone.<ref>Cf. Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;232.</ref> The conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had widened again.
Total internal reflection (1817–23)
By 1817 it had been discovered by Brewster,{{r|brewster-1817}} but not adequately reported,<ref>Lloyd, 1834, p.&nbsp;368.</ref>{{r|young-1818|p=324}} that plane-polarized light was partly depolarized by total internal reflection if initially polarized at an acute angle to the plane of incidence. Fresnel rediscovered this effect and investigated it by including total internal reflection in a chromatic-polarization experiment. With the aid of his first theory of chromatic polarization, he found that the apparently depolarized light was a mixture of components polarized parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence, and that the total reflection introduced a phase difference between them.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;207.</ref> Choosing an appropriate angle of incidence (not yet exactly specified) gave a phase difference of 1/8 of a cycle (45°). Two such reflections from the "parallel faces" of "two coupled prisms" gave a phase difference of 1/4 of a cycle (90°). These findings were contained in a memoir submitted to the Académie on 10 November 1817 and read a fortnight later. An undated marginal note indicates that the two coupled prisms were later replaced by a single "parallelepiped in glass"—now known as a Fresnel rhomb''.{{r|fresnel-1817}}
This was the memoir whose "supplement",{{r|fresnel-1818jan}} dated January 1818, contained the method of superposing sinusoidal functions and the restatement of Malus's law in terms of amplitudes. In the same supplement, Fresnel reported his discovery that optical rotation could be emulated by passing the polarized light through a Fresnel rhomb (still in the form of "coupled prisms"), followed by an ordinary birefringent lamina sliced parallel to its axis, with the axis at 45° to the plane of reflection of the Fresnel rhomb, followed by a second Fresnel rhomb at 90° to the first.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;223,{{px2}}336; on the latter page, a "prism" means a Fresnel rhomb or equivalent. A footnote in the 1817 memoir (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;460, note&nbsp;2) described the emulator more briefly, and not in a self-contained manner.</ref> In a further memoir read on 30 March,<ref>Fresnel, 1818a, especially pp.&nbsp;47–49.</ref> Fresnel reported that if polarized light was fully "depolarized" by a Fresnel rhomb—now described as a parallelepiped—its properties were not further modified by a subsequent passage through an optically rotating medium or device.
The connection between optical rotation and birefringence was further explained in 1822, in the memoir on elliptical and circular polarization.{{r|fresnel-1822z}} This was followed by the memoir on reflection, read in January 1823, in which Fresnel quantified the phase shifts in total internal reflection, and thence calculated the precise angle at which a Fresnel rhomb should be cut in order to convert linear polarization to circular polarization. For a refractive index of 1.51, there were two solutions: about 48.6° and 54.6°.{{r|fresnel-1823a|p760}} Double refraction Background: Uniaxial and biaxial crystals; Biot's laws
When light passes through a slice of calcite cut perpendicular to its optic axis, the difference between the propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves has a second-order dependence on the angle of incidence. If the slice is observed in a highly convergent cone of light, that dependence becomes significant, so that a chromatic-polarization experiment will show a pattern of concentric rings. But most minerals, when observed in this manner, show a more complicated pattern of rings involving two foci and a lemniscate curve, as if they had two optic axes.<ref>Jenkins & White, 1976, pp.&nbsp;576–579 (§{{hsp}}27.9, esp. Fig.&nbsp;27M).</ref>{{r|derochette-2004}} The two classes of minerals naturally become known as uniaxal and biaxal—or, in later literature, uniaxial and biaxial.
In 1813, Brewster observed the simple concentric pattern in "beryl, emerald, ruby &c." The same pattern was later observed in calcite by Wollaston, Biot, and Seebeck.&nbsp; Biot, assuming that the concentric pattern was the general case, tried to calculate the colors with his theory of chromatic polarization, and succeeded better for some minerals than for others. In&nbsp;1818, Brewster belatedly explained why: seven of the twelve minerals employed by Biot had the lemniscate pattern, which Brewster had observed as early as 1812; and the minerals with the more complicated rings also had a more complicated law of refraction.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;254–255,{{tsp}}402.</ref>
In a uniform crystal, according to Huygens's theory, the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit time is the ray-velocity surface—that is, the surface whose "distance" from the origin in any direction is the ray velocity in that direction. In calcite, this surface is two-sheeted, consisting of a sphere (for the ordinary wave) and an oblate spheroid (for the extraordinary wave) touching each other at opposite points of a common axis—touching at the north and south poles, if we may use a geographic analogy. But according to Malus's corpuscular theory of double refraction, the ray velocity was proportional to the reciprocal of that given by Huygens's theory, in which case the velocity law was of the form
::<math>v_o^{2\!}-v_e^2 = k\sin^2\theta \,,</math>
where <math>v_o</math> and <math>v_e</math> were the ordinary and extraordinary ray velocities according to the corpuscular theory, and <math>\theta</math> was the angle between the ray and the optic axis.<ref>Cf. Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;269.</ref> By Malus's definition, the plane of polarization of a ray was the plane of the ray and the optic axis if the ray was ordinary, or the perpendicular plane (containing the ray) if the ray was extraordinary. In Fresnel's model, the direction of vibration was normal to the plane of polarization. Hence, for the sphere (the ordinary wave), the vibration was along the lines of latitude (continuing the geographic analogy); and for the spheroid (the extraordinary wave), the vibration was along the lines of longitude.
On 29 March 1819,<ref>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p.&nbsp;885.</ref> Biot presented a memoir in which he proposed simple generalizations of Malus's rules for a crystal with two axes, and reported that both generalizations seemed to be confirmed by experiment. For the velocity law, the squared sine was replaced by the product of the sines of the angles from the ray to the two axes (''Biot's sine law). And for the polarization of the ordinary ray, the plane of the ray and the axis was replaced by the plane bisecting the dihedral angle between the two planes each of which contained the ray and one axis (Biot's dihedral law'').<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;269,{{px2}}418.<!-- On p.269, in connection with the dihedral law, Buchwald cites Biot's "Précis élémentaire...", which is listed in the bibliography as Biot 1817. However, the relevant passage first appears on p.502 of vol.2 of the 1821 edition. --></ref>{{r|biot-1819}} Biot's laws meant that a biaxial crystal with axes at a small angle, cleaved in the plane of those axes, behaved nearly like a uniaxial crystal at near-normal incidence; this was fortunate because gypsum, which had been used in chromatic-polarization experiments, is biaxial.<ref>Cf.{{tsp}} Fresnel, 1822a, tr.&nbsp;Young, in Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and Art,{{tsp}} Jul.–{{hsp}}Dec.{{tsp}}1828, at pp.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?idN69MAAAAYAAJ&pgPA178 178–179].</ref>
First memoir and supplements (1821–22)
Until Fresnel turned his attention to biaxial birefringence, it was assumed that one of the two refractions was ordinary, even in biaxial crystals.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;260.</ref> But, in a memoir submitted{{hsp}}<ref group=Note>In Fresnel's collected works (1866–70), a paper is said to have been "presented" ("présenté") if it was merely delivered to the Permanent Secretary of the Académie for witnessing or processing (cf. vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;487; vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;261,{{px2}}308). In such cases this article prefers the generic word "submitted", to avoid the impression that the paper had a formal reading.</ref> on 19 November 1821,<ref>Printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;261–308.</ref> Fresnel reported two experiments on topaz showing that neither refraction was ordinary in the sense of satisfying Snell's law; that is, neither ray was the product of spherical secondary waves.<ref>Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;243–246 (first experiment); Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;261–267 (both experiments). The first experiment was briefly reported earlier in Fresnel, 1821c.</ref>
The same memoir contained Fresnel's first attempt at the biaxial velocity law. For calcite, if we interchange the equatorial and polar radii of Huygens's oblate spheroid while preserving the polar direction, we obtain a prolate spheroid touching the sphere at the equator. A&nbsp;plane through the center/origin cuts this prolate spheroid in an ellipse whose major and minor semi-axes give the magnitudes of the extraordinary and ordinary ray velocities in the direction normal to the plane, and (said Fresnel) the directions of their respective vibrations. The direction of the optic axis is the normal to the plane for which the ellipse of intersection reduces to a circle. So, for the biaxial case, Fresnel simply replaced the prolate spheroid with a triaxial ellipsoid,<ref>Buchwald (1989, pp.&nbsp;267–272) and Grattan-Guinness (1990, pp.&nbsp;893–894 call it the "ellipsoid of elasticity".</ref> which was to be sectioned by a plane in the same way. In general there would be two planes passing through the center of the ellipsoid and cutting it in a circle, and the normals to these planes would give two optic axes. From the geometry, Fresnel deduced Biot's sine law (with the ray velocities replaced by their reciprocals).<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;267–272; Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp.&nbsp;885–887.</ref>
The ellipsoid indeed gave the correct ray velocities (although the initial experimental verification was only approximate). But it did not give the correct directions of vibration, for the biaxial case or even for the uniaxial case, because the vibrations in Fresnel's model were tangential to the wavefront—which, for an extraordinary ray, is not generally normal to the ray. This error (which is small if, as in most cases, the birefringence is weak) was corrected in an "extract" that Fresnel read to the Académie a week later, on 26 November. Starting with Huygens's spheroid, Fresnel obtained a 4th-degree surface which, when sectioned by a plane as above, would yield the wave-normal velocities for a wavefront in that plane, together with their vibration directions. For the biaxial case, he generalized the equation to obtain a surface with three unequal principal dimensions; this he subsequently called the "surface of elasticity". But he retained the earlier ellipsoid as an approximation, from which he deduced Biot's dihedral law.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;274–279.</ref>
Fresnel's initial derivation of the surface of elasticity had been purely geometric, and not deductively rigorous. His first attempt at a mechanical derivation, contained in a "supplement" dated 13 January 1822, assumed that (i)&nbsp;there were three mutually perpendicular directions in which a displacement produced a reaction in the same direction, (ii)&nbsp;the reaction was otherwise a linear function of the displacement, and (iii)&nbsp;the radius of the surface in any direction was the square root of the component, in that direction, of the reaction to a unit displacement in that direction. The last assumption recognized the requirement that if a wave was to maintain a fixed direction of propagation and a fixed direction of vibration, the reaction must not be outside the plane of those two directions.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;279–280.</ref>
In the same supplement, Fresnel considered how he might find, for the biaxial case, the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit time—that is, the surface that reduces to Huygens's sphere and spheroid in the uniaxial case. He noted that this "wave surface" (''surface de l'onde'')<ref>Literally "surface of the wave"—as in Hobson's translation of Fresnel 1827.</ref> is tangential to all possible plane wavefronts that could have crossed the origin one unit of time ago, and he listed the mathematical conditions that it must satisfy. But he doubted the feasibility of deriving the surface from those conditions.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;340,{{tsp}}361–363; Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;281–283. The derivation of the "wave surface" from its tangent planes was eventually accomplished by Ampère in 1828 (Lloyd, 1834, pp.&nbsp;386–387; Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;218; Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;281,{{px2}}457).</ref>
In a "second supplement",<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;369–442.</ref> Fresnel eventually exploited two related facts: (i)&nbsp;the "wave surface" was also the ray-velocity surface, which could be obtained by sectioning the ellipsoid that he had initially mistaken for the surface of elasticity, and (ii)&nbsp;the "wave surface" intersected each plane of symmetry of the ellipsoid in two curves: a circle and an ellipse. Thus he found that the "wave surface" is described by the 4th-degree equation
::<math>r^2\big(a^2x^{2\!}+ b^2y^{2\!}+ c^2z^2\big) - a^2\big(b^{2\!} + c^2\big)x^2 - b^2\big(c^{2\!} + a^2\big)y^2 - c^2\big(a^{2\!} + b^2\big)z^2 + a^2b^2c^2 =\, 0\,,</math>
where <math>\,r^2 x^{2\!} + y^{2\!} + z^2,\,</math> and <math>\,a,b,c\,</math> are the propagation speeds in directions normal to the coordinate axes for vibrations along the axes (the ray and wave-normal speeds being the same in those special cases).<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;283–285; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;217–218; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;386–388.</ref> Later commentators{{r|griffin-1842|p19}} put the equation in the more compact and memorable form
::<math>\frac{x^2}{r^2-a^2} + \frac{y^2}{r^2-b^2} + \frac{z^2}{r^2-c^2} \,=\, 1\,.</math>
Earlier in the "second supplement", Fresnel modeled the medium as an array of point-masses and found that the force-displacement relation was described by a symmetric matrix, confirming the existence of three mutually perpendicular axes on which the displacement produced a parallel force.<ref>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp.&nbsp;891–892; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;371–379.</ref> Later in the document, he noted that in a biaxial crystal, unlike a uniaxial crystal, the directions in which there is only one wave-normal velocity are not the same as those in which there is only one ray velocity.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;285–286; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, p.&nbsp;396.</ref> Nowadays we refer to the former directions as the optic axes or binormal axes, and the latter as the ray axes or biradial axes {{crossreference|(see Birefringence)}}.{{r|lunney-weaire-2006}}
Fresnel's "second supplement" was signed on 31 March 1822 and submitted the next day—less than a year after the publication of his pure-transverse-wave hypothesis, and just less than a year after the demonstration of his prototype eight-panel lighthouse lens {{crossreference|(see below)}}.
Second memoir (1822–26)
Having presented the pieces of his theory in roughly the order of discovery, Fresnel needed to rearrange the material so as to emphasize the mechanical foundations;<ref>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp.&nbsp;896–897.&nbsp; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;262–263; 2008, p.{{nnbsp}}170</ref> and he still needed a rigorous treatment of Biot's dihedral law.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;286–287,{{tsp}}447.</ref> He attended to these matters in his "second memoir" on double refraction,<ref name=fresnel-1827>Fresnel, 1827.</ref> published in the Recueils of the Académie des Sciences for 1824; this was not actually printed until late 1827, a few months after his death.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, p.&nbsp;800n. Although the original publication (Fresnel, 1827) shows the year "1824" in selected page footers, it is known that Fresnel, slowed down by illness, did not finish the memoir until 1826 (Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;289,{{px2}}447, citing Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, p.&nbsp;776n).</ref> In this work, having established the three perpendicular axes on which a displacement produces a parallel reaction,<ref>Fresnel, 1827, tr.&nbsp;Hobson, pp.&nbsp;266–273.</ref> and thence constructed the surface of elasticity,<ref>Fresnel, 1827, tr.&nbsp;Hobson, pp.&nbsp;281–285.</ref> he showed that Biot's dihedral law is exact provided that the binormals are taken as the optic axes, and the wave-normal direction as the direction of propagation.<ref>Fresnel, 1827, tr.&nbsp;Hobson, pp.&nbsp;320–322; Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;447.</ref>
As early as 1822, Fresnel discussed his perpendicular axes with Cauchy. Acknowledging Fresnel's influence, Cauchy went on to develop the first rigorous theory of elasticity of non-isotropic solids (1827), hence the first rigorous theory of transverse waves therein (1830)—which he promptly tried to apply to optics.<ref>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp.&nbsp;1003–1009,{{tsp}}1034–1040,{{tsp}}1043; Whittaker, 1910, pp.&nbsp;143–145; Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;228.&nbsp; Grattan-Guinness offers evidence against any earlier dating of Cauchy's theories.</ref> The ensuing difficulties drove a long competitive effort to find an accurate mechanical model of the aether.<ref>Whittaker, 1910, chapter&nbsp;{{serif|V}}; Darrigol, 2012, chapter&nbsp;6; Buchwald, 2013, pp.&nbsp;460–464.</ref> Fresnel's own model was not dynamically rigorous; for example, it deduced the reaction to a shear strain by considering the displacement of one particle while all others were fixed, and it assumed that the stiffness determined the wave velocity as in a stretched string, whatever the direction of the wave-normal. But it was enough to enable the wave theory to do what selectionist theory could not: generate testable formulae covering a comprehensive range of optical phenomena, from mechanical assumptions.<ref>Fresnel, 1827, tr.&nbsp;Hobson, pp.&nbsp;273–281; Silliman, 1967, p.&nbsp;268n; Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;288.</ref>
Photoelasticity, multiple-prism experiments (1822)
, caused by stress-induced birefringence.]]
In 1815, Brewster reported that colors appear when a slice of isotropic material, placed between crossed polarizers, is mechanically stressed. Brewster himself immediately and correctly attributed this phenomenon to stress-induced birefringence{{hsp}}{{r|brewster-1815a|brewster-1816}}—now known as photoelasticity.
In a memoir read in September 1822, Fresnel announced that he had verified Brewster's diagnosis more directly, by compressing a combination of glass prisms so severely that one could actually see a double image through it. In his experiment, Fresnel lined up seven 45°–90°–45°&nbsp;prisms, short side to short side, with their 90°&nbsp;angles pointing in alternating directions. Two half-prisms were added at the ends to make the whole assembly rectangular. The prisms were separated by thin films of turpentine (térébenthine) to suppress internal reflections, allowing a clear line of sight along the row. When the four prisms with similar orientations were compressed in a vise across the line of sight, an object viewed through the assembly produced two images with perpendicular polarizations, with an apparent spacing of 1.5{{nbsp}}mm at one metre.{{r|fresnel-1822s}}<ref>Whewell, 1857, pp.&nbsp;355–356.</ref>
At the end of that memoir, Fresnel predicted that if the compressed prisms were replaced by (unstressed) monocrystalline quartz prisms with matching directions of optical rotation, and with their optic axes aligned along the row, an object seen by looking along the common optic axis would give two images, which would seem unpolarized when viewed through an analyzer but, when viewed through a Fresnel rhomb, would be polarized at ±45° to the plane of reflection of the rhomb (indicating that they were initially circularly polarized in opposite directions). This would show directly that optical rotation is a form of birefringence. In the memoir of December 1822, in which he introduced the term circular polarization, he reported that he had confirmed this prediction using only one 14°–152°–14° prism and two glass half-prisms. But he obtained a wider separation of the images by replacing the glass half-prism with quartz half-prisms whose rotation was opposite to that of the 14°–152°–14° prism. He added in passing that one could further increase the separation by increasing the number of prisms.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;737–739 (§4).&nbsp; Cf.&nbsp;Whewell, 1857, p.&nbsp;356–358; Jenkins & White, 1976, pp.&nbsp;589–590.</ref>
Reception
For the supplement to Riffault's translation of Thomson's System of Chemistry, Fresnel was chosen to contribute the article on light. The resulting 137-page essay, titled De la Lumière (On Light),<ref>Fresnel, 1822a.</ref> was apparently finished in June 1821 and published by February 1822.<ref name=gg-p884>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p.&nbsp;884.</ref> With sections covering the nature of light, diffraction, thin-film interference, reflection and refraction, double refraction and polarization, chromatic polarization, and modification of polarization by reflection, it made a comprehensive case for the wave theory to a readership that was not restricted to physicists.<ref>Cf. Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;169.</ref>
To examine Fresnel's first memoir and supplements on double refraction, the Académie des Sciences appointed Ampère, Arago, Fourier, and Poisson.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;261n,{{px2}}369n.</ref> Their report,<ref>Printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;459–464.</ref> of which Arago was clearly the main author,<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;288.</ref> was delivered at the meeting of 19 August 1822. Then, in the words of Émile Verdet, as translated by Ivor Grattan-Guinness:
{{blockquote|Immediately after the reading of the report, Laplace took the floor, and… proclaimed the exceptional importance of the work which had just been reported: he congratulated the author on his steadfastness and his sagacity which had led him to discover a law which had escaped the cleverest, and, anticipating somewhat the judgement of posterity, declared that he placed these researches above everything that had been communicated to the Académie for a long time.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;lxxxvi–lxxxvii; Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p.&nbsp;896.</ref>}}
Whether Laplace was announcing his conversion to the wave theory—at the age of 73—is uncertain. Grattan-Guinness entertained the idea.<ref>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p.&nbsp;898.</ref> Buchwald, noting that Arago failed to explain that the "ellipsoid of elasticity" did not give the correct planes of polarization, suggests that Laplace may have merely regarded Fresnel's theory as a successful generalization of Malus's ray-velocity law, embracing Biot's laws.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;289–390.</ref>
In the following year, Poisson, who did not sign Arago's report, disputed the possibility of transverse waves in the aether. Starting from assumed equations of motion of a fluid medium, he noted that they did not give the correct results for partial reflection and double refraction—as if that were Fresnel's problem rather than his own—and that the predicted waves, even if they were initially transverse, became more longitudinal as they propagated. In reply Fresnel noted, inter alia, that the equations in which Poisson put so much faith did not even predict viscosity. The implication was clear: given that the behavior of light had not been satisfactorily explained except by transverse waves, it was not the responsibility of the wave-theorists to abandon transverse waves in deference to pre-conceived notions about the aether; rather, it was the responsibility of the aether modelers to produce a model that accommodated transverse waves.<ref>Frankel, 1976, pp.&nbsp;170–171; cf.&nbsp;Fresnel, 1827, tr.&nbsp;Hobson, pp.&nbsp;243–244,{{tsp}}262.</ref> According to Robert H.&nbsp;Silliman, Poisson eventually accepted the wave theory shortly before his death in 1840.<ref>Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;284–285, citing Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;lxxxix, note&nbsp;2.&nbsp; Frankel (1976, p.&nbsp;173) agrees. Worrall (1989, p.&nbsp;140) is skeptical.</ref>
Among the French, Poisson's reluctance was an exception. According to Eugene Frankel, "in Paris no debate on the issue seems to have taken place after 1825. Indeed, almost the entire generation of physicists and mathematicians who came to maturity in the 1820s—Pouillet, Savart, Lamé, Navier, Liouville, Cauchy—seem to have adopted the theory immediately." Fresnel's other prominent French opponent, Biot, appeared to take a neutral position in 1830, and eventually accepted the wave theory—possibly by 1846 and certainly by 1858.<ref>Frankel, 1976, pp.&nbsp;173–174.</ref><!-- On Biot's later views, Silliman (1967, p. 284) cites no sources and is clearly mistaken. -->
In 1826, the British astronomer John Herschel, who was working on a book-length article on light for the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, addressed three questions to Fresnel concerning double refraction, partial reflection, and their relation to polarization. The resulting article,{{r|herschel-light}} titled simply "Light", was highly sympathetic to the wave theory, although not entirely free of selectionist language. It was circulating privately by 1828 and was published in 1830.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;291–296; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;220–221,{{tsp}}303.</ref> Meanwhile, Young's translation of Fresnel's De la Lumière was published in installments from 1827 to 1829.<ref>Fresnel, 1822a; Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;227–228.</ref> George Biddell Airy, the former Lucasian Professor at Cambridge and future Astronomer Royal, unreservedly accepted the wave theory by 1831.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;296.</ref> In 1834, he famously calculated the diffraction pattern of a circular aperture from the wave theory,{{r|airy-1834}} thereby explaining the limited angular resolution of a perfect telescope {{crossreference|(see Airy disk)}}. By the end of the 1830s, the only prominent British physicist who held out against the wave theory was Brewster, whose objections included the difficulty of explaining photochemical effects and (in his opinion) dispersion.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;222–223,{{tsp}}248.</ref>
A German translation of De la Lumière was published in installments in 1825 and 1828. The wave theory was adopted by Fraunhofer in the early 1820s and by Franz Ernst Neumann in the 1830s, and then began to find favor in German textbooks.<ref>Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;225,{{px2}}227; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;223,{{px2}}245.</ref>
The economy of assumptions under the wave theory was emphasized by William Whewell in his History of the Inductive Sciences, first published in 1837. In the corpuscular system, "every new class of facts requires a new supposition," whereas in the wave system, a hypothesis devised in order to explain one phenomenon is then found to explain or predict others. In the corpuscular system there is "no unexpected success, no happy coincidence, no convergence of principles from remote quarters"; but in the wave system, "all tends to unity and simplicity."{{hsp}}<ref>Whewell, 1857, pp.&nbsp;340–341; the quoted paragraphs date from the 1st Ed.&nbsp;(1837).</ref>
Hence, in 1850, when Foucault and Fizeau found by experiment that light travels more slowly in water than in air, in accordance with the wave explanation of refraction and contrary to the corpuscular explanation, the result came as no surprise.<ref>Whewell, 1857, pp.&nbsp;482–483; Whittaker, 1910, p.&nbsp;136; Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;223.</ref>
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Lighthouses and the Fresnel lens
{{Further|Fresnel lens#History}}
Fresnel was not the first person to focus a lighthouse beam using a lens. That distinction apparently belongs to the London glass-cutter Thomas Rogers, whose first lenses, 53{{nbsp}}cm in diameter and 14{{nbsp}}cm thick at the center, were installed at the Old Lower Lighthouse at Portland Bill in 1789. Further samples were installed in about half a dozen other locations by 1804. But much of the light was wasted by absorption in the glass.{{r|tag-prior}}<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.{{nnbsp}}57.</ref>
of equivalent power. (Buffon's version was biconvex.<ref name=levitt-p59>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;59.</ref>)]]
Nor was Fresnel the first to suggest replacing a convex lens with a series of concentric annular prisms, to reduce weight and absorption. In&nbsp;1748, Count Buffon proposed grinding such prisms as steps in a single piece of glass.{{r|chisholm-1911-lighthouse}} In 1790,{{r|condorcet-1790}} the Marquis de Condorcet suggested that it would be easier to make the annular sections separately and assemble them on a frame; but even that was impractical at the time.{{r|tag-fres}}<ref namelevitt-p71>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;71.</ref> These designs were intended not for lighthouses,{{r|chisholm-1911-lighthouse}} but for burning glasses.{{r|appleton-1861|p609}} Brewster, however, proposed a system similar to Condorcet's in 1811,{{r|chisholm-1911-lighthouse|tag-2017|ripley-dana-1879}} and by 1820 was advocating its use in British lighthouses.{{r|chisholm-1911-brewster}}
Meanwhile, on 21 June 1819, Fresnel was "temporarily" seconded by the Commission des Phares (Commission of Lighthouses) on the recommendation of Arago (a member of the Commission since 1813), to review possible improvements in lighthouse illumination.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;51,{{px2}}53; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;xcvii, and vol.&nbsp;3, p.&nbsp;xxiv.<!-- "July 21" in Levitt, 2013, p.240, is an error, inconsistent with p.53 and the primary source. --></ref>{{r|tag-fres}} The commission had been established by Napoleon in 1811 and placed under the Corps des Ponts—Fresnel's employer.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;49–50.</ref>
By the end of August 1819, unaware of the Buffon-Condorcet-Brewster proposal,{{r|tag-fres|ripley-dana-1879}} Fresnel made his first presentation to the commission,<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;3, pp.&nbsp;5–14; on the date, see p.&nbsp;6n.</ref> recommending what he called lentilles à échelons (lenses by steps) to replace the reflectors then in use, which reflected only about half of the incident light.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;56,{{px2}}58.</ref><ref groupNote>Another report by Fresnel, dated 29 August 1819 (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;3, pp.&nbsp;15–21), concerns tests on reflectors, and does not mention stepped lenses except in an unrelated sketch on the last page of the manuscript. The minutes of the meetings of the Commission go back only to 1824, when Fresnel himself took over as Secretary (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;3, p.&nbsp;6n). Thus, unfortunately, it is not possible to ascertain the exact date on which Fresnel formally recommended lentilles à échelons.</ref> One of the assembled commissioners, Jacques Charles, recalled Buffon's suggestion, leaving Fresnel embarrassed for having again "broken through an open door".<ref namelevitt-p59 /> But, whereas Buffon's version was biconvex and in one piece, Fresnel's was plano-convex and made of multiple prisms for easier construction. With an official budget of 500 francs, Fresnel approached three manufacturers. The third, François Soleil, produced the prototype. Finished in March 1820, it had a square lens panel 55{{nnbsp}}cm on a side, containing 97 polygonal (not annular) prisms—and so impressed the Commission that Fresnel was asked for a full eight-panel version. This model, completed a year later in spite of insufficient funding, had panels 76{{nnbsp}}cm square. In a public spectacle on the evening of 13 April 1821, it was demonstrated by comparison with the most recent reflectors, which it suddenly rendered obsolete.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;59–66. On the dimensions see Elton, 2009, pp.&nbsp;193–194; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;3, p.&nbsp;xxxiv; Fresnel, 1822b, tr.&nbsp;Tag, p.&nbsp;7.</ref>
Fresnel's next lens was a rotating apparatus with eight "bull's-eye" panels, made in annular arcs by Saint-Gobain,<ref namelevitt-p71 /> giving eight rotating beams—to be seen by mariners as a periodic flash. Above and behind each main panel was a smaller, sloping bull's-eye panel of trapezoidal outline with trapezoidal elements.{{r|gombert-2017}} This refracted the light to a sloping plane mirror, which then reflected it horizontally, 7&nbsp;degrees ahead of the main beam, increasing the duration of the flash.<ref>Fresnel, 1822b, tr.&nbsp;Tag, pp.&nbsp;13,{{px2}}25.</ref> Below the main panels were 128 small mirrors arranged in four rings, stacked like the slats of a louver or Venetian blind. Each ring, shaped as a frustum of a cone, reflected the light to the horizon, giving a fainter steady light between the flashes. The official test, conducted on the unfinished Arc de Triomphe on 20 August 1822, was witnessed by the commission—and by Louis XVIII and his entourage—from 32{{nbsp}}km away. The apparatus was stored at Bordeaux for the winter, and then reassembled at Cordouan Lighthouse under Fresnel's supervision. On 25 July 1823, the world's first lighthouse Fresnel lens was lit.<ref>Elton, 2009, p.{{nnbsp}}195;{{tsp}} Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;72–76.</ref> Soon afterwards, Fresnel started coughing up blood.<ref namelevitt-p97>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;97.</ref>
In May 1824,{{r|ripley-dana-1879}} Fresnel was promoted to secretary of the Commission des Phares, becoming the first member of that body to draw a salary,<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;82.</ref> albeit in the concurrent role of Engineer-in-Chief.<ref>Elton, 2009, p.{{nnbsp}}190.</ref> He was also an examiner (not a teacher) at the École Polytechnique since 1821; but poor health, long hours during the examination season, and anxiety about judging others induced him to resign that post in late 1824, to save his energy for his lighthouse work.{{r|brock-1909}}<ref>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp.&nbsp;914–915, citing Young, 1855, p.&nbsp;399;{{tsp}} Arago, 1857, pp.&nbsp;467,{{tsp}}470; Boutry, 1948, pp.&nbsp;601–602.</ref>
In the same year he designed the first fixed lens—for spreading light evenly around the horizon while minimizing waste above or below.{{r|tag-fres}} Ideally the curved refracting surfaces would be segments of toroids about a common vertical axis, so that the dioptric panel would look like a cylindrical drum. If this was supplemented by reflecting (catoptric) rings above and below the refracting (dioptric) parts, the entire apparatus would look like a beehive.<ref>Cf. Elton, 2009, p.&nbsp;198, Figure&nbsp;12.</ref> The second Fresnel lens to enter service was indeed a fixed lens, of third order, installed at Dunkirk by 1 February 1825.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;84.</ref> However, due to the difficulty of fabricating large toroidal prisms, this apparatus had a 16-sided polygonal plan.<ref>Elton, 2009, pp.&nbsp;197–198.</ref>
In 1825, Fresnel extended his fixed-lens design by adding a rotating array outside the fixed array. Each panel of the rotating array was to refract part of the fixed light from a horizontal fan into a narrow beam.{{r|tag-fres}}<ref>Elton, 2009, pp.&nbsp;198–199.</ref>
Also in 1825, Fresnel unveiled the Carte des Phares (Lighthouse Map), calling for a system of 51 lighthouses plus smaller harbor lights, in a hierarchy of lens sizes (called orders, the first order being the largest), with different characteristics to facilitate recognition: a constant light (from a fixed lens), one flash per minute (from a rotating lens with eight panels), and two per minute (sixteen panels).<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;82–84.</ref>
, Paris. In this case the dioptric prisms (inside the bronze rings) and catadioptric prisms (outside) are arranged to give a purely flashing light with four flashes per rotation. The assembly stands 2.54 metres tall and weighs about 1.5 tonnes.]]
In late 1825,<ref>Elton, 2009, p.&nbsp;200.</ref> to reduce the loss of light in the reflecting elements, Fresnel proposed to replace each mirror with a catadioptric prism, through which the light would travel by refraction through the first surface, then total internal reflection off the second surface, then refraction through the third surface.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;79–80.</ref> The result was the lighthouse lens as we now know it. In&nbsp;1826 he assembled a small model for use on the Canal Saint-Martin,{{r|musee}} but he did not live to see a full-sized version.
The first fixed lens with toroidal prisms was a first-order apparatus designed by the Scottish engineer Alan Stevenson under the guidance of Léonor Fresnel, and fabricated by Isaac Cookson & Co. from French glass; it entered service at the Isle of May in 1836.<ref>Elton, 2009, pp.&nbsp;199,{{px2}}200,{{px2}}202; Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;104–105.</ref> The first large catadioptric lenses were fixed third-order lenses made in 1842 for the lighthouses at Gravelines and Île Vierge. The first fully catadioptric first-order lens, installed at Ailly in 1852, gave eight rotating beams assisted by eight catadioptric panels at the top (to lengthen the flashes), plus a fixed light from below. The first fully catadioptric lens with purely revolving'' beams—also of first order—was installed at Saint-Clément-des-Baleines in 1854, and marked the completion of Augustin Fresnel's original Carte des Phares.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;108–110, 113–116, 122–123.</ref>
Production of one-piece stepped dioptric lenses—roughly as envisaged by Buffon—became practical in 1852, when John L. Gilliland of the Brooklyn Flint-Glass Company patented a method of making such lenses from press-molded glass.{{r|tag-us}} By the 1950s, the substitution of plastic for glass made it economic to use fine-stepped Fresnel lenses as condensers in overhead projectors.<ref>A. Finstad, "New developments in audio-visual materials", Higher Education, vol.&nbsp;8, no.{{nnbsp}}15 (1&nbsp;April 1952), pp.&nbsp;176–178, at p.{{nnbsp}}176.</ref> Still finer steps can be found in low-cost plastic "sheet" magnifiers.
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Honors
(1854), formerly at the lighthouse of Hourtin, Gironde, and now exhibited at the {{nowrap|Musée national de la Marine}}]]
Fresnel was elected to the Société Philomathique de Paris in April 1819,<ref namekipnis-p217>Kipnis, 1991, p.&nbsp;217.</ref> and in 1822 became one of the editors of the Société's{{hsp}} Bulletin des Sciences.<ref>Frankel, 1976, p.&nbsp;172.</ref> As early as May 1817, at Arago's suggestion, Fresnel applied for membership of the Académie des Sciences, but received only one vote.<ref namekipnis-p217 /> The successful candidate on that occasion was Joseph Fourier. In November 1822, Fourier's elevation to Permanent Secretary of the Académie created a vacancy in the physics section, which was filled in February 1823 by Pierre Louis Dulong, with 36 votes to Fresnel's 20. But in May 1823, after another vacancy was left by the death of Jacques Charles,{{tsp}} Fresnel's election was unanimous.<ref>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, pp.&nbsp;861,{{tsp}}913–914; Arago, 1857, p.&nbsp;408. Silliman (1967, p.&nbsp;262n) gives the dates of the respective elections as 27 January and 12 May 1823.</ref> In 1824,<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;77.</ref> Fresnel was made a ''chevalier de la Légion d'honneur'' (Knight of the Legion of Honour).{{r|academie}}
Meanwhile, in Britain, the wave theory was yet to take hold; Fresnel wrote to Thomas Young in November 1824, saying in part:
{{blockquote|I am far from denying the value that I&nbsp;attach to the praise of English scholars, or pretending that they would not have flattered me agreeably. But for a long time this sensibility, or vanity, which is called the love of glory, has been much blunted in me: I&nbsp;work far less to capture the public's votes than to obtain an inner approbation which has always been the sweetest reward of my efforts. Doubtless I&nbsp;have often needed the sting of vanity to excite me to pursue my researches in moments of disgust or discouragement; but all the compliments I&nbsp;received from MM.&nbsp;Arago, Laplace, and Biot never gave me as much pleasure as the discovery of a theoretical truth and the confirmation of my calculations by experiment.<ref>Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;402–403.</ref>}}
But "the praise of English scholars" soon followed. On 9 June 1825, Fresnel was made a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London.{{r|royalS-2007}} In 1827{{r|chisholm-1911-fresnel|rines-1919}} he was awarded the society's Rumford Medal for the year 1824, "For&nbsp;his Development of the Undulatory Theory as applied to the Phenomena of Polarized Light, and for his various important discoveries in Physical Optics."{{hsp}}{{r|royalS-rumford}}
A monument to Fresnel at his birthplace{{r|martan-2014|perchet-2011}} {{crossreference|(see above)}}{{hsp}} was dedicated on 14 September 1884{{r|bibmed}} with a speech by {{nowrap|Jules Jamin}}, Permanent Secretary of the Académie des Sciences.{{r|academie|jamin-1884}}&nbsp; "{{smaller|FRESNEL}}" is among the 72 names embossed on the Eiffel Tower (on the south-east side, fourth from the left). In the 19th century, as every lighthouse in France acquired a Fresnel lens, every one acquired a bust of Fresnel, seemingly watching over the coastline that he had made safer.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;233.</ref> The lunar features Promontorium Fresnel and Rimae Fresnel were later named after him.{{r|iau-wgpsn}}
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Decline and death
Fresnel's health, which had always been poor, deteriorated in the winter of 1822–1823, increasing the urgency of his original research, and (in&nbsp;part) preventing him from contributing an article on polarization and double refraction for the Encyclopædia Britannica.<ref>Levitt, 2013, pp.&nbsp;75–76; Silliman, 1967, pp.&nbsp;276–277.</ref> The memoirs on circular and elliptical polarization and optical rotation,{{r|fresnel-1822z}} and on the detailed derivation of the Fresnel equations and their application to total internal reflection,{{r|fresnel-1823a}} date from this period. In the spring he recovered enough, in his own view, to supervise the lens installation at Cordouan. Soon afterwards, it became clear that his condition was tuberculosis.<ref name=levitt-p97 />
In 1824, he was advised that if he wanted to live longer, he needed to scale back his activities. Perceiving his lighthouse work to be his most important duty, he resigned as an examiner at the École Polytechnique, and closed his scientific notebooks. His last note to the Académie, read on 13 June 1825, described the first radiometer and attributed the observed repulsive force to a temperature difference.<ref>Boutry, 1948, pp.&nbsp;601–602; Silliman, 1967, p.&nbsp;278; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;667–672.</ref> Although his fundamental research ceased, his advocacy did not; as late as August or September 1826, he found the time to answer Herschel's queries on the wave theory.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;647–660.</ref> It was Herschel who recommended Fresnel for the Royal Society's Rumford Medal.<ref>Boutry, 1948, p.&nbsp;603.</ref>
Fresnel's cough worsened in the winter of 1826–1827, leaving him too ill to return to Mathieu in the spring. The Académie meeting of 30 April 1827 was the last that he attended. In early June he was carried to Ville-d'Avray, {{nowrap|{{convert|12|km}}}} west of Paris. There his mother joined him. On 6 July, Arago arrived to deliver the Rumford Medal. Sensing Arago's distress, Fresnel whispered that "the most beautiful crown means little, when it is laid on the grave of a friend." Fresnel did not have the strength to reply to the Royal Society. He died eight days later, on Bastille Day.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;98; Silliman, 1967, p.&nbsp;279; Arago, 1857, p.&nbsp;470; Boutry, 1948, {{nowrap|pp.{{tsp}}602–603}}.</ref>
He is buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery, Paris. The inscription on his headstone is partly eroded away; the legible part says, when translated, "To the memory of Augustin Jean Fresnel, member of the Institute of France".
{{clear}}
Posthumous publications
Fresnel's "second memoir" on double refraction<ref name=fresnel-1827 /> was not printed until late 1827, a few months after his death.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, p.&nbsp;800n.</ref> Until then, the best published source on his work on double refraction was an extract of that memoir, printed in 1822.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;289.</ref> His final treatment of partial reflection and total internal reflection,{{r|fresnel-1823a}} read to the Académie in January 1823, was thought to be lost until it was rediscovered among the papers of the deceased Joseph Fourier (1768–1830), and was printed in 1831. Until then, it was known chiefly through an extract printed in 1823 and 1825. The memoir introducing the parallelepiped form of the Fresnel rhomb,<ref>Fresnel, 1818a.</ref> read in March 1818, was mislaid until 1846,<ref>Kipnis, 1991, pp.&nbsp;207n,{{px2}}217n; Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;461, ref.{{tsp}}1818d; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;655n.</ref> and then attracted such interest that it was soon republished in English.<ref>In{{tsp}} Taylor, 1852, pp.&nbsp;44–65.</ref> Most of Fresnel's writings on polarized light before 1821—including his first theory of chromatic polarization (submitted 7 October 1816) and the crucial "supplement" of January 1818{{hsp}}{{r|fresnel-1818jan}}—were not published in full until his Oeuvres complètes ("complete works") began to appear in 1866.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;222,{{tsp}}238,{{tsp}}461–462.</ref> The "supplement" of July 1816, proposing the "efficacious ray" and reporting the famous double-mirror experiment, met the same fate,<ref>Grattan-Guinness, 1990, p.&nbsp;861.</ref> as did the "first memoir" on double refraction.<ref>Whittaker, 1910, p.&nbsp;125n.</ref>
Publication of Fresnel's collected works was itself delayed by the deaths of successive editors. The task was initially entrusted to Félix Savary, who died in 1841. It was restarted twenty years later by the Ministry of Public Instruction. Of the three editors eventually named in the Oeuvres, Sénarmont died in 1862, Verdet in 1866, and Léonor Fresnel in 1869, by which time only two of the three volumes had appeared.<ref>Boutry, 1948, pp.&nbsp;603–604; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;i–vii.</ref> At the beginning of vol.&nbsp;3 (1870), the completion of the project is described in a long footnote by "J.&nbsp;Lissajous."
Not included in the Oeuvres{{hsp}}<ref>Silliman, 2008, p.&nbsp;171.</ref> are two short notes by Fresnel on magnetism, which were discovered among Ampère's manuscripts.{{r|assis-chaib-2015|p104}} In response to Ørsted's discovery of electromagnetism in 1820, Ampère initially supposed that the field of a permanent magnet was due to a macroscopic circulating current. Fresnel suggested instead that there was a microscopic current circulating around each particle of the magnet. In his first note, he argued that microscopic currents, unlike macroscopic currents, would explain why a hollow cylindrical magnet does not lose its magnetism when cut longitudinally. In his second note, dated 5 July 1821, he further argued that a macroscopic current had the counterfactual implication that a permanent magnet should be hot, whereas microscopic currents circulating around the molecules might avoid the heating mechanism.{{r|assis-chaib-2015|p101–104}} He was not to know that the fundamental units of permanent magnetism are even smaller than molecules {{crossreference|(see Electron magnetic moment)}}. The two notes, together with Ampère's acknowledgment, were eventually published in 1885.{{r|joubert-1885}}
Lost works
Fresnel's essay Rêveries of 1814 has not survived.<ref>Buchwald, 1989, p.&nbsp;116.</ref> The article "Sur les Différents Systèmes relatifs à la Théorie de la Lumière" ("On the Different Systems relating to the Theory of Light"), which Fresnel wrote for the newly launched English journal European Review,<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;768n,{{tsp}}802.</ref> was received by the publisher's agent in Paris in September 1824. The journal failed before Fresnel's contribution could be published. Fresnel tried unsuccessfully to recover the manuscript. The editors of his collected works were unable to find it, and concluded that it was probably lost.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, p.&nbsp;803n.&nbsp; Grattan-Guinness (1990, p.&nbsp;884n) gives the year of composition as 1825, but this does not match the primary sources.</ref>
Unfinished work
Aether drag and aether density
In 1810, Arago found experimentally that the degree of refraction of starlight does not depend on the direction of the earth's motion relative to the line of sight. In&nbsp;1818, Fresnel showed that this result could be explained by the wave theory,<ref>Cf. Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;258–260.</ref> on the hypothesis that if an object with refractive index <math>n</math> moved at velocity <math>v</math> relative to the external aether (taken as stationary), then the velocity of light inside the object gained the additional component <math>\,v(1-1/n^2)</math>. He supported that hypothesis by supposing that if the density of the external aether was taken as unity, the density of the internal aether was <math>n^2</math>, of which the excess, namely <math>\,n^2{-}1\,</math>, was dragged along at velocity <math>v</math>, whence the average velocity of the internal aether was <math>\,v(1-1/n^2)</math>. The factor in parentheses, which Fresnel originally expressed in terms of wavelengths,<ref>Fresnel, 1818c.</ref> became known as the Fresnel drag coefficient. {{crossreference|(See Aether drag hypothesis.)}}
In his analysis of double refraction, Fresnel supposed that the different refractive indices in different directions within the same medium were due to a directional variation in elasticity, not density (because the concept of mass per unit volume is not directional). But in his treatment of partial reflection, he supposed that the different refractive indices of different media were due to different aether densities, not different elasticities.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;212; Fresnel, 1821a, §§&nbsp;14,{{tsp}}18.</ref>
Dispersion
The analogy between light waves and transverse waves in elastic solids does not predict dispersion—that is, the frequency-dependence of the speed of propagation, which enables prisms to produce spectra and causes lenses to suffer from chromatic aberration. Fresnel, in De la Lumière and in the second supplement to his first memoir on double refraction, suggested that dispersion could be accounted for if the particles of the medium exerted forces on each other over distances that were significant fractions of a wavelength.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;246; Buchwald, 1989, pp.&nbsp;307–308;{{tsp}} Fresnel, 1822a, tr.&nbsp;Young, in Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and Art,{{tsp}} Jan.–{{hsp}}Jun.{{tsp}}1828, at pp.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?idSbJMAAAAYAAJ&pgPA213 213–215].&nbsp; Whittaker, 1910, p.&nbsp;132; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, p.&nbsp;438.</ref> Later, more than once, Fresnel referred to the demonstration of this result as being contained in a note appended to his "second memoir" on double refraction.<ref>Fresnel, 1827, tr.&nbsp;Hobson, pp.&nbsp;277n,{{px2}}331n; Lloyd, 1834, p.&nbsp;316.</ref> No such note appeared in print, and the relevant manuscripts found after his death showed only that, around 1824, he was comparing refractive indices (measured by Fraunhofer) with a theoretical formula, the meaning of which was not fully explained.<ref>Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, p.&nbsp;xcvi.</ref>
In the 1830s, Fresnel's suggestion was taken up by Cauchy, Baden Powell, and Philip Kelland, and it was found to be tolerably consistent with the variation of refractive indices with wavelength over the visible spectrum for a variety of transparent media {{crossreference|(see Cauchy's equation)}}.<ref>Whittaker, 1910, pp.&nbsp;182–183; Whewell, 1857, pp.&nbsp;365–367; Darrigol, 2012, pp.&nbsp;246–249.</ref> These investigations were enough to show that the wave theory was at least compatible with dispersion; if the model of dispersion was to be accurate over a wider range of frequencies, it needed to be modified so as to take account of resonances within the medium {{crossreference|(see Sellmeier equation)}}.<ref>Darrigol, 2012, p.&nbsp;252.</ref>
Conical refraction
The analytical complexity of Fresnel's derivation of the ray-velocity surface was an implicit challenge to find a shorter path to the result. This was answered by MacCullagh in 1830, and by William Rowan Hamilton in 1832.<ref>Lloyd, 1834, pp.&nbsp;387–388.</ref>{{r|macCullagh-1830|hamilton-1832}}
Legacy
, in which the first Fresnel lens entered service in 1823. The current fixed catadioptric "beehive" lens replaced Fresnel's original rotating lens in 1854.{{r|pharedeC}}]]
Within a century of Fresnel's initial stepped-lens proposal, more than 10,000 lights with Fresnel lenses were protecting lives and property around the world.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;19.</ref> Concerning the other benefits, the science historian Theresa H. Levitt has remarked:
{{blockquote|Everywhere I looked, the story repeated itself. The moment a Fresnel lens appeared at a location was the moment that region became linked into the world economy.<ref>Levitt, 2013, p.&nbsp;8.</ref>}}
In the history of physical optics, Fresnel's successful revival of the wave theory nominates him as the pivotal figure between Newton, who held that light consisted of corpuscles, and James Clerk Maxwell, who established that light waves are electromagnetic. Whereas Albert Einstein described Maxwell's work as "the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton,"{{hsp}}{{r|jamesCMF}} commentators of the era between Fresnel and Maxwell made similarly strong statements about Fresnel:
* MacCullagh, as early as 1830, wrote that Fresnel's mechanical theory of double refraction "would do honour to the sagacity of Newton".{{r|macCullagh-1830|p=78}}
<!-- These dot-points are spaced because they include blockquotes. -->
* Lloyd, in his Report on the progress and present state of physical optics (1834) for the British Association for the Advancement of Science, surveyed previous knowledge of double refraction and declared:<blockquote>The theory of Fresnel to which I now proceed,—and which not only embraces all the known phenomena, but has even outstripped observation, and predicted consequences which were afterwards fully verified,—will, I am persuaded, be regarded as the finest generalization in physical science which has been made since the discovery of universal gravitation.<ref>Lloyd, 1834, p.&nbsp;382.</ref></blockquote>In 1841, Lloyd published his Lectures on the Wave-theory of Light, in which he described Fresnel's transverse-wave theory as "the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science, Newton's system of the universe alone excepted."{{hsp}}{{r|lloyd-1841}}
<!-- These dot-points are spaced because they include blockquotes. -->
* William Whewell, in all three editions of his History of the Inductive Sciences (1837, 1847, and 1857), at the end of Book&nbsp;{{serif|IX}}, compared the histories of physical astronomy and physical optics and concluded:<blockquote>It would, perhaps, be too fanciful to attempt to establish a parallelism between the prominent persons who figure in these two histories. If we were to do this, we must consider Huyghens and Hooke as standing in the place of Copernicus, since, like him, they announced the true theory, but left it to a future age to give it development and mechanical confirmation; Malus and Brewster, grouping them together, correspond to Tycho Brahe and Kepler, laborious in accumulating observations, inventive and happy in discovering laws of phenomena; and Young and Fresnel combined, make up the Newton of optical science.<ref>Whewell, 1857, pp.&nbsp;370–371.</ref></blockquote>
What Whewell called the "true theory" has since undergone two major revisions. The first, by Maxwell, specified the physical fields whose variations constitute the waves of light. Without the benefit of this knowledge, Fresnel managed to construct the world's first coherent theory of light, showing in retrospect that his methods are applicable to multiple types of waves. The second revision, initiated by Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect, supposed that the energy of light waves was divided into quanta, which were eventually identified with particles called photons. But photons did not exactly correspond to Newton's corpuscles; for example, Newton's explanation of ordinary refraction required the corpuscles to travel faster in media of higher refractive index, which photons do not. Neither did photons displace waves; rather, they led to the paradox of wave–particle duality. Moreover, the phenomena studied by Fresnel, which included nearly all the optical phenomena known at his time, are still most easily explained in terms of the wave nature of light. So it was that, as late as 1927, the astronomer Eugène Michel Antoniadi declared Fresnel to be "the dominant figure in optics."{{nnbsp}}{{r|antoniadi-1927}}
See also
{{Portal|Biography|France|History of science|Engineering|Physics}}
{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|
* Birefringence
* Catadioptric system
* Circular polarization
* Fresnel diffraction
* Elliptical polarization
* Fresnel (unit of frequency)
* Fresnel–Arago laws
* Fresnel equations
* Fresnel imager
* Fresnel integral
* Fresnel lantern
* Fresnel lens
* Fresnel number
* Fresnel rhomb
* Fresnel zone
* Fresnel zone antenna
* Fresnel's wave surface
* Fresnel zone plate
* Huygens–Fresnel principle
* Linear polarization
* Optical rotation
* Phasor
* Physical optics
* Poisson's{{hsp}}/Arago's spot
* Polarization
* Ridged mirror
}}
Explanatory notes
{{reflist|groupNote}} References Citations {{Reflist|refs
<ref name=academie>Académie des Sciences, [http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Fresnel/Fresnel_oeuvre.htm "Augustin Fresnel"], accessed 21 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170215201835/http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Fresnel/Fresnel_oeuvre.htm archived] 15 February 2017.</ref>
<ref name=academie-hist>Académie des Sciences, [http://www.academie-sciences.fr/en/Histoire-de-l-Academie-des-sciences/history-of-the-french-academie-des-sciences.html "History of the French Académie des sciences"], accessed 8 December 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170813034716/http://www.academie-sciences.fr/en/Histoire-de-l-Academie-des-sciences/history-of-the-french-academie-des-sciences.html archived] 13 August 2017.</ref>
<ref name=academie-pv6>Académie des Sciences, ''Proces-verbaux des séances de l'Académie tenues depuis la fondation de l'Institut jusqu'au mois d'août 1835'', [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3299b vol.&nbsp;{{serif|VI}}] (for&nbsp;1816–19), Hendaye, Basses Pyrénées: Imprimerie de l'Observatoire d'Abbadia, 1915.</ref>
<ref name=airy-1834>G.B. Airy, [https://archive.org/stream/transactionsofca05camb#page/283/mode/2up "On the diffraction of an object-glass with circular aperture"], Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society, vol.{{hsp}}{{serif|V}}, part&nbsp;{{serif|III}} (1835), pp.&nbsp;283–291 (read 24 November 1834).</ref>
<ref name=antoniadi-1927>Opening sentence in{{tsp}} E.M.&nbsp;Antoniadi, "Le centenaire d'Augustin Fresnel", ''L'Astronomie (Paris), vol.&nbsp;41, [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1927LAstr..41..241A pp.&nbsp;241–246] (June&nbsp;1927), translated as "The centenary of Augustin Fresnel" in Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1927, [https://archive.org/stream/in.ernet.dli.2015.279578#page/n239/mode/2up pp.&nbsp;217–220].</ref>
<ref name=appleton-1861>D. Appleton &amp; Co., [https://archive.org/stream/appletonsdiction02appl#page/606/mode/2up "Sea-lights"], Dictionary of Machines, Mechanics, Engine-work, and Engineering, 1861, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;606–618.</ref>
<ref name=assis-chaib-2015>A.K.T. Assis and J.P.M.C. Chaib, Ampère's Electrodynamics ("Analysis of the meaning and evolution of Ampère’s force between current elements, together with a complete translation of his masterpiece: Theory of Electrodynamic Phenomena, Uniquely Deduced from Experience''"), Montreal: Apeiron, 2015.</ref>
<ref name=bibmed>Bibliothèques et Médiathèque, "Inauguration à Broglie, le 14 Septembre 1884 du buste d'Augustin Fresnel", [https://web.archive.org/web/20180728101313/http://www.culture-evreux.fr/EXPLOITATION/Default/doc/ALOES/1587928/inauguration-a-broglie-le-14-septembre-1884-du-buste-d-augustin-fresnel archived] 28 July 2018.</ref>
<ref namebiot-1819>J.-B. Biot, [https://books.google.com/books?idubtHAQAAIAAJ&pgPA177 "Mémoire sur les lois générales de la double réfraction et de la polarisation, dans les corps régulièrement cristallisés"] (read 29 March 1819), ''Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences…'', vol.&nbsp;{{serif|III}} (for {{sic|1818}}, printed 1820), pp.&nbsp;177–384; [https://archive.org/details/bulletin25parigoog/page/n20 <!-- pg12 --> "Extrait d'un Mémoire sur les lois de la double réfraction et de la polarisation dans les corps régulièrement cristallisés"], Bulletin des Sciences par la Société Philomathique de Paris, 1820, pp.&nbsp;12–16, including pp.&nbsp;13–14 (sine law), 15–16 (dihedral law).</ref>
<ref name"brewster-1815a">{{Cite journal |lastBrewster |firstDavid |date31 December 1815 |titleV. On the effects of simple pressure in producing that species of crystallization which forms two oppositely polarised images, and exhibits the complementary colours by polarised light. |urlhttps://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1815.0006 |journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |languageen |volume105 |pages60–64 |doi10.1098/rstl.1815.0006 |issn0261-0523 |jstor107358 |jstor-accessfree}}</ref>
<ref name"brewster-1815b">{{Cite journal |lastBrewster |firstDavid |date31 December 1815 |titleIX. On the laws which regulate the polarisation of light by reflexion from transparent bodies. |urlhttps://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1815.0010 |journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |languageen |volume105 |pages125–159 |doi10.1098/rstl.1815.0010 |issn0261-0523 |jstor107362 |jstor-accessfree}}</ref>
<ref name"brewster-1816">{{Cite journal |lastBrewster |firstDavid |date31 December 1816 |titleX. On the communication of the structure of doubly refracting crystals to glass, muriate of soda, fluor spar, and other substances, by mechanical compression and dilatation |urlhttps://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1816.0011 |journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |languageen |volume106 |pages156–178 |doi10.1098/rstl.1816.0011 |issn0261-0523 |jstor107522 |jstor-accessfree}}</ref>
<ref namebrewster-1817>Item re{{hsp}} Brewster, [https://books.google.com/books?idKBE_AAAAYAAJ&pg=PA213 "On a new species of moveable polarization"], {{bracket|Quarterly}} Journal of Science and the Arts, vol.&nbsp;2, no.&nbsp;3, 1817, p.&nbsp;213.</ref>
<!-- <ref name"brewster-1818">{{Cite journal |lastBrewster |firstDavid |date31 December 1818 |titleXIII. On the laws of polarisation and double refraction in regularly crystallized bodies |urlhttps://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1818.0015 |journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |languageen |volume108 |pages199–273 |doi10.1098/rstl.1818.0015 |issn0261-0523 |jstor107469 |jstor-accessfree}}</ref> -->
<ref name=brock-1909>H.M. Brock, "Fresnel, Augustin-Jean", Catholic Encyclopedia, 1907–12, vol.&nbsp;6&nbsp;(1909).</ref>
<ref name"buchwald-1980">{{Cite journal |lastBuchwald |firstJed Z. |date1 December 1980 |titleExperimental investigations of double refraction from Huygens to Malus |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/BF00595375 |journalArchive for History of Exact Sciences |languageen |volume21 |issue4 |pages311–373 |doi10.1007/BF00595375 |issn=1432-0657}} As the author notes, alternative rules for the extraordinary refraction were offered by La&nbsp;Hire in 1710 and by Haüy in 1788 (see pp.&nbsp;332–334, 335–337, respectively).</ref>
<ref name"buchwald-1989b">{{Cite journal |lastBuchwald |firstJ Z |dateMay 1989 |titleThe battle between Arago and Biot over Fresnel |urlhttps://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0150-536X/20/3/002 |journalJournal of Optics |volume20 |issue3 |pages109–117 |doi10.1088/0150-536X/20/3/002 |bibcode1989JOpt...20..109B |issn=0150-536X}}</ref>
<ref namechisholm-1911-brewster>{{cite EB1911|modecs2|wstitleBrewster, Sir David|volume4|pages=513–514}}.</ref>
<ref namechisholm-1911-fresnel>{{cite EB1911|modecs2|wstitleFresnel, Augustin Jean|volume11|page=209}}.</ref>
<ref namechisholm-1911-lighthouse>{{cite EB1911|modecs2|wstitleLighthouse|volume16|pages=627–651}}.</ref>
<ref namecondorcet-1790>N. de Condorcet, [https://books.google.com/books?ido99ZAAAAcAAJ Éloge de M.&nbsp;le Comte de Buffon], Paris: Chez&nbsp;Buisson, 1790, pp.&nbsp;11–12.</ref>
<ref name"deWitte-1959">{{Cite journal |lastde Witte |firstA. J. |date1 May 1959 |titleEquivalence of Huygens' Principle and Fermat's Principle in Ray Geometry |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1119/1.1934839 |journalAmerican Journal of Physics |volume27 |issue5 |pages293–301 |doi10.1119/1.1934839 |bibcode1959AmJPh..27..293D |issn=0002-9505}}Erratum: In Fig.&nbsp;7(b), each instance of "ray" should be "normal" (noted in vol.&nbsp;27, no.&nbsp;6, p.&nbsp;387).</ref>
<ref name=derochette-2004>For illustrations see J.M. Derochette, [http://jm-derochette.be/Conoscopy/Biaxial_minerals.htm "Conoscopy of biaxial minerals (1)"], [http://www.jm-derochette.be www.jm-derochette.be], 2004; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170501043919/http://jm-derochette.be/Conoscopy/Biaxial_minerals.htm archived] 1 May 2017.</ref>
<ref name=favre>J.H. Favre, "Augustin Fresnel", geneanet.org, accessed 30 August 2017.</ref>
<ref name=fresnel-1817>A. Fresnel, "Mémoire sur les modifications que la réflexion imprime à la lumière polarisée" ("Memoir on the modifications that reflection impresses on polarized light"), signed & submitted 10 November 1817, read 24 November 1817; printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;441–485, including pp.&nbsp;452 (rediscovery of depolarization by total internal reflection), 455 (two reflections, "coupled prisms", "parallelepiped in glass"), 467–8 (phase difference per reflection); see also p.&nbsp;487, note&nbsp;1 (date of reading). Kipnis (1991, p.&nbsp;217n) confirms the reading and adds that the paper was published in 1821.</ref>
<ref name=fresnel-1818jan>A. Fresnel, "Supplément au Mémoire sur les modifications que la réflexion imprime à la lumière polarisée" ("Supplement to the Memoir on the modifications that reflection impresses on polarized light"), signed 15 January 1818, submitted for witnessing 19 January 1818; printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;487–508.</ref>
<ref name=fresnel-1822s>A. Fresnel, "Note sur la double réfraction du verre comprimé" ("Note on the double refraction of compressed glass"), read 16 September 1822, published 1822; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;713–718, at pp.&nbsp;715–717.</ref>
<ref name=fresnel-1822z>A. Fresnel, "Mémoire sur la double réfraction que les rayons lumineux éprouvent en traversant les aiguilles de cristal de roche suivant les directions parallèles à l'axe" ("Memoir on the double refraction that light rays undergo in traversing the needles of rock crystal {{bracket|quartz}} in directions parallel to the axis"), read 9 December 1822; printed in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;731–751 (full text), pp.&nbsp;719–29 (extract, first published in Bulletin de la Société philomathique for 1822, pp.&nbsp;191–198).</ref>
<ref name=fresnel-1823a>A. Fresnel, "Mémoire sur la loi des modifications que la réflexion imprime à la lumière polarisée" ("Memoir on the law of the modifications that reflection impresses on polarized light"), read 7 January 1823; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;767–799 (full text, published 1831), pp.&nbsp;753–762 (extract, published 1823). See especially pp.&nbsp;773 (sine law), 757 (tangent law), 760–761 and 792–796 (angles of total internal reflection for given phase differences).</ref>
<ref name=gombert-2017>D. Gombert, photograph of the [https://www.flickr.com/photos/gebete29/32970312394/in/photostream/ Optique de Cordouan] in the [https://web.archive.org/web/20200314154024/http://www.pnr-armorique.fr/Visiter/Musees-maisons-a-themes/Musee-des-Phares-et-Balises/collection-du-musee collection of the Musée des Phares et Balises], Ouessant, France, 23 March 2017.</ref>
<ref namegriffin-1842>W.N. Griffin, [https://books.google.com/books?idFx5kAAAAcAAJ The Theory of Double Refraction], Cambridge: T.&nbsp;Stevenson, 1842.</ref>
<ref name=hamilton-1832>W.R. Hamilton, "Third supplement to an essay on the theory of systems of rays", Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, vol.&nbsp;17, pp.&nbsp;v–x,{{tsp}}1–144, read 23 Jan.{{tsp}}& 22 Oct.{{tsp}}1832; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/30078785 jstor.org/stable/30078785] (author's introduction dated June 1833; volume started 1831{{tsp}}(?), completed 1837).</ref>
<ref name=herschel-light>J.F.W. Herschel, "Light", Encyclopædia Metropolitana, vol.&nbsp;4 (London, 1845; re-issued 1849), pp.&nbsp;341–586;&nbsp; [https://archive.org/details/treatisesonphysi00hersrich/page/n191 reprinted] (with original page numbers and appended plates) in J.F.W.&nbsp;Herschel, Treatises on Physical Astronomy, Light and Sound, contributed to the Encyclopædia Metropolitana,&nbsp; London and Glasgow: R.{{tsp}}Griffin & Co. (undated).</ref>
<ref name=iau-wgpsn>IAU WGPSN, [https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/4842 "Promontorium Fresnel"] and [https://planetarynames.wr.usgs.gov/Feature/5106 "Rimae Fresnel"], Gazetteer of Planetary Nomenclature, accessed 19 December 2017.</ref>
<ref name=jamesCMF>James Clerk Maxwell Foundation, [http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/html/about_maxwell.html "Who was James Clerk Maxwell?"], accessed 6 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170630003106/http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/html/about_maxwell.html archived] 30 June 2017.</ref>
<ref name=jamin-1884>J. Jamin, [http://www.academie-sciences.fr/pdf/dossiers/Fresnel/Fresnel_pdf/Fresnel_eloge_1884.pdf ''Discours prononcé au nom de l'Académie des Sciences à l'inauguration du monument de Fresnel''], Broglie, 14 September 1884; accessed 6 September 2017.</ref>
<ref name=jeanelie>{{tsp}}'jeanelie' (author), "Augustine Charlotte Marie Louise Merimee" and "Louis Jacques Fresnel", geneanet.org, accessed 30 August 2017.</ref>
<ref namejordan-1799>Presumably{{tsp}} G.W.{{tsp}}Jordan, [https://books.google.com/books?idOWJiAAAAcAAJ The Observations of Newton Concerning the Inflections of Light; Accompanied by Other Observations Differing from His; and Appearing to Lead to a Change of His Theory of Light and Colours] (also cited as New Observations concerning the Inflections of Light), London: T.&nbsp;Cadell&nbsp;Jr. & W.&nbsp;Davies, 1799;&nbsp; reviewed in T.G.&nbsp;Smollett&nbsp;(ed.), The Critical Review, Or, Annals of Literature (London), [https://books.google.com/books?idC4RHAAAAYAAJ&pgPA436 vol.&nbsp;34, pp.&nbsp;436–443] (April 1802).</ref>
<ref name=joubert-1885>J. Joubert (ed.), Collection de Mémoires relatifs à la Physique, vol.&nbsp;2 (being Part&nbsp;1 of ''Mémoires sur l'électrodynamique''), Paris: Gauthier-Villars, 1885, pp.&nbsp;140 (Ampère's acknowledgment), 141–147 (Fresnel's notes).</ref>
<ref name=kipnis-2003>N. Kipnis, "Physical optics", in I.&nbsp;Grattan-Guinness&nbsp;(ed.), Companion Encyclopedia of the History and Philosophy of the Mathematical Sciences,{{tsp}} JHU&nbsp;Press, 2003, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;1143–1152.</ref>
<ref name=lloyd-1841>H. Lloyd, [https://archive.org/details/lecturesonwavet00lloygoog Lectures on the Wave-theory of Light], Dublin: Milliken, 1841, Part&nbsp;{{serif|II}}, Lecture&nbsp;{{serif|III}}, p. 26. The same description was retained in the "second edition", published under the title [https://archive.org/details/wavetheorylight00lloyrich Elementary Treatise on the Wave-theory of Light] (London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1857; p.&nbsp;136), and in the [https://archive.org/details/elementarytreati00lloyrich "third edition"] (London: Longmans, Green, &amp; Co., 1873; p.&nbsp;167), which appeared in the same year as Maxwell's Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.</ref>
<ref name"lunney-weaire-2006">{{Cite journal |last1Lunney |first1James G. |last2Weaire |first2Denis |date1 May 2006 |titleThe ins and outs of conical refraction |urlhttps://www.europhysicsnews.org/articles/epn/abs/2006/03/epn06305/epn06305.html |journalEurophysics News |languageen |volume37 |issue3 |pages26–29 |doi10.1051/epn:2006305 |issn0531-7479|doi-accessfree |bibcode=2006ENews..37c..26L }}</ref>
<ref name"macCullagh-1830">{{Cite journal |lastMacCullagh |firstJames |date1830 |titleOn the Double Refraction of Light in a Crystallized Medium, according to the Principles of Fresnel |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/30079025 |journalThe Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy |volume16 |pages65–78 |issn0790-8113 |jstor30079025 |jstor-accessfree}}</ref>
<ref name=martan-2014>{{tsp}}'martan' (author), [http://maisons.natales.over-blog.com/2014/05/eure-27.html "Eure&nbsp;(27)"], Guide National des Maisons Natales, 30 May 2014.</ref>
<ref name=musee>Musée national de la Marine, [http://mnm.webmuseo.com/ws/musee-national-marine/app/collection/record/9067 "Appareil catadioptrique, Appareil du canal Saint-Martin"], accessed 26 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170826030358/http://mnm.webmuseo.com/ws/musee-national-marine/app/collection/record/9067 archived] 26 August 2017.</ref>
<ref name"newton-1672e">{{Cite journal |lastNewton |firstIsaac |date18 November 1672 |titleMr. Isaac Newtons answer to some considerations upon his doctrine of light and colors; which doctrine was printed in Numb. 80 of these tracts |urlhttps://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstl.1672.0051 |journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London |languageen |volume7 |issue88 |pages5084–5103 |doi10.1098/rstl.1672.0051 |issn0261-0523 |jstor100964 |jstor-access=free}}</ref>
<ref name=perchet-2011>D. Perchet, [https://e-monumen.net/patrimoine-monumental/monument-a-augustin-fresnel-broglie/ "Monument à Augustin Fresnel – Broglie"], e-monumen.net, 5 July 2011.</ref>
<ref name=pharedeC>Phare de Cordouan, [http://www.phare-de-cordouan.fr/lighting-systems.html "The lighting systems of the Cordouan Lighthouse"], accessed 26 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20160922153001/http://www.phare-de-cordouan.fr/lighting-systems.html archived] 22 September 2016.</ref>
<ref name"reilly-1951">{{Cite journal |lastReilly |firstD. |dateDecember 1951 |titleSalts, acids & alkalis in the 19th century; a comparison between advances in France, England & Germany |urlhttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14888349/ |journalIsis; an International Review Devoted to the History of Science and Its Cultural Influences |volume42 |issue130 |pages287–296 |doi10.1086/349348 |issn0021-1753 |pmid=14888349}}</ref>
<ref namerines-1919>G.E. Rines (ed.), "Fresnel, Augustin Jean", Encyclopedia Americana, 1918–20, vol.&nbsp;12 (1919), [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?idwu.89094370657;view1up;seq111 p.93]. (This entry inaccurately describes Fresnel as the "discoverer" of polarization of light and as a "Fellow" of the Royal Society, whereas in fact he explained polarization and was a "Foreign Member" of the Society; see text.)</ref>
<ref name=ripley-dana-1879>G. Ripley and C.A.&nbsp;Dana (eds.), [https://archive.org/stream/americancyclopae07ripluoft#page/486/mode/2up "Fresnel, Augustin Jean"], American Cyclopædia, 1879, vol.&nbsp;7, pp.&nbsp;486–489. Contrary to this entry&nbsp;(p.&nbsp;486), calcite and quartz were not the only doubly refractive crystals known before Fresnel; see (e.g.) Young, 1855, p.&nbsp;250 (written 1810) and pp.&nbsp;262,{{px2}}266,{{px2}}277 (written 1814), and Lloyd, 1834, pp.&nbsp;376–377.</ref>
<ref name=royalS-2007>Royal Society, List of Fellows of the Royal Society 1660–2007, [https://royalsociety.org/~/media/Royal_Society_Content/about-us/fellowship/Fellows1660-2007.pdf A–J], July 2007, p.&nbsp;130.</ref>
<ref name=royalS-rumford>Royal Society, [https://royalsociety.org/grants-schemes-awards/awards/rumford-medal/ "Rumford Medal"] (with link to full list of past winners), accessed 2 September 2017.</ref>
<ref name=tag-2017>T. Tag, [http://uslhs.org/chronology-lighthouse-events "Chronology of Lighthouse Events"], U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 22 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170408105558/http://uslhs.org/chronology-lighthouse-events archived] 8 April 2017.</ref>
<ref name=tag-prior>T. Tag, [http://uslhs.org/lens-use-prior-fresnel "Lens use prior to Fresnel"], U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20170520114102/http://uslhs.org/lens-use-prior-fresnel archived] 20 May 2017.</ref>
<ref name=tag-fres>T. Tag, [http://uslhs.org/fresnel-lens "The Fresnel lens"], U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; [https://web.archive.org/web/20160722002916/http://uslhs.org/fresnel-lens archived] 22 July 2017.</ref>
<ref name=tag-us>T. Tag, [http://uslhs.org/american-made-fresnel-lenses-0 "American-Made Fresnel Lenses"], U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 1&nbsp;March 2021; [https://web.archive.org/web/20210221163206/https://uslhs.org/american-made-fresnel-lenses-0 archived] 21 February 2021.</ref>
<ref name=watson-2016>B. Watson, Light: A Radiant History from Creation to the Quantum Age, New York: Bloomsbury, 2016.</ref>
<ref name=young-1801>T. Young, [http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/92/12.full.pdf "On the Theory of Light and Colours"] (Bakerian Lecture), Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol.&nbsp;92 (1802), pp.&nbsp;12–48, read 12 November 1801.</ref>
<ref name=young-1818>T. Young, "Chromatics" (written Sep.–{{hsp}}Oct.{{hsp}}1817), Supplement to the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Editions of the Encyclopædia Britannica, vol.&nbsp;3 (issued February 1818), reprinted in Young, 1855, pp.&nbsp;279–342.</ref>
}}
General and cited references
{{refbegin|30em}}
* D.F.J. Arago (tr.{{tsp}} B.&nbsp;Powell), 1857, "Fresnel" (elegy read at the Public Meeting of the Academy of Sciences, 26 July 1830), in D.F.J.&nbsp;Arago (tr.&nbsp;&nbsp;W.H.&nbsp;Smyth, B.&nbsp;Powell, and R.&nbsp;Grant), Biographies of Distinguished Scientific Men (single-volume edition), London: Longman, Brown, Green, Longmans, & Roberts, 1857, [https://books.google.com/books?idm7pcAAAAcAAJ&pgPA399 pp.&nbsp;399–471]. (On the translator's identity, see pp.&nbsp;425n,{{px2}}452n.)&nbsp; Erratum: In the translator's note on p.&nbsp;413, a plane tangent to the outer sphere at point t should intersect the refractive surface (assumed flat); then, through that intersection, tangent planes should be drawn to the inner sphere and spheroid (cf.&nbsp;Mach, 1926, p.{{nnbsp}}263).
* D.F.J. Arago and A. Fresnel, 1819, "Mémoire sur l'action que les rayons de lumière polarisée exercent les uns sur les autres", Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.{{nnbsp}}2, vol.&nbsp;10, pp.&nbsp;288–305, March 1819; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, [https://books.google.com/books?id1l0_AAAAcAAJ&pgPA509 pp.&nbsp;509–522]; translated as [https://archive.org/details/wavetheoryofligh00crewrich/page/145 "On the action of rays of polarized light upon each other"], in Crew, 1900, pp.&nbsp;145–155.
* G.-A. Boutry, 1948, "Augustin Fresnel: His time, life and work, 1788–1827", Science Progress, vol.&nbsp;36, no.&nbsp;144 (October 1948), pp.&nbsp;587–604; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/43413515 jstor.org/stable/43413515].
* J.Z. Buchwald, 1989, [https://archive.org/details/riseofwavetheory0000buch The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century], University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|0-226-07886-8}}.
* J.Z. Buchwald, 2013, "Optics in the Nineteenth Century", in J.Z.&nbsp;Buchwald and R.&nbsp;Fox (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the History of Physics, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-19-969625-3}}, pp.&nbsp;445–472.
* H. Crew (ed.), 1900, [https://archive.org/details/wavetheoryofligh00crewrich The Wave Theory of Light: Memoirs by Huygens, Young and Fresnel], American Book Company.
* O. Darrigol, 2012, A History of Optics: From Greek Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-19-964437-7}}.
* J. Elton, 2009, "A Light to Lighten our Darkness: Lighthouse Optics and the Later Development of Fresnel's Revolutionary Refracting Lens 1780–1900", International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology, vol.&nbsp;79, no.&nbsp;2 (July 2009), pp.&nbsp;183–244; {{doi|10.1179/175812109X449612}}.
* E. Frankel, 1974, "The search for a corpuscular theory of double refraction: Malus, Laplace and the {{sic|price}} competition of 1808", Centaurus, vol.&nbsp;18, no.&nbsp;3 (September 1974), pp.&nbsp;223–245.
* E. Frankel, 1976, "Corpuscular optics and the wave theory of light: The science and politics of a revolution in physics", Social Studies of Science, vol.&nbsp;6, no.&nbsp;2 (May 1976), pp.&nbsp;141–184; [https://www.jstor.org/stable/284930 jstor.org/stable/284930].
* A. Fresnel, 1815a, Letter to Jean François "Léonor" Mérimée, 10&nbsp;February 1815 (Smithsonian Dibner Library, MSS&nbsp;546A), printed in G.&nbsp;Magalhães, "Remarks on a new autograph letter from Augustin Fresnel: Light aberration and wave theory", Science in Context, vol.&nbsp;19, no.{{nnbsp}}2 (June&nbsp;2006), pp.&nbsp;295–307, {{doi|10.1017/S0269889706000895}}, at p.{{nnbsp}}306 (original French) and p.{{nnbsp}}307 (English translation).
* A. Fresnel, 1816, "Mémoire sur la diffraction de la lumière" ("Memoir on the diffraction of light"), Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.{{nnbsp}}2, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;239–281 (March 1816); reprinted as "Deuxième Mémoire…" ("Second Memoir…") in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;89–122.&nbsp; Not{{hsp}} to be confused with the later "prize memoir" (Fresnel, 1818b).
* A. Fresnel, 1818a, "Mémoire sur les couleurs développées dans les fluides homogènes par la lumière polarisée", read 30 March 1818 (according to Kipnis, 1991, p.&nbsp;217), published 1846; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, [https://books.google.com/books?id1l0_AAAAcAAJ&pgPA655 pp.&nbsp;655–683]; translated by E.&nbsp;Ronalds & H.&nbsp;Lloyd as [https://archive.org/details/scientificmemoir05memo/page/44 "Memoir upon the colours produced in homogeneous fluids by polarized light"], in Taylor, 1852, pp.&nbsp;44–65. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation.)
* A. Fresnel, 1818b, "Mémoire sur la diffraction de la lumière" ("Memoir on the diffraction of light"), deposited 29 July 1818, "crowned" 15 March 1819, published (with appended notes) in ''Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France'', vol.&nbsp;{{serif|V}} (for 1821 & 1822, printed 1826), [https://books.google.com/books?idzNo-AQAAMAAJ&pgPA339 pp.&nbsp;339–475]; reprinted (with notes) in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, [https://books.google.com/books?id1l0_AAAAcAAJ&pgPA247 pp.&nbsp;247–383]; partly translated as [https://archive.org/details/wavetheoryofligh00crewrich/page/80 "Fresnel's prize memoir on the diffraction of light"], in Crew, 1900, pp.&nbsp;81–144.&nbsp; Not{{hsp}} to be confused with the earlier memoir with the same French title (Fresnel, 1816).
* A. Fresnel, 1818c, "Lettre de M.&nbsp;Fresnel à M.&nbsp;Arago sur l'influence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes d'optique", Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.{{nnbsp}}2, vol.&nbsp;9, pp.&nbsp;57–66 & plate after p.{{nnbsp}}111 (Sep.&nbsp;1818), & pp.{{nnbsp}}286–287 (Nov.&nbsp;1818); reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, [https://books.google.com/books?idg6tzUG7JmoQC&pgPA627 pp.&nbsp;627–636]; translated as [https://books.google.com/books?id9KQ3BQAAQBAJ&pgPA125 "Letter from Augustin Fresnel to François Arago, on the influence of the movement of the earth on some phenomena of optics"] in K.F.&nbsp;Schaffner, Nineteenth-Century Aether Theories, Pergamon, 1972 ({{doi|10.1016/C2013-0-02335-3}}), pp.&nbsp;125–135; also translated (with several errors) by R.R.&nbsp;Traill as "Letter from Augustin Fresnel to François Arago concerning the influence of terrestrial movement on several optical phenomena", General Science Journal, 23&nbsp;January 2006 ([https://www.gsjournal.net/Science-Journals/Historical%20Papers-Mechanics%20/%20Electrodynamics/Download/2496 PDF,&nbsp;8{{nnbsp}}pp.]).
* A. Fresnel, 1821a, "Note sur le calcul des teintes que la polarisation développe dans les lames cristallisées" et&nbsp;seq., Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.{{nnbsp}}2, vol.&nbsp;17, pp.&nbsp;102–111 (May 1821), 167–196 (June 1821), 312–315 ("Postscript", July 1821); reprinted (with added section nos.) in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;609–648; translated as "On the calculation of the tints that polarization develops in crystalline plates, &amp;&nbsp;postscript", {{Zenodo|4058004}} / {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.4058004}}, 2021.
* A. Fresnel, 1821b, "Note sur les remarques de M.&nbsp;Biot...", Annales de Chimie et de Physique, Ser.{{nnbsp}}2, vol.&nbsp;17, pp.&nbsp;393–403 (August 1821); reprinted (with added section nos.) in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;1, pp.&nbsp;601–608; translated as "Note on the remarks of Mr.&nbsp;Biot relating to colors of thin plates", {{Zenodo|4541332}} / {{doi|10.5281/zenodo.4541332}}, 2021.
* A. Fresnel, 1821c, Letter to D.F.J.{{tsp}}Arago, 21&nbsp;September 1821, in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;257–259; translated as [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Letter_to_Arago_on_biaxial_birefringence "Letter to Arago on biaxial birefringence"], Wikisource, April&nbsp;2021.
* A. Fresnel, 1822a, De la Lumière (On Light), in J.&nbsp;Riffault&nbsp;(ed.), [https://books.google.com/books?idDOoTAAAAQAAJ Supplément à la traduction française de la cinquième édition du "Système de Chimie" par Th.{{tsp}}Thomson], Paris: Chez Méquignon-Marvis, 1822, pp.&nbsp;1–137,{{tsp}}535–539; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, pp.&nbsp;3–146; translated by T.&nbsp;Young as "Elementary view of the undulatory theory of light", Quarterly Journal of Science, Literature, and Art, vol.&nbsp;22 (Jan.–{{hsp}}Jun.{{tsp}}1827), pp.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?idC7JMAAAAYAAJ&pgPA127 127–141], [https://books.google.com/books?idC7JMAAAAYAAJ&pgPA441 441–454]; vol.&nbsp;23 (Jul.–{{hsp}}Dec.{{tsp}}1827), pp.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?idr7VMAAAAYAAJ&pgPA113 113–35], [https://books.google.com/books?idr7VMAAAAYAAJ&pgPA431 431–448]; vol.&nbsp;24 (Jan.–{{hsp}}Jun.{{tsp}}1828), pp.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?idSbJMAAAAYAAJ&pgPA198 198–215]; vol.&nbsp;25 (Jul.–{{hsp}}Dec.{{tsp}}1828), pp.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?idN69MAAAAYAAJ&pgPA168 168–191], [https://books.google.com/books?idN69MAAAAYAAJ&pgPA389 389–407]; vol.&nbsp;26 (Jan.–{{hsp}}Jun.{{tsp}}1829), pp.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?idOyMFAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA159 159–165].<!-- Volume numbers extrapolated from biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/2259. -->
* A. Fresnel, 1822b, "Mémoire sur un nouveau système d'éclairage des phares", read 29 July 1822; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;3, [https://archive.org/details/oeuvrescompltes01fresgoog/page/n182 pp.&nbsp;97–126]; translated by T.&nbsp;Tag as [http://uslhs.org/sites/default/files/attached-files/Fresnel%27s%20Memoire%20-%20Translation.pdf "Memoir upon a new system of lighthouse illumination"], U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 26 August 2017; 19 August 2016. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation.)
* A. Fresnel, 1827, "Mémoire sur la double réfraction", ''Mémoires de l'Académie Royale des Sciences de l'Institut de France, vol.&nbsp;{{serif|VII}} (for 1824, printed 1827), [https://archive.org/details/mmoiresdelacad07memo/page/44 pp.&nbsp;45–176]; reprinted as "Second mémoire…" in Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, [https://books.google.com/books?idg6tzUG7JmoQC&pgPA479 pp.&nbsp;479–596]; translated by A.W.&nbsp;Hobson as [https://archive.org/details/scientificmemoir05memo/page/238 "Memoir on double refraction"], in Taylor, 1852, pp.&nbsp;238–333. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation. For notable errata in the original edition, and consequently in the translation, see Fresnel, 1866–70, vol.&nbsp;2, p.&nbsp;596n.)
* A. Fresnel (ed.{{tsp}} H. de Sénarmont, E.&nbsp;Verdet, and L.&nbsp;Fresnel), 1866–70, Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel (3&nbsp;volumes), Paris: Imprimerie Impériale; [https://books.google.com/books?id1l0_AAAAcAAJ vol.&nbsp;1&nbsp;(1866)], [https://books.google.com/books?idg6tzUG7JmoQC vol.&nbsp;2&nbsp;(1868)], [https://archive.org/details/oeuvrescompltes01fresgoog vol.&nbsp;3&nbsp;(1870)].
* I. Grattan-Guinness, 1990, Convolutions in French Mathematics, 1800–1840, Basel: Birkhäuser, vol.&nbsp;2, {{ISBN|3-7643-2238-1}}, chapter&nbsp;13 (pp.&nbsp;852–915, "The entry of Fresnel: Physical optics, 1815–1824") and chapter&nbsp;15 (pp.&nbsp;968–1045, "The entry of Navier and the triumph of Cauchy: Elasticity theory, 1819–1830").
* C. Huygens, 1690, Traité de la Lumière (Leiden: Van der Aa), translated by S.P. Thompson as [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/14725 Treatise on Light], University of Chicago Press, 1912; Project Gutenberg, 2005. (Cited page numbers match the 1912 edition and the Gutenberg HTML edition.)
* F.A. Jenkins and H.E. White, 1976, Fundamentals of Optics, 4th Ed., New&nbsp;York: McGraw-Hill, {{ISBN|0-07-032330-5}}.
* N. Kipnis, 1991, History of the Principle of Interference of Light, Basel: Birkhäuser, {{ISBN|978-3-0348-9717-4}}, chapters {{serif|VII,{{tsp}}VIII}}.
* K.A. Kneller (tr.{{tsp}} T.M. Kettle), 1911, Christianity and the Leaders of Modern Science: A contribution to the history of culture in the nineteenth century, Freiburg im Breisgau: B.&nbsp;Herder, [https://archive.org/details/christianitylead00knelrich/page/146 pp.&nbsp;146–149].
* T.H. Levitt, 2009, The Shadow of Enlightenment: Optical and Political Transparency in France, 1789–1848, Oxford, {{ISBN|978-0-19-954470-7}}.
* T.H. Levitt, 2013, A Short Bright Flash: Augustin Fresnel and the Birth of the Modern Lighthouse, New York: W.W.&nbsp;Norton, {{ISBN|978-0-393-35089-0}}.
* H. Lloyd, 1834, [https://books.google.com/books?idmtU4AAAAMAAJ&pgPA295 "Report on the progress and present state of physical optics"], Report of the Fourth Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science (held at Edinburgh in 1834), London: J.&nbsp;Murray, 1835, pp.&nbsp;295–413.
* E. Mach (tr.{{tsp}} J.S.&nbsp;Anderson & A.F.A.&nbsp;Young), The Principles of Physical Optics: An Historical and Philosophical Treatment, London: Methuen & Co., 1926.
* I. Newton, 1730, [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/33504 Opticks: or, a Treatise of the Reflections, Refractions, Inflections, and Colours of Light], 4th Ed. (London: William Innys, 1730; Project Gutenberg, 2010); republished with foreword by A.&nbsp;Einstein and Introduction by E.T.&nbsp;Whittaker (London: George Bell &amp; Sons, 1931); reprinted with additional Preface by I.B.&nbsp;Cohen and Analytical Table of Contents by D.H.D.&nbsp;Roller,&nbsp; Mineola, NY: Dover, 1952, 1979 (with revised preface), 2012. (Cited page numbers match the Gutenberg HTML edition and the Dover editions.)
* R.H. Silliman, 1967, Augustin Fresnel (1788–1827) and the Establishment of the Wave Theory of Light (PhD&nbsp;dissertation, {{nowrap|6{{hsp}}+{{hsp}}352 pp.}}), Princeton University, submitted 1967, accepted 1968; available from ProQuest{{tsp}} (missing the first page of the preface).<!-- Mentioned by Buchwald, Frankel (1976), Grattan-Guinness, and Kipnis. Listed by Google Books as having 704 pages; but the PDF version from ProQuest ends at p. 352 and contains no indication of any missing addenda. Page number 195 is skipped, but there is no corresponding discontinuity in the text. -->
* R.H. Silliman, 2008, "Fresnel, Augustin Jean", Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Detroit: Charles Scribner's Sons, vol.&nbsp;5, pp.&nbsp;165–171. (The [http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/science-and-technology/physics-biographies/augustin-jean-fresnel version at encyclopedia.com] lacks the diagram and equations.)
* R. Taylor (ed.), 1852, Scientific Memoirs, selected from the Transactions of Foreign Academies of Science and Learned Societies, and from Foreign Journals (in English), [https://archive.org/details/scientificmemoir05memo vol.&nbsp;{{serif|V}}], London: Taylor & Francis.
* W. Whewell, 1857, History of the Inductive Sciences: From the Earliest to the Present Time, 3rd Ed., London: J.W.&nbsp;Parker &amp; Son, [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_cBSrVEkaR8EC vol.&nbsp;2], book&nbsp;{{serif|IX}}, chapters&nbsp;{{serif|V–XIII}}.
* E. T. Whittaker, 1910, A History of the Theories of Aether and Electricity: From the age of Descartes to the close of the nineteenth century, London: Longmans, Green, &amp; Co., chapters {{serif|IV,{{tsp}}V}}.
* J. Worrall, 1989, [http://johnworrall.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/1989-Fresnel-Poisson-and-the-White-Spot.pdf "Fresnel, Poisson and the white spot: The role of successful predictions in the acceptance of scientific theories"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230602031617/http://johnworrall.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/09/1989-Fresnel-Poisson-and-the-White-Spot.pdf |date2 June 2023 }}, in D.&nbsp;Gooding, T.&nbsp;Pinch, and S.&nbsp;Schaffer (eds.), The Uses of Experiment: Studies in the Natural Sciences, Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-33185-4}}, pp.&nbsp;135–157.
* T. Young, 1807, A Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts (2&nbsp;volumes), London: J.{{tsp}}Johnson; [https://archive.org/details/lecturescourseof01younrich vol.&nbsp;1], [https://archive.org/details/lecturescourseof02younrich vol.&nbsp;2].
* T. Young (ed. G.&nbsp;Peacock), 1855, Miscellaneous Works of the late Thomas Young, London: J.&nbsp;Murray, [https://books.google.com/books?id=GyzPAAAAMAAJ vol.&nbsp;1].
{{refend}}
External links
*{{Commons category-inline}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4766520 List of English translations of works by Augustin Fresnel] at Zenodo.
* [https://uslhs.org/ United States Lighthouse Society], especially "[https://uslhs.org/history/fresnel-lenses Fresnel Lenses] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210302174800/https://uslhs.org/history/fresnel-lenses |date2 March 2021 }}".
* {{OL author|2296238A}}.
* {{cite web|modecs2|titleEpisode 3 – Augustin Fresnel|date23 January 2019|publisherÉcole polytechnique|viaYouTube|urlhttps://www.youtube.com/watch?vKDaQhpYYo50| archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211122/KDaQhpYYo50| archive-date22 November 2021 | url-statuslive}}{{cbignore}}.
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fresnel, Augustin-Jean}}
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Category:People from Eure | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean_Fresnel | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.073221 |
1143 | Abbot | thumb|upright|St. Dominic of Silos enthroned as abbot (Hispano-Flemish Gothic 15th century)
Abbot is an ecclesiastical title given to the head of an independent monastery for men in various Western Christian traditions. The name is derived from abba, the Aramaic form of the Hebrew ab, and means "father". The female equivalent is abbess.
Origins
The title had its origin in the monasteries of Egypt and Syria, spread through the eastern Mediterranean, and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery. The word is derived from the Aramaic meaning "father" or , meaning "my father" (it still has this meaning in contemporary Hebrew: אבא and Aramaic: ܐܒܐ) In the Septuagint, it was written as "abbas". At first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk, but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors. At times it was applied to various priests, e.g. at the court of the Frankish monarchy the ("of the palace"') and ("of the camp") were chaplains to the Merovingian and Carolingian sovereigns' court and army respectively. The title of abbot came into fairly general use in western monastic orders whose members include priests.
Monastic history
thumb|upright|Coptic icon of Saint Pachomius, the founder of cenobitic monasticism
thumb|Carving of Saint Benedict of Nursia, holding an abbot's crozier and his Rule for Monasteries (Münsterschwarzach, Germany)
thumb|upright|Thomas Schoen, abbot of Bornem Abbey
thumb|upright|Benedictine Archabbot Schober in prelate's dress and cappa magna
An abbot (from , , from ("father"), from (), from / (, "father"); compare ; ) is the head and chief governor of a community of monks, called also in the East hegumen or archimandrite. The English version for a female monastic head is abbess.
Early history
In Egypt, the first home of monasticism, the jurisdiction of the abbot, or archimandrite, was but loosely defined. Sometimes he ruled over only one community, sometimes over several, each of which had its own abbot as well. Saint John Cassian speaks of an abbot of the Thebaid who had 500 monks under him. By the Rule of St Benedict, which, until the Cluniac reforms, was the norm in the West, the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community. The rule, as was inevitable, was subject to frequent violations; but it was not until the foundation of the Cluniac Order that the idea of a supreme abbot, exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order, was definitely recognised.
Monks, as a rule, were laymen, nor at the outset was the abbot any exception. For the reception of the sacraments, and for other religious offices, the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church. This rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city, and necessity compelled the ordination of some monks. This innovation was not introduced without a struggle, ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life, but, before the close of the 5th century, at least in the East, abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons, if not priests. The change spread more slowly in the West, where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century. The ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils. Thus at the first Council of Constantinople, AD 448, 23 archimandrites or abbots sign, with 30 bishops.
The second Council of Nicaea, AD 787, recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the diaconate, a power usually reserved to bishops.
Abbots used to be subject to episcopal jurisdiction, and continued generally so, in fact, in the West till the 11th century. The Code of Justinian (lib. i. tit. iii. de Ep. leg. xl.) expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight. The first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of Faustus, abbot of Lerins, at the council of Arles, AD 456; but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops, to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced, far more than to the arrogance of abbots, rendered it increasingly frequent, and, in the 6th century, the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control, and making them responsible to the pope alone, received an impulse from Pope Gregory the Great. These exceptions, introduced with a good object, had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century, virtually creating an imperium in imperio, and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his diocese.
Later Middle Ages
In the 12th century, the abbots of Fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of Cologne. Abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state, and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of St Bernard and others, adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre, ring, gloves and sandals.
It has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century, but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine (J. Braun, Liturgische Gewandung, p. 453). The first undoubted instance is the bull by which Alexander II in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to Egelsinus, abbot of the monastery of St Augustine at Canterbury. The mitred abbots in England were those of Abingdon, St Alban's, Bardney, Battle, Bury St Edmunds, St Augustine's Canterbury, Colchester, Croyland, Evesham, Glastonbury, Gloucester, St Benet's Hulme, Hyde, Malmesbury, Peterborough, Ramsey, Reading, Selby, Shrewsbury, Tavistock, Thorney, Westminster, Winchcombe, and St Mary's York. Of these the precedence was yielded to the abbot of Glastonbury, until in AD 1154 Adrian IV (Nicholas Breakspear) granted it to the abbot of St Alban's, in which monastery he had been brought up. Next after the abbot of St Alban's ranked the abbot of Westminster and then Ramsey. Elsewhere, the mitred abbots that sat in the Estates of Scotland were of Arbroath, Cambuskenneth, Coupar Angus, Dunfermline, Holyrood, Iona, Kelso, Kilwinning, Kinloss, Lindores, Paisley, Melrose, Scone, St Andrews Priory and Sweetheart. To distinguish abbots from bishops, it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials, and should not be ornamented with gold, a rule which was soon entirely disregarded, and that the crook of their pastoral staff (the crosier) should turn inwards instead of outwards, indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house.
The adoption of certain episcopal insignia (pontificalia) by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions, which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the Lateran council, AD 1123. In the East abbots, if in priests' orders and with the consent of the bishop, were, as we have seen, permitted by the second Nicene council, AD 787, to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader; but gradually abbots, in the West also, advanced higher claims, until we find them in AD 1489 permitted by Innocent IV to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate. Of course, they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit.
The power of the abbot was paternal but absolute, limited, however, by the canon law. One of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness, and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection. It was sacred duty to execute the abbot's orders, and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression. Examples among the Egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors, exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal, are detailed by Cassian and others, e.g. a monk watering a dry stick, day after day, for months, or endeavoring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers.
Appointments
When a vacancy occurred, the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the monastery, but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves, reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot. In abbeys exempt from the archbishop's diocesan jurisdiction, the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person, the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbot's journey to Rome. It was necessary that an abbot should be at least 30 years of age, of legitimate birth, a monk of the house for at least 10 years, and such monasteries are normally raised to this level after showing a degree of stability—a certain number of monks in vows, a certain number of years of establishment, a certain firmness to the foundation in economic, vocational and legal aspects. Prior to this, the monastery would be a mere priory, headed by a prior who acts as superior but without the same degree of legal authority that an abbot has.
thumb|Abbot Francis Michael (enthroned) and Prior Anthony Delisi (on the left) of Monastery of the Holy Spirit, a Trappist monastery in Conyers, Georgia, US.
The abbot is chosen by the monks from among the fully professed monks. Once chosen, he must request blessing: the blessing of an abbot is celebrated by the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is or, with his permission, another abbot or bishop. The ceremony of such a blessing is similar in some aspects to the consecration of a bishop, with the new abbot being presented with the mitre, the ring, and the crosier as symbols of office and receiving the laying on of hands and blessing from the celebrant. Though the ceremony installs the new abbot into a position of legal authority, it does not confer further sacramental authority- it is not a further degree of Holy Orders (although some abbots have been ordained to the episcopacy).
Once he has received this blessing, the abbot not only becomes father of his monks in a spiritual sense, but their major superior under canon law, and has the additional authority to confer the ministries of acolyte and lector (formerly, he could confer the minor orders, which are not sacraments, that these ministries have replaced). The abbey is a species of "exempt religious" in that it is, for the most part, answerable to the pope, or to the abbot primate, rather than to the local bishop.
The abbot wears the same habit as his fellow monks, though by tradition he adds to it a pectoral cross.
Territorial abbots follow all of the above, but in addition must receive a mandate of authority from the pope over the territory around the monastery for which they are responsible.
Abbatial hierarchy
In some monastic families, there is a hierarchy of precedence or authority among abbots. In some cases, this is the result of an abbey being considered the "mother" of several "daughter" abbeys founded as dependent priories of the "mother". In other cases, abbeys have affiliated in networks known as "congregations". Some monastic families recognize one abbey as the motherhouse of the entire order.
The abbot of Sant'Anselmo di Aventino, in Rome, is styled the "abbot primate", and is acknowledged the senior abbot for the Order of Saint Benedict.
An abbot-president is the head of a congregation (federation) of abbeys within the Order of Saint Benedict (for instance, the English Congregation, the American-Cassinese Congregation, etc.), or of the Cistercians
An archabbot is the head of some monasteries which are the motherhouses of other monasteries (for instance, Saint Vincent Archabbey, Latrobe, Pennsylvania)
Mauro-Giuseppe Lepori OCist is the current abbot-general of the Cistercians of the Common Observance.
Modern abbots not as superior
The title abbé (French; Ital. abate), as commonly used in the Catholic Church on the European continent, is the equivalent of the English "Father" (parallel etymology), being loosely applied to all who have received the tonsure. This use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of France, by the concordat between Pope Leo X and Francis I (1516), to appoint commendatory abbots () to most of the abbeys in France. The expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers, and the class of abbés so formed they were sometimes called, and sometimes (ironically) ("abbés of holy hope; or in a jeu de mots, "of St. Hope")came to hold a recognized position. The connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind, consisting mainly in adopting the title of abbé, after a remarkably moderate course of theological study, practising celibacy and wearing distinctive dress, a short dark-violet coat with narrow collar. Being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure, many of the class found admission to the houses of the French nobility as tutors or advisers. Nearly every great family had its abbé. The class did not survive the Revolution; but the courtesy title of abbé, having long lost all connection in people's minds with any special ecclesiastical function, remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman.
Eastern Christian
In the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches, the abbot is referred to as the hegumen. The Superior of a monastery of nuns is called the Hēguménē. The title of archimandrite (literally the head of the enclosure) used to mean something similar.
In the East, the principle set forth in the Corpus Juris Civilis still applies, whereby most abbots are immediately subject to the local bishop. Those monasteries which enjoy the status of being stauropegic will be subject only to a primate or his Synod of Bishops and not the local bishop.
Honorary and other uses of the title
Although currently in the Western Church the title "abbot" is given only abbots of monasteries, the title archimandrite is given to "monastics" (i.e., celibate) priests in the East, even when not attached to a monastery, as an honor for service, similar to the title of monsignor in the Latin Church of the Catholic Church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, only monastics are permitted to be elevated to the rank of archimandrite. Married priests are elevated to the parallel rank of Archpriest or Protopresbyter. Normally there are no celibate priests who are not monastics in the Orthodox Church, with the exception of married priests who have been widowed. Since the time of Catherine II the ranks of Abbot and Archimandrite have been given as honorary titles in the Russian Church, and may be given to any monastic, even if he does not in fact serve as the superior of a monastery. In Greek practice the title or function of Abbot corresponds to a person who serves as the head of a monastery, although the title of the Archimandrite may be given to any celibate priest who could serve as the head of a monastery.
In the German Evangelical Church, the German title of Abt (abbot) is sometimes bestowed, like the French abbé, as an honorary distinction, and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the Reformation into collegiate foundations.
Of these the most noteworthy is Loccum Abbey in Hanover, founded as a Cistercian house in 1163 by Count Wilbrand of Hallermund, and reformed in 1593. The abbot of Loccum, who still carries a pastoral staff, takes precedence over all the clergy of Hanover, and was ex officio a member of the consistory of the kingdom. The governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot, prior and the "convent", or community, of Stiftsherren (canons).
In the Church of England, the Bishop of Norwich, by royal decree given by Henry VIII, also holds the honorary title of "Abbot of St. Benet." This title hails back to England's separation from the See of Rome, when King Henry, as supreme head of the newly independent church, took over all of the monasteries, mainly for their possessions, except for St. Benet, which he spared because the abbot and his monks possessed no wealth, and lived like simple beggars, deposing the incumbent Bishop of Norwich and seating the abbot in his place, thus the dual title still held to this day.
Additionally, at the enthronement of the Archbishop of Canterbury, there is a threefold enthronement, once in the throne the chancel as the diocesan bishop of Canterbury, once in the Chair of St. Augustine as the Primate of All England, and then once in the chapter-house as Titular Abbot of Canterbury.
There are several Benedictine abbeys throughout the Anglican Communion. Most of them have mitred abbots.
Abbots in art and literature
thumb|upright|"The Abbot", from the Dance of Death, by Hans Holbein the Younger
"The Abbot" is one of the archetypes traditionally illustrated in scenes of Danse Macabre.
The lives of numerous abbots make up a significant contribution to Christian hagiography, one of the most well-known being the Life of St. Benedict of Nursia by St. Gregory the Great.
During the years 1106–1107 AD, Daniel, a Russian Orthodox abbot, made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land and recorded his experiences. His diary was much-read throughout Russia, and at least seventy-five manuscript copies survive. Saint Joseph, Abbot of Volokolamsk, Russia (1439–1515), wrote a number of influential works against heresy, and about monastic and liturgical discipline, and Christian philanthropy.
In the Tales of Redwall series, the creatures of Redwall are led by an abbot or abbess. These "abbots" are appointed by the brothers and sisters of Redwall to serve as a superior and provide paternal care, much like real abbots.
"The Abbot" was a nickname of RZA from the Wu-Tang Clan.
See also
Abbé
Abbé Pierre
Abbot (Buddhism)
Abthain
Commendatory abbot
Notes
References
External links
Russian Orthodox Abbot of Valaam Monastery
The Pilgrimage of the Russian Abbot Daniel in the Holy Land
Category:Religious terminology
Category:Ecclesiastical titles
Category:Monasticism
Category:Organisation of Catholic religious orders
Category:Religious leadership roles
Category:Catholic ecclesiastical titles
Category:Christian religious occupations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.108749 |
1144 | Ardipithecus | {{Short description|Extinct genus of hominins}}
{{For|the album|Ardipithecus (album)}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| fossil_range = Late Miocene – Early Pliocene, {{fossil range|5.77|4.4}}
| image = Ardi.jpg
| image_caption = Ardipithecus ramidus specimen, nicknamed Ardi
| taxon = Ardipithecus
| authority = White et al., 1995
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = * †Ardipithecus kadabba
* †Ardipithecus ramidus
}}
Ardipithecus is a genus of an extinct hominine that lived during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene epochs in the Afar Depression, Ethiopia. Originally described as one of the earliest ancestors of humans after they diverged from the chimpanzees, the relation of this genus to human ancestors and whether it is a hominin is now a matter of debate.<ref namecbs>{{cite journal |doi10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145724 |ssrn2158257 |titleChimpanzees and the Behavior of Ardipithecus ramidus |journalAnnual Review of Anthropology |volume41 |pages139–49 |year2012 |lastStanford |firstCraig B. }}</ref> Two fossil species are described in the literature: A.&nbsp;ramidus, which lived about 4.4 million years ago<ref name"NatGeo-News">{{cite web |url http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20010715123225/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2001/07/0712_ethiopianbones.html |url-status dead |archive-dateJuly 15, 2001 |titleFossils From Ethiopia May Be Earliest Human Ancestor |firstDavid |lastPerlman |publisherNational Geographic News |dateJuly 12, 2001 |access-dateMarch 18, 2017 |quoteAnother co-author is Tim D. White, a paleoanthropologist at UC–Berkeley who in 1994 discovered a pre-human fossil, named Ardipithecus ramidus, that was then the oldest known, at 4.4 million years.}}</ref> during the early Pliocene, and A.&nbsp;kadabba, dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago (late Miocene).<ref name"AndThePaleobiology"/> Initial behavioral analysis indicated that Ardipithecus could be very similar to chimpanzees;<ref namecbs/> however, more recent analysis based on canine size and lack of canine sexual dimorphism indicates that Ardipithecus was characterised by reduced aggression,<ref name":0">{{Cite web|firstClare |lastWilson |date29 November 2021|titleCanine teeth shrank in human ancestors at least 4.5 million years ago|urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/2299286-canine-teeth-shrank-in-human-ancestors-at-least-4-5-million-years-ago/|access-date2021-12-01|websiteNew Scientist|languageen-US}}</ref> and that they more closely resemble bonobos.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Suwa |first1Gen |last2Sasaki |first2Tomohiko |last3Semaw |first3Sileshi |last4Rogers |first4Michael J. |last5Simpson |first5Scott W. |last6Kunimatsu |first6Yutaka |last7Nakatsukasa |first7Masato |last8Kono |first8Reiko T. |last9Zhang |first9Yingqi |last10Beyene |first10Yonas |last11Asfaw |first11Berhane |last12White |first12Tim D. |date2021-12-07 |titleCanine sexual dimorphism in Ardipithecus ramidus was nearly human-like |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |languageen |volume118 |issue49 |doi10.1073/pnas.2116630118 |doi-accessfree |issn0027-8424 |pmc8670482 |pmid34853174|bibcode=2021PNAS..11816630S }}</ref>
Some analyses describe Australopithecus as being sister to Ardipithecus ramidus specifically.<ref>{{cite thesis |lastPugh |firstKelsey |titleThe Phylogenetic Relationships of Middle-Late Miocene Apes: Implications for Early Human Evolution |dateFebruary 2020 |urlhttps://academicworks.cuny.edu/gc_etds/3619/ }}</ref> This means that Australopithecus is distinctly more closely related to Ardipithecus ramidus than Ardipithecus kadabba. Cladistically, then, Australopithecus (and eventually Homo sapiens) indeed emerged within the Ardipithecus lineage, and this lineage is not literally extinct. Ardipithecus ramidus
{{Human timeline}}
{{Main|Ardipithecus ramidus}}
A. ramidus was named in September 1994. The first fossil found was dated to 4.4 million years ago on the basis of its stratigraphic position between two volcanic strata: the basal Gaala Tuff Complex (G.A.T.C.) and the Daam Aatu Basaltic Tuff (D.A.B.T.).<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1038/371306a0 |pmid8090200 |titleAustralopithecus ramidus, a new species of early hominid from Aramis, Ethiopia |journalNature |volume371 |issue6495 |pages306–12 |year1994 |last1White |first1Tim D. |last2Suwa |first2Gen |last3Asfaw |first3Berhane |bibcode1994Natur.371..306W |s2cid4347140 }}</ref> The name Ardipithecus ramidus stems mostly from the Afar language, in which Ardi means "ground/floor" and ramid means "root". The pithecus portion of the name is from the Greek word for "ape".<ref name"NOVA">{{cite web |titleNOVA, Aliens from Earth: Who's who in human evolution |lastTyson |firstPeter |dateOctober 2009 |publisherPBS |access-date2009-10-08 |url https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/hobbit/tree-nf.html}}</ref>
Like most hominids, but unlike all previously recognized hominins, it had a grasping hallux or big toe adapted for locomotion in the trees. It is not confirmed how many other features of its skeleton reflect adaptation to bipedalism on the ground as well. Like later hominins, Ardipithecus had reduced canine teeth and reduced canine sexual dimorphism.<ref name=":0"/>
In 1992–1993 a research team headed by Tim White discovered the first A. ramidus fossils—seventeen fragments including skull, mandible, teeth and arm bones—from the Afar Depression in the Middle Awash river valley of Ethiopia. More fragments were recovered in 1994, amounting to 45% of the total skeleton. This fossil was originally described as a species of Australopithecus, but White and his colleagues later published a note in the same journal renaming the fossil under a new genus, Ardipithecus. Between 1999 and 2003, a multidisciplinary team led by Sileshi Semaw discovered bones and teeth of nine A. ramidus individuals at As Duma in the Gona area of Ethiopia's Afar Region.<ref name"stoneageinstitute.org">{{cite web |date2005-01-10 |titleNew Fossil Hominids of Ardipithecus ramidus from Gona, Afar, Ethiopia |urlhttp://www.stoneageinstitute.org/news/gona_nature_paper.shtml#1 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080624005441/http://www.stoneageinstitute.org/news/gona_nature_paper.shtml |archive-date2008-06-24 |access-date2009-01-30 |websitestoneageinstitute.org}}</ref> The fossils were dated to between 4.35 and 4.45 million years old.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://newsinfo.iu.edu/news/page/normal/1822.html |publisherIndiana University |titleAnthropologists find 4.5 million-year-old hominid fossils in Ethiopia |access-dateMarch 18, 2017 }}</ref>
Ardipithecus ramidus had a small brain, measuring between 300 and 350&nbsp;cm<sup>3</sup>. This is slightly smaller than a modern bonobo or female chimpanzee brain, but much smaller than the brain of australopithecines like Lucy (~400 to 550&nbsp;cm<sup>3</sup>) and roughly 20% the size of the modern Homo sapiens brain. Like common chimpanzees, A. ramidus was much more prognathic than modern humans.<ref name"Suwa_2009">{{cite journal |doi10.1126/science.1175825 |pmid19810194 |titleThe Ardipithecus ramidus Skull and Its Implications for Hominid Origins |journalScience |volume326 |issue5949 |pages68e1–7 |year2009 |last1Suwa |first1G. |last2Asfaw |first2B. |last3Kono |first3R. T. |last4Kubo |first4D. |last5Lovejoy |first5C. O. |last6White |first6T. D. |url http://doc.rero.ch/record/211453/files/PAL_E4442.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://doc.rero.ch/record/211453/files/PAL_E4442.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive |bibcode2009Sci...326...68S |s2cid=19725410 }}</ref>
The teeth of A. ramidus lacked the specialization of other apes, and suggest that it was a generalized omnivore and frugivore (fruit eater) with a diet that did not depend heavily on foliage, fibrous plant material (roots, tubers, etc.), or hard and or abrasive food. The size of the upper canine tooth in A. ramidus males was not distinctly different from that of females. Their upper canines were less sharp than those of modern common chimpanzees in part because of this decreased upper canine size, as larger upper canines can be honed through wear against teeth in the lower mouth. The features of the upper canine in A. ramidus contrast with the sexual dimorphism observed in common chimpanzees, where males have significantly larger and sharper upper canine teeth than females.<ref name"Suwa_2009b">{{cite journal |doi10.1126/science.1175824 |pmid19810195 |titlePaleobiological Implications of the Ardipithecus ramidus Dentition |journalScience |volume326 |issue5949 |pages94–9 |year2009 |last1Suwa |first1G. |last2Kono |first2R. T. |last3Simpson |first3S. W. |last4Asfaw |first4B. |last5Lovejoy |first5C. O. |last6White |first6T. D. |bibcode2009Sci...326...94S |s2cid3744438 |url http://doc.rero.ch/record/211460/files/PAL_E4443.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://doc.rero.ch/record/211460/files/PAL_E4443.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Of the living apes, bonobos have the smallest canine sexual dimorphism, although still greater than that displayed by A. ramidus.<ref name":0"/>
The less pronounced nature of the upper canine teeth in A. ramidus has been used to infer aspects of the social behavior of the species and more ancestral hominids. In particular, it has been used to suggest that the last common ancestor of hominids and African apes was characterized by relatively little aggression between males and between groups. This is markedly different from social patterns in common chimpanzees, among which intermale and intergroup aggression are typically high. Researchers in a 2009 study said that this condition "compromises the living chimpanzee as a behavioral model for the ancestral hominid condition."<ref name"Suwa_2009b"/> Bonobo canine size and canine sexual dimorphism more closely resembles that of A. ramidus, and as a result, bonobos are now suggested as a behavioural model.<ref>{{Cite web|titleScience X Network :: Phys.org, Medical Xpress, Tech Xplore|urlhttps://sciencex.com/wire-news/399727984/canine-sexual-dimorphism-in-ardipithecus-ramidus-is-estimated.html|access-date2021-12-01|website=sciencex.com}}</ref>
A. ramidus existed more recently than the most recent common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees (CLCA or Pan-Homo LCA) and thus is not fully representative of that common ancestor. Nevertheless, it is in some ways unlike chimpanzees, suggesting that the common ancestor differs from the modern chimpanzee. After the chimpanzee and human lineages diverged, both underwent substantial evolutionary change. Chimp feet are specialized for grasping trees; A. ramidus feet are better suited for walking. The canine teeth of A. ramidus are smaller, and equal in size between males and females, which suggests reduced male-to-male conflict, increased pair-bonding, and increased parental investment. "Thus, fundamental reproductive and social behavioral changes probably occurred in hominids long before they had enlarged brains and began to use stone tools," the research team concluded.<ref name"AndThePaleobiology"/> Ardi
{{Main|Ardi}}
On October 1, 2009, paleontologists formally announced the discovery of the relatively complete A. ramidus fossil skeleton first unearthed in 1994. The fossil is the remains of a small-brained {{Convert|50|kg|adjon}} female, nicknamed "Ardi", and includes most of the skull and teeth, as well as the pelvis, hands, and feet.<ref name"NewKind"/> It was discovered in Ethiopia's harsh Afar desert at a site called Aramis in the Middle Awash region. Radiometric dating of the layers of volcanic ash encasing the deposits suggest that Ardi lived about 4.3 to 4.5 million years ago. This date, however, has been questioned by others. Fleagle and Kappelman suggest that the region in which Ardi was found is difficult to date radiometrically, and they argue that Ardi should be dated at 3.9 million years.<ref name"10.1038/nature09709">{{cite journal |doi10.1038/376558b0 |pmid7503900 |last1Kappelman |first1John| last2Fleagle |first2John G.| date1995 |titleAge of early hominids |journalNature |volume376 |issue6541| pages558–559 |bibcode1995Natur.376..558K |s2cid=5527405 }}</ref>
The fossil is regarded by its describers as shedding light on a stage of human evolution about which little was known, more than a million years before Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis), the iconic early human ancestor candidate who lived 3.2 million years ago, and was discovered in 1974 just {{cvt|74|km}} away from Ardi's discovery site. However, because the "Ardi" skeleton is no more than 200,000 years older than the earliest fossils of Australopithecus, and may in fact be younger than they are,<ref name="10.1038/nature09709"/> some researchers doubt that it can represent a direct ancestor of Australopithecus.
Some researchers infer from the form of her pelvis and limbs and the presence of her abductable hallux, that "Ardi" was a facultative biped: bipedal when moving on the ground, but quadrupedal when moving about in tree branches.<ref name"AndThePaleobiology">{{cite journal |doi10.1126/science.1175802 |pmid19810190 |titleArdipithecus ramidus and the Paleobiology of Early Hominids |journalScience |volume326 |issue5949 |pages75–86 |year2009 |last1White |first1T. D. |last2Asfaw |first2B. |last3Beyene |first3Y. |last4Haile-Selassie |first4Y. |last5Lovejoy |first5C. O. |last6Suwa |first6G. |last7Woldegabriel |first7G. |bibcode2009Sci...326...75W |s2cid20189444 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/10/091001-oldest-human-skeleton-ardi-missing-link-chimps-ardipithecus-ramidus.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091004002647/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/10/091001-oldest-human-skeleton-ardi-missing-link-chimps-ardipithecus-ramidus.html |url-status dead |archive-dateOctober 4, 2009 |titleOldest Skeleton of Human Ancestor Found |firstJamie |lastShreeve |publisherNational Geographic magazine |date2009-10-01 |access-dateMarch 18, 2017 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url https://www.science.org/content/article/ancient-skeleton-may-rewrite-earliest-chapter-human-evolution |titleAncient Skeleton May Rewrite Earliest Chapter of Human Evolution |firstAnn |lastGibbons |journalScience |dateOctober 2009 |access-dateMarch 18, 2017 }}</ref> A. ramidus had a more primitive walking ability than later hominids, and could not walk or run for long distances.<ref>{{cite news|urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/8285180.stm |workBBC News |titleFossil finds extend human story |dateOctober 1, 2009 |firstJonathan |lastAmos}}</ref> The teeth suggest omnivory, and are more generalised than those of modern apes.<ref name="AndThePaleobiology"/>
<gallery>
File:Ardipithecus (finger bones).jpg|Casts of Ardi's finger bones.
</gallery>
Ardipithecus kadabba
{{Main|Ardipithecus kadabba}}
Ardipithecus kadabba is "known only from teeth and bits and pieces of skeletal bones",<ref name"NewKind">{{cite journal |lastGibbons |firstAnn |date2009-10-02 |titleA New Kind of Ancestor: Ardipithecus Unveiled |urlhttp://doc.rero.ch/record/211155/files/PAL_E4410.pdf |url-statuslive |journalScience |volume326 |issue5949 |pages36–40 |bibcode2009Sci...326...36G |doi10.1126/science.326_36 |pmid19797636 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://doc.rero.ch/record/211155/files/PAL_E4410.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09}}</ref> and is dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago.<ref name"AndThePaleobiology"/> It has been described as a "probable chronospecies" (i.e. ancestor) of A. ramidus.<ref name"AndThePaleobiology"/> Although originally considered a subspecies of A. ramidus, in 2004 anthropologists Yohannes Haile-Selassie, Gen Suwa, and Tim D. White published an article elevating A. kadabba to species level on the basis of newly discovered teeth from Ethiopia. These teeth show "primitive morphology and wear pattern" which demonstrate that A. kadabba is a distinct species from A. ramidus.<ref name"MioceneTeeth">{{cite journal |last1Haile-Selassie |first1Yohannes |author-linkYohannes Haile-Selassie |last2Suwa |first2Gen |author-link2Gen Suwa |last3White |first3Tim D. |author-link3Tim D. White |year2004 |titleLate Miocene Teeth from Middle Awash, Ethiopia, and Early Hominid Dental Evolution |journalScience |volume303 |issue5663 |pages1503–5 |bibcode2004Sci...303.1503H |doi10.1126/science.1092978 |pmid15001775 |s2cid30387762}}</ref>
The specific name comes from the Afar word for "basal family ancestor".<ref name"EllisNTB">{{cite book |lastEllis |firstRichard |author-linkRichard Ellis (biologist) |titleNo Turning Back: The Life and Death of Animal Species|url https://archive.org/details/noturningbacklif00elli |url-accessregistration |publisherHarper Perennial |date2004 |locationNew York |pages[https://archive.org/details/noturningbacklif00elli/page/92 92] |isbn978-0-06-055804-8 }}</ref>
Classification
Due to several shared characteristics with chimpanzees, its closeness to ape divergence period, and due to its fossil incompleteness, the exact position of Ardipithecus in the fossil record is a subject of controversy.<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1038/nature09709 |pmid21331035 |last1Wood |first1 Bernard| last2Harrison |first2 Terry| date2011 |titleThe evolutionary context of the first hominins |journalNature |volume470 |pages347–35 |bibcode2011Natur.470..347W |issue7334 |s2cid4428052 }}</ref> Primatologist Esteban Sarmiento had systematically compared and concluded that there is not sufficient anatomical evidence to support an exclusively human lineage. Sarmiento noted that Ardipithecus does not share any characteristics exclusive to humans, and some of its characteristics (those in the wrist and basicranium) suggest it diverged from humans prior to the human–gorilla last common ancestor.<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1126/science.1184148 |pmid20508113 |titleComment on the Paleobiology and Classification of Ardipithecus ramidus |journalScience |volume328 |issue5982 |pages1105; author reply 1105 |year2010 |lastSarmiento |firstE. E. |bibcode2010Sci...328.1105S |doi-access }}</ref> His comparative (narrow allometry) study in 2011 on the molar and body segment lengths (which included living primates of similar body size) noted that some dimensions including short upper limbs, and metacarpals are reminiscent of humans, but other dimensions such as long toes and relative molar surface area are great ape-like. Sarmiento concluded that such length measures can change back and forth during evolution and are not very good indicators of relatedness (homoplasy).<ref nameSarmiento2011>{{cite journal |doi10.1016/j.jchb.2011.01.003 |pmid21388620 |titleBehavioral and phylogenetic implications of a narrow allometric study of Ardipithecus ramidus |journalHOMO |volume62 |issue2 |pages75–108 |year2011 |last1Sarmiento |first1E.E. |last2Meldrum |first2=D.J. }}</ref>
However, some later studies still argue for its classification in the human lineage. In 2014, it was reported that the hand bones of Ardipithecus, Australopithecus sediba and A. afarensis have the third metacarpal styloid process, which is absent in other apes.<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1073/pnas.1316014110 |pmid24344276 |pmc3890866 |titleEarly Pleistocene third metacarpal from Kenya and the evolution of modern human-like hand morphology |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume111 |issue1 |pages121–4 |year2013 |last1Ward |first1C. V. |last2Tocheri |first2M. W. |last3Plavcan |first3J. M. |last4Brown |first4F. H. |last5Manthi |first5F. K. |bibcode2014PNAS..111..121W |doi-accessfree }}</ref> Unique brain organisations (such as lateral shift of the carotid foramina, mediolateral abbreviation of the lateral tympanic, and a shortened, trapezoidal basioccipital element) in Ardipithecus are also found only in the Australopithecus and Homo.<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1073/pnas.1322639111 |pmid24395771 |pmc3903226 |titleArdipithecus ramidus and the evolution of the human cranial base |journalProceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume111 |issue3 |pages948–53 |year2014 |last1Kimbel |first1W. H. |last2Suwa |first2G. |last3Asfaw |first3B. |last4Rak |first4Y. |last5White |first5T. D. |bibcode2014PNAS..111..948K |doi-accessfree }}</ref> Comparison of the tooth root morphology with those of the earlier Sahelanthropus also indicated strong resemblance, also pointing to inclusion to the human line.<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1002/ajpa.22400 |pmid24242778 |titleSubocclusal dental morphology of Sahelanthropus tchadensis and the evolution of teeth in hominins |journalAmerican Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume153 |issue1 |pages116–23 |year2014 |last1Emonet |first1Edouard-Georges |last2Andossa |first2Likius |last3Taïsso Mackaye |first3Hassane |last4Brunet |first4Michel }}</ref>
Evolutionary tree according to a 2019 study:<ref name"Parins2019">{{cite journal |last1Parins-Fukuchi |first1Caroline |last2Greiner |first2Elliot |last3MacLatchy |first3Laura M. |last4Fisher |first4Daniel C. |year2019 |titlePhylogeny, ancestors and anagenesis in the hominin fossil record |urlhttps://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2018/10/05/434894.full.pdf |url-statuslive |journalPaleobiology |volume45 |issue2 |pages378–393 |bibcode2019Pbio...45..378P |doi10.1017/pab.2019.12 |s2cid196659329 |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.biorxiv.org/content/biorxiv/early/2018/10/05/434894.full.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09}}</ref>
{{clade| style=font-size:85%;line-height:85%
|label1=Hominini
|1={{clade
|1=Chimpanzee
|label2=Sahelanthropus
|2={{clade
|1={{clade
|1=Ardipithecus
|label2=Au. anamensis
|2=Au. afarensis
}}
|2={{clade
|label1=Paranthropus
|1={{clade
|1=P. aethiopicus
|2={{clade
|1=P. boisei
|2=P. robustus
}}
}}
|2={{clade
|label2=Au. garhi
|1=Au. africanus
|2={{clade
|1=H. floresiensis
|2={{clade
|1=Au. sediba
|2={{clade
|1=H. habilis
|2=Other Homo
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}}}}}}}
Paleobiology
The Ardipithecus length measures are good indicators of function and together with dental isotope data and the fauna and flora from the fossil site indicate Ardipithecus was mainly a terrestrial quadruped collecting a large portion of its food on the ground. Its arboreal behaviors would have been limited and suspension from branches solely from the upper limbs rare.<ref nameSarmiento2011/> A comparative study in 2013 on carbon and oxygen stable isotopes within modern and fossil tooth enamel revealed that Ardipithecus fed both arboreally (on trees) and on the ground in a more open habitat, unlike chimpanzees.<ref>{{cite journal |lastNelson |firstSherry V. |year2013 |titleChimpanzee fauna isotopes provide new interpretations of fossil ape and hominin ecologies |journalProceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume280 |issue1773 |pages20132324 |doi10.1098/rspb.2013.2324 |pmc3826229 |pmid24197413}}</ref>
In 2015, Australian anthropologists Gary Clark and Maciej Henneberg said that Ardipithecus adults have a facial anatomy more similar to chimpanzee subadults than adults, with a less-projecting face and smaller canines (large canines in primate males are used to compete within mating hierarchies), and attributed this to a decrease in craniofacial growth in favour of brain growth. This is only seen in humans, so they argued that the species may show the first trend towards human social, parenting and sexual psychology.<ref name"Clark & Henneberg 2015"/> Previously, it was assumed that such ancient human ancestors behaved much like chimps, but this is no longer considered to be a viable comparison.<ref>{{cite journal |doi10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145815 |ssrn2158266 |titleHuman Evolution and the Chimpanzee Referential Doctrine |journalAnnual Review of Anthropology |volume41 |pages119–38 |year2012 |last1Sayers |first1Ken |last2Raghanti |first2Mary Ann |last3Lovejoy |first3C. Owen }}</ref> This view has yet to be corroborated by more detailed studies of the growth of A. ramidus. The study also provides support for Stephen Jay Gould's theory in Ontogeny and Phylogeny that the paedomorphic (childlike) form of early hominin craniofacial morphology results from dissociation of growth trajectories.
Clark and Henneberg also argued that such shortening of the skull—which may have caused a descension of the larynx—as well as lordosis—allowing better movement of the larynx—increased vocal ability, significantly pushing back the origin of language to well before the evolution of Homo. They argued that self domestication was aided by the development of vocalization, living in a pro-social society. They conceded that chimps and A. ramidus likely had the same vocal capabilities, but said that A. ramidus made use of more complex vocalizations, and vocalized at the same level as a human infant due to selective pressure to become more social. This would have allowed their society to become more complex. They also noted that the base of the skull stopped growing with the brain by the end of juvenility, whereas in chimps it continues growing with the rest of the body into adulthood; and considered this evidence of a switch from a gross skeletal anatomy trajectory to a neurological development trajectory due to selective pressure for sociability. Nonetheless, their conclusions are highly speculative.<ref>{{cite journal|first1G.|last1Clark|first2M.|last2Henneberg|year2017|titleArdipithecus ramidus and the evolution of language and singing: An early origin for hominin vocal capability|journalHomo|volume68|issue2|pages101–121|doi10.1016/j.jchb.2017.03.001|pmid28363458}}</ref><ref name"Clark & Henneberg 2015">{{cite journal |doi10.1515/anre-2015-0009 |titleThe life history of Ardipithecus ramidus: A heterochronic model of sexual and social maturation |journalAnthropological Review |volume78 |issue2 |pages109–132|year2015 |last1Clark |first1Gary |last2Henneberg |first2Maciej |doi-access=free }}</ref>
According to Scott Simpson, the Gona Project's physical anthropologist, the fossil evidence from the Middle Awash indicates that both A. kadabba and A. ramidus lived in "a mosaic of woodland and grasslands with lakes, swamps and springs nearby," but further research is needed to determine which habitat Ardipithecus at Gona preferred.<ref name"stoneageinstitute.org"/> See also {{div col|colwidth30em}}
* Australopithecus
* Paranthropus
* Graecopithecus
* List of human evolution fossils
* Orrorin
* Sahelanthropus
{{div col end}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
External links
{{Wikispecies}}
{{Commons category|Ardipithecus}}
* [http://www.sciencemag.org/ardipithecus/ Science Magazine: Ardipithecus special] (requires free registration)
* The Smithsonian Institution's Human Origins Program:
** [http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/ardipithecus-kadabba Ardipithecus kadabba]
** [http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/ardipithecus-ramidus Ardipithecus ramidus]
* [http://www.archaeologyinfo.com/ardipithecusramidus.htm Ardipithecus ramidus] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120308171256/http://archaeologyinfo.com/ardipithecus-ramidus/ |date2012-03-08 }} at Archaeology info
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091004002759/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/human-evolution/human-ancestor Explore Ardipithecus] at NationalGeographic.com
* [https://www.science.org/doi/full/10.1126/science.1175802?sid=0e89e15f-0594-40ef-9dce-2b9b9f48d9e6 Ardipithecus ramidus - Science Journal Article]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130228131344/http://dsc.discovery.com/tv/ardipithecus/ardipithecus.html Discovering Ardi - Discovery Channel]
* [http://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-evolution-timeline-interactive Human Timeline (Interactive)] – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).
{{Human Evolution}}
{{Breakthrough of the Year}}
{{Haplorhini|Ho.}}
{{Portal bar|Evolutionary biology|Science}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q106565}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Miocene primates
Category:Hominina
Category:Prehistoric primate genera
Category:Pliocene primates
Category:Transitional fossils
Category:Fossil taxa described in 1995
Category:Prehistoric Ethiopia
Category:Miocene genus first appearances
Category:Zanclean extinctions
Category:Neogene mammals of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardipithecus | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.127194 |
1146 | Assembly line | {{Short description|Manufacturing process}}
on final assembly line 3 in the Airbus Hamburg-Finkenwerder plant]]
's car assembly line]]
An assembly line, often called progressive assembly, is a manufacturing process where the unfinished product moves in a direct line from workstation to workstation, with parts added in sequence until the final product is completed. By mechanically moving parts to workstations and transferring the unfinished product from one workstation to another, a finished product can be assembled faster and with less labor than having workers carry parts to a stationary product.
Assembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment, household appliances and electronic goods.
Workers in charge of the works of assembly line are called assemblers.<ref name"Spherion">{{cite web | titleAssembler Job Description - How to Become an Assembly Worker | websiteSpherion | urlhttps://www.spherion.com/job-seekers/career-resources/careerboost-blog/assembler-job-description_194/ | access-date2020-03-07 | archive-date2020-09-25 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200925120133/https://www.spherion.com/job-seekers/career-resources/careerboost-blog/assembler-job-description_194/ | url-statuslive }}</ref>
Concepts
assembly line as of 2008]]
Assembly lines are designed for the sequential organization of workers, tools or machines, and parts. The motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible. All parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as forklifts, or gravity, with no manual trucking. Heavy lifting is done by machines such as overhead cranes or forklifts. Each worker typically performs one simple operation unless job rotation strategies are applied.
According to Henry Ford:
{{blockquote|The principles of assembly are these:
(1) Place the tools and the men in the sequence of the operation so that each component part shall travel the least possible distance while in the process of finishing.
(2) Use work slides or some other form of the carrier so that when a workman completes his operation, he drops the part always in the same place—which place must always be the most convenient place to his hand—and if possible have gravity carry the part to the next workman for his own.
(3) Use sliding assembling lines by which the parts to be assembled are delivered at convenient distances.<ref name="Ford1922">{{Harvnb|Ford|Crowther|1922}}, p. 45 (on line version), p. 80 (print version)</ref>}}
Designing assembly lines is a well-established mathematical challenge, referred to as an assembly line balancing problem.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 Scholl| first1 A. | last2 Christian| first2 B. | year 2006 | title State-of-the-art exact and heuristic solution procedures for simple assembly line balancing | journal European Journal of Operational Research | volume 168| issue 3| pages 666–639 | doi=10.1016/j.ejor.2004.07.022
}}</ref> In the simple assembly line balancing problem the aim is to assign a set of tasks that need to be performed on the workpiece to a sequence of workstations. Each task requires a given task duration for completion. The assignment of tasks to stations is typically limited by two constraints: (1) a precedence graph which indicates what other tasks need to be completed before a particular task can be initiated (e.g. not putting in a screw before drilling the hole) and (2) a cycle time which restricts the sum of task processing times which can be completed at each workstation before the work-piece is moved to the next station by the conveyor belt. Major planning problems for operating assembly lines include supply chain integration, inventory control and production scheduling.<ref>{{cite book | last1 Slack| first1 N. | last2 Brandon-Jones| first2 A. | last3 Johnston | first3 R. |date2013 |title Operations Management |publisherPearson |isbn9780273776291}}</ref>
Simple example
Consider the assembly of a car: assume that certain steps in the assembly line are to install the engine, install the hood, and install the wheels (in that order, with arbitrary interstitial steps); only one of these steps can be done at a time. In traditional production, only one car would be assembled at a time. If engine installation takes 20 minutes, hood installation takes five minutes, and wheels installation takes 10 minutes, then a car can be produced every 35 minutes.
In an assembly line, car assembly is split between several stations, all working simultaneously. When a station is finished with a car, it passes it on to the next. By having three stations, three cars can be operated on at the same time, each at a different stage of assembly.
After finishing its work on the first car, the engine installation crew can begin working on the second car. While the engine installation crew works on the second car, the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood, then to the wheels station and be fitted with wheels. After the engine has been installed on the second car, the second car moves to the hood assembly. At the same time, the third car moves to the engine assembly. When the third car's engine has been mounted, it then can be moved to the hood station; meanwhile, subsequent cars (if any) can be moved to the engine installation station.
Assuming no loss of time when moving a car from one station to another, the longest stage on the assembly line determines the throughput (20 minutes for the engine installation) so a car can be produced every 20 minutes, once the first car taking 35 minutes has been produced.
History
Before the Industrial Revolution, most manufactured products were made individually by hand. A single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product. They would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts. They would then assemble them into the final product, making cut-and-try changes in the parts until they fit and could work together (craft production).
Division of labor was practiced by Ancient Greeks, Chinese and other ancient civilizations. In Ancient Greece it was discussed by Plato and Xenophon.<ref>{{Citation |lastSturn |firstRichard |titleDivision of Labor: History of the Concept |date2015-01-01 |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780080970868030786 |encyclopediaInternational Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition) |pages601–605 |editor-lastWright |editor-firstJames D. |access-date2023-09-30 |placeOxford |publisherElsevier |isbn=978-0-08-097087-5}}</ref> Adam Smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book The Wealth of Nations (published in 1776).
The Venetian Arsenal, dating to about 1104, operated similar to a production line. Ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed. At the peak of its efficiency in the early 16th century, the Arsenal employed some 16,000 people who could apparently produce nearly one ship each day and could fit out, arm, and provision a newly built galley with standardized parts on an assembly-line basis. Although the Arsenal lasted until the early Industrial Revolution, production line methods did not become common even then.
Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution led to a proliferation of manufacturing and invention. Many industries, notably textiles, firearms, clocks and watches,<ref name "xovodv">G.N. Georgano 1985.{{full citation needed|dateDecember 2014}}</ref> horse-drawn vehicles, railway locomotives, sewing machines, and bicycles, saw expeditious improvement in materials handling, machining, and assembly during the 19th century, although modern concepts such as industrial engineering and logistics had not yet been named.
was the first manufactured product to become fully automated, at the Portsmouth Block Mills in the early 19th century.]]
The automatic flour mill built by Oliver Evans in 1785 was called the beginning of modern bulk material handling by Roe (1916). Evans's mill used a leather belt bucket elevator, screw conveyors, canvas belt conveyors, and other mechanical devices to completely automate the process of making flour. The innovation spread to other mills and breweries.<ref>{{harvnb|Roe|1916|p}}{{page needed|dateDecember 2014}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Hounshell|1984|p}}{{page needed|dateDecember 2014}}</ref>
Probably the earliest industrial example of a linear and continuous assembly process is the Portsmouth Block Mills, built between 1801 and 1803. Marc Isambard Brunel (father of Isambard Kingdom Brunel), with the help of Henry Maudslay and others, designed 22 types of machine tools to make the parts for the rigging blocks used by the Royal Navy. This factory was so successful that it remained in use until the 1960s, with the workshop still visible at HM Dockyard in Portsmouth, and still containing some of the original machinery.<ref>Coad, Jonathan, ''The Portsmouth Block Mills : Bentham, Brunel and the start of the Royal Navy's Industrial Revolution'', 2005, {{ISBN|1-873592-87-6}}.{{page needed|date=November 2019}}</ref>
One of the earliest examples of an almost modern factory layout, designed for easy material handling, was the Bridgewater Foundry. The factory grounds were bordered by the Bridgewater Canal and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway. The buildings were arranged in a line with a railway for carrying the work going through the buildings. Cranes were used for lifting the heavy work, which sometimes weighed in the tens of tons. The work passed sequentially through to erection of framework and final assembly.<ref>{{harvnb|Musson|Robinson|1969|pp=491–5}}</ref>
, pictured in 1839, one of the earliest factories to use an almost modern layout, workflow, and material-handling system]]
The first flow assembly line was initiated at the factory of Richard Garrett & Sons, Leiston Works in Leiston in the English county of Suffolk for the manufacture of portable steam engines. The assembly line area was called 'The Long Shop' on account of its length and was fully operational by early 1853. The boiler was brought up from the foundry and put at the start of the line, and as it progressed through the building it would stop at various stages where new parts would be added. From the upper level, where other parts were made, the lighter parts would be lowered over a balcony and then fixed onto the machine on the ground level. When the machine reached the end of the shop, it would be completed.
<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.industriouseast.org.uk/index.php?pageId147&anchor164&filtergb |titleLong Shop Museum |access-date 2012-12-17 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150601151902/http://www.industriouseast.org.uk/index.php?pageId147&anchor164&filtergb |archive-date2015-06-01 |url-status dead }}{{full citation needed|dateDecember 2014}}</ref>Interchangeable partsDuring the early 19th century, the development of machine tools such as the screw-cutting lathe, metal planer, and milling machine, and of toolpath control via jigs and fixtures, provided the prerequisites for the modern assembly line by making interchangeable parts a practical reality.<ref>Beetz, Kirk H. "Assembly Line." Dictionary of American History, edited by Stanley I. Kutler, 3rd ed., vol. 1, Charles Scribner's Sons, 2003, pp. 334–336. Gale eBooks, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3401800294/GVRL?utamp44898&sidGVRL&xidda247923. Accessed 19 Jan. 2021.</ref>
Late 19th-century steam and electric conveyors
Steam-powered conveyor lifts began being used for loading and unloading ships some time in the last quarter of the 19th century.<ref name"Wells1890">{{harvnb|Wells|1890|p}}{{page needed|date=December 2014}}</ref> Hounshell (1984) shows a {{circa|1885}} sketch of an electric-powered conveyor moving cans through a filling line in a canning factory.
The meatpacking industry of Chicago is believed to be one of the first industrial assembly lines (or disassembly lines) to be utilized in the United States starting in 1867.{{sfn|Nibert, 2011|p200}} Workers would stand at fixed stations and a pulley system would bring the meat to each worker and they would complete one task. Henry Ford and others have written about the influence of this slaughterhouse practice on the later developments at Ford Motor Company.{{sfn|Patterson, 2002|pp71–79}}
20th century
assembly line was the first.<ref nameswan>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.caranddriver.com/features/fords-assembly-line-turns-100-how-it-really-put-the-world-on-wheels-feature |titleFord's Assembly Line Turns 100: How It Really Put the World on Wheels |firstTony |lastSwan |publisherCar and driver |dateApril 2013 |access-date26 March 2017 |archive-date19 April 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170419222733/http://www.caranddriver.com/features/fords-assembly-line-turns-100-how-it-really-put-the-world-on-wheels-feature |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref nameWeber2013/>]]
. Ford tested various assembly methods to optimize the procedures before permanently installing the equipment. The actual assembly line used an overhead crane to mount the body.]]
According to Domm, the implementation of mass production of an automobile via an assembly line may be credited to Ransom Olds, who used it to build the first mass-produced automobile, the Oldsmobile Curved Dash.<ref name"michigan yesterday">{{harvnb|Domm|2009|p29}}</ref> Olds patented the assembly line concept, which he put to work in his Olds Motor Vehicle Company factory in 1901.<ref>{{cite web |firstPhil |last Ament |urlhttp://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/assbline.htm |title Assembly Line History: Invention of the Assembly Line |publisherIdeafinder.com |access-date 2011-10-15 |archive-date2018-01-17 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20180117205321/http://www.ideafinder.com/history/inventions/assbline.htm |url-status= live }}</ref>
At Ford Motor Company, the assembly line was introduced by William "Pa" Klann upon his return from visiting Swift & Company's slaughterhouse in Chicago and viewing what was referred to as the "disassembly line", where carcasses were butchered as they moved along a conveyor. The efficiency of one person removing the same piece over and over without moving to another station caught his attention. He reported the idea to Peter E. Martin, soon to be head of Ford production, who was doubtful at the time but encouraged him to proceed. Others at Ford have claimed to have put the idea forth to Henry Ford, but Pa Klann's slaughterhouse revelation is well documented in the archives at the Henry Ford Museum<ref>{{citation |lastKlann |first W. C. |daten.d. |title Reminiscences |idAccession 65, Box 21, Folder 10 |publisher Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village Archives}}</ref> and elsewhere, making him an important contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept. Ford was appreciative, having visited the highly automated 40-acre Sears mail order handling facility around 1906. At Ford, the process was an evolution by trial and error<ref nameWeber2013>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.assemblymag.com/articles/91581-the-moving-assembly-line-turns-100 |titleThe Moving Assembly Line Turns 100 |lastWeber |firstAustin |publisherAssembly Magazine |date2013-10-01 |access-date2017-03-26 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160826161557/http://www.assemblymag.com/articles/91581-the-moving-assembly-line-turns-100 |archive-date2016-08-26 |url-statuslive |quoteThe assembly line ... was the result of a long period of trial and error. The assembly line wasn't a planned development; rather, it emerged in 1913 from a dynamic situation. People such as Carl Emde, William Klann and William Knudsen all played key roles in early automation efforts at Ford's Highland Park factory. Two individuals were essential to the success of the moving assembly line: Clarence Avery and Charles Sorensen. constant redesign of the Model T. Many components was tweaked regularly to make the vehicle easier to assemble. In 1913 alone, Ford made more than 100 design changes every month. Continuous experimentation was the rule rather than the exception at Ford's Highland Park plant. Ford engineers were constantly redesigning and tweaking jigs and fixtures, and planning new machine tools or fixing old ones, to achieve higher production. }}</ref> of a team consisting primarily of Peter E. Martin, the factory superintendent; Charles E. Sorensen, Martin's assistant; Clarence W. Avery; C. Harold Wills, draftsman and toolmaker; Charles Ebender; and József Galamb. Some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout of machine tool placement that Walter Flanders had been doing at Ford up to 1908.
The moving assembly line was developed for the Ford Model T and began operation on October 7, 1913, at the Highland Park Ford Plant,<ref>{{cite news|dateOctober 7, 2013|titleFord's Assembly Line Turns 100: How It Changed Manufacturing and Society|urlhttp://www.nydailynews.com/autos/ford-assembly-line-turns-100-changed-society-article-1.1478331|newspaperNew York Daily News|access-dateAugust 27, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131130021237/http://www.nydailynews.com/autos/ford-assembly-line-turns-100-changed-society-article-1.1478331|archive-dateNovember 30, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/moving-assembly-line-at-ford|titleMoving Assembly Line at Ford|publisherThe History Channel|workThis Day in History|date4 March 2010 |access-dateSeptember 2, 2016|archive-dateSeptember 15, 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160915141050/http://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/moving-assembly-line-at-ford|url-statuslive}}</ref> and continued to evolve after that, using time and motion study.<ref nameWeber2013/> The assembly line, driven by conveyor belts, reduced production time for a Model T to just 93 minutes<ref name"michigan yesterday"/> by dividing the process into 45 steps.<ref nameWeber2008>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.assemblymag.com/articles/85803-how-the-model-t-was-assembled |titleHow the Model T Was Assembled |lastWeber |firstAustin |publisherAssembly Magazine |date2008-09-02 |access-date2017-03-26 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160306031306/http://www.assemblymag.com/articles/85803-how-the-model-t-was-assembled |archive-date2016-03-06 |url-status=live }}</ref> Producing cars quicker than paint of the day could dry, it had an immense influence on the world.
In 1922, Ford (through his ghostwriter Crowther) said of his 1913 assembly line:
{{blockquote|I believe that this was the first moving line ever installed. The idea came in a general way from the overhead trolley that the Chicago packers use in dressing beef.<ref>{{harvnb|Ford|Crowther|1922|p= 81}}</ref>}}
Charles E. Sorensen, in his 1956 memoir My Forty Years with Ford, presented a different version of development that was not so much about individual "inventors" as a gradual, logical development of industrial engineering:
{{blockquote|What was worked out at Ford was the practice of moving the work from one worker to another until it became a complete unit, then arranging the flow of these units at the right time and the right place to a moving final assembly line from which came a finished product. Regardless of earlier uses of some of these principles, the direct line of succession of mass production and its intensification into automation stems directly from what we worked out at Ford Motor Company between 1908 and 1913. Henry Ford is generally regarded as the father of mass production. He was not. He was the sponsor of it.<ref>{{harvnb|Sorensen|Williamson|1956|p=116}}.</ref>}}
As a result of these developments in method, Ford's cars came off the line in three-minute intervals or six feet per minute.<ref>{{harvnb|Ford|Crowther|1922|locChapter IV}}{{page needed|dateMarch 2017}}</ref> This was much faster than previous methods, increasing production by eight to one (requiring 12.5 man-hours before, 1 hour 33 minutes after), while using less manpower.<ref name "xovodv"/> It was so successful, paint became a bottleneck. Only japan black would dry fast enough, forcing the company to drop the variety of colours available before 1914, until fast-drying Duco lacquer was developed in 1926.<ref name "xovodv"/>
The assembly line technique was an integral part of the diffusion of the automobile into American society. Decreased costs of production allowed the cost of the Model T to fall within the budget of the American middle class. In 1908, the price of a Model T was around $825, and by 1912 it had decreased to around $575. This price reduction is comparable to a reduction from $15,000 to $10,000 in dollar terms from the year 2000. In 1914, an assembly line worker could buy a Model T with four months' pay.<ref name = "xovodv"/>
Ford's complex safety procedures—especially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam about—dramatically reduced the rate of injury. The combination of high wages and high efficiency is called "Fordism", and was copied by most major industries. The efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the take-off of the United States. The assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods.
In the automotive industry, its success was dominating, and quickly spread worldwide. Ford France and Ford Britain in 1911, Ford Denmark 1923, Ford Germany and Ford Japan 1925; in 1919, Vulcan (Southport, Lancashire) was the first native European manufacturer to adopt it. Soon, companies had to have assembly lines, or risk going broke by not being able to compete; by 1930, 250 companies which did not had disappeared.<ref name = "xovodv"/>
The massive demand for military hardware in World War II prompted assembly-line techniques in shipbuilding and aircraft production. Thousands of Liberty ships were built making extensive use of prefabrication, enabling ship assembly to be completed in weeks or even days. After having produced fewer than 3,000 planes for the United States Military in 1939, American aircraft manufacturers built over 300,000 planes in World War II.{{citation needed|dateJanuary 2012}} Vultee pioneered the use of the powered assembly line for aircraft manufacturing. Other companies quickly followed. As William S. Knudsen (having worked at Ford,<ref nameWeber2013/> GM and the National Defense Advisory Commission) observed, "We won because we smothered the enemy in an avalanche of production, the like of which he had never seen, nor dreamed possible."<ref>{{harvnb|Herman|2012|pp176–91}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Parker|2013|pp5–12}}</ref>
Improved working conditions
In his 1922 autobiography,<ref name="Ford1922"/> Henry Ford mentions several benefits of the assembly line including:
* Workers do not do any heavy lifting.
* No stooping or bending over.
* No special training was required.
* There are jobs that almost anyone can do.
* Provided employment to immigrants.
The gains in productivity allowed Ford to increase worker pay from $1.50 per day to $5.00 per day once employees reached three years of service on the assembly line. Ford continued on to reduce the hourly work week while continuously lowering the Model T price. These goals appear altruistic; however, it has been argued that they were implemented by Ford in order to reduce high employee turnover: when the assembly line was introduced in 1913, it was discovered that "every time the company wanted to add 100 men to its factory personnel, it was necessary to hire 963" in order to counteract the natural distaste the assembly line seems to have inspired.<ref>{{cite web|lastCrawford |firstMatthew |titleShop Class as Soulcraft |urlhttp://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/shop-class-as-soulcraft |workThe New Atlantis |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130601015022/http://www.thenewatlantis.com/publications/shop-class-as-soulcraft |archive-date2013-06-01 }}</ref>
Sociological problems
Sociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor4105309 |title Alienation and Freedom: The Factory Worker and His Industry |author-linkBob Blauner |first Robert |lastBlauner |journal Technology and Culture |volume6 |issue 3 |dateSummer 1965 |pages 518–519|doi10.2307/3101830 |s2cid 111540061 }}</ref>
Karl Marx expressed in his theory of alienation the belief that, in order to achieve job satisfaction, workers need to see themselves in the objects they have created, that products should be "mirrors in which workers see their reflected essential nature". Marx viewed labour as a chance for people to externalize facets of their personalities. Marxists argue that performing repetitive, specialized tasks causes a feeling of disconnection between what a worker does all day, who they really are, and what they would ideally be able to contribute to society. Furthermore, Marx views these specialised jobs as insecure, since the worker is expendable as soon as costs rise and technology can replace more expensive human labour.<ref>Marx, Karl. "Comment on James Mill," Economic and Philosophical Manuscripts of 1844: 1844.</ref>
Since workers have to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day, repetitive stress injuries are a possible pathology of occupational safety. Industrial noise also proved dangerous. When it was not too high, workers were often prohibited from talking. Charles Piaget, a skilled worker at the LIP factory, recalled that besides being prohibited from speaking, the semi-skilled workers had only 25 centimeters in which to move.<ref>{{cite interview|url http://www.mouvements.asso.fr/spip.php?article52|title Leçons d'autogestion|trans-title Autogestion Lessons|language fr|url-status dead|archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20070707192357/http://www.mouvements.asso.fr/spip.php?article52|archive-date 7 July 2007}}</ref> Industrial ergonomics later tried to minimize physical trauma.See also
{{Portal|Companies|Business and economics}}
* Modern Times, a 1936 film featuring the Tramp character (played by Charlie Chaplin) struggling to adapt to assembly line work
*Final Offer, a documentary film about the 1984 UAW/CAW contract negotiations shows working life on the floor of the GM Oshawa Ontario Car Assembly Plant
*Reconfigurable and flexible manufacturing systems, involving Post-Fordism and lean manufacturing-influenced production
References
Footnotes
{{Reflist|30em}}
Works cited
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |lastNibert |firstDavid |editor1Steven Best|editor2Richard Kahn|editor3Anthony J. Nocella II|editor4Peter McLaren|editor1-linkSteven Best|editor4-linkPeter McLaren |date2011|titleThe Global Industrial Complex: Systems of Domination|chapterOrigins and Consequences of the Animal Industrial Complex |publisherRowman & Littlefield |page208 |isbn978-0739136980|ref={{sfnRef|Nibert, 2011}} }}
* {{cite book |lastBorth |first Christy |year1945 |title Masters of Mass Production |publisherBobbs-Merrill Company |location Indianapolis }}
* {{cite book |firstRobert W. |last Domm |year2009 |title Michigan Yesterday & Today |publisherVoyageur Press |url https://books.google.com/books?idHQdTa9ZXlVAC&pgPA29 |isbn9780760333853 |access-date 2020-10-17 |archive-date2020-08-19 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20200819115556/https://books.google.com/books?idHQdTa9ZXlVAC&pgPA29 |url-status= live }}
* {{cite book |last1Ford |first1 Henry |last2Crowther |first2 Samuel |author-linkHenry Ford |name-list-style amp |year1922 |title My Life and Work |publisherGarden City Publishing |location Garden City, NY |urlhttp://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/7213/pg7213.html |isbn 0-405-05088-7 |access-date2021-04-21 |archive-date 2021-04-13 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210413151731/http://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/7213/pg7213.html |url-status live }}
* {{cite book |lastHerman |first Arthur |year2012 |title Freedom's Forge: How American Business Produced Victory in World War II |publisherRandom House |location New York |isbn978-1-4000-6964-4 |url-access registration |url= https://archive.org/details/freedomsforgehow00herm }}
* {{cite book |last1Merson |first1 John |year1990 |title The Genius That Was China: East and West in the Making of the Modern World |publisherThe Overlook Press |location Woodstock, NY |isbn0-87951-397-7 |quoteA companion to the PBS Series The Genius That Was China. |url-accessregistration |url https://archive.org/details/geniusthatwaschi0000mers }}
* {{cite book|authorCharles Patterson|titleEternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust |year2002|publisher Lantern Books|isbn978-19-300-5199-7 |ref{{sfnRef|Patterson, 2002}}}}
* {{cite book |last1Musson |first1Albert Edward |last2Robinson |first2Eric |titleScience and Technology in the Industrial Revolution |date1969 |publisherManchester University Press |isbn978-0-7190-0370-7 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id0c-8AAAAIAAJ |languageen |access-date2020-10-17 |archive-date2021-05-24 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210524053357/https://books.google.com/books?id0c-8AAAAIAAJ |url-statuslive }}
* {{cite book |lastNye |first David E. |titleAmerica's Assembly Line |publisher MIT Press |year= 2013}}
* {{cite book |lastHounshell |first David A. |year1984 |author-link David A. Hounshell |titleFrom the American System to Mass Production, 1800–1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States |publisher Johns Hopkins University Press |locationBaltimore |isbn 978-0-8018-2975-8 |lccn83016269 |url-access registration |url= https://archive.org/details/fromamericansyst0000houn }}
* {{cite book |last1Parker |first1Dana |titleBuilding Victory: Aircraft Manufacturing in the Los Angeles Area in World War II |date2013 |publisherDana T. Parker |isbn978-0-9897906-1-1 |editionIllustrated |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idtlsnngEACAAJ |languageen |access-date2020-10-17 |archive-date2020-08-06 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200806202400/https://books.google.com/books?idtlsnngEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{Roe1916}}
* {{cite book |lastWells |first David A. |year1890 |title Recent Economic Changes and Their Effect on Production and Distribution of Wealth and Well-Being of Society |publisherD. Appleton and Co. |location New York |isbn0-543-72474-3 |url https://archive.org/details/recenteconomicc01wellgoog }}
* {{cite book |refnone |author We-Min Chow |year1990 |titleAssembly Line Design: Methodology and Applications |publisher=Taylor & Francis}}
* {{cite book |last1Sorensen |first1 Charles E. |last2Williamson |first2 Samuel T. |author-linkCharles E. Sorensen |name-list-style amp |year1956 |title My Forty Years with Ford |publisherNorton |location New York |lccn= 56010854}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Commons category|Assembly lines}}
* [http://www.assembly-line-balancing.de Homepage for assembly line optimization research]
* [http://www.advanced-planning.eu/advancedplanninge-373a.htm Assembly line optimization problems]
* [https://archive.today/20130217020345/http://18378092.nhd.weebly.com/ History of the assembly line and its widespread effects]
* [https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLMu8S6YCS2kIMO-t0Qmx_-XbOKYZ2bNnY Cars Assembly Line]
{{Industrial Revolution}}
{{History of technology}}
{{Interwiki conflict}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Assembly Line}}
Category:Industrial processes
Category:Mass production
Category:Manufacturing buildings and structures
Category:American inventions
Category:Culture of Detroit
Category:History of science and technology in the United States
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:Types of production
ca:Producció en cadena | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_line | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.141363 |
1148 | Adelaide | {{Short description|Capital city of South Australia, Australia}}
{{About|the Australian metropolis|the local government area|City of Adelaide|other uses|Adelaide (disambiguation)}}
{{Use Australian English|date=November 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
{{Infobox Australian place
| type = city
| name = Adelaide
| native_name = {{llang|zku|Tarndanya}}
| state = sa
| image = {{multiple image
| total_width = 280
| border = infobox
| perrow = 1/3/2/2/1
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Adelaide skyline, December 2022 b.jpg
| alt1 = Adelaide city centre
| caption1 = River Torrens and central business district
| image2 = Adelaide, Australia (February 2017) (33505366456) (cropped).jpg
| alt2 = Adelaide Town Hall
| caption2 = Adelaide Town Hall
| image3 = St Peter's Cathedral, Adelaide, Southeast view 20230214 1.jpg
| alt3 = St Peter's Cathedral
| caption3 = St Peter's Cathedral
| image4 = Adelaide General Post Office (cropped).jpg
| alt4 = General Post Office
| caption4 = General Post Office
| image5 = SAHMRI.jpg
| alt5 = SAHMRI
| caption5 = SAHMRI
| image6 = Brookman Building on North Terrace, Adelaide, South Australia (cropped).jpg
| alt6 = Brookman Building
| caption6 = University of South Australia
| image7 = Elder Park rotunda at blue hour (cropped).jpg
| alt7 = Elder Park and Adelaide Oval
| caption7 = Elder Park and Adelaide Oval
| image8 = The Orb, Adelaide Entertainment Centre.jpg
| alt8 = Adelaide Entertainment Centre
| caption8 = Adelaide Entertainment Centre
| image9 = Victoria Square, central Adelaide.jpg
| alt9 = Victoria Square
| caption9 = Victoria Square
}}
| pop = 1,469,163
| pop_year = 2024
| pop_footnotes<ref>{{cite web |titleGreater Adelaide |urlhttps://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/2023-24#capital-cities |publisherAustralian Bureau of Statistics |access-date1 April 2025 |archive-date2025-03-27 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20250327052657/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/2023-24 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
| poprank = 5th
| density = 426
| density_footnotes | area 3259.8
| area_footnotes <ref name"ABS-GA">{{cite web|titleGreater Adelaide (GCCSA) (4GADE)|urlhttps://itt.abs.gov.au/itt/r.jsp?RegionSummary&region4GADE&datasetABS_REGIONAL_ASGS2016&geoconceptASGS_2016&measureMEASURE&datasetASGSABS_REGIONAL_ASGS2016&datasetLGAABS_REGIONAL_LGA2018&regionLGALGA_2018&regionASGSASGS_2016|websiteAustralian Bureau of Statistics|access-date12 November 2019|archive-date6 April 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200406204831/https://itt.abs.gov.au/itt/r.jsp?RegionSummary&region4GADE&datasetABS_REGIONAL_ASGS2016&geoconceptASGS_2016&measureMEASURE&datasetASGSABS_REGIONAL_ASGS2016&datasetLGAABS_REGIONAL_LGA2018&regionLGALGA_2018&regionASGSASGS_2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| mayor | mayortitle
| established {{start date|1836|12|28|dfyes}}
| force_national_map = yes
| image2 = Free vector map of Adelaide Australia Level 12 G View.svg
| image2_alt = Adelaide metropolitan area
| caption2 = Adelaide metropolitan area
| coordinates {{coord|34|55|39|S|138|36|00|E|type:city(1,400,000_region:AU-SA|displayinline,title}}
| relief = yes
| timezone = ACST
| utc = +9:30
| timezone-dst = ACDT
| utc-dst = +10:30
| dist1 = 654
| dir1 = NW
| location1 Melbourne<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1248650&placenamemelbourne&placetype0&stateVIC&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |titleGreat Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and MELBOURNE |publisherGeoscience Australia |dateMarch 2004 |access-date17 January 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160128151001/http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1248650&placenamemelbourne&placetype0&stateVIC&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |archive-date28 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| dist2 = 958
| dir2 = West
| location2 Canberra<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1131&placenamecanberra&placetype0&stateACT&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |titleGreat Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and CANBERRA |publisherGeoscience Australia |dateMarch 2004 |access-date17 January 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160128151001/http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1131&placenamecanberra&placetype0&stateACT&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |archive-date28 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| dist3 = 1161
| dir3 = West
| location3 Sydney<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec187421&placenamesydney&placetype0&stateNSW&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |titleGreat Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and SYDNEY |publisherGeoscience Australia |dateMarch 2004 |access-date17 January 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160128151001/http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec187421&placenamesydney&placetype0&stateNSW&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |archive-date28 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| dist4 = 1600
| dir4 = SW
| location4 Brisbane<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1126867&placenamebrisbane&placetype0&stateQLD&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |titleGreat Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and Brisbane |publisherGeoscience Australia |dateMarch 2004 |access-date17 January 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160128151001/http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1126867&placenamebrisbane&placetype0&stateQLD&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |archive-date28 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| dist5 = 2130
| dir5 = East
| location5 Perth<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1304529&placenameperth&placetype0&stateWA+&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |titleGreat Circle Distance between ADELAIDE and Perth |publisherGeoscience Australia |dateMarch 2004 |access-date17 January 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160128151001/http://www.ga.gov.au/cocky/cgi/run/distancedraw2?rec1304529&placenameperth&placetype0&stateWA+&place1ADELAIDE&place1long138.601013&place1lat-34.928692 |archive-date28 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| lga = 19 municipalities across Metropolitan Adelaide
| stategov = Various (34)
| fedgov = Spence, Makin, Hindmarsh, Adelaide, Sturt, Boothby, Kingston
| maxtemp = 22.6
| mintemp = 12.4
| rainfall = 536.5
}}
Adelaide ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|d|ᵻ|l|eɪ|d}} {{respell|AD|il|ayd}},<ref>{{cite book |titleMacquarie ABC Dictionary |publisherThe Macquarie Library Pty Ltd |year2003 |page10 |isbn1-876429-37-2}}</ref><ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref> {{IPA|en-AU|ˈædəlæɪd|labellocally||audioEn-au-Adelaide.oga}}; {{langx|zku|Tarndanya}} {{IPA|zku|ˈd̪̥aɳɖaɲa|}}) is the capital and most populous city of South Australia, as well as the fifth-most populous city in Australia. The name "Adelaide" may refer to either Greater Adelaide (including the Adelaide Hills) or the Adelaide city centre. The demonym Adelaidean is used to denote the city and the residents of Adelaide. The traditional owners of the Adelaide region are the Kaurna.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20200428025119/http://www.nntt.gov.au/searchRegApps/NativeTitleClaims/Pages/Determination_details.aspx?NNTT_FilenoSCD2018%2F001 SCD2018/001 – Kaurna Peoples Native Title Claim] National Native Title Tribunal. Retrieved 1 October 2022.</ref><ref>[https://www.cityofadelaide.com.au/about-adelaide/kaurna-heritage/ Kaurna Heritage] City of Adelaide. Retrieved 1 October 2022.</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.experienceadelaide.com.au/visit/things-to-do/aboriginal-culture/|titleAboriginal Culture|websiteExperience Adelaide|access-date13 October 2022}}</ref> The name {{lang|zku|Tarndanya|italicyes}} in their language refers to the area of the city centre and surrounding Park Lands.<ref>{{Cite web |titleKaurna Place Names |urlhttp://kaurnaplacenames.com/primary.php?id4625 |access-date2022-06-09 |websitekaurnaplacenames.com}}</ref>
Adelaide is situated on the Adelaide Plains north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, between the Gulf St Vincent in the west and the Mount Lofty Ranges in the east. Its metropolitan area extends {{convert|20|km|mi|abbron}} from the coast to the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and stretches {{convert|96|km|mi|abbron}} from Gawler in the north to Sellicks Beach in the south.
Named in honour of Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, wife of King William IV, the city was founded in 1836 as the planned capital for the only freely settled British province in Australia.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/how-well-do-you-really-know-our-queen-adelaide/news-story/b249bd054376d472496f232a7f3d75ed|titleHow well do you know our Queen?|date3 May 2013|websiteThe Advertiser|locationAdelaide|access-date7 August 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190807040642/https://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/how-well-do-you-really-know-our-queen-adelaide/news-story/b249bd054376d472496f232a7f3d75ed|archive-date7 August 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> Colonel William Light, one of Adelaide's founding fathers, designed the city centre and chose its location close to the River Torrens. Light's design, now listed as national heritage, set out the city centre in a grid layout known as "Light's Vision", interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares, and entirely surrounded by park lands.
Early colonial Adelaide was shaped by the diversity and wealth of its free settlers, there were about 50,000 settlers in the late 1800s. In contrast to the convict history of other Australian cities Adelaide was the only one without convicts. It was Australia's third-most populated city until the postwar era. It has been noted for its leading examples of religious freedom and progressive political reforms and became known as the "City of Churches" due to its diversity of faiths.
Adelaide is also one of Australia's most visited travel destinations,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://tourism.sa.gov.au/news-articles/most-liveable-city-now-one-of-most-visited-cities|titleMost liveable city now one of most visited cities|date11 March 2022 |websiteTourism SA|publisherGovernment of South Australia|access-date19 February 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://travel.nine.com.au/latest/surprising-aussie-city-named-our-favourite-domestic-destination/79dffe3c-736d-43e5-a63f-7dfce25c7e37|titleAustralia's favourite domestic travel spot for 2023 named in new ranking
|date11 March 2023 |websiteTravel 9Now |last Skelley |first Jemima Travel 9Now |publishernine.com.au|access-date20 September 2023}}</ref> with events such as the Adelaide 500, Tour Down Under, LIV Golf Adelaide, and the Adelaide Fringe, the world's second largest annual arts festival,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://adelaidefringe.com.au/fringefeed/news/adelaide-fringe-announces-2022-impact-results|titleAdelaide Fringe Announces 2022 Impact Results|date24 June 2022 |websiteAdelaide Fringe|publisherSolstice Media |access-date17 February 2025}}</ref> contributing to its rising tourism sector. The city has also been renowned for its automotive industry, having been the original host of the Australian Grand Prix in the FIA Formula One World Championship from 1985 to 1995.
Today, Adelaide is known by its many festivals and sporting events, its food and wine, its coastline and hills, its large defence and manufacturing sectors, and its emerging space sector, including the Australian Space Agency being headquartered in the central business district. Adelaide's quality of life has ranked consistently highly in various measures through the 21st century, at one stage being named Australia's most liveable city, third in the world.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://indaily.com.au/news/2021/06/09/adelaide-ranked-australias-most-liveable-city/ |titleAdelaide named Australia's most liveable city, third in the world |lastKelsall |firstThomas |date9 June 2021 |websiteInDaily |publisherSolstice Media |access-date2 October 2021}}</ref> Its aesthetic appeal has also been recognised by Architectural Digest, which ranked Adelaide as the most beautiful city in the world in 2024.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/the-most-beautiful-cities-in-the-world|titleThe Most Beautiful Cities in the World|date22 July 2024|accessdate31 July 2024|work=Architectural Digest}}</ref>
As South Australia's government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevards of North Terrace and King William Street. Adelaide has also been classed as a Gamma&nbsp;+&nbsp;level global city as categorised by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, with the city further linking economic regions to the worldwide economy.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe World According to GaWC 2020 |urlhttps://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2020t.html |access-date2021-11-14 |websitelboro.ac.uk |publisherGlobalization and World Cities Research Network |archive-dateAugust 24, 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200824031341/https://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/world2020t.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
History
{{Main|History of Adelaide}}
Before European settlement
The area around modern-day Adelaide was originally inhabited by the Kaurna people, one of many Aboriginal tribes in South Australia. The city and parklands area also known as Tarntanya,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://adelaidia.sa.gov.au/subjects/kaurna-people|titleKaurna people|websiteAdelaidia|date20 March 2017 |access-date28 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170908065802/http://adelaidia.sa.gov.au/subjects/kaurna-people|archive-date8 September 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref> Tandanya (now the short name of Tandanya National Aboriginal Cultural Institute), Tarndanya,<ref>{{cite web | titleReconciliation | websiteAdelaide City Council | urlhttps://www.adelaide.edu.au/kwp/placenames/council/areas/map_tarndanyangga.html | access-date5 July 2021 | archive-date12 July 2019 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190712144205/https://www.adelaide.edu.au/kwp/placenames/council/areas/map_tarndanyangga.html | url-statusdead }}</ref> or Tarndanyangga (now the dual name for Victoria Square in the Kaurna language).<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://kaurnaplacenames.com/primary.php?id4697 |titleKaurna Name: Tarndanyangga |access-date28 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160312102340/http://kaurnaplacenames.com/primary.php?id4697 |archive-date12 March 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref> The name means 'male red kangaroo rock', referring to a rock formation on the site that has now been destroyed.<ref>{{Cite web |titleDo you know what Aboriginal land you're on today? |urlhttps://www.sbs.com.au/nitv/article/do-you-know-what-aboriginal-land-youre-on-today/ytff85vi1 |access-date2023-05-01 |websiteNITV |languageen}}</ref>
The surrounding area was an open, grassy plain with patches of trees and shrubs, which had been managed by hundreds of generations. Kaurna country encompassed the plains stretching north and south of Tarntanya, as well as the wooded foothills of the Mt Lofty Ranges. The River Torrens was known as the Karrawirra Pari (Red Gum forest river). About 300 Kaurna populated the Adelaide area, and were referred to by the settlers as the Cowandilla.<ref name"KaurnaSA">{{cite web|urlhttps://sahistoryhub.history.sa.gov.au:443/subjects/kaurna-people?hh1&|websiteSA History Hub|titleKaurna People|access-date29 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190428075730/http://sahistoryhub.com.au/subjects/kaurna-people|archive-date28 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
The more than 20 local clans across the plain lived seminomadic lives, with extensive mound settlements where huts were built repeatedly over centuries and a complex social structure, including a class of sorcerers separated from regular society.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Owen |first1Timothy |last2Pate |first2Donald |date2014-12-01 |titleA Kaurna burial, Salisbury, South Australia: Further evidence for complex late Holocene Aboriginal social systems in the Adelaide region |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03122417.2014.11682018 |journalAustralian Archaeology |languageen |volume79 |issue1 |pages45–53 |doi10.1080/03122417.2014.11682018 |s2cid148063575 |issn=0312-2417}}</ref>
Within a few decades of European settlement of South Australia, Kaurna culture was almost completely lost. The last speaker of Kaurna language died in 1929.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.history.sa.gov.au/history/adelaide_history/adelaide_brief_history.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130515205647/http://www.history.sa.gov.au/history/adelaide_history/adelaide_brief_history.pdf|url-statusdead|titleAdelaide: A Brief History (SA Govt)|archive-date15 May 2013}}</ref> Extensive documentation by early missionaries and other researchers has enabled a modern revival of both,<ref nameAmery>{{cite book |titleWarrabarna Kaurna! – Reclaiming an Australian Language |lastAmery |firstRob |year2000 |publisherSwets & Zeitlinger |locationThe Netherlands |isbn90-265-1633-9}}</ref> which has included a commitment by local and state governments to rename or include Kaurna names for many local places.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://adelaideparklands.com.au/parks-and-squares/victoria-square-tarntanyangga|titleVictoria Square/Tarntanyangga|websiteCity of Adelaide|access-date27 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190427083524/https://adelaideparklands.com.au/parks-and-squares/victoria-square-tarntanyangga|archive-date27 April 2019|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.adelaide.edu.au/kwp/placenames/council/|websiteKaurna Warra Pintyanthi|titleAdelaide City Council Placenaming Initiatives|access-date27 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190427083521/https://www.adelaide.edu.au/kwp/placenames/council/|archive-date27 April 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref> 19th century
]]
Based on the ideas of Edward Gibbon Wakefield about colonial reform, Robert Gouger petitioned the British government to create a new colony in Australia, resulting in the passage of the South Australia Act 1834. Physical establishment of the colony began with the arrival of the first British colonisers in February 1836. The first governor
proclaimed the commencement of colonial government in South Australia on 28 December 1836, near The Old Gum Tree in what is now the suburb of Glenelg North. The event is commemorated in South Australia as Proclamation Day.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.holdfast.sa.gov.au/page.aspx?u1463 |titleCity of Holdfast Bay – Proclamation Day |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120713121428/http://www.holdfast.sa.gov.au/page.aspx?u1463 |archive-date13 July 2012 }}</ref> The site of the colony's capital was surveyed and laid out by Colonel William Light, the first surveyor-general of South Australia, with his own original, unique, topographically sensitive design. The city was named after Queen Adelaide.<ref>{{cite book|firstRodney|lastCockburn|titleSouth Australia: What's in a Name?|publisherAxiom|edition3rd|date1990|page3|urlhttp://www.gastonrenard.com.au/Short%20List%2068.pdf|access-date29 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190416185434/http://www.gastonrenard.com.au/Short%20List%2068.pdf|archive-date16 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
Adelaide was established as a planned colony of free immigrants, promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution, based upon the ideas of Edward Gibbon Wakefield. Wakefield had read accounts of Australian settlement while in prison in London for attempting to abduct an heiress,<ref>Wakefield cites:
* Edward Curr, ''An Account of the Colony of Van Diemen's Land, principally designed for the use of emigrants, George Cowie & Co., London, 1824;
* Henry Widdowson, Present State of Van Diemen's Land; comprising an account of its agricultural capabilities, with observations on the present state of farming, &c. &c. pursued in that colony: and other important matters connected with Emigration, S. Robinson, W. Joy and J. Cross, London, and J. Birdsall, Northampton, 1829; and
* James Atkinson, An Account of the State of Agriculture & Grazing in New South Wales; Including Observations on the Soils and General Appearance of the Country, and some of its most useful natural productions; with an account of the Various Methods of Clearing and Improving Lands, Breeding and Grazing Live Stock, Erecting Buildings, the System of employing Convicts, and the expense of Labour generally; the Mode of Applying for Grants of Land; with Other Information Important to those who are about to emigrate to that Country: The result of several years' residence and practical experience in those matters in the Colony., J. Cross, London, 1826</ref> and realised that the eastern colonies suffered from a lack of available labour, due to the practice of giving land grants to all arrivals.<ref>Wakefield, Letter from Sydney'', December 1829, pp. 99–185, written from Newgate prison. Editor Robert Gouger.</ref> Wakefield's idea was for the Government to survey and sell the land at a rate that would maintain land values high enough to be unaffordable for labourers and journeymen.<ref>Wakefield wrote about this under a pseudonym, purporting to be an Australian settler. His subterfuge was so successful that he confused later writers, including Karl Marx, who wrote "It is the great merit of E.G. Wakefield to have discovered not anything new about the Colonies, but to have discovered in the Colonies the truth of as to the condition of capitalist production in the mother-country.' Das Kapital, Moscow, 1958, p 766"</ref> Funds raised from the sale of land were to be used to bring out working-class emigrants, who would have to work hard for the monied settlers to ever afford their own land.<ref>Plan of a Company to be Established for the Purpose of Founding a Colony in Southern Australia, Purchasing Land Therein, and Preparing the Land so Purchased for the Reception of Immigrants, 1832; in Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, Prichard, M. F., (ed.) The Collected Works of Edward Gibbon Wakefield, Collins, London, 1968, p 290.</ref> As a result of this policy, Adelaide does not share the convict settlement history of other Australian cities like Sydney, Brisbane and Hobart.
in 1841]]
As it was believed that in a colony of free settlers there would be little crime, no provision was made for a gaol in Colonel Light's 1837 plan. But by mid-1837 the South Australian Register was warning of escaped convicts from New South Wales and tenders for a temporary gaol were sought. Following a burglary, a murder, and two attempted murders in Adelaide during March 1838, Governor Hindmarsh created the South Australian Police Force (now the South Australia Police) in April 1838 under 21-year-old Henry Inman.<ref>J. W. Bull; Early Experiences of Colonial Life in South Australia (Adelaide, 1878) p.67</ref> The first sheriff, Samuel Smart, was wounded during a robbery, and on 2 May 1838 one of the offenders, Michael Magee, became the first person to be hanged in South Australia.<ref>{{cite web |titleFree Settlement |urlhttp://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/free-settlement.html |workHistory of Adelaide Gaol |publisherEnvironment.sa.gov.au |access-date7 September 2010 |archive-date24 October 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091024014707/http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/free-settlement.html}}</ref> William Baker Ashton was appointed governor of the temporary gaol in 1839, and in 1840 George Strickland Kingston was commissioned to design Adelaide's new gaol.<ref>{{cite web |titleGaol Founders |urlhttp://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/History/Gaol_founders |workHistory of Adelaide Gaol |publisherEnvironment.sa.gov.au |access-date14 August 2012 |archive-date25 October 2009 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091025022018/http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/goal-founders.html}}</ref> Construction of Adelaide Gaol commenced in 1841.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/lights-vision.html |titleLight's Vision |workHistory of Adelaide Gaol |publisherEnvironment.sa.gov.au |access-date7 September 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20091025021816/http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/adelaidegaol/lights-vision.html |archive-date25 October 2009}}</ref>
Adelaide's early history was marked by economic uncertainty and questionable leadership.{{Dubious|dateOctober 2015}} The first governor of South Australia, John Hindmarsh, clashed frequently with others, in particular the Resident Commissioner, James Hurtle Fisher. The rural area surrounding Adelaide was surveyed by Light in preparation to sell a total of over {{convert|405|km2|sqmi|abbron}} of land. Adelaide's early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock from Victoria, New South Wales and Tasmania. Wool production provided an early basis for the South Australian economy. By 1860, wheat farms had been established from Encounter Bay in the south to Clare in the north.
George Gawler took over from Hindmarsh in late 1838 and, despite being under orders from the Select Committee on South Australia in Britain not to undertake any public works, promptly oversaw construction of a governor's house, the Adelaide Gaol, police barracks, a hospital, a customs house and a wharf at Port Adelaide. Gawler was recalled and replaced by George Edward Grey in 1841. Grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition, although its impact was negligible at this point: silver was discovered in Glen Osmond that year, agriculture was well underway, and other mines sprung up all over the state, aiding Adelaide's commercial development. The city exported meat, wool, wine, fruit and wheat by the time Grey left in 1845, contrasting with a low point in 1842 when one-third of Adelaide houses were abandoned.
Trade links with the rest of the Australian states were established after the Murray River was successfully navigated in 1853 by Francis Cadell, an Adelaide resident. South Australia became a self-governing colony in 1856 with the ratification of a new constitution by the British parliament. Secret ballots were introduced, and a bicameral parliament was elected on 9 March 1857, by which time 109,917 people lived in the province.<ref>{{cite web |authorBlair, Robert D. |year2001 |titleEvents in South Australian History 1834–1857 |workPioneer Association of South Australia |urlhttp://www.users.on.net/~rdblair/events-sa.htm |access-date10 May 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110607150032/http://www.users.on.net/~rdblair/events-sa.htm |archive-date7 June 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
In 1860, the Thorndon Park reservoir was opened, providing an alternative water source to the now turbid River Torrens. Gas street lighting was implemented in 1867, the University of Adelaide was founded in 1874, the South Australian Art Gallery opened in 1881 and the Happy Valley Reservoir opened in 1896. In the 1890s Australia was affected by a severe economic depression, ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism. Financial institutions in Melbourne and banks in Sydney closed. The national fertility rate fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle.<ref name"Guide">{{Cite web|urlhttps://clickacity.com/history-of-adelaide/|titleHistory of Adelaide, Australia. A short overview of the city history|lastGuide|firstAirport|date6 January 2019|websiteclickAcity|access-date14 June 2019|archive-date10 August 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200810001633/https://clickacity.com/history-of-adelaide/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
The value of South Australia's exports nearly halved. Drought and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems, with some families leaving for Western Australia.<ref name"Guide"/> Adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger gold-rush cities of Sydney and Melbourne, and silver and lead discoveries at Broken Hill provided some relief. Only one year of deficit was recorded, but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending. Wine and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.australian-travel-directory.com/page21.html|titleAdelaide & Suburbs|websiteaustralian-travel-directory.com|access-date14 June 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130928013231/http://australian-travel-directory.com/page21.html|archive-date28 September 2013|url-statuslive}}</ref>
20th century
viewed from Parliament House, 1938]]
Adelaide was Australia's third largest city for most of the 20th century.<ref name"Marsden">{{cite web|titleA history of Australian capital city centres since 1945|firstSusan|lastMarsden|urlhttps://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/116290/1/apo-nid90876-207481.pdf|dateOctober 1997|access-date23 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180404162603/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/116290/1/apo-nid90876-207481.pdf|archive-date4 April 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|titleA History of the Faculty of Arts at the University of Adelaide 1876–2012|workUniversity of Adelaide Press|date2012|pages245|isbn978-1-922064-36-3|last1Harvey|first1Nick|last2Fornasiero|first2Jean|last3McCarthy|first3Greg|last4MacIntyre|first4Clem|last5Crossin|first5Carl|publisherUniversity of Adelaide Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |firstPatrick |lastTroy |titleA History of European Housing in Australia |publisherCambridge University Press |year2000 |isbn978-0-521-77733-9 |page=188}}</ref> Electric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric trams were transporting passengers in 1909. 28,000 men were sent to fight in World War I. Historian F. K. Crowley examined the reports of visitors in the early 20th century, noting that "many visitors to Adelaide admired the foresighted planning of its founders", as well as pondering the riches of the young city.<ref>F.K. Crowle y(1973). Modern Australia in Documents: 1901–1939. Wren. {{isbn|085885032X|9780858850323}}</ref>
Adelaide enjoyed a postwar boom, entering a time of relative prosperity. Its population grew, and it became the third most populous metropolitan area in the country, after Sydney and Melbourne. Its prosperity was short-lived, with the return of droughts and the Great Depression of the 1930s. It later returned to fortune under strong government leadership. Secondary industries helped reduce the state's dependence on primary industries. World War II brought industrial stimulus and diversification to Adelaide under the Playford Government, which advocated Adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulnerable location.<ref>Cockburn, S (1991): Playford – Benevolent Despot. Axiom Publishing. P. 85. {{ISBN|0 9594164 4 7}}</ref> Shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port of Whyalla.
The South Australian Government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries but neglected cultural facilities which meant South Australia's economy lagged behind.<ref name"Marsden" /> International manufacturers like Holden and Chrysler<ref>When Chrysler stopped manufacturing in Adelaide, Mitsubishi Motors Australia took over the Tonsley Park factory. After many years of mixed fortunes, Mitsubishi ceased manufacturing at Tonsley Park on 27 March 2008.</ref> made use of these factories around the Adelaide area in suburbs like Elizabeth, completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to a 20th-century motor city. The Mannum–Adelaide pipeline brought River Murray water to Adelaide in 1955 and an airport opened at West Beach in 1955. Flinders University and the Flinders Medical Centre were established in the 1960s at Bedford Park, south of the city. Today, Flinders Medical Centre is one of the largest teaching hospitals in South Australia. In the post-war years around the early 1960s, Adelaide was surpassed by Brisbane as Australia's third largest city.<ref name"Marsden" />
The Dunstan Governments of the 1970s saw something of an Adelaide "cultural revival",<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.southaustraliaremovalists.com.au/south-australia/adelaide.html|titleAdelaide Removalists South Australia|websitesouthaustraliaremovalists.com.au|access-date14 June 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190304114350/http://southaustraliaremovalists.com.au/south-australia/adelaide.html|archive-date4 March 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref> establishing a wide array of social reforms. The city became noted for its progressivism as South Australia became the first Australian state or territory to decriminalise homosexuality between consenting adults in 1975.<ref namecarbery>{{cite book |lastCarbery |firstGraham |titleTowards Homosexual Equality in Australian Criminal Law: A Brief History |year2010 |edition2nd |urlhttp://www.alga.org.au/files/towardsequality2ed.pdf |publisherAustralian Lesbian and Gay Archives Inc. |access-date23 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190305143829/https://www.alga.org.au/files/towardsequality2ed.pdf |archive-date5 March 2019 |url-statusdead }}</ref> Adelaide became a centre for the arts, building upon the biennial "Adelaide Festival of Arts" that commenced in 1960. The State Bank collapsed in 1991 during an economic recession. The effects lasted until 2004, when Standard & Poor's reinstated South Australia's AAA credit rating.<ref>{{Cite news |titleAll-round country |workThe Australian |page14 |date29 September 2004}}</ref> Adelaide's tallest building, completed in 2020, is called the Adelaidean and is located at 11 Frome Street.<ref>{{cite web|titleFrome Central Tower|urlhttps://www.emporis.com/buildings/1350710/frome-central-tower-one-adelaide-australia|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200607154918/https://www.emporis.com/buildings/1350710/frome-central-tower-one-adelaide-australia|url-statususurped|archive-date7 June 2020|workEmporis|access-date20 January 2021}}</ref>
21st century
celebrations]]
In the early years of the 21st century, a significant increase in the state government's spending on Adelaide's infrastructure occurred. The Rann government invested A$535&nbsp;million in a major upgrade of the Adelaide Oval to enable Australian Football League to be played in the city centre<ref>Michael Owen, The Australian, 3 December 2009</ref> and more than A$2 billion to build a new Royal Adelaide Hospital on land adjacent to the Adelaide Railway Station.<ref>ABC News, Wednesday 7 June 2006</ref> The Glenelg tramline was extended through the city to Hindmarsh<ref>ABC News, 6 April 2005</ref> down to East Terrace<ref>{{cite web |titleCity Tram Extension |urlhttps://www.dpti.sa.gov.au/infrastructure/public_transport_projects/city_tram_extension |websitedpti.sa.gov.au |publisherDepartment of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure |access-date20 November 2019 |archive-date6 November 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201106063842/https://dpti.sa.gov.au/infrastructure/public_transport_projects/city_tram_extension |url-statusdead }}</ref> and the suburban railway line extended south to Seaford.<ref>ABC News, 13 May 2009</ref>
Following a period of stagnation in the 1990s and 2000s, Adelaide began several major developments and redevelopments. The Adelaide Convention Centre was redeveloped and expanded at a cost of A$350&nbsp;million beginning in 2012.<ref>ABC News, 29 June 2011</ref> Three historic buildings were adapted for modern use: the Torrens Building in Victoria Square as the Adelaide campus for Carnegie Mellon University, University College London, and Torrens University;<ref>News Release Government of SA, 15 May 2005</ref> the Stock Exchange building as the Science Exchange of the Royal Institution Australia; and the Glenside Psychiatric Hospital as the Adelaide Studios of the SA Film Corporation. The government invested more than A$2&nbsp;billion to build a desalination plant, powered by renewable energy, as an "insurance policy" against droughts affecting Adelaide's water supply.<ref>Nick Harmsen, ABC News, 11 September 2007</ref> The Adelaide Festival, Fringe, and Womadelaide became annual events.<ref>Adelaide Advertiser 26 February 2010</ref>
Geography
Adelaide is north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, on the Adelaide Plains between the Gulf St Vincent and the low-lying Mount Lofty Ranges. The city stretches {{convert|20|km|mi|abbron}} from the coast to the foothills, and {{convert|90|km|mi|abbron}} from Gawler at its northern extent to Sellicks Beach in the south. According to Regional Development Australia, an Australian government planning initiative, the "Adelaide Metropolitan Region" has a total land area of {{convert|870|km2|sqmi|abbron}}, while a more expansive definition by the Australian Bureau of Statistics defines a "Greater Adelaide" statistical area totalling {{convert|3259.8|km2|sqmi|abbron}}.<ref name"ABS-GA" /> The city sits at an average elevation of {{convert|50|m|ft}} above sea level. Mount Lofty, east of the Adelaide metropolitan region in the Adelaide Hills at an elevation of {{convert|727|m|ft}}, is the tallest point of the city and in the state south of Burra. The city borders the Temperate Grassland of South Australia in the east, an endangered vegetation community.<ref>[https://grasslands.ecolinc.vic.edu.au/grassland_communities/iron-grass-natural-temperate-grasslands-south-australia Iron-grass Natural Temperate Grasslands of South Australia] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220907090934/https://grasslands.ecolinc.vic.edu.au/grassland_communities/iron-grass-natural-temperate-grasslands-south-australia |date=7 September 2022 }} Grasslands Biodiversity of South-Eastern Australia. Retrieved 7 September 2022.</ref>
's Sentinel-2]]
Much of Adelaide was bushland before British settlement, with some variation – sandhills, swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast. The loss of the sandhills to urban development had a particularly destructive effect on the coastline due to erosion.<ref>[http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/files/sharedassets/public/coasts/no27.pdf The Adelaide Metropolitan Coastline] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151208214443/http://www.environment.sa.gov.au/files/sharedassets/public/coasts/no27.pdf |date8 December 2015 }} Coastline, South Australian Coastal Protection Board, No. 27, April 1993. Retrieved 6 December 2015.</ref> Where practical, the government has implemented programs to rebuild and vegetate sandhills at several of Adelaide's beachside suburbs. Tennyson Dunes is the largest contiguous, tertiary dune system contained entirely within Metropolitan Adelaide, providing refuge for a variety of remnant species formerly found along the entire coastline.<ref>{{Cite web |titleWara Wayingga-Tennyson Dunes Conservation Reserve |urlhttps://www.parks.sa.gov.au/parks/wara-wayingga-tennyson-dunes-conservation-reserve}}</ref> Much of the original vegetation has been cleared with what is left to be found in reserves such as the Cleland National Park and Belair National Park. A number of creeks and rivers flow through the Adelaide region. The largest are the Torrens and Onkaparinga catchments. Adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply with the Happy Valley Reservoir supplying around 40% and the much larger Mount Bold Reservoir 10% of Adelaide's domestic requirements respectively.
Geology
Adelaide and its surrounding area is one of the most seismically active regions in Australia. On 1 March 1954 at 3:40&nbsp;am Adelaide experienced its largest recorded earthquake to date, with the epicentre 12&nbsp;km from the city centre at Darlington, and a reported magnitude of 5.6.<ref>C. Kerr-Grant (1955): The Adelaide Earthquake of 1 March 1954 (PDF). South Australian Museum, 10 November 1955. Retrieved 5 April 2009.</ref><ref>Adelaide, SA: Earthquake. EMA Disasters Database. Emergency Management Australia, 13 September 2006. Retrieved 5 April 2009.</ref> There have been smaller earthquakes in 2010,<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-04-17/adelaide-hit-by-earth-tremor/399538 Adelaide hit by earth tremor] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180811220012/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2010-04-17/adelaide-hit-by-earth-tremor/399538 |date11 August 2018 }} ABC News, 17 April 2010. Retrieved 12 April 2018.</ref> 2011,<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-10-19/earthquake-adelaide-upper-sturt/3578192 Shallow earthquake jolts Adelaide awake] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170426190649/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-10-19/earthquake-adelaide-upper-sturt/3578192 |date26 April 2017 }} ABC News, 20 October 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2018.</ref> 2014,<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-01-06/earth-tremor-shakes-adelaide/5185964 Adelaide shaken by earth tremor which sounded like 'jet taking off'] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190423133944/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2014-01-06/earth-tremor-shakes-adelaide/5185964 |date23 April 2019 }} ABC News, 6 January 2014. Retrieved 12 April 2018.</ref> 2017,<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-02-10/second-tremor-in-less-than-two-weeks-shakes-adelaide/8259468 Tremor shakes Adelaide nine days after larger earthquake in city] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180417200511/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-02-10/second-tremor-in-less-than-two-weeks-shakes-adelaide/8259468 |date17 April 2018 }} ABC News, 10 February 2017. Retrieved 12 April 2018.</ref> 2018<ref>[http://abc.net.au/news/2018-08-08/earthquake-shakes-adelaide-hills/10091262 Earthquake near Mannum felt across Adelaide suburbs and hills rumbled 'like a train'] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180809111153/http://abc.net.au/news/2018-08-08/earthquake-shakes-adelaide-hills/10091262 |date9 August 2018 }} ABC News, 9 August 2018. Retrieved 12 September 2019.</ref> and 2022.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-06/adelaide-earthquake-tremor-mt-barker/100886238|titleEarthquake rattles Adelaide but no reports of damage|workABC News|date6 March 2022|access-date=27 May 2023}}</ref>
The uplands of the Adelaide Hills, part of the southern Mount Lofty Ranges to the east of Adelaide, are defined on their western side by a number of arcuate faults (the Para, Eden, Clarendon and Willunga Faults), and consist of rocks such as siltstone, dolomite and quartzite, dating from the Neoproterozoic to the middle Cambrian, laid down in the Adelaide Rift Complex, the oldest part of the Adelaide Superbasin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Veevers|first1J. J.|last2Walter|first2M. R.|last3Scheibner|first3E.|date1997|titleNeoproterozoic Tectonics of Australia-Antarctica and Laurentia and the 560 Ma Birth of the Pacific Ocean Reflect the 400 M.Y. Pangean Supercycle|journalThe Journal of Geology|languageen|volume105|issue2|pages225–242|doi10.1086/515914|bibcode1997JG....105..225V|s2cid140652348|issn=0022-1376}}</ref>
Most of the Adelaide metropolitan area lies in the downthrown St Vincent Basin and its embayments, including the Adelaide Plains Sub-basin, and the Golden Grove, Noarlunga and Willunga Embayments. These basins contain deposits of Tertiary marine and non-marine sands and limestones, which form important aquifers.<ref>Lindsay J.M. & Alley, N.F. (1995): St Vincent Basin. In: Drexel, J.F. & Preiss, W.V. (Eds.) The geology of South Australia. Vol.2, The Phanerozoic. pp. 163–171. South Australia Geological Survey, Bulletin 54. {{ISBN|0 7308 0621 9}}</ref> These deposits are overlain by Quaternary alluvial fans and piedmont slope deposits, derived from erosion of the uplands, consisting of sands, clays and gravels,<ref>Callan, R.A., Sheard, M.J., Benbow, M.C. & Belperio, A.P. (1995): Alluvial fans and piedmont slope deposits. In: Drexel, J.F. & Preiss, W.V. (Eds.) The geology of South Australia. Vol.2, The Phanerozoic. pp. 241–242. South Australia Geological Survey, Bulletin 54. {{ISBN|0 7308 0621 9}}</ref> interfingering to the west with transgressive Pleistocene to Holocene marine sands and coastal sediments of the shoreline of Gulf St Vincent.<ref>Belperio, A.P. (1995): Coastal and marine sequences. In: Drexel, J.F. & Preiss, W.V. (Eds.) The geology of South Australia. Vol.2, The Phanerozoic. pp. 220–240. South Australia Geological Survey, Bulletin 54. {{ISBN|0 7308 0621 9}}</ref>
Urban layout
{{Further|William Light}}
Adelaide is a planned city, designed by the first Surveyor-General of South Australia, Colonel William Light. His plan, sometimes referred to as "Light's Vision" (also the name of a statue of him on Montefiore Hill), arranged Adelaide in a grid, with five squares in the Adelaide city centre and a ring of parks, known as the Adelaide Parklands, surrounding it. Light's selection of the location for the city was initially unpopular with the early settlers, as well as South Australia's first governor, John Hindmarsh, due to its distance from the harbour at Port Adelaide, and the lack of fresh water there.<ref>Page, M. (1981): Port Adelaide and its Institute, 1851–1979. Rigby Publishers Ltd. Pp.17–20. {{ISBN|0-7270-1510-9}}</ref>
was built on a grid plan, known as ''Light's Vision''.]]
Light successfully persisted with his choice of location against this initial opposition. Recent evidence suggests that Light worked closely with George Kingston as well as a team of men to set out Adelaide, using various templates for city plans going back to Ancient Greece, including Italian Renaissance designs and the similar layouts of the American cities Philadelphia and Savannah–which, like Adelaide, follow the same layout of a central city square, four complementing city squares surrounding it and a parklands area that surrounds the city centre.<ref>{{cite book|titleAdelaide|firstKerryn|lastGoldsworthy|year2011|publisherNewSouth|isbn9-7817-4224092-3|pages=83}}</ref>
, one of the five main squares in the city centre and considered the heart of Adelaide's grid layout]]
The benefits of Light's design are numerous: Adelaide has had wide multi-lane roads from its beginning, an easily navigable cardinal direction grid layout and an expansive green ring around the city centre. There are two sets of ring roads in Adelaide that have resulted from the original design. The inner ring route (A21) borders the parklands, and the outer route (A3/A13/A16/A17) completely bypasses the inner city via (in clockwise order) Grand Junction Road, Hampstead Road, Ascot Avenue, Portrush Road, Cross Road and South Road.<ref>[http://www.transport.sa.gov.au/transport_network/projects/better_roads/adelaides_inner_outer_ring_routes.asp ''Adelaide's Inner and Outer Ring Routes''] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140306220115/http://www.transport.sa.gov.au/transport_network/projects/better_roads/adelaides_inner_outer_ring_routes.asp |date6 March 2014 }}, 24 August 2004, South Australian Department of Transport.</ref>
Suburban expansion has to some extent outgrown Light's original plan. Numerous former outlying villages and "country towns", as well as the satellite city of Elizabeth, have been enveloped by its suburban sprawl. Expanding developments in the Adelaide Hills region led to the construction of the South Eastern Freeway to cope with growth, which has subsequently led to new developments and further improvements to that transport corridor. Similarly, the booming development in Adelaide's South led to the construction of the Southern Expressway.
New roads are not the only transport infrastructure developed to cope with the urban growth. The O-Bahn Busway is an example of a unique solution to Tea Tree Gully's transport woes in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite web |titleAdelaide's Freeways – A History from MATS to the Port River Expressway |workOzroads |urlhttp://www.ozroads.com.au/SA/freeways.htm |access-date21 January 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110927114830/http://www.ozroads.com.au/SA/freeways.htm |archive-date27 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> The development of the nearby suburb of Golden Grove in the late 1980s followed a planned approach to urban growth.
In the 1960s, a Metropolitan Adelaide Transport Study Plan was proposed to cater for the future growth of the city. The plan involved the construction of freeways, expressways and the upgrade of certain aspects of the public transport system. The then premier Steele Hall approved many parts of the plan and the government went as far as purchasing land for the project. The later Labor government elected under Don Dunstan shelved the plan, but allowed the purchased land to remain vacant, should the future need for freeways arise. In 1980, the Liberal party won government and premier David Tonkin committed his government to selling off the land acquired for the MATS plan, ensuring that even when needs changed, the construction of most MATS-proposed freeways would be impractical. Some parts of this land have been used for transport, (e.g. the O-Bahn Busway and Southern Expressway), while most has been progressively subdivided for residential use.
In 2008, the SA Government announced plans for a network of transport-oriented developments across the Adelaide metropolitan area and purchased a 10 hectare industrial site at Bowden for $52.5&nbsp;million as the first of these developments.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20081206075528/http://www.ministers.sa.gov.au/news.php?id3826 "Clipsal site at Bowden to become a green village"], Ministerial Press Release, 24 October 2008, SA Govt. Retrieved 20 November 2008.</ref><ref><!-- [http://www.lmc.sa.gov.au/theport/_inc/doc_download.aspx?did339 "Government reveals Clipsal site purchase price"] -->[https://archive.today/20081206075532/http://www.ministers.sa.gov.au/news.php?id3956 "Government reveals Clipsal site purchase price"], Ministerial Press Release, 15 November 2008, SA Govt, archived. Retrieved 27 November 2018.</ref> Housing
{{Main|Australian residential architectural styles}}
]]
Historically, Adelaide's suburban residential areas have been characterised by single-storey detached houses built on {{convert|1/4|acre|m2|adjon|orderflip}} blocks. A relative lack of suitable, locally-available timber for construction purposes led to the early development of a brick-making industry, as well as the use of stone, for houses and other buildings. By 1891, 68% of houses were built of stone, 15% of timber, and 10% of brick, with brick also being widely used in stone houses for quoins, door and window surrounds, and chimneys and fireplaces.<ref>Gibbs, R.M. (2013): Under the burning sun: a history of colonial South Australia, 1836–1900. Peacock Publications. Pp. 58, 333–4. {{ISBN|978-1-921601-85-9}}</ref>
There is a wide variety in the styles of these houses. Until the 1960s, most of the more substantial houses were built of red brick, though many front walls were of ornamental stone. Then cream bricks became fashionable, and in the 1970s, deep red and brown bricks became popular.{{citation needed|dateDecember 2015}} Until the 1970s, roofs tended to be clad with (painted) corrugated iron or cement or clay tiles, usually red "terracotta"<!--local terminology, do not link-->. Since then, Colorbond corrugated steel has dominated. Most roofs are pitched. Flat roofs are not common.<ref nameCadden/>
Up to the 1970s, most houses were of "double brick" construction on concrete footings, with timber floors laid on joists supported by "dwarf walls". Later houses have mainly been of "brick veneer" construction – structural timber or, more recently, lightweight steel frame on a concrete slab foundation, lined with Gyprock, and with an outer skin of brickwork,<ref nameCadden>Rosemary Cadden: Building South Australia: celebrating 125 years. Solstice Media. pp. 77, 87. {{ISBN|978-0-646-51343-0}}</ref> to cope with Adelaide's reactive soils, particularly Keswick Clay, black earth and some red-brown earth soils.<ref>Sheard, M. J., & A. P. Belperio (1995): "Problem soils". In: Drexel, J. F. & Preiss, W. V. (eds.) The geology of South Australia. Vol.2, The Phanerozoic. p. 274. South Australia Geological Survey, Bulletin 54. {{ISBN|978-0-7308-0621-9}}</ref> The use of precast concrete panels for floor and wall construction has also increased.<ref nameCadden /> In addition to this, a significant factor in Adelaide's suburban history is the role of the South Australian Housing Trust.{{Why|date=January 2023}}
<gallery mode="packed">
File:OIC n adelaide carclew (cropped).jpg|Carclew House
File:Bluestone Balcony (16746204054).jpg|Two-storey house in North Adelaide. Much of Adelaide's early housing was built with bluestone.
File:House in Adelaide.jpg|Heritage-listed bluestone 19th-century house in the city centre
File:Tudor Revival house, Adelaide (01).jpg|Tudor Revival house in Unley Park
File:House in Lockleys, South Australia.jpg|House in Lockleys with two distinguishing features that characterise Adelaide houses: a brush fence and red brick veneer.
</gallery>
Climate
{{Main|Climate of Adelaide}}
Adelaide has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Csa) under the Köppen climate classification.<ref>{{cite book |last1Tapper |first1Andrew |last2Tapper |first2Nigel |titleThe weather and climate of Australia and New Zealand |year1996 |publisherOxford University Press |locationMelbourne, Australia |isbn0-19-553393-3 |editionFirst |editorGray, Kathleen |page300}}</ref> The city has hot, dry summers and cool winters with moderate rainfall. Most precipitation falls in the winter months, leading to the suggestion that the climate be classified as a "cold monsoon".<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-03/term-cold-monsoon-used-to-describe-adelaide-climate/9723122 What's a 'cold monsoon'? And is it the best way to describe Adelaide's climate?] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180529095345/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-05-03/term-cold-monsoon-used-to-describe-adelaide-climate/9723122 |date29 May 2018 }} ABC News, 3 May 2018. Retrieved 30 May 2018.</ref> Rainfall is unreliable, light and infrequent throughout summer, although heavy falls can occur. The winter has fairly reliable rainfall with June being the wettest month of the year, averaging around 80&nbsp;mm. Frosts are occasional, with the most notable occurrences in 1908 and 1982. Hail may occur in winter.
Adelaide is a windy city with significant wind chill in winter, which makes the temperature seem colder than it actually is. Snowfall in the metropolitan area is extremely rare, although light and sporadic falls in the nearby hills and at Mount Lofty occur during winter. Dewpoints in the summer typically range from {{convert|8|to|10|°C|°F}}. There are usually several days in summer where the temperature reaches {{convert|40.0|°C|°F}} or above.
While conditions vary from year-to-year, a warming trend has been increasing in recent years,<ref>Richards, Stephanie (6 February 2019). [https://indaily.com.au/news/local/2019/02/06/planners-warn-of-climate-change-risks-for-sa/ Planners warn of climate change risks for Adelaide], InDaily. Retrieved 24 February 2023.</ref><ref>Saunders, Tom (28 February 2025). [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-02-28/nsw-end-of-summer-weather-spring-warmest/104990526 Australia's heat spell ongoing; spring and summer warmest on record] ABC News, Retrieved 28 February 2025.</ref> and with drought conditions experienced in SA in 2024−25, Adelaide has had to rely on desalination to augment its water supply.<ref>Mason, Olivia (27 January 2025). [https://www.abc.net.au/news/2025-01-27/desalination-production-to-ramp-up-as-reservoir-levels-drop/104864230 Lonsdale desalination plant to quadruple output as reservoirs drop to 20-year low]ABC News, Retrieved 27 January 2025.</ref>
Temperature extremes range from −0.4&nbsp;°C (31.4&nbsp;°F), 8 June 1982 to 47.7&nbsp;°C (117.9&nbsp;°F), 24 January 2019. The city features 90.6 clear days annually.
The average sea temperature ranges from {{convert|13.7|°C|°F}} in August to {{convert|21.2|°C|°F}} in February.<ref>{{cite web |titleGlenelg Sea Temperature &#124; Australia Water Temperatures |urlhttps://www.seatemperature.org/australia-pacific/australia/glenelg.htm |publisherSeatemperature.org |access-date20 September 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170920141807/https://www.seatemperature.org/australia-pacific/australia/glenelg.htm |archive-date20 September 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Weather box
| collapsed | location Adelaide (Kent Town) 1991–2020 averages, 1977–2020 extremes
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
|rain colour = green
| Jan record high C = 47.7
| Feb record high C = 44.7
| Mar record high C = 42.2
| Apr record high C = 36.9
| May record high C = 31.1
| Jun record high C = 25.4
| Jul record high C = 23.1
| Aug record high C = 30.4
| Sep record high C = 34.3
| Oct record high C = 39.0
| Nov record high C = 43.0
| Dec record high C = 45.2
| Jan high C = 30.0
| Feb high C = 29.7
| Mar high C = 26.6
| Apr high C = 23.0
| May high C = 19.0
| Jun high C = 16.2
| Jul high C = 15.6
| Aug high C = 16.7
| Sep high C = 19.3
| Oct high C = 22.5
| Nov high C = 25.4
| Dec high C = 27.6
| year high C = 22.6
| Jan mean C = 23.8
| Feb mean C = 23.6
| Mar mean C = 21.0
| Apr mean C = 17.9
| May mean C = 14.6
| Jun mean C = 12.3
| Jul mean C = 11.7
| Aug mean C = 12.4
| Sep mean C = 14.6
| Oct mean C = 17.1
| Nov mean C = 19.8
| Dec mean C = 21.7
| year mean C = 17.5
| Jan low C = 17.6
| Feb low C = 17.5
| Mar low C = 15.3
| Apr low C = 12.7
| May low C = 10.2
| Jun low C = 8.3
| Jul low C = 7.7
| Aug low C = 8.1
| Sep low C = 9.9
| Oct low C = 11.7
| Nov low C = 14.1
| Dec low C = 15.8
| year low C = 12.4
| Jan record low C = 9.2
| Feb record low C = 9.5
| Mar record low C = 7.2
| Apr record low C = 4.3
| May record low C = 1.5
| Jun record low C = -0.4
| Jul record low C = 0.4
| Aug record low C = 0.9
| Sep record low C = 2.6
| Oct record low C = 4.7
| Nov record low C = 5.3
| Dec record low C = 7.9
| Jan rain mm = 21.2
| Feb rain mm = 20.0
| Mar rain mm = 24.9
| Apr rain mm = 37.6
| May rain mm = 59.3
| Jun rain mm = 77.7
| Jul rain mm = 71.1
| Aug rain mm = 66.9
| Sep rain mm = 59.6
| Oct rain mm = 40.0
| Nov rain mm = 31.0
| Dec rain mm = 28.3
| year rain mm = 536.5
| unit rain days = 0.2 mm
| Jan rain days = 4.7
| Feb rain days = 3.7
| Mar rain days = 5.9
| Apr rain days = 8.2
| May rain days = 12.7
| Jun rain days = 14.6
| Jul rain days = 16.3
| Aug rain days = 16.2
| Sep rain days = 13.5
| Oct rain days = 9.9
| Nov rain days = 8.3
| Dec rain days = 7.2
| year rain days = 121.2
| humidity colour = green
| Jan afthumidity = 36
| Feb afthumidity = 36
| Mar afthumidity = 40
| Apr afthumidity = 45
| May afthumidity = 55
| Jun afthumidity = 61
| Jul afthumidity = 59
| Aug afthumidity = 54
| Sep afthumidity = 50
| Oct afthumidity = 44
| Nov afthumidity = 40
| Dec afthumidity = 38
| Jan percentsun = 74
| Feb percentsun = 75
| Mar percentsun = 71
| Apr percentsun = 65
| May percentsun = 53
| Jun percentsun = 45
| Jul percentsun = 48
| Aug percentsun = 54
| Sep percentsun = 55
| Oct percentsun = 64
| Nov percentsun = 65
| Dec percentsun = 67
| Jan sun = 325.5
| Feb sun = 285.3
| Mar sun = 266.6
| Apr sun = 219.0
| May sun = 167.4
| Jun sun = 138.0
| Jul sun = 148.8
| Aug sun = 186.0
| Sep sun = 204.0
| Oct sun = 257.3
| Nov sun = 273.0
| Dec sun = 294.5
| year sun | source Bureau of Meteorology.<ref name"ABOM">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.bom.gov.au/jsp/ncc/cdio/cvg/av?p_stn_num023090&p_prim_element_index0&p_comp_element_index0&redrawnull&p_display_typefull_statistics_table&normals_years1991-2020&tablesizebuttnormal |titleClimate statistics for ADELAIDE (KENT TOWN) 1991–2020 averages |workClimate statistics for Australian locations |publisherBureau of Meteorology |access-dateDecember 18, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_023090_All.shtml |titleClimate statistics for ADELAIDE (KENT TOWN) all years |workClimate statistics for Australian locations |publisherBureau of Meteorology |access-date December 18, 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_023090.shtml |titleClimate statistics for Australian locations – Summary statistics ADELAIDE (KENT TOWN) |publisherBureau of Meteorology |access-date1 July 2023 <!-- this is source of rainy days figures --> }}</ref> }}
{{Weather box
| collapsed | metric first yes
| single line = yes <!-- Any entry in this line will display metric and imperial units in the same cell. Leave blank or remove this line for separate table rows. -->
| location = Parafield Airport (15km N of Adelaide, 10m ASL, 1991−2020 averages, 1939−2024 extremes)
<!-- Record high temperatures -->
<!-- Note that record temperatures should only be used when the data period is of the greatest length possible. -->
| Jan record high C =47.7
| Feb record high C =44.7
| Mar record high C =42.7
| Apr record high C =38.2
| May record high C =31.1
| Jun record high C =26.3
| Jul record high C =26.5
| Aug record high C =30.4
| Sep record high C =35.0
| Oct record high C =39.2
| Nov record high C =44.3
| Dec record high C =46.7
| year record high C =
<!-- Average high temperatures -->
| Jan high C =30.9
| Feb high C =30.6
| Mar high C =27.4
| Apr high C =23.7
| May high C =19.3
| Jun high C =16.2
| Jul high C =15.6
| Aug high C =16.7
| Sep high C =19.6
| Oct high C =23.2
| Nov high C =26.6
| Dec high C =28.6
| year high C =
<!-- Mean daily temperature -->
| Jan mean C =23.8
| Feb mean C =23.7
| Mar mean C =20.9
| Apr mean C =17.6
| May mean C =14.2
| Jun mean C =11.5
| Jul mean C =10.9
| Aug mean C =11.6
| Sep mean C =13.9
| Oct mean C =16.8
| Nov mean C =19.9
| Dec mean C =21.8
| year mean C =
<!-- Average low temperatures -->
| Jan low C =16.7
| Feb low C =16.7
| Mar low C =14.3
| Apr low C =11.5
| May low C =9.0
| Jun low C =6.8
| Jul low C =6.2
| Aug low C =6.4
| Sep low C =8.2
| Oct low C =10.3
| Nov low C =13.1
| Dec low C =14.9
| year low C =
<!-- Record low temperatures -->
<!-- Note that record temperatures should only be used when the data period is of the greatest length possible. -->
| Jan record low C =7.6
| Feb record low C =5.0
| Mar record low C =5.9
| Apr record low C =0.6
| May record low C =-1.4
| Jun record low C =-2.4
| Jul record low C =-2.8
| Aug record low C =-2.0
| Sep record low C =-0.2
| Oct record low C =1.4
| Nov record low C =2.5
| Dec record low C =5.6
| year record low C | rain colour green <!-- Enter "green" for green rainfall colours, "none" for no colours, remove this line for blue colouring. -->
| Jan rain mm =19.7
| Feb rain mm =18.4
| Mar rain mm =22.4
| Apr rain mm =33.2
| May rain mm =46.9
| Jun rain mm =54.2
| Jul rain mm =55.6
| Aug rain mm =50.7
| Sep rain mm =46.6
| Oct rain mm =31.8
| Nov rain mm =23.0
| Dec rain mm =22.6
| year rain mm =
<!-- Average number of rainy days -->
| Jan rain days =4.3
| Feb rain days =3.5
| Mar rain days =5.3
| Apr rain days =7.9
| May rain days =11.5
| Jun rain days =12.9
| Jul rain days =15.4
| Aug rain days =14.6
| Sep rain days =12.8
| Oct rain days =8.5
| Nov rain days =6.9
| Dec rain days =5.8
| year rain days |source<ref name="cw_023013_All">{{cite web
|url = http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/averages/tables/cw_023013_All.shtml
|title = Climate statistics for Australian locations
|publisher = BoM
|access-date = 18 May 2024}}</ref>
}}
Liveability
in autumn]]
Adelaide was consistently ranked in the world's 10 most liveable cities through the 2010s by The Economist Intelligence Unit.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.eiu.com/topic/liveability|titleGlobal Liveability Ranking|websiteeiu.com|access-date29 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190501141508/http://www.eiu.com/topic/liveability|archive-date1 May 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.msn.com/en-us/news/msn/the-worlds-most-liveable-cities-in-2018/ar-BBLTwDy|titleThe world's most liveable cities in 2018|publisherMSN|access-date29 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180815164406/http://www.msn.com/en-us/news/msn/the-worlds-most-liveable-cities-in-2018/ar-BBLTwDy|archive-date15 August 2018|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignidLiveability2016|titleGlobal Liveability Ranking 2016|firstEIU digital|lastsolutions|websiteeiu.com|access-date29 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190504225324/https://www.eiu.com/public/topical_report.aspx?campaignidliveability2016|archive-date4 May 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2016/08/17/melbourne-vienna-vancouver-ranked-top-three-most-livable-cities-by-the-economist-intelligence-unit.html|titleThese are the most livable cities in the world|firstSaheli Roy|lastChoudhury|websiteCNBC|date17 August 2016|access-date29 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180815164523/https://www.cnbc.com/2016/08/17/melbourne-vienna-vancouver-ranked-top-three-most-livable-cities-by-the-economist-intelligence-unit.html|archive-date15 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
In June 2021, The Economist ranked Adelaide the third most liveable city in the world, behind Auckland and Osaka.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-06-09/adelaide-declared-worlds-third-most-liveable-city/100200836 |titleAdelaide outperforms interstate rivals to be declared world's third most liveable city |date9 June 2021 |websiteABC News |publisherAustralian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date22 June 2021}}</ref> In June 2023, Adelaide was ranked the twelfth most liveable city in the world by the Economist Intelligence Unit.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/the-worlds-most-liveable-cities-have-been-revealed-heres-how-australia-ranked/hjbxpsogp|titleThe world's most liveable cities have been revealed. Here's how Australia ranked|workSBS|date22 June 2023|access-date=24 June 2023}}</ref>
In December 2021, Adelaide was named the world's second National Park City, after the state government had lobbied for this title.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.adelaidenow.com.au/lifestyle/adelaide-named-the-worlds-second-national-park-city-at-the-world-urban-park-congress/news-story/7ed9eb6a39dbfed5c3de337b9081a5eb?amp&nk18fdf904b5b20207861d6efb7319548e-1639211239|website Adelaide Now |titleAdelaide becomes world's second National Park City|date 10 December 2021|url-accesssubscription }}</ref><ref>[https://www.adelaidenationalparkcity.org/ Adelaide National Park City] Green Adelaide. Retrieved 9 January 2022.</ref>
It was ranked the most liveable city in Australia by the Property Council of Australia, based on surveys of residents' views of their own city, between 2010 and 2013,<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2011/01/22/3118843.htm?sectionbusiness |workABC News Online |publisherAustralian Broadcasting Corporation |date22 January 2011 |titleAdelaide crowned nation's most livable city |access-date23 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |urlhttp://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/adelaide-voted-nations-most-liveable/story-e6frea83-1226309173646 |workThe Advertiser|locationAdelaide |date25 March 2012 |titleAdelaide voted nation's most liveable |access-date2 July 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120701092114/http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/adelaide-voted-nations-most-liveable/story-e6frea83-1226309173646 |archive-date1 July 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/national/adelaide-the-countrys-most-liveable-city-20130304-2ffeh.html |workThe Sydney Morning Herald |date4 March 2013 |titleAdelaide the country's most liveable city |access-date4 March 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130305150329/http://www.smh.com.au/national/adelaide-the-countrys-most-liveable-city-20130304-2ffeh.html |archive-date5 March 2013 |url-statuslive }}</ref> dropping to second place in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.propertycouncil.com.au/Web/Content/Media_Release/NSW/2014/Novocastrians_Crave_Change.aspx|websiteAustralian Property Council|titleNovocastrians Crave Change|firstAndrew|lastFletcher|date4 March 2014|access-date29 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160407062505/http://propertycouncil.com.au/Web/Content/Media_Release/NSW/2014/Novocastrians_Crave_Change.aspx|archive-date7 April 2016|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Governance
{{Main|Government of South Australia}}
]]
Adelaide, as the capital of South Australia, is the seat of the Government of South Australia. The bicameral Parliament of South Australia consists of the lower house known as the House of Assembly and the upper house known as the Legislative Council. General elections are held every four years, the last being the 2022 South Australian state election.
As Adelaide is South Australia's capital and most populous city, the State Government co-operates extensively with the City of Adelaide. In 2006, the Ministry for the City of Adelaide was created to facilitate the State Government's collaboration with the Adelaide City Council and the Lord Mayor to improve Adelaide's image. The State Parliament's Capital City Committee is also involved in the governance of the City of Adelaide, being primarily concerned with the planning of Adelaide's urban development and growth.<ref>[https://www.dpc.sa.gov.au/responsibilities/intergovernmental-relations/capital-city-committee Capital City Committee] Government of South Australia,
Department of the Premier and Cabinet. Retrieved 23 July 2021.</ref>
Reflecting South Australia's status as Australia's most centralised state, Adelaide elects a substantial majority of the South Australian House of Assembly. Of the 47 seats in the chamber, 34 seats (three-quarters of the legislature) are based in Adelaide, and two rural seats include Adelaide suburbs.
Local governments
{{Further|Local government areas of South Australia}}
The Adelaide metropolitan area is divided between nineteen local government areas. At its centre, the City of Adelaide administers the Adelaide city centre, North Adelaide, and the surrounding Adelaide Parklands. It is the oldest municipal authority in Australia and was established in 1840, when Adelaide and Australia's first mayor, James Hurtle Fisher, was elected. From 1919 onwards, the city has had a Lord Mayor, the current being Lord Mayor The Right Honourable Jane Lomax-Smith.
Demography
Adelaide's inhabitants are known as Adelaideans.<ref name"Salt">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.adelaidenow.com.au/ipad/salt-adelaides-european-twin/story-fn6br25t-1226028653784 |firstBernard |lastSalt |date27 March 2011 |access-date16 April 2011 |titleAdelaide's European twin |workSunday Mail |locationAdelaide |publisherNews Limited |quote[...] the Adelaideans could withdraw to vantage points within the city centre [...] |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110810171115/http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/ipad/salt-adelaides-european-twin/story-fn6br25t-1226028653784 |archive-date10 August 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Adelaidean">{{cite web |urlhttps://www.adelaide.edu.au/adelaidean/issues/81286/news81290.html |titleOn your bike, Adelaide |year2015 |workAdelaidean |publisherUniversity of Adelaide |locationAdelaide |access-date7 March 2016 |quoteIt could be argued that Adelaideans are easily influenced by all things wheels [...] |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160307115258/https://www.adelaide.edu.au/adelaidean/issues/81286/news81290.html |archive-date7 March 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Compared with Australia's other state capitals, Adelaide is growing at a rate similar to Sydney and Hobart (see List of cities in Australia by population). In 2024, it had a metropolitan population (including suburbs) of 1,469,163,<ref nameGreaterAdelaide>{{cite web|titleRegional Population, 2023-2024 financial year|urlhttps://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/regional-population/2023-24#capital-cities|websiteAustralian Bureau of Statistics|publisherAustralian Bureau of Statistics|date27 March 2025|access-date1 April 2025}} Estimated resident population, 30 June 2024.</ref> making it Australia's fifth-largest city. 77%<ref>[http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Latestproducts/3218.0Main%20Features352013-14?opendocument&tabnameSummary&prodno3218.0&issue2013-14&num&view 3218.0 – Regional Population Growth, Australia, 2013–14] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160220171206/http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs%40.nsf/Latestproducts/3218.0Main%20Features352013-14?opendocument&tabnameSummary&prodno3218.0&issue2013-14&num&view |date=20 February 2016 }} SOUTH AUSTRALIA STATE SUMMARY Australian Bureau of Statistice, 31 March 2015. Retrieved 11 February 2016.</ref> of the population of South Australia are residents of the Adelaide metropolitan area, making South Australia one of the most centralised states.
Major areas of population growth in recent years have been in outer suburbs such as Mawson Lakes and Golden Grove. Adelaide's inhabitants occupy 366,912 houses, 57,695 semi-detached, row terrace or town houses and 49,413 flats, units or apartments.<ref name"ABS2011">{{cite web |urlhttp://australiapopulation2016.com/population-of-adelaide-in-2016.html |titlePopulation Of Adelaide in 2016 |publisherAustraliapopulation2016.com |date13 January 2016 |access-date20 September 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161024051824/http://australiapopulation2016.com/population-of-adelaide-in-2016.html |archive-date24 October 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
About one sixth (17.1%) of the population had university qualifications. The number of Adelaideans with vocational qualifications (such as tradespersons) fell from 62.1% of the labour force in the 1991 census to 52.4% in the 2001 census.
Adelaide is ageing more rapidly than other Australian capital cities. More than a quarter (27.5%) of Adelaide's population is aged 55&nbsp;years or older, in comparison to the national average of 25.6%. Adelaide has the lowest number of children (under-15-year-olds), who comprised 17.7% of the population, compared to the national average of 19.3%.<ref name"ABS2011" /> Ancestry and immigration {| class"wikitable" style="float:right;"
|+ Country of Birth (2021)<ref name"auto">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/community-profiles/2021/4GADE|title2021 Greater Adelaide, Census Community Profiles |websiteAustralian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=2 July 2022}}</ref>
! Birthplace{{NoteTag|In accordance with the Australian Bureau of Statistics source, England, Scotland, Mainland China and the Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau are listed separately}} !! Population
|-
| Australia ||953,200
|-
| England ||78,486 <!-- England and Scotland are listed separately as per the source. Do not combine -->
|-
| India || 42,933
|-
| Mainland China || 24,921 <!-- Mainland China, Taiwan, Hong Kong and Macau SARs are listed separately as per the source. Do not combine -->
|-
| Vietnam || 16,564
|-
| Italy || 15,667
|-
| Philippines ||12,826
|-
| New Zealand ||10,238
|-
| Scotland ||9,381
|-
| Malaysia ||8,509
|-
| Afghanistan ||7,909
|-
| Germany ||7,680
|-
| Greece ||7,590
|-
| Nepal ||7,055
|-
| South Africa ||6,983
|-
| Pakistan ||5,432
|-
| Iran ||5,147
|}
at the entrance of Chinatown on Moonta Street in the Central Market precinct]]
At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:<ref name="auto"/> <!-- Only ancestries with >1% are listed. -->
{{columns-list|colwidth=13em|
* English (35.7%)
* Australian (29.2%){{NoteTag|The Australian Bureau of Statistics has stated that most who nominate "Australian" as their ancestry are part of the Anglo-Celtic group.<ref>{{cite web |url http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/[email protected]/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/49f609c83cf34d69ca2569de0025c182!OpenDocument|title Feature Article – Ethnic and Cultural Diversity in Australia (Feature Article) |author Australian Bureau of Statistics |websiteabs.gov.au |date January 1995 |access-date16 June 2019 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160420205113/http://www.abs.gov.au/Ausstats/abs%40.nsf/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/49f609c83cf34d69ca2569de0025c182%21OpenDocument|archive-date20 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
* Scottish (7.9%)
* Irish (7.5%)
* Italian (7.1%)
* German (6.3%)
* Chinese (4.5%)
* Indian (3.3%)
* Greek (2.9%)
* Vietnamese (1.7%)
* Australian Aboriginal (1.6%){{refn|group="N"|Those who nominated their ancestry as "Australian Aboriginal". Does not include Torres Strait Islanders. This relates to nomination of ancestry and is distinct from persons who identify as Indigenous (Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander) which is a separate question.}}
* Dutch (1.6%)
* Filipino (1.4%)
* Polish (1.3%)
}}
Overseas-born Adelaideans composed 31.3% of the total population at the 2021 census. The five largest groups of overseas-born were from England (5.7%), India (3.1%), Mainland China (1.8%), Vietnam (1.2%) and Italy (1.1%).<ref name"auto1">{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/quickstats/2021/4GADE|title2021 Greater Adelaide, Census All persons QuickStats |websiteAustralian Bureau of Statistics|access-date=2 July 2022}}</ref>
Suburbs including Newton, Payneham and Campbelltown in the east and Torrensville, West Lakes and Fulham to the west, have large Greek and Italian communities. The Italian consulate is located in the western suburb of Hindmarsh.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://protocol.dfat.gov.au/Public/Consulates/97/State/5|titleForeign embassies and consulates in Australia - Consulate of Italy (SA) |websiteDepartment of Foreign Affairs and Trade|access-date19 April 2024}}</ref> Large Vietnamese populations are settled in the north-western suburbs of Woodville, Kilkenny, Pennington, Mansfield Park and Athol Park and also Parafield Gardens and Pooraka in Adelaide's north. Migrants from India and Sri Lanka have settled into inner suburban areas of Adelaide including the inner northern suburbs of Blair Athol, Kilburn and Enfield and the inner southern suburbs of Plympton, Park Holme and Kurralta Park.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}}
Suburbs such as Para Hills, Salisbury, Ingle Farm and Blair Athol in the north and Findon, West Croydon and Seaton and other Western suburbs have sizeable Afghan communities. Chinese migrants favour settling in the eastern and north eastern suburbs including Kensington Gardens, Greenacres, Modbury and Golden Grove. Mawson Lakes has a large international student population, due to its proximity to the University of South Australia campus.<ref>{{Cite web |lastZysk |firstAnia |year2005 |titleNetwork Mawson Lakes: International and Local Links |urlhttps://isana.proceedings.com.au/docs/2005/papers%20(pdf)/fri_1030_zysk.pdf#:~:textMawson%20Lakes%20is%20the%20main%20campus%20for%20the,approximately%201%20400%20of%20those%20are%20international%20students. |access-date10 May 2024 |websiteIsana Conference Proceedings |page2 |quoteThere are around 5 147 students and approximately 1 400 of those are international students.}}</ref>
At the 2021 census, 1.7% of Adelaide's population identified as being Indigenous — Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders.{{refn|group"N"|Indigenous identification is separate to the ancestry question on the Australian Census and persons identifying as Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander may identify any ancestry.}}<ref name"auto1"/>
Language
At the 2016 census, 75.4% of the population spoke English at home. The other languages most commonly spoken at home were Italian (2.1%), Standard Mandarin (2.1%), Greek (1.7%) Vietnamese (1.4%), and Cantonese (0.7%).<ref name"quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au">{{cite web |url https://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/communityprofile/4GADE?opendocument |title2016 Greater Adelaide, Census Community Profiles &#124; Australian Bureau of Statistics |access-date16 June 2019 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190622062053/https://quickstats.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2016/communityprofile/4GADE%3Fopendocument |archive-date22 June 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Kaurna language, spoken by the area's original inhabitants, had no living speakers in the middle of the 20th century, but since the 1990s there has been a sustained revival effort from academics and Kaurna elders.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://sahistoryhub.history.sa.gov.au/subjects/kaurna-language-kaurna-warra|titleKaurna language (Kaurna warra)|lastAmery|firstRob|date9 December 2013|access-date22 October 2022|websiteSA History Hub}}</ref>
Religion
. Adelaide's 19th century moniker was The City of Churches.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://maps.cityofadelaide.com.au/journey/bf1d1188-c13b-11e8-a4a7-024bc0398b11/adelaide-the-city-of-churches|titleAdelaide – the City of Churches|workcityofadelaide.com.au|access-date7 August 2022}}</ref>]]
Adelaide was founded on a vision of religious tolerance that attracted a wide variety of religious practitioners. This led to it being known as The City of Churches.<ref>{{cite web |url http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u1455 |titleReligion: Diversity |access-date15 November 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130810123558/http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u1455 |archive-date10 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u1466 |titleReligious freedom |access-date15 November 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140309190732/https://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u1466 |archive-date9 March 2014 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u1455 Religion: Diversity] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130810123558/http://www.samemory.sa.gov.au/site/page.cfm?u1455 |date10 August 2013 }}, SA Memory. Retrieved 23 December 2010.</ref> But approximately 28% of the population expressed no religious affiliation in the 2011 Census, compared with the national average of 22.3%, making Adelaide one of Australia's least religious cities.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2011/quickstat/4GADE?opendocument&navpos220 |title2011 Census – Greater Adelaide |access-date30 October 2020 |archive-date2 May 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130502004913/http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/census_services/getproduct/census/2011/quickstat/4GADE?opendocument&navpos220 |url-statusdead }}</ref> According to 2021 census, 39.8% population of Adelaide identifies as Christian, with the largest denominations being Catholic (16.4%), Anglican (7.0%), Uniting Church (3.9%) and Greek Orthodox (2.4%). Non-Christian faith communities representing 9.5% from Adelaide's population, includes Islam (2.8%), Hinduism (2.7%) and Buddhism (2.3%).<ref>{{Cite web |titleReligion {{!}} City of Adelaide {{!}} Community profile |urlhttps://profile.id.com.au/adelaide/religion |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130715093651/http://profile.id.com.au/adelaide/religion |url-statusdead |archive-date15 July 2013 |access-date2024-06-24 |website=profile.id.com.au }}</ref>
The Jewish community of the city dates back to 1840. Eight years later, 58 Jews lived in the city.<ref nameJVL>[https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0001_0_00409.html Adelaide] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151015195622/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0001_0_00409.html |date15 October 2015 }}, Jewish Virtual Library, Encyclopaedia Judica, 2008.</ref> A synagogue was built in 1871, when 435 Jews lived in the city. Many took part in the city councils, such as Judah Moss Solomon (1852–66). Three Jews have been elected to the position of city mayor.<ref>[http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/793-adelaide Adelaide] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141108003822/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/793-adelaide |date8 November 2014 }}, JewishEncyclopedia.com, 1906.</ref> In 1968, the Jewish population of Adelaide numbered about 1,200;<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Jewish Community of Adelaide |url https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/adelaide |websiteBeit Hatfutsot Open Databases Project |publisherThe Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot |access-date22 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180722155442/https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/adelaide |archive-date22 July 2018 |url-statuslive }}</ref> in 2001, according to the Australian census, 979 persons declared themselves to be Jewish by religion.<ref name"JVL" /> In 2011, over 1,000 Jews were living in the city, served by an Orthodox synagogue, Adelaide Hebrew Congregation and a Reform synagogue, Beit Shalom, in addition to a virtual Jewish museum. Massada College, a Jewish day school opened in the city in 1976 and closed in 2011.<ref>[https://www.jta.org/2011/07/04/global/south-australias-only-jewish-school-to-close South Australia’s only Jewish school to close] Jewish Telegraphic Agency. 4 July 2011</ref><ref>{{cite web |url https://adelaidejmuseum.org/ |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20131216161346/http://www.adelaidejmuseum.org/|url-statuslive |titleAdelaide Jewish Museum |archive-date16 December 2013 |websiteadelaidejmuseum.org }}</ref> The Adelaide Holocaust Museum and Andrew Steiner Education Centre opened in 2020.<ref>[https://gandelfoundation.org.au/2020/11/adelaide-holocaust-museum-is-opening-its-doors-and-the-hearts-of-south-australians/ Adelaide Holocaust Museum is opening its doors and the hearts of South Australians] Gandel Foundation. Retrieved on 17 December 2024</ref>
The "Afghan" community in Australia first became established in the 1860s when camels and their Pathan, Punjabi, Baluchi and Sindhi handlers began to be used to open up settlement in the continent's arid interior.<ref>{{cite book |last1Westrip |first1J. |last2Holroyde |first2P. |year2010 |titleColonial Cousins: a surprising history of connections between India and Australia |publisherWakefield Press |locationKent Town, South Australia |isbn978-1-86254-841-1 |ol24582860M }}</ref> Until eventually superseded by the advent of the railways and motor vehicles, camels played an invaluable economic and social role in transporting heavy loads of goods to and from isolated settlements and mines. This is acknowledged by the name of The Ghan, the passenger train operating between Adelaide, Alice Springs, and Darwin. The Central Adelaide Mosque is regarded as Australia's oldest permanent mosque; an earlier mosque at Marree in northern South Australia, dating from 1861 to 1862 and subsequently abandoned or demolished, has now been rebuilt.
Economy
opened in 2017. Health care and social assistance is the largest ABS-defined employment sector in South Australia.<ref nameautogenerated2>{{cite web |url http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/BDE38EF07F5984D0CA2576F50011FE7D?OpenDocument |title 1345.4 – SA Stats, June 2011 |access-date24 May 2011 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20111116061953/http://abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/mediareleasesbyReleaseDate/BDE38EF07F5984D0CA2576F50011FE7D?OpenDocument |archive-date16 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
South Australia's largest employment sectors are health care and social assistance,<ref nameautogenerated2 /><ref nameautogenerated1>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.adelaidenow.com.au/business/health-now-our-biggest-employer/story-e6frede3-1226046526798 |title Health now our biggest employer – Adelaide Now |access-date24 May 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110430211448/http://www.adelaidenow.com.au/business/health-now-our-biggest-employer/story-e6frede3-1226046526798 |archive-date30 April 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> surpassing manufacturing in SA as the largest employer since 2006–07.<ref nameautogenerated2 /><ref nameautogenerated1 /> In 2009–10, manufacturing in SA had average annual employment of 83,700 persons compared with 103,300 for health care and social assistance.<ref nameautogenerated2 /> Health care and social assistance represented nearly 13% of the state average annual employment.<ref nameautogenerated3>[http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/Previousproducts/1345.4Feature%20Article1Apr%202011?opendocument&tabnameSummary&prodno1345.4&issueApr%202011&num&view1345.4 – SA Stats, Apr 2011] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120502133036/http://www8.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Previousproducts/1345.4Feature%20Article1Apr%202011?opendocument&tabnameSummary&prodno1345.4&issueApr%202011&num&view|date2 May 2012 }}. abs.gov.au. Retrieved 26 July 2013.</ref> The Adelaide Hills wine region is an iconic and viable economic region for both the state and country in terms of wine production and sale. The 2014 vintage is reported as consisting of {{convert|5836|t|abbron}} red grapes crushed valued at A$8,196,142 and {{convert| 12,037|t|abbron}} white grapes crushed valued at $14,777,631.<ref name=PGIBSA25>PGIBSA, 2014, page 25</ref>
The retail trade is the second largest employer in SA (2009–10), with over 91,900 jobs, and 12 per cent of the state workforce.<ref name=autogenerated3 />
Manufacturing, defence technology, high-tech electronic systems and research, commodity export and corresponding service industries all play a role in the SA economy. Almost half of all cars produced in Australia were made in Adelaide at the Holden Elizabeth Plant in Elizabeth.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.southaustralia.biz/fact_sheets/fact_automotive.biz.pdf |titleSouth Australia Fact Sheet: Automotive Industry |publisherGovernment of South Australia |access-date26 July 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070809022714/http://www.southaustralia.biz/fact_sheets/fact_automotive.biz.pdf |archive-date=9 August 2007}}</ref> The site ceased operating in November 2017.
The collapse of the State Bank in 1992 resulted in large levels of state public debt (as much as A$4&nbsp;billion). The collapse meant that successive governments enacted lean budgets, cutting spending, which was a setback to the further economic development of the city and state. The debt has more recently been reduced with the State Government once again receiving a AAA+ Credit Rating.<ref>[http://www.southaustralia.biz/news/sa_creditrating.htm] {{dead link|dateJune 2016|botmedic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
The global media conglomerate News Corporation was founded in, and until 2004 incorporated in, Adelaide and it is still considered its "spiritual" home by its founder, Rupert Murdoch.<ref>{{Cite episode |titleNews Corp bids Adelaide farewell |access-date24 October 2021 |seriesAM |firstNance |lastHaxton |stationABC Radio |date26 October 2004 |time08:24:42 |url=https://www.abc.net.au/am/content/2004/s1227927.htm}}
</ref> Australia's largest oil company, Santos, prominent South Australian brewery, Coopers, and national retailer Harris Scarfe also call Adelaide their home.
In 2018, at which time more than 80 organisations employed 800 people in the space sector in South Australia, Adelaide was chosen for the headquarters of a new Australian Space Agency.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-12-11/australian-space-agency-to-be-based-in-adelaide/10608202 |titleSouth Australia beats strong competition to be home to Australia's new space agency |workABC News (Australia) |last1Maclennan |first1Leah |last2Winter |first2Caroline |date11 December 2018 |access-date28 September 2021 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181211160327/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-12-11/australian-space-agency-to-be-based-in-adelaide/10608202 |archive-date11 December 2018 }}</ref> The agency opened its in 2020. It is working to triple the size of the Australian space industry and create 20,000 new jobs by 2030.<ref>{{cite web|titleAustralian Space Agency opens in Adelaide|publisherDepartment of Industry, Science, Energy and Resources of Australia|date19 February 2020|urlhttps://www.industry.gov.au/news-media/australian-space-agency-news/australian-space-agency-opens-in-adelaide|access-date22 July 2021|archive-date19 February 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200219053024/https://www.industry.gov.au/news-media/australian-space-agency-news/australian-space-agency-opens-in-adelaide|url-statusdead}}</ref>
Defence industry
, August 2004]]
Adelaide is home to a large proportion of Australia's defence industries, which contribute over A$1&nbsp;billion to South Australia's Gross State Product.<ref>[http://indaily.com.au/news/2013/08/28/defence-interactive/ Visualised: How Defence dominates govt tenders in SA] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160128151001/http://indaily.com.au/news/2013/08/28/defence-interactive/ |date28 January 2016 }} InDaily, 28 August 2013. Retrieved 11 January 2016.</ref> The principal government military research institution, the Defence Science and Technology Organisation, and other defence technology organisations such as BAE Systems Australia and Lockheed Martin Australia, are north of Salisbury and west of Elizabeth in an area now called "Edinburgh Parks", adjacent to RAAF Base Edinburgh.
Others, such as Saab Systems and Raytheon, are in or near Technology Park. ASC Pty Ltd, is based in the industrial suburb of Osborne and is also a part of Technology Park. South Australia was charged with constructing Australia's {{sclass|Collins|submarine|1}}s and more recently the A$6&nbsp;billion contract to construct the Royal Australian Navy's new air-warfare destroyers.<ref>[http://www.defencesa.com/ South Australia: The Defence Industry Choice] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120731112615/http://www.defencesa.com/ |date31 July 2012 }}, Defence SA.</ref>
Employment statistics
{{as of|2015|November}}, Greater Adelaide had an unemployment rate of 7.4% with a youth unemployment rate of 15%.<ref>{{cite web |url http://www.skills.sa.gov.au/workforce-information/labour-market |titleWorkforce Wizard &#124; WorkReady – Skills and Employment |website Skills.sa.gov.au |date14 September 2017 |access-date20 September 2017 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160223171250/http://www.skills.sa.gov.au/workforce-information/labour-market |archive-date23 February 2016 |url-statusdead }}</ref>
The median weekly individual income for people aged 15&nbsp;years and over was $447 per week in 2006, compared with $466 nationally. The median family income was $1,137 per week, compared with $1,171 nationally.<ref nameABS>{{Census 2006 AUS|id405|nameAdelaide (Statistical Division)|quickon|access-date28 February 2008}}</ref> Adelaide's housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other Australian cities, with housing being notably cheaper. The median Adelaide house price is half that of Sydney and two-thirds that of Melbourne. The three-month trend unemployment rate to March 2007 was 6.2%.<ref>[http://www.workplace.gov.au/lmip/LabourForceData/SouthAustralia/Adelaide/ Adelaide] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070904085208/http://www.workplace.gov.au/lmip/LabourForceData/SouthAustralia/Adelaide/ |date4 September 2007 }}, Labour Market Information Portal.</ref> The Northern suburbs' unemployment rate is disproportionately higher than the other regions of Adelaide at 8.3%, while the East and South are lower than the Adelaide average at 4.9% and 5.0% respectively.<ref>[http://www.workplace.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/1E5ADA69-1DF0-4680-A16A-F376109E9091/0/SA_6_Regions_2007_04.pdf SA Regional Labour Force Data] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070619211401/http://www.workplace.gov.au/NR/rdonlyres/1E5ADA69-1DF0-4680-A16A-F376109E9091/0/SA_6_Regions_2007_04.pdf |date19 June 2007 }}, April 2007, Australian Bureau of Statistics Labour Force Survey.</ref> House prices
Over the decade March 2001 – March 2010, Metropolitan Adelaide median house prices approximately tripled. (approx. 285% – approx. 11%p.a. compounding)
In the five years March 2007 – March 2012, prices increased by approx. 27% – approx. 5%p.a. compounding. March 2012 – March 2017 saw a further increase of 19% – approx. 3.5%p.a. compounding.<ref>{{cite web |titleState and Metro Adelaide Historical Median House Prices |urlhttps://www.reisa.com.au/documents/item/54 |websitereisa.com.au |access-date9 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190317073307/https://www.reisa.com.au/documents/item/54 |archive-date17 March 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titlestatistics |urlhttps://www.reisa.com.au/documents/item/58 |websitereisa.com.au |access-date9 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190317073340/https://www.reisa.com.au/documents/item/58 |archive-date17 March 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleSA house prices surge ahead |urlhttp://wic003lc.server-web.com/~admin417/uploads/Stats/Stats |websiteWic003lc.server-web.com |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100704192553/http://wic003lc.server-web.com/~admin417/uploads/Stats/Stats%20Mar10.pdf |archive-date4 July 2010}}</ref><ref name":0">{{cite web|urlhttps://www.sa.gov.au/topics/planning-and-property/buying-a-home-or-property/researching-a-property/median-house-sales-by-quarter|titleMedian house sales by quarter|lastAustralia|firstGovernment of South|websitesa.gov.au|access-date21 June 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170704200642/http://www.sa.gov.au/topics/planning-and-property/buying-a-home-or-property/researching-a-property/median-house-sales-by-quarter|archive-date4 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
In summary:
{| class=wikitable
|- align=right
! March|| 2001 || 2002 || 2003 || 2004 || 2005 || 2006 || 2007 || 2008 || 2009 || 2010
|- align=right
| Median || $140,000 || $170,000 || $200,000 || $250,000 || $270,000 || $280,000 || $300,000 || $360,000 || $350,000 || $400,000
|- align=right
|% change || || 21% || 18% || 25% || 8% || 4% || 7% || 20% || −3% || 14%
|- align=right
! March || 2011 || 2012 || 2013 || 2014 || 2015 || 2016 || 2017 || 2018 || 2019 || 2020
|- align=right
| Median || $400,000 || $380,000 || $393,000 || $413,000 || $425,000 || $436,000 || $452,000 || $470,000 || $478,500 ||
|- align=right
|% change || 0% || −5% || 3% || 5% || 3% || 3% || 4% || || ||
|-
| colspan11 |All numbers approximate and rounded.<br />Since March 2012, the REISA<ref nameRESIA>Real Estate Institute of South Australia (REISA)</ref> no longer release a median house price for the Adelaide Metropolitan area, so figures retrieved are from Dept of the Premier and Cabinet.<ref name=":0" />
|}
Each quarter, The Alternative and Direct Investment Securities Association (ADISA) publishes a list of median house sale prices by suburb and Local Government Area.{{citation needed|dateOctober 2014}} (Previously, this was done by REISA<ref nameRESIA />) Due to the small sizes of many of Adelaide's suburbs, the low volumes of sales in these suburbs, and (over time) the huge variations in the numbers of sales in a suburb in a quarter, statistical analysis of "the most expensive suburb" is unreliable; the suburbs appearing in the "top 10 most expensive suburbs this quarter" list is constantly varying. Quarterly Reports for the last two years can be found on the REISA website.<ref>{{cite web |last|first |date23 August 2023 |titleMedian House Prices – REISA |urlhttps://members.reisa.com.au/publicinfo/median-house-prices |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121203220313/http://www.reisa.com.au/publicinfo/median-house-prices |archive-date3 December 2012 |access-date23 August 2023 |websiteThe Real Estate Institute of South Australia (REISA)}}</ref>
<!--These files have been moved!! Need to find where they've been moved to – work in progress.*2006: [http://wic003lc.server-web.com/~admin417/uploads/Documents/QuarterlyHousePrices.pdf Q4]
* 2007: Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4*2008: Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4*2009: Q1, Q2, Q3, Q4*2010: Q1, Q2, Q3, [http://wic003lc.serverweb.com/~admin417/uploads/Stats/House%20Prices%20Dec10.pdf Q4]-->
Education and research
{{Main|South Australia#Education|l1=Education in South Australia}}
, part of the University of Adelaide]]
Education forms an increasingly important part of the city's economy, with the South Australian Government and educational institutions attempting to position Adelaide as "Australia's education hub" and marketing it as a "Learning City".<ref name"eduhub">{{cite news |firstVerity |lastEdwards |titleEducation attracts record numbers |workThe Weekend Australian |date3 May 2008}}</ref> The number of international students studying in Adelaide has increased rapidly in recent years to 30,726 in 2015, of which 1,824 were secondary school students.<ref name"thecity">{{cite news |firstAmelia |lastBroadstock |titleInternational Uni student numbers a billion dollar boom for Adelaide |workThe City Messenger |date6 May 2015}}</ref>
<!--In addition to the city's existing institutions, foreign institutions have been attracted to set up campuses to increase its attractiveness as an education hub.<ref name"UCL">{{cite news |firstLucy |lastHodges |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/higher/brave-new-territory-university-college-london-to-open-a-branch-in-australia-835571.html |titleBrave new territory: University College London to open a branch in Australia |workThe Independent (UK) |date29 May 2008 |access-date23 August 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110317175924/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/education/higher/brave-new-territory-university-college-london-to-open-a-branch-in-australia-835571.html |archive-date17 March 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.heinz.cmu.edu.au/about-heinz-australia/index.aspx |titleAbout Heinz Australia: Carnegie Mellon Heinz College |publisherCarnegie Mellon University |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110410081304/http://www.heinz.cmu.edu.au/about-heinz-australia/index.aspx |archive-date=10 April 2011 }}</ref> -->
Adelaide is the birthplace of three Nobel laureates, more than any other Australian city: physicist William Lawrence Bragg and pathologists Howard Florey and Robin Warren, all of whom completed secondary and tertiary education at St Peter's College and the University of Adelaide.
Adelaide is also the hometown of mathematician Terence Tao.<ref>{{Cite web |date25 March 2024 |titleVitae and Bibliography for Terence Tao |urlhttps://www.math.ucla.edu/~tao/preprints/cv.html |access-date12 December 2024}}</ref>
Primary and secondary education
There are two systems of primary and secondary schools, a public system operated by the South Australian Government's Department for Education, and a private system of independent and Catholic schools.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://australia101.com/lifestyle/education/|titleAustralia 101 – Education in Australia|websiteaustralia101.com|access-date14 June 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190309142858/http://australia101.com/lifestyle/education|archive-date9 March 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref> South Australian schools provide education under the Australian Curriculum for reception to Year 10 students. In Years 10 to 12, students study for the South Australian Certificate of Education (SACE). They have the option of incorporating vocational education and training (VET) courses or a flexible learning option (FLO).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.sa.gov.au/topics/education-and-learning/curriculum-and-learning/south-australian-curriculum|titleCurriculum in South Australian schools|access-date12 October 2022|websitesa.gov.au}}</ref> South Australia also has 24 schools that use International Baccalaureate programs as an alternative to the Australian Curriculum or SACE. These programs include the IB Primary Years Programme, the IB Middle Years Programme, and the IB Diploma Programme.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://ibaustralasia.org/schools/SA|titleFind an IB school South Australia|access-date12 October 2022|websiteib schools australasia|archive-date12 October 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221012045333/https://ibaustralasia.org/schools/SA|url-statusdead}}</ref>
For South Australian students who cannot attend a traditional school, including students who live in rural or remote areas, the state government runs the Open Access College (OAC), which provides virtual teaching. The OAC has a campus in Marden which caters to students from reception to Year 12 and adults who haven't been able to complete their SACE.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.sa.gov.au/topics/education-and-learning/schools/alternative-schooling/external-education|titleExternal education|access-date12 October 2022|websitesa.gov.au}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.openaccess.edu.au/about-oac/marden-campus|titleMarden Campus|date20 March 2019|access-date12 October 2022|websiteOpen Access College}}</ref> Guardians are also able to apply for their child to be educated from home as long as they provide an education program which meets the same requirements as the Australian Curriculum as well as opportunities for social interaction.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.sa.gov.au/topics/education-and-learning/schools/alternative-schooling/home-education|titleHome education|access-date12 October 2022|websitesa.gov.au}}</ref> Tertiary education
houses campuses of several international universities operating in South Australia]]
There are three public universities local to Adelaide, as well as one private university and three constituent colleges of foreign universities. Flinders University of South Australia, the University of Adelaide, the University of South Australia and Torrens University Australia—part of the Laureate International Universities are based in Adelaide. The University of Adelaide was ranked in the top 150 universities worldwide. Flinders ranked in the top 250 and Uni SA in the top 300. Torrens University Australia is part of an international network of over 70 higher education institutions in more than 30 countries worldwide.
<!--The historic Torrens Building in Victoria Square<ref>The historic Torrens Building in Victoria Square was beautifully restored at (considerable) taxpayer expense not long before SA Premier Mike Rann announced that it would be used as the core of Adelaide's international university precinct.{{Citation needed|dateJanuary 2011}}</ref> houses Carnegie Mellon University's Heinz College Australia, and University College London's School of Energy and Resources (Australia), and constitute the city's international university precinct.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.goingtouni.gov.au/Main/CoursesAndProviders/ProvidersAndCourses/HigherEducationProviders/SA/CarnegieMellonUniversity.htm |workGoingToUni.gov.au |publisherGovernment of South Australia |titleCarnegie Mellon University |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111123015458/http://www.goingtouni.gov.au/Main/CoursesAndProviders/ProvidersAndCourses/HigherEducationProviders/SA/CarnegieMellonUniversity.htm |archive-date23 November 2011}}</ref>-->
The University of Adelaide, with 25,000 students,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.adelaide.edu.au/uni/facts/ |titleFacts & Figures |publisherUniversity of Adelaide |access-date1 June 2012 |archive-date21 July 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721020522/http://www.adelaide.edu.au/uni/facts/}}</ref> is Australia's third-oldest university and a member of the leading "Group of Eight". It has five campuses throughout the state, including two in the city-centre, and a campus in Singapore. The University of South Australia, with 37,000 students,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://w3.unisa.edu.au/news/facts.asp |titleFacts about UniSA |publisherUniversity of South Australia |access-date1 June 2012 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120516160441/http://w3.unisa.edu.au/news/facts.asp |archive-date16 May 2012 |url-statuslive }}</ref> has two North Terrace campuses, three other campuses in the metropolitan area and campuses in the regional cities of Whyalla and Mount Gambier. The University of Adelaide and the University of South Australia have had multiple proposals to merge into a single university. A proposal in 2018 failed due to uncertainty as to the new name and leadership of the merged university.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-01-21/documents-shed-light-on-university-of-adelaide-sa-failed-merger/12960276|titleUniversity of Adelaide, UniSA merger proposal failed after uncertainty over name and leadership|lastSiebert|firstBension|date21 January 2021|access-date23 December 2022|websiteABC News}}</ref> In 2022, the universities announced a new merger proposal, with the name and leadership issues settled and support from the South Australian government.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-12-07/universities-of-adelaide-and-south-australia-move-to-merge/101746396|titleUniversity of Adelaide and UniSA revive merger talks, with new combined uni pitched for 2026|date7 December 2022|access-date23 December 2022|websiteABC News}}</ref>
Flinders University, with 25,184 students,<ref>[https://www.flinders.edu.au/about/fast-facts/student-staff-numbers Student and staff numbers, 2016] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180226211709/https://www.flinders.edu.au/about/fast-facts/student-staff-numbers |date26 February 2018 }} Flinders University, 21 July 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2018.</ref> is based in the southern suburb of Bedford Park, alongside the Flinders Medical Centre, with additional campuses in neighbouring Tonsley and in Victoria Square in the city centre.
In 2024, the University of the Sunshine Coast opened a new campus in Adelaide where undergraduate and master's courses in ICT and business are offered.<ref name"p920">{{cite web | titleUniSC announces Adelaide campus | websiteUniSC | date2024-04-23 | urlhttps://www.usc.edu.au/about/unisc-news/news-archive/2024/may/unisc-announces-adelaide-campus | access-date2025-01-25}}</ref><ref name"d156">{{cite web | titleUniSC Adelaide | websiteUniSC | urlhttps://www.usc.edu.au/study/life-at-unisc/study-locations/unisc-adelaide | access-date=2025-01-25}}</ref>
The Adelaide College of Divinity is at Brooklyn Park.
There are several South Australian TAFE (Technical and Further Education) campuses in the metropolitan area that provide a range of vocational education and training. The Adelaide College of the Arts, as a school of TAFE SA, provides nationally recognised training in visual and performing arts.
StudyAdelaide, a collaboration between the South Australian government and the tertiary education sector, maintains an on-line list of schools, universities, and higher education institutions in SA.<ref>[https://studyadelaide.com/study/institutions Institutions]. StudyAdelaide. Retrieved 30 March 2025.</ref>
Research
]]
In addition to the universities, Adelaide is home to research institutes, including the Royal Institution of Australia, established in 2009 as a counterpart to the two-hundred-year-old Royal Institution of Great Britain.<ref>{{cite news |firstVerity |lastEdwards |titleRI Australia plugs into world science |workThe Weekend Australian |date=3 May 2008}}</ref> Many of the organisations involved in research tend to be geographically clustered throughout the Adelaide metropolitan area:
* The east end of North Terrace: SA Pathology;<ref>[http://www.imvs.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/SA+Pathology+Internet+Content/IMVS/About+Us/History/ History] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110116192755/http://www.imvs.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/SA+Pathology+Internet+Content/IMVS/About+Us/History/ |date16 January 2011 }}, [http://www.imvs.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/SA+Pathology+Internet+Content/IMVS/About+Us/Our+Research/ Our research] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110116192806/http://www.imvs.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/SA+Pathology+Internet+Content/IMVS/About+Us/Our+Research/ |date16 January 2011 }}, Institute of Medical and Veterinary Science</ref> Hanson Institute;<ref>[http://www.hansoninstitute.sa.gov.au/ About us] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080725031302/http://www.hansoninstitute.sa.gov.au/ |date25 July 2008 }}, [http://www.hansoninstitute.sa.gov.au/aboutus/history.php History] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080725031302/http://www.hansoninstitute.sa.gov.au/ |date25 July 2008 }} , Hanson Institute</ref> National Wine Centre.
* The west end of North Terrace: South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), located next to the Royal Adelaide Hospital.
* The Waite Research Precinct: SARDI Head Office and Plant Research Centre; AWRI;<ref>[http://www.awri.com.au/ The Australian Wine Research Institute (AWRI)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101225174859/https://www.awri.com.au/ |date25 December 2010 }}, awri.com.au</ref> ACPFG;<ref>[http://www.acpfg.com.au/ Australian Centre for Plant Functional Genomics (ACPFG)] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101218142922/http://www.acpfg.com.au/ |date18 December 2010 }}, acpfg.com.au</ref> CSIRO research laboratories.<ref name"CSIROWaite">{{cite web | titleWaite Campus, Urrbrae | websiteCSIRO | date6 September 2019 | urlhttps://www.csiro.au/en/Locations/SA/Urrbrae | access-date6 September 2019 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190906061825/https://www.csiro.au/en/Locations/SA/Urrbrae | archive-date6 September 2019 | url-statuslive }}</ref> SARDI also has establishments at Glenside<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sardi.sa.gov.au/about_us_2/facilities/glenside_laboratories |titleLivestock – Glenside Laboratories |access-date6 January 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110219151446/http://www.sardi.sa.gov.au/about_us_2/facilities/glenside_laboratories |archive-date19 February 2011 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and West Beach.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sardi.sa.gov.au/about_us_2/facilities/sa_aquatic_sciences_centre/sa_aquatic_sciences_centre |titleSARDI |access-date6 January 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110219154303/http://www.sardi.sa.gov.au/about_us_2/facilities/sa_aquatic_sciences_centre/sa_aquatic_sciences_centre |archive-date19 February 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Edinburgh, South Australia: DSTO; BAE Systems (Australia); Lockheed Martin Australia Electronic Systems.
* Technology Park (Mawson Lakes): BAE Systems; Optus; Raytheon; Topcon; Lockheed Martin Australia Electronic Systems.
* Research Park at Thebarton: businesses involved in materials engineering, biotechnology, environmental services, information technology, industrial design, laser/optics technology, health products, engineering services, radar systems, telecommunications and petroleum services.
* Science Park (adjacent to Flinders University): Playford Capital.
* The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research<ref>{{cite web |titleA great of the SA science world |urlhttps://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/a-great-of-the-sa-science-world/news-story/9338949922d55092230a3a77e2b749c9 |websiteThe Advertiser|locationAdelaide |date24 May 2012 |access-date9 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181215223914/https://www.adelaidenow.com.au/news/south-australia/a-great-of-the-sa-science-world/news-story/9338949922d55092230a3a77e2b749c9 |archive-date15 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> in Woodville the research arm of the Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Adelaide
* The Joanna Briggs Institute, a global research collaboration for evidence-based healthcare with its headquarters in North Adelaide.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:OIC adelaide north terrace bldg nr east end.jpg|Mitchell Building, University of Adelaide
File:Hawke Building, UniSA.jpg| The Hawke Building, part of UniSA's City West Campus
File:Flinders from hill 3.jpg| Flinders University buildings from the campus hills
File:Torrens Building, Victoria Square.jpg| Torrens University
File:SAHMRI.jpg| South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI)
</gallery>
{{anchor|culture}}Cultural life
on North Terrace]]
{{see also|Tourism in Adelaide|South Australia#Cultural life|Department of the Premier and Cabinet (South Australia)#Arts and culture|List of festivals in Australia#South Australia}}
on the River Torrens (mid right), Adelaide Oval (further, left) and Adelaide Festival Centre (near right) are also in view.]]
While established as a British province, and very much English in terms of its culture, Adelaide attracted immigrants from other parts of Europe early on, including German and other European non-conformists escaping religious persecution. The first German Lutherans arrived in 1838,<ref>Monteath, P., Paul, M., & Martin, R. (2014): Interned: Torrens Island 1914–1915, Wakefield Press, {{ISBN|9781743053386}} p. 8</ref> bringing with them the vine cuttings that they used to found the acclaimed wineries of the Barossa Valley.
The Royal Adelaide Show is an annual agricultural show and state fair, established in 1839 and now a huge event held in the Adelaide Showground annually.
Adelaide's arts scene flourished in the 1960s and 1970s with the support of successive premiers from both major political parties. The renowned Adelaide Festival of Arts was established in 1960 under Thomas Playford, which in the same year spawned an unofficial uncurated series of performances and exhibits which grew into the Adelaide Fringe. Construction of the Adelaide Festival Centre began under Steele Hall in 1970 and was completed under the subsequent government of Don Dunstan, who also established the South Australian Film Corporation in 1972 and the State Opera of South Australia in 1976.
Over time, the Adelaide Festival expanded to include Adelaide Writers' Week and WOMADelaide, and other separate festivals were established, such as the Adelaide Cabaret Festival (2002), the Adelaide Festival of Ideas (1999), the Adelaide Film Festival (2013), FEAST (1999, a queer culture), Tasting Australia (1997, a food and wine affair), and Illuminate Adelaide (2021). With the Festival, the Fringe, WOMADelaide, Writers' Week and the Adelaide 500 street motor racing event (along with evening music concerts) all happening in early March, the period became known colloquially as "Mad March".
In 2014, Ghil'ad Zuckermann founded the Adelaide Language Festival.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://arts.adelaide.edu.au/linguistics/alf/|titleAdelaide Language Festival 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150310023446/http://arts.adelaide.edu.au/linguistics/alf/|archive-date10 March 2015|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.lcnau2017.org/adelaide-languages-festival|titleAdelaide Language Festival, 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170909142218/https://www.lcnau2017.org/adelaide-languages-festival|archive-date9 September 2017|url-statusdead}}</ref>
There are many international cultural fairs, most notably the German Schützenfest and Greek Glendi. Adelaide holds an annual Christmas pageant, the world's largest Christmas parade.
]]
North Terrace institutions
As the state capital, Adelaide has a great number of cultural institutions, many of them along the boulevard of North Terrace. The Art Gallery of South Australia, with about 35,000 works, holds Australia's second largest state-based collection. Adjacent are the South Australian Museum and State Library of South Australia. The Adelaide Botanic Garden, National Wine Centre and Tandanya National Aboriginal Cultural Institute are nearby in the East End of the city. In the back of the State Library lies the Migration Museum, Australia's oldest museum of its kind.
Further west, the Lion Arts Centre is home to ACE Open, which showcases contemporary art; Dance Hub SA; and other studios and arts industry spaces. The Mercury Cinema and the JamFactory ceramics and design gallery are just around the corner.
Performing arts venues
]]
, the largest indoor sports and entertainment venue in Adelaide]]
The Adelaide Festival Centre (which includes the Dunstan Playhouse, Festival Theatre and Space Theatre), on the banks of the Torrens, is the focal point for much of the cultural activity in the city and home to the State Theatre Company of South Australia. Other live music and theatre venues include the Adelaide Entertainment Centre; Adelaide Oval; Memorial Drive Park; Thebarton Theatre; Adelaide Town Hall; Her Majesty's Theatre; Queen's Theatre; Holden Theatres; and the Hopgood Theatre.
The Lion Arts Factory, within the Lion Arts Centre, hosts contemporary music in a wide range of genres, as does "The Gov" in Hindmarsh. The city also has numerous smaller theatres, pubs and cabaret bars which host performances.
Music
, colloquially known as the "Thebby", is one of South Australia's most popular live music venues.]]
{{further|Music of Adelaide}}
In 2015, it was said that there were now more live music venues per capita in Adelaide than any other capital city in the southern hemisphere,<ref>{{cite news|websiteABC News|publisherAustralian Broadcasting Corporation|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-03-04/cold-chisel-a-reminder-of-sa-music-scene-before-decentralisation/6276746|titleCold Chisel a reminder of SA's music scene before pokies and inner-city apartments 'decentralised' it|date4 March 2015|firstMalcolm|lastSutton|access-date24 August 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181031033946/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-03-04/cold-chisel-a-reminder-of-sa-music-scene-before-decentralisation/6276746|archive-date31 October 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|websiteThe Conversation|urlhttp://theconversation.com/is-melbourne-the-music-capital-of-australia-sydney-or-adelaide-might-pip-it-to-the-post-77087|titleIs Melbourne the music capital of Australia? Sydney or Adelaide might pip it to the post|firstAndrea Jean|lastBaker|date16 May 2017|access-date24 August 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181208075500/http://theconversation.com/is-melbourne-the-music-capital-of-australia-sydney-or-adelaide-might-pip-it-to-the-post-77087|archive-date8 December 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref> Lonely Planet labelled Adelaide "Australia's live music city",<ref>{{cite web|websiteMusic SA|urlhttp://www.musicsa.com.au/south-australian-live-music-venues-open-for-business/|titleSouth Australian Live Music Venues Open for Business|access-date24 August 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190305153042/http://www.musicsa.com.au/south-australian-live-music-venues-open-for-business/|archive-date5 March 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref> and the city was recognised as a "City of Music" by the UNESCO Creative Cities Network.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/node/309|titleAdelaide: Creative Cities Network|publisherUNESCO|access-date4 September 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160915231624/https://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/node/309|archive-date15 September 2016|url-statuslive}}</ref> Although there were many pubs hosting live music in the CBD in past, the number has slowly diminished. The Grace Emily on Waymouth Street, which was refurbished as a live music venue around 2000, is popular with musicians and patrons alike.<ref>{{cite web | lastMarsh | firstWalter | title'We've had one fight in 15 years': is the Grace Emily hotel Australia's best music venue? | websitethe Guardian | date23 March 2024 | urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2024/mar/24/best-music-gig-venue-australia-grace-emily-hotel-adelaide-john-darnielle-tim-rogers | access-date13 September 2024}}</ref> The Crown & Anchor ("the Cranker") was saved from demolition in 2024 after a vigorous campaign by the public as well as many musicians and politicians. New legislation passed on 11 September 2024 designates the entire Adelaide CBD as a "live music venue area", and gives protection to selected live music venues.<ref>{{cite web | titlePop-up venue hunt continues as Save the Cranker laws pass|firstDavid |lastSimmons | websiteInDaily | date11 September 2024 | urlhttps://www.indaily.com.au/news/community/2024/09/11/pop-up-venue-hunt-continues-as-save-the-cranker-laws-pass | access-date=13 September 2024}}</ref>
In addition to its own WOMAD (WOMADelaide), Adelaide has attracted several touring music festivals, including Creamfields, Laneway, and Groovin' (some since defunct).
Adelaide has produced musical groups and individuals who have achieved national and international fame. These include the Adelaide Symphony Orchestra, the Adelaide Youth Orchestra, rock bands The Angels, Atlas Genius, Cold Chisel, The Superjesus, Wolf & Cub, roots/blues group The Audreys, internationally acclaimed metal acts I Killed The Prom Queen and Double Dragon, popular Australian hip-hop outfit Hilltop Hoods, as well as pop acts like Sia, Orianthi, Guy Sebastian, and Wes Carr, and the internationally successful tribute act, The Australian Pink Floyd Show.
Noted rocker Jimmy Barnes (formerly lead vocalist with Cold Chisel) spent most of his youth in the northern suburb of Elizabeth. Australian singer-songwriter Paul Kelly grew up in Adelaide and was head prefect at Rostrevor College. The first Australian Idol winner, Guy Sebastian, hails from the north-eastern suburb of Golden Grove.<ref>{{cite news |titleGuy cancels shows |urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/national/guy-cancels-shows-20031210-gdhyep.html |access-date23 March 2022 |workThe Sydney Morning Herald |date10 December 2003 |languageen}}</ref>
Television
Adelaide is served by numerous digital free-to-air television channels:{{citation needed|reasonOriginally stated 28, 30 in following list, not common knowledge|dateJanuary 2018}}
{{Div col|colwidth=18em}}
# ABC
# ABC HD (ABC broadcast in HD)
# ABC TV Plus
# ABC Me
# ABC News
# SBS
# SBS HD (SBS broadcast in HD)
# SBS World Movies HD
# SBS Viceland HD
# SBS Food
# NITV
# SBS WorldWatch
# Seven
# 7HD (Seven broadcast in HD)
# 7Two
# 7mate
# 7Bravo
# 7flix
# Racing.com
# Nine
# 9HD (Nine broadcast in HD)
# 9Gem
# 9Go!
# 9Life
# 9Gem HD
# 9Rush
# Extra
# 10
# 10 HD (10 broadcast in HD)
# 10 Bold
# 10 Peach
# 10 Shake
# TVSN
# Gecko TV
# C44 Adelaide (Adelaide's community TV station)
{{div col end}}
All of the five Australian national television networks broadcast both high-definition digital and standard-definition digital television services in Adelaide. They share three transmission towers on the ridge near the summit of Mount Lofty. There are two other transmission sites at 25 Grenfell Street, Adelaide and Elizabeth Downs.<ref>{{cite web|titleDigital television reception in Craigmore/Hillbank |urlhttp://www.archive.dbcde.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/128912/Craigmore-Hillbank_Fact_Sheet_-_Final_-_Web_ready.pdf |publisherAustralian Government |access-date29 April 2013 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130505080550/http://www.archive.dbcde.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/128912/Craigmore-Hillbank_Fact_Sheet_-_Final_-_Web_ready.pdf |archive-date=5 May 2013 }}</ref> The two government-funded stations are run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC South Australia) and the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS). The Seven Network and Network Ten both own their Adelaide stations (SAS-7 and ADS-10 respectively). Adelaide's NWS-9 is part of the Nine Network. Adelaide also has a community television station, Channel 44.
As part of a nationwide phase-out of analogue television in Australia, Adelaide's analogue television service was shut down on 2 April 2013.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://myswitch.digitalready.gov.au/default.aspx?search5000 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140705181200/http://myswitch.digitalready.gov.au/default.aspx?search5000 |url-statusdead |archive-date5 July 2014 |title=mySwitch }}</ref>
The Foxtel pay TV service is also available via cable or satellite to the entire metropolitan area.
All the major broadcasting networks also operate online on-demand television services, alongside internet-only services such as Stan, Fetch TV, Netflix, YouTube, Disney+, and Kayo Sports.
Radio
{{Main list|List of radio stations in Australia#Adelaide}}
There are 20 radio stations that serve the metropolitan area, as well as four stations that serve only parts of the metropolitan area; six commercial stations, six community stations, six national stations and two narrowcast stations.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://worldradiomap.com/au/adelaide|titleWorld Radio Map – Adelaide|access-date27 August 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181224190705/http://worldradiomap.com/au/adelaide|archive-date24 December 2018|url-statuslive}}</ref>
DAB+ digital radio has been broadcasting in metropolitan Adelaide since 20 May 2009, and currently offers a choice of 41 stations all operated by the existing licensed radio broadcasters, which includes high-quality simulcast of all AM and FM stations.
Sport
{{Main|Sport in South Australia}}
is the home of Australian Rules football and cricket in South Australia.]]
hosts Adelaide United.]]
The main sports played professionally in Adelaide are Australian Rules football, soccer, cricket, netball, and basketball. Adelaide is the home of two Australian Football League teams: the Adelaide Football Club and Port Adelaide Football Club, and one A-League soccer team, Adelaide United. A local Australian rules football league, the South Australian National Football League (SANFL), is made up of 10 teams from around Adelaide. The SANFL has been in operation since 1877 when it began as the South Australian Football Association (SAFA) before changing its name to the SANFL in 1927. The SANFL is the oldest surviving football league of any code played in Australia.{{citation needed|date=May 2014}}
Adelaide has developed a strong culture of attracting crowds to major sporting events.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.theroar.com.au/2010/01/17/australian-sport-owes-much-to-little-old-adelaide/ |titleAustralian sport owes much to little old Adelaide |access-date20 January 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100203023151/http://www.theroar.com.au/2010/01/17/australian-sport-owes-much-to-little-old-adelaide/ |archive-date3 February 2010 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Until the completion of the 2012–14 renovation and upgrade of the Adelaide Oval, most large sporting events took place at either Football Park (the then home base of the Adelaide Crows, and the then Port Adelaide home game venue), or the historic Adelaide Oval, home of the South Australia Redbacks and the Adelaide Strikers cricket teams. Since completion of the upgrade, home games for Adelaide Crows and Port Adelaide now take place at Adelaide Oval.
Since 1884, Adelaide Oval has also hosted an international cricket test every summer, along with a number of One Day International cricket matches. Memorial Drive Park, adjacent to the Adelaide Oval, used to host Davis Cup and other major tennis events, including the Australian Open and the Adelaide International. Adelaide's professional association football team, Adelaide United, play in the A-League. Founded in 2003, their home ground is Coopers Stadium, which has a capacity of 16,500 and is one of the few purpose-built soccer stadia in Australia. Prior to United's foundation, Adelaide City and West Adelaide represented the city in the National Soccer League. The two sides, which contest the Adelaide derby against one another, now play in the National Premier Leagues South Australia.
For two years, 1997 and 1998, Adelaide was represented in Australia's top level rugby league, after the New South Wales Rugby League had played a single game per season at the Adelaide Oval for five years starting in 1991.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/venues/adelaide-oval/results.html |titleRugby League Project – Adelaide Oval |access-date1 December 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161201212057/http://www.rugbyleagueproject.org/venues/adelaide-oval/results.html |archive-date1 December 2016 |url-statuslive }}</ref> The Adelaide Rams were formed and played in the breakaway Super League (SL) competition in 1997 before moving to the new National Rugby League in 1998. Initially playing at the Adelaide Oval, the club moved to the more suitable Hindmarsh Stadium late in the 1998 season. As part of a peace deal with the Australian Rugby League to end the Super League war, the club's owners News Limited (who were also owners of the SL) suddenly closed the club only weeks before the start of the 1999 season.
Adelaide has two professional basketball teams, the men's team being the Adelaide 36ers which plays in the National Basketball League (NBL) and the women's team, the Adelaide Lightning which plays in the Women's National Basketball League (WNBL). The Adelaide 36ers play at the Adelaide Entertainment Centre while the Adelaide Lightning play at the Adelaide Arena (Previously Titanium Security Arena). Adelaide has a professional netball team, the Adelaide Thunderbirds, which plays in the national netball competition, the Suncorp Super Netball championship, with home games played at Netball SA Stadium. The Thunderbirds occasionally play games or finals at the Titanium Security Arena, while international netball matches are usually played at the 10,500 seat Adelaide Entertainment Centre. The Titanium Security Arena has a capacity of 8,000 and is the largest purpose-built basketball stadium in Australia.
is the first event of the UCI World Tour calendar.]]
Since 1999 Adelaide and its surrounding areas have hosted the Tour Down Under bicycle race, organised and directed by Adelaide-based Michael Turtur. Turtur won an Olympic gold medal for Australia in the 4000&nbsp;m team pursuit at the 1984 Los Angeles Olympics. The Tour Down Under is the largest cycling event outside Europe and was the first event outside Europe to be granted UCI ProTour status.
The 2024 Women's Tour Down Under cycle stage race was held in and around Adelaide, South Australia from 12 to 14 January 2024
Adelaide maintains a franchise in the Australian Baseball League, the Adelaide Giants. They have been playing since 2009, and their home stadium (until 2016) was Norwood Oval. From 2016 the team moved to the Diamond Sports Stadium located near the Adelaide International Airport due to renovations at Norwood.<ref>{{cite web | titleBaseball Australia | websiteAdelaide Giants Baseball | date8 November 2022 | urlhttps://adelaidegiants.com.au/news/adelaide-giants-return-as-bite-rebrand/ | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221108074904/https://adelaidegiants.com.au/news/adelaide-giants-return-as-bite-rebrand/ | archive-date8 November 2022 | url-statuslive | access-date8 November 2022}}</ref>
Adelaide also has an ice hockey team, Adelaide Adrenaline in the Australian Ice Hockey League (AIHL). It was national champions in 2009 and plays its games at the IceArenA.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.adelaideadrenaline.com.au/ |titleadelaideadrenaline.com.au |workAdelaide Adrenaline 2014 |access-date25 June 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130703132801/http://www.adelaideadrenaline.com.au/ |archive-date3 July 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The Australian Grand Prix for World Championship Formula One racing was hosted by Adelaide from 1985 to 1995 on the Adelaide Street Circuit which was laid out in the city's East End as well as the eastern parklands including the Victoria Park Racecourse.<ref name"f1-move">{{cite web|titleAdelaide Street Circuit |publisherFormula 1 Database |urlhttp://www.f1db.com/f1/page/Adelaide_Street_Circuit |access-date13 June 2007 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071011110633/https://www.f1db.com/f1/page/Adelaide_Street_Circuit |archive-date11 October 2007 }}</ref> The Grand Prix became a source of pride, and losing the event to Melbourne in a surprise announcement in mid-1993 left a void that has since been filled with the Adelaide 500 for V8 Supercar racing, held on a modified version of the same street circuit. The Classic Adelaide, a rally of classic sporting vehicles, is also held in the city and its surrounds.
Adelaide formerly had three horse racing venues. Victoria Park, Cheltenham Park Racecourse, both of which have now closed, and Morphettville Racecourse that remains the home of the South Australian Jockey Club. It also has Globe Derby Park for Harness racing that opened in 1969, and by 1973 had become Adelaide's premier harness racing venue taking over from the Wayville Showgrounds, as well as Greyhound Park for greyhound racing that opened in 1972.
The World Solar Challenge race attracts teams from around the world, most of which are fielded by universities or corporations, although some are fielded by high schools. The race has a 20-years' history spanning nine races, with the inaugural event taking place in 1987. Adelaide hosted the 2012 World Bowls Championships<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.worldbowls2012.com/ |title2012 World Bowls Championships |websiteWorldbowls2012.com |access-date11 November 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111105120813/http://www.worldbowls2012.com/ |archive-date5 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> at Lockleys Bowling Club, becoming the third city in the world to have held the championships twice, having previously hosted the event in 1996.
Dirt track speedway is also popular in Adelaide with three operating speedways. Adelaide Motorsport Park, located adjacent to the Adelaide International Raceway road racing circuit at Virginia ({{convert|24|km|0|abbr=on}} north of the city centre) has been in continuous operation since 1979 after the closure of the popular Rowley Park Speedway. Gillman Speedway located in the semi-industrial suburb of Gillman, has been in operation since 1998 and caters to Motorcycle speedway and Sidecars, while the Sidewinders Speedway located in Wingfield is also a motorcycle speedway dedicated to Under-16 riders and has been in operation since 1978.
In 2016, backed by South Australia's Peregrine Corporation opened up a multi-purpose facility; a state-of-the-art motorsporting park and a hotel alongside its newer OTR service station outside a small township of Tailem Bend currently named The Bend Motorsport Park. Design for thrill seekers and rev-heads the facility currently host South Australia's second Supercars motoring event during a round in August.<ref>[https://autoaction.com.au/2023/08/22/strong-crowd-heads-to-the-bend Stong crowd head to The Bend] Auto Action 22 August 2023</ref>
Adelaide is home to the Great Southern Slam, the world's largest roller derby tournament. The tournament has been held biennially over Australia's Queen's Birthday holiday weekend since 2010. In 2014, and 2016 the tournament featured 45 teams playing in two divisions. In 2018, the tournament has expanded to 48 teams competing in three divisions.
Infrastructure
Transport
{{Main|Transport in Adelaide}}
]]
Being centrally located on the Australian mainland, Adelaide forms a strategic transport hub for east–west and north–south routes. The city itself has a metropolitan public transport system managed by and known as the Adelaide Metro. The Adelaide Metro consists of a contracted bus system including the O-Bahn Busway, 7 commuter rail lines (diesel and electric), and a small tram network operating between inner suburb Hindmarsh, the city centre, and seaside Glenelg. Tramways were largely dismantled in the 1950s, but saw a revival in the 2010s with upgrades and extensions.
Road transport in Adelaide has historically been easier than many of the other Australian cities, with a well-defined city layout and wide multiple-lane roads from the beginning of its development. Adelaide was known as a "twenty-minute city", with commuters having been able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes. However, such arterial roads often experience traffic congestion as the city grows.<ref>{{cite web|titleMetro Malcontent – The Twenty Minute City No More |workRoyal Automobile Association, South Australia |year2005 |urlhttp://www.raa.net/download.asp?filedocuments\document_677.pdf |access-date28 December 2008 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20090115022910/http://www.raa.net/download.asp?filedocuments%5Cdocument_677.pdf |archive-date15 January 2009 }} (1.18MB)</ref>
tunnel passes under Rymill Park and serves the northeastern suburbs.]]
The Adelaide metropolitan area has one freeway and four expressways. In order of construction, they are:
* The South Eastern Freeway (M1), connects the south-east corner of the Adelaide Plain to the Adelaide Hills and beyond to Murray Bridge and Tailem Bend, where it then continues as National Highway 1 south-east to Melbourne.
* The Southern Expressway (M2), connecting the outer southern suburbs with the inner southern suburbs and the city centre. It duplicates the route of South Road.
* The North-South Motorway (M2), is an ongoing major project that will become the major north–south corridor, replacing most of what is now South Road, connecting the Southern Expressway and the Northern Expressway via a motorway with no traffic lights. As of 2024 the motorway's northern half is complete, connecting the Northern Expressway to Adelaide's inner north-west; the section running through Adelaide's inner west and inner south-west will begin major construction in 2025 with completion estimated for 2031.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAbout construction - River Torrens to Darlington - Department for Infrastructure and Transport |urlhttps://www.t2d.sa.gov.au/construction/about-construction |access-date2024-06-28 |websitewww.t2d.sa.gov.au |language=en}}</ref>
* The Port River Expressway (A9), connects Port Adelaide and Outer Harbor to Port Wakefield Road at the northern "entrance" to the metropolitan area.
* The Northern Expressway (Max Fatchen Expressway) (M2), is the northern suburbs bypass route connecting the Sturt Highway (National Highway 20) via the Gawler Bypass to Port Wakefield Road at a point a few kilometres north of the Port River Expressway connection.
* The Northern Connector, completed in 2020, links the North South Motorway to the Northern Expressway.
<gallery mode="packed">
File:Light-City Buses Scania K280UB (BUS 1568).jpg|A Custom Coaches bodied Scania bus on King William Street.
File:AECExtensionCitadisFlexity.jpg|An Adelaide Metro Alstom Citadis and Flexity Classic
File:Mountosmondinterechange sefreeway.JPG|The Mount Osmond Interchange on the South Eastern Freeway; like many cities with urban sprawl, Adelaide has been criticised for car dependency.
</gallery>
Airports
plane at Adelaide Airport with the city skyline in the background]]
The Adelaide metropolitan area has two commercial airports, Adelaide Airport and Parafield Airport. Adelaide Airport, in Adelaide's south-western suburbs, serves in excess of 8 million passengers annually.<ref name"Adelaide Airport">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.adelaideairport.com.au/corporate/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/nr-8-million-pax-01.17-v2.pdf|titleAdelaide Airport reaches 8 million passengers in 2016|date16 January 2017|publisherAdelaide Airport Ltd. media release|access-date23 April 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170320061749/http://www.adelaideairport.com.au/corporate/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/nr-8-million-pax-01.17-v2.pdf|archive-date20 March 2017|url-statuslive}}</ref> Parafield Airport, Adelaide's second airport {{convert|18|km|mi|abbroff}} north of the city centre, is used for small aircraft, pilot training and recreational aviation purposes. Parafield Airport served as Adelaide's main aerodrome until the opening of the Adelaide Airport in February 1955. Adelaide Airport serves many international and domestic destinations including all Australian state capitals.
Adelaide is also home to a military airport, known as Edinburgh Airport, located in the northern suburbs. It was built in 1955 in a joint initiative with the United Kingdom for weapon development.
Health
Health and Medical Sciences Building, located in the BioMed City precinct on North Terrace]]
Adelaide's two largest hospitals are the Royal Adelaide Hospital (RAH) in Adelaide Parklands, a teaching hospital affiliated with the University of Adelaide (800 beds), and the Flinders Medical Centre (580 beds) at Bedford Park, affiliated with Flinders University. The RAH also operates additional campuses for specialist care throughout the suburbs including the Hampstead Rehabilitation Centre (150 beds) at Northfield and the Glenside Campus (129 beds) for acute mental health services.
Other major public hospitals are the Women's and Children's Hospital (305 beds), at North Adelaide; the Queen Elizabeth Hospital (340 beds) at Woodville; Modbury Hospital (178 beds) at Modbury; and the Lyell McEwin Hospital (198 beds) at Elizabeth Vale. Numerous private hospitals are also located throughout the city, with the largest operators being not-for-profits Adelaide Community Healthcare Alliance (three hospitals) and Calvary Care (four hospitals).
In 2017, the RAH was relocated from the city's East End to a new AU$2.3&nbsp;billion facility built over former railyards in the West End.<ref>{{cite news |lastSexton |firstMike |title New Royal Adelaide Hospital: All you need to know about the delayed high-tech project |newspaperABC News |date1 February 2017 |url https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-01-24/new-royal-adelaide-hospital-all-you-need-to-know/8206416 |access-date26 August 2019 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190821201512/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-01-24/new-royal-adelaide-hospital-all-you-need-to-know/8206416 |archive-date21 August 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref> The state-of-the-art hospital forms part of a new biomedical precinct called BioMed City that collocates the South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute (SAHMRI), the University of Adelaide Health and Medical Sciences building, the University of South Australia's Health Innovation Building, and the state's Dental Hospital.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/health+reform/the+new+royal+adelaide+hospital/south+australian+health+and+biomedical+precinct/south+australian+health+and+biomedical+precinct |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20140707091617/http://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/health+reform/the+new+royal+adelaide+hospital/south+australian+health+and+biomedical+precinct/south+australian+health+and+biomedical+precinct |url-statusdead |archive-date 7 July 2014 |titleSouth Australian Health and Biomedical Precinct }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/health+services/dental+services/adelaide+dental+hospital/new+adelaide+dental+hospital |titleNew Adelaide Dental Hospital :: SA Health |access-date4 September 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170904204107/http://www.sahealth.sa.gov.au/wps/wcm/connect/public+content/sa+health+internet/health+services/dental+services/adelaide+dental+hospital/new+adelaide+dental+hospital |archive-date4 September 2017 |url-statusdead }}</ref> SAHMRI, with additional external funding, has built a $300&nbsp;million second facility completed in 2024, which was intended to house the Australian Bragg Centre with Australia's first proton therapy unit.<ref name"SAHMRI 2">{{cite web |titleSAHMRI 2 |urlhttp://www.commercialgeneral.com.au/projects/sahmri-2/ |websiteCommercial & General |access-date26 August 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190318203100/https://www.commercialgeneral.com.au/projects/sahmri-2/ |archive-date18 March 2019 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Construction is underway for the Women's and Children's Hospital to be relocated to the precinct adjacent the RAH by 2030.<ref name"NWMAC">{{Cite web |lastNetwork |firstWomen's and Children's Health |titleAbout the Project |urlhttps://www.newwch.sa.gov.au/about-the-project |access-date2024-06-28 |websiteNew Women’s and Children’s Hospital Project |language=en-AU}}</ref>
(SAHMRI), located on North Terrace]]
The largest provider of community health care within Adelaide is the not-for-profit Royal District Nursing Service, which provides out of hospital care and hospital avoidance care.
Energy
Adelaide's energy requirements were originally met by the Adelaide Electric Supply Company, which was nationalised by the Playford government in 1946,<ref>{{Cite Australian Dictionary of Biography |id2norrie-sir-charles-willoughby-moke-11254 |title
Sir Charles Willoughby Moke Norrie (1893–1977) |year2000 |volume15 |firstP.A. |last Howell |access-date16 June 2012 |urlhttp://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/norrie-sir-charles-willoughby-moke-11254 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170620195359/http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/norrie-sir-charles-willoughby-moke-11254 |archive-date20 June 2017 |url-statusdead }}</ref> becoming the Electricity Trust of South Australia (ETSA). Despite significant public opposition and the Labor party's anti-privatisation stance which left the Liberal party one vote short of the numbers needed to pass the legislation, ETSA was privatised by the Olsen Government in 1999 by way of a 200-year lease for the distribution network (ETSA&nbsp;Utilities, later renamed SA Power Networks) and the outright purchase of ETSA Power{{Clarify|dateJuly 2019}} by the Cheung Kong Holdings for $3.5&nbsp;billion (11 times ETSA's annual earnings) after Labor MP Trevor Crothers resigned from the party and voted with the government.<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://www.abc.net.au/7.30/stories/s27853.htm |title7:30 Report – 03/06/1999: Shock Labor "betrayal" allows SA Govt to effectively privatise power utility |websiteAustralian Broadcasting Corporation |access-date20 September 2017 |archive-date4 March 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304034139/http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/stories/s27853.htm |url-statusdead }}</ref><ref>[https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-58398249] {{dead link|dateJuly 2022}}</ref>
The electricity retail market was opened to competition in 2003 and although competition was expected to result in lower retail costs, prices increased by 23.7% in the market's first year.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-110318191.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130501052319/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-110318191.html |url-statusdead |archive-date1 May 2013 |titlePower crisis 'as bad as California'. }}</ref> In 2004, the privatisation was deemed to be a failure with consumers paying 60% more for their power and with the state government estimated to lose $3&nbsp;billion in power generation net income in the first ten years of privatisation.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-115625174.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130502161236/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-115625174.html |url-statusdead |archive-date2 May 2013 |titlePrivatisation 'will cost state billions'. }}</ref> In 2012, the industry came under scrutiny for allegedly reducing supply by shutting down generators during periods of peak demand to force prices up. Increased media attention also revealed that in 2009 the state government had approved a 46% increase in retail prices to cover expected increases in the costs of generation while generation costs had in fact fallen 35% by 2012.{{citation needed|dateJune 2011}} South Australia has the highest retail price for electricity in the country.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://theconversation.com/factcheck-does-south-australia-have-the-highest-energy-prices-in-the-nation-and-the-least-reliable-grid-92928 |titleFactCheck: does South Australia have the 'highest energy prices' in the nation and 'the least reliable grid'? |workThe Conversation |author1Dylan McConnell |author2David Blowers |date13 March 2018 |access-date9 July 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180709153620/https://theconversation.com/factcheck-does-south-australia-have-the-highest-energy-prices-in-the-nation-and-the-least-reliable-grid-92928 |archive-date9 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
Privatisation led to competition from a variety of companies who now separately provide for the generation, transmission, distribution and retail sales of gas and electricity. Electricity generation comes from a range of technologies and operators. ElectraNet operates the high-voltage electricity transmission network. SA Power Networks distributes electricity to end users. The largest electricity and gas retailing companies are also the largest generating companies.
The largest fossil fuel power stations are the Torrens Island Power Station gas-fired plant operated by AGL Energy and the Pelican Point Power Station operated by Engie. South Australia also has wind and solar power and connections to the national grid. Gas is supplied from the Moomba Gas Processing Plant in the Cooper Basin via the Moomba Adelaide Pipeline System<ref name"EnergySA2">{{cite web|titleSupply Security |workDepartment for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure |urlhttp://www.energy.sa.gov.au/pages/conventional/planning/supply/security.htm:sectID10&tempID1 |access-date5 May 2006 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20050624044821/http://www.energy.sa.gov.au/pages/conventional/planning/supply/security.htm%3AsectID%3D10%26tempID%3D1 |archive-date24 June 2005 |url-statusdead }}</ref> and the SEAGas pipeline from Victoria.
In 2011, South Australia generated 18% of its electricity from wind power, and had 51% of the installed capacity of wind generators in Australia.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sa.gov.au/subject/Water,+energy+and+environment/Energy/Renewable+energy/Wind+energy/Wind+energy+in+South+Australia |titleWind Energy in South Australia |publisherGovernment of South Australia |access-date16 June 2011 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20121018043135/http://www.sa.gov.au/subject/Water%2C%2Benergy%2Band%2Benvironment/Energy/Renewable%2Benergy/Wind%2Benergy/Wind%2Benergy%2Bin%2BSouth%2BAustralia |archive-date=18 October 2012 }}</ref>
Due to almost universal blackouts within the city during September 2016,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-28/sa-power-outage-explainer/7886090 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160929142924/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-09-28/sa-power-outage-explainer/7886090|archive-date29 September 2016 |titleSA power outage: How did it happen?. |websiteAustralian Broadcasting Corporation|date28 September 2016}}</ref> the state worked with Tesla to produce the world's largest electricity battery at Hornsdale Power Reserve which has increased that state's electrical security to the extent in which large blackouts are no longer an event.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-27/tesla-battery-cost-revealed-two-years-after-blackout/10310680 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180930201754/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-09-27/tesla-battery-cost-revealed-two-years-after-blackout/10310680|archive-date30 September 2018 |titleTesla battery cost revealed two years after SA blackout. |websiteAustralian Broadcasting Corporation|date27 September 2018}}</ref>
Water
, 2007]]
The provision of water services is by the government-owned SA Water. Adelaide's water is supplied from its seven reservoirs: Mount Bold, Happy Valley, Myponga, Millbrook, Hope Valley, Little Para and South Para. The yield from these reservoir catchments can be as little as 10% of the city's requirements (90GL per annum<ref namedesal />) in drought years and about 60% in average years. The remaining demand is met by the pumping of water from the River Murray.<ref namedesal />
A sea-water desalination plant capable of supplying 100GL per annum was built during the 2001–2009 drought; however, it operated at about 8% of its capacity until 2019. In December 2018, the State and Federal Governments agreed to fund a $2m study to determine how the plant could be used to reduce reliance on river water, in an effort to help save the Murray River basin and mouth (including the Coorong) from further ecological damage.<ref name desal>{{cite news|websiteABC News|publisherAustralian Broadcasting Corporation|urlhttps://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-12-14/adelaide-desal-plant-revival-plan-to-ease-use-of-murray-water/10619960|first1Marty|last1McCarthy|first2Matt|last2Coleman|date14 December 2018|titlePlan to revive Adelaide's desalination plant to help Murray River|access-date12 July 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190730175120/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-12-14/adelaide-desal-plant-revival-plan-to-ease-use-of-murray-water/10619960|archive-date30 July 2019|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Communications
AdelaideFree WiFi is a citywide free Wi-Fi network covering most of the inner city areas of Adelaide, primarily the Adelaide CBD and Northern Adelaide precincts.<ref name"inone">{{Cite web|urlhttps://hotspot.internode.on.net/partners/adelaidefree/|titleInternode :: Products :: WiFi Hotspots :: Partners :: AdelaideFree|websiteHotspot.internode.on.net|access-date23 December 2016|archive-date25 November 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161125093422/https://hotspot.internode.on.net/partners/adelaidefree/|url-statusdead}}</ref> It was officially launched at the Adelaide Central Markets on Tuesday 25 June 2014.<ref name="inone"/><ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.cityofadelaide.com.au/newsroom/adelaide-connects-up-to-large-scale-fast-free-wi-fi/
|title=Adelaide connects up to large-scale fast, free WiFi
|publisher=City of Adelaide
|author=Rebecca Draysey
|date=25 June 2014
|access-date=16 March 2020
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|urlhttps://dpti.sa.gov.au/newconnections/news?a141907
|title=200 new Wi-Fi locations across city
|publisher=Department of Planning, Transport and Infrastructure, Government of South Australia
|date=25 June 2014
|access-date=16 March 2020
}}</ref> It is provided by Internode,<ref>{{Cite web | urlhttp://www.internode.on.net/news/2014/06/339.php | titleInternode :: About :: News and Media :: Internode Wi-Fi sets Adelaide free|websiteInternode.on.net|access-date2 July 2022}}</ref> with infrastructure provided by outdoor Cisco WiFi N access points attached to the top of lighting poles, as well as inside cafes and businesses across the city.
Sister cities
The City of Adelaide has been involved in the sister cities movement since 1972. {{as of |2023}} it has long-term international partnership arrangements with five cities, known as sister cities, based on formal agreements between Adelaide and each city. This allows collaboration in the cultural, educational, business, and technical spheres. The five sister cities are:<ref namesister>{{cite web | titleSister cities | websiteCity of Adelaide | date1 April 2019 | urlhttps://www.cityofadelaide.com.au/about-adelaide/sister-cities/ | access-date14 November 2023}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|USA}} Austin, Texas, United States, since 1983
*{{flagicon|New Zealand}} Christchurch, New Zealand, since 1972
*{{flagicon|Malaysia}} George Town, Penang, Malaysia, since 1973
*{{flagicon|Japan}} Himeji, Hyogo, Japan, since 1982
*{{flagicon|China}} Qingdao, Shandong, China, since 2013
Three cities are known as friendship cities, based on informal partnerships between three cities that promote collaboration and a friendly relationship between three cities:<ref name=sister/>
*{{flagicon|China}} Dalian, Liaoning, China
*{{flagicon|China}} Chengdu, Sichuan, China
*{{flagicon|Spain}} Barcelona, Spain, since 2024
See also
{{Portal|South Australia}}
<!-- Alphabetic order -->
* Music of Adelaide
; Lists
* Images of Adelaide
* List of Adelaide obsolete suburb names
* List of Adelaide parks and gardens
* List of Adelaide railway stations
* List of Adelaide suburbs
* List of films shot in Adelaide
* List of people from Adelaide
* List of protected areas in Adelaide
* List of public art in South Australia
* List of public transport routes in Adelaide
* List of South Australian commercial icons
* List of sporting clubs in Adelaide
* List of tallest buildings in Adelaide
* Tourist attractions in South Australia
Notes
{{NoteFoot}}
{{reflist|groupN}} References {{Reflist}} Further reading
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book| last Pascoe| first J.J.| title History of Adelaide and vicinity : with a general sketch of the province of South Australia and biographies of representative men | publisher Hussey & Gillingham | place Adelaide| year 1901| isbn 9780858720329| urlhttps://archive.org/details/historyofadelaid00pascuoft}}
*{{cite book|titleAdelaide: A literary city|editor-firstPhilip|editor-lastButtress|year2013|publisherUniversity of Adelaide Press|jstor10.20851/j.ctt1sq5x41|chapterAdelaide|isbn978-1-922064-63-9}} (full text)
* {{cite book|last1Gargett|first1Kathryn|last2Marsden|first2Susan|titleAdelaide, a Brief History|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idbBSfPQAACAAJ|year1996|publisherState History Centre, History Trust of South Australia in association with Adelaide City Council|isbn978-0-7308-0116-0|oclc=35990524 }}
* {{cite book | last1Marsden | first1Susan | last2Stark | first2Paul | last3Sumerling | first3Patricia | titleHeritage of the city of Adelaide: an illustrated guide | publisherCorp. of the City of Adelaide | year1990 | isbn0-909866-30-9 | oclc27614046 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=VEAgAAAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book | last1Whitelock | first1Derek | last2Baker | first2Tony | titleAdelaide : a sense of difference | publisherAustralian Scholarly Publishing | year2000 | isbn1-875606-57-2 | oclc1058005288 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=IsEoV4xtpxkC}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Sister project links|voy=Adelaide|Adelaide}}
* [http://www.cityofadelaide.com.au/ Adelaide City Council > Official City Guide]
* [http://www.adelaidecitycouncil.com/ Adelaide City Council]
* [https://www.kidsinadelaide.com.au Kids in Adelaide] Retrieved 12 May 2020.
{{Clear}}
{{Adelaide landmarks}}
{{Adelaide Sports Teams}}
{{South Australia}}
{{Capital cities of Australia}}
{{Cities of Australia}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:1836 establishments in Australia
Category:Australian capital cities
Category:Cities in South Australia
Category:Coastal cities in Australia
Category:Planned capitals
Category:Populated places established in 1836
Category:Metropolitan areas of Australia
Category:Cities built on a grid | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.239313 |
1152 | Alan Garner | {{Short description|English novelist (born 1934)}}
{{Other people||Alan Garner (disambiguation)}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox writer
| honorific_suffix {{postnominals|countryGBR|size=100%|OBE|FRSL}}
| name = Alan Garner
| birth_name | image Alan Garner.JPG
| imagesize = 200px
| caption = Garner in 2011
| birth_date {{birth date and age|dfy|1934|10|17}}
| birth_place = Congleton, Cheshire, England
| death_date | death_place
| spouse = Griselda Garner (m. 1972)
| occupation = Writer, folklorist
| period = 1960–present <!-- Weirdstone publication date -->
| genre = Children's fantasy, low fantasy, folklore
| notableworks = {{plainlist|
* The Weirdstone of Brisingamen
* The Moon of Gomrath
* Elidor
* The Owl Service
* The Stone Book Quartet
}}
| awards = {{awd|Carnegie Medal|1967}} {{awd|Guardian Prize|1968}}
| signature = Alan Garner signature.svg
}}
Alan Garner {{postnominals|countryGBR|size100%|OBE|FRSL}} (born 17 October 1934) is an English novelist best known for his children's fantasy novels and his retellings of traditional British folk tales. Much of his work is rooted in the landscape, history and folklore of his native county of Cheshire, North West England, being set in the region and making use of the native Cheshire dialect.
Born in Congleton, Garner grew up in Alderley Edge, and spent much of his youth in the wooded area known locally as "The Edge", where he gained an early interest in the folklore of the region. Studying at Manchester Grammar School and then briefly at Oxford University, in 1957 he moved to the village of Blackden, where he bought and renovated an Early Modern Period (circa 1590) building known as Toad Hall. His first novel, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, was published in 1960. A children's fantasy novel set on the Edge, it incorporated elements of local folklore in its plot and characters. Garner wrote a sequel, The Moon of Gomrath (1963), and a third book, Boneland (2012). He wrote several fantasy novels, including Elidor (1965), The Owl Service (1967) and Red Shift (1973).
Turning away from fantasy as a genre, Garner produced The Stone Book Quartet (1979), a series of four short novellas detailing a day in the life of four generations of his family. He also published a series of British folk tales which he had rewritten in a series of books entitled ''Alan Garner's Fairy Tales of Gold (1979), Alan Garner's Book of British Fairy Tales (1984) and A Bag of Moonshine (1986). In his subsequent novels, Strandloper (1996) and Thursbitch'' (2003), he continued writing tales revolving around Cheshire, although without the fantasy elements which had characterised his earlier work.
Biography
Early life: 1934–56
{{Quote box|width25em|alignright|"I had to get aback [to familial ways of doing things], by using skills that had been denied to my ancestors; but I had nothing that they would have called worthwhile. My ability was in language and languages. I had to use that, somehow. And writing was a manual craft. But what did I know that I could write about? I knew the land." |source Alan Garner, 2010{{sfn|Garner|2010|p8}} }}
Garner was born in the front room of his grandmother's house in Congleton, Cheshire, on 17 October 1934.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p11}} He was raised in Alderley Edge, a well-to-do village that had effectively become a suburb of Manchester.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p11}} His "rural working-class family",{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} had been connected to Alderley Edge since at least the sixteenth century and could be traced back to the death of William Garner in 1592.{{sfn|Garner|2010|p5}} Garner has stated that his family had passed on "a genuine oral tradition" involving folk tales about The Edge, which included a description of a king and his army of knights who slept under it, guarded by a wizard.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} In the mid-nineteenth century Alan's great-great-grandfather Robert had carved the face of a bearded wizard onto the face of a cliff next to a well, known locally at that time as the Wizard's Well.{{sfn|Garner|2010|pp8–9}}
Robert Garner and his other relatives had all been craftsmen, and, according to Garner, each successive generation had tried to "improve on, or do something different from, the previous generation".{{sfn|Garner|2010|p7}} Garner's grandfather, Joseph Garner, "could read, but didn't and so was virtually unlettered". Instead, he taught his grandson the folk tales he knew about The Edge.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} Garner later remarked that as a result, he was "aware of [the Edge's] magic" as a child, and he and his friends often played there.{{sfn|Garner|2010|p9}} The story of the king and the wizard living under the hill played an important part in his life, becoming, he explained, "deeply embedded in my psyche" and heavily influencing his later novels.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}}
Garner faced several life-threatening childhood illnesses, which left him bed ridden for much of the time.{{sfnm|1a1Philip|1y1981|1p11|2a1Garth|2y2013}} He attended a local village school, where he found that, despite being praised for his intelligence, he was punished for speaking in his native Cheshire dialect;{{sfn|Philip|1981|p11}} for instance, when he was six his primary school teacher washed his mouth out with soapy water.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} Garner then won a place at Manchester Grammar School, where he received his secondary education; entry was means-tested, resulting in his school fees being waived.{{sfnm|1a1Philip|1y1981|1p11|2a1Garth|2y2013}} Rather than focusing his interest on creative writing, it was here that he excelled at sprinting.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p12}} He used to go jogging along the highway, and later claimed that in doing so he was sometimes accompanied by the mathematician Alan Turing, who shared his fascination for the Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs.<ref>{{cite news |lastGarner |firstAlan |titleMy hero: Alan Turing |date11 November 2011 |newspaperThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/nov/11/alan-turing-my-hero-alan-garner |access-date18 August 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastJordan |firstJustine |date2024-12-14 |title'It can feel quite mysterious': Alan Garner on writing, folklore and experiencing time slips in the Pennines |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2024/dec/14/we-shared-a-quick-sense-of-humor-novelist-alan-garner-on-alan-turing-and-experiencing-time-slips-in-the-pennines |access-date2024-12-14 |workThe Guardian |languageen-GB |issn0261-3077}}</ref> Garner was then conscripted into national service, serving for a time with the Royal Artillery while posted to Woolwich in Southeast London.{{sfnm|1a1Philip|1y1981|1p12|2a1Garth|2y=2013}}
At school, Garner had developed a keen interest in the work of Aeschylus and Homer, as well as the Ancient Greek language.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} Thus, he decided to pursue the study of Classics at Magdalen College, Oxford, passing his entrance exams in January 1953; at the time he had thoughts of becoming a professional academic.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} He was the first member of his family to receive anything more than a basic education, and he noted that this removed him from his "cultural background" and led to something of a schism with other members of his family, who "could not cope with me, and I could not cope with" them.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} Looking back, he remarked, "I soon learned that it was not a good idea to come home excited over irregular verbs".{{sfn|Garth|2013}} In 1955, he joined the university theatrical society, playing the role of Mark Antony in a performance of William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra where he co-starred alongside Dudley Moore and where Kenneth Baker was the stage manager.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} In August 1956, he decided that he wished to devote himself to novel writing, and decided to abandon his university education without taking a degree; he left Oxford in late 1956.{{sfnm|1a1Philip|1y1981|1p12|2a1Garth|2y2013}} He nevertheless felt that the academic rigour which he learned during his university studies has remained "a permanent strength through all my life".{{sfn|Garth|2013}}The Weirdstone of Brisingamen and The Moon of Gomrath: 1957–64Aged 22, Garner was out cycling when he came across a hand-painted sign announcing that an agricultural cottage in Toad Hall &ndash; a late medieval building situated in Blackden, seven miles from Alderley Edge &ndash; was on sale for £510. Although he personally could not afford it, he was lent the money by the local Oddfellow lodge, enabling him to purchase and move into the cottage in June 1957.{{sfnm|1a1Blackden Trust|1y2008|2a1Pitts|2a2Garner|2y2014|2p14}} In the late nineteenth century the Hall had been divided into two agricultural labourers' cottages, but Garner was able to purchase the second for £150 about a year later; he proceeded to knock down the dividing walls and convert both halves back into a single home.{{sfnm|1a1Blackden Trust|1y2008|2a1Pitts|2a2Garner|2y2014|2p=14}}
Garner had begun writing his first novel, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen: A Tale of Alderley, in September 1956.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p12}} However it was while at Toad Hall that he finished the book. Set in Alderley Edge, it revolves around two children, Susan and Colin, who are sent to live in the area with their mother's old nursemaid, Bess, and her husband, Gowther Mossock. While exploring the Edge, they encounter a race of malevolent creatures, the svart alfar, who dwell in the Edge's abandoned mines and who seem intent on capturing them. They are rescued by the wizard Cadellin, who reveals that the forces of darkness are massing at the Edge in search of a powerful magical talisman, the eponymous "weirdstone of Brisingamen".{{sfn|Philip|1981|pp12&ndash;13}}
Whilst writing in his spare time Garner attempted to gain employment as a teacher, but soon gave that up, believing that "I couldn't write and teach; the energies were too similar." Instead, he worked off and on as a general labourer for four years, remaining unemployed for much of that time.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}}
Garner sent his debut novel to the publishing company Collins, where it was picked up by the company's head, Sir William Collins, who was on the lookout for new fantasy novels following the recent commercial and critical success of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings (1954–55).{{sfn|Lake|2010|p317}} Garner, who went on to become a personal friend of Collins, would later relate that "Billy Collins saw a title with funny-looking words in it on the stockpile, and he decided to publish it."{{sfn|Lake|2010|p317}} On its release in 1960, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen proved to be a critical and commercial success,{{sfnm|1a1Philip|1y1981|1p12|2a1Lake|2y2010|2pp316&ndash;317}} later being described as "a tour de force of the imagination, a novel that showed almost every writer who came afterwards what it was possible to achieve in novels ostensibly published for children."{{sfn|Lake|2010|pp316–317}} Garner himself however would later denounce his first novel as "a fairly bad book" in 1968.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p23}}
With his first book published, Garner abandoned his work as a labourer and gained a job as a freelance television reporter, living a "hand to mouth" lifestyle on a "shoestring" budget.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} He also began a sequel to The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, which would be known as The Moon of Gomrath. The Moon of Gomrath also revolves around the adventures of Colin and Susan, with the latter being possessed by a malevolent creature called the Brollachan who has recently re-entered the world, having been freed from its underground prison by workmen. With the help of the wizard Cadellin, the Brollachan is exorcised, but Susan's soul also leaves her body, being sent to another dimension, leaving Colin to find a way to bring it back.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p13}} Critic Neil Philip characterised it as "an artistic advance" but "a less satisfying story".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p13}} In a 1989 interview, Garner stated that he had left scope for a third book following the adventures of Colin and Susan, envisioning a trilogy, but that he had intentionally decided not to write it, instead moving on to write something different.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} However Boneland, the conclusion to the sequence, was belatedly published in August 2012.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/books/2012/mar/15/alan-garner-weirdstone-brisingamen-trilogy-boneland "Alan Garner to conclude Weirdstone of Brisingamen trilogy"]. Alison Flood. The Guardian 15 March 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2012.</ref>
Elidor, The Owl Service and Red Shift: 1964–73
In 1962, Garner began work on a radio play entitled Elidor, which eventually became a novel of the same name.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p14}} Set in contemporary Manchester, Elidor tells the story of four children who enter a derelict Victorian church and find a portal to the magical realm of Elidor. In Elidor, they are entrusted by King Malebron to help rescue four treasures which have been stolen by the forces of evil, who are attempting to take control of the kingdom. The children succeed and return to Manchester with the treasures, but are pursued by the malevolent forces who need the items to seal their victory.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p14}}
{{Quote box|width25em|alignright|"As I turned toward writing, which is partially intellectual in its function, but is primarily intuitive and emotional in its execution, I turned towards that which was numinous and emotional in me, and that was the legend of King Arthur Asleep Under the Hill. It stood for all that I'd had to give up in order to understand what I'd had to give up. And so my first two books, which are very poor on characterization because I was somehow numbed in that area, are very strong on imagery and landscape, because the landscape I had inherited along with the legend."|source = Alan Garner, 1989{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} }}
Before writing Elidor, Garner had seen a dinner service set which could be arranged to make pictures of either flowers or owls. Inspired by this design, he produced his fourth novel, The Owl Service.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p15}} The story, which was heavily influenced by the Medieval Welsh tale of Math fab Mathonwy from the Mabinogion,{{sfn|Philip|1981|p15}} was critically acclaimed, winning both the Carnegie Medal and Guardian Children's Fiction Prize.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p15}} It also sparked discussions among critics as to whether Garner should properly be considered a children's writer, given that this book in particular was deemed equally suitable for an adult readership.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p15}}
It took Garner six years to write his next novel, Red Shift.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p17}} The book centres on three intertwined love stories, one set in the present, another during the English Civil War, and the third in the second century CE.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p16}} Philip referred to it as "a complex book but not a complicated one: the bare lines of story and emotion stand clear".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=16}}
Academic specialist in children's literature Maria Nikolajeva characterised Red Shift as "a difficult book" for an unprepared reader, identifying its main themes as those of "loneliness and failure to communicate".{{sfn|Nikolajeva|1989|p128}} Ultimately, she thought that repeated re-readings of the novel bring about the realisation that "it is a perfectly realistic story with much more depth and psychologically more credible than the most so-called "realistic" juvenile novels."{{sfn|Nikolajeva|1989|p131}}
The Stone Book series and folkloric collections: 1974–94
From 1976 to 1978, Garner published a series of four novellas, which have come to be collectively known as The Stone Book quartet: The Stone Book, Granny Reardun, The Aimer Gate, and ''Tom Fobble's Day.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p16}} Each focused on a day in the life of a child in the Garner family, each from a different generation.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p17}}
In a 1989 interview, Garner noted that although writing The Stone Book Quartet'' had been "exhausting", it had been "the most rewarding of everything" he'd done to date.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} Philip described the quartet as "a complete command of the material he had been working and reworking since the start of his career".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p=16}}
Garner pays particular attention to language, and strives to render the cadence of the Cheshire tongue in modern English. This he explains by the sense of anger he felt on reading Sir Gawain and the Green Knight: the footnotes would not have been needed by his father.
In 1981, the literary critic Neil Philip published an analysis of Garner's novels as A Fine Anger, which was based on his doctoral thesis, produced for the University of London in 1980.{{sfn|Philip|1981|p9}} In this study he noted that "The Stone Book quartet marks a watershed in Garner's writing career, and provides a suitable moment for an evaluation of his work thus far."{{sfn|Philip|1981|p17}}
Strandloper, Thursbitch, Boneland, Where Shall We Run To? and Treacle Walker: 1996&ndash;present
In 1996, Garner's novel Strandloper was published.
In 1997, he next wrote The Voice That Thunders, a collection of essays and public talks that contains much autobiographical material (including an account of his life with bipolar disorder), as well as critical reflection upon folklore and language, literature and education, the nature of myth and time. In The Voice That Thunders, he reveals the commercial pressure placed upon him during the decade-long drought which preceded Strandloper to 'forsake "literature", and become instead a "popular" writer, cashing in on my established name by producing sequels to, and making series of, the earlier books'.<ref>Alan Garner, The Voice That Thunders (London 1997), p. 35.</ref> Garner feared that "making series ... would render sterile the existing work, the life that produced it, and bring about my artistic and spiritual death"<ref>Garner, Thunders, p. 36.</ref> and felt unable to comply.
Garner's novel Thursbitch was published in 2003.
The novel Boneland was published in 2012, nominally completing a trilogy begun some 50 years earlier with The Weirdstone of Brisingamen.
In August 2018, Garner published his first set of memoirs, Where Shall We Run To?, which describes his childhood during the Second World War.
The novel Treacle Walker was published in October 2021 and nominated to the shortlist for the 2022 Booker Prize.<ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://www.thebookseller.com/news/news/booker-prize-longlist-dominated-by-indies-as-judges-pick-youngest-and-oldest-ever-nominees|titleBooker Prize longlist dominated by indies as judges pick youngest and oldest ever nominees|firstSian|lastBayley|magazineThe Bookseller|date26 July 2022|access-date=31 July 2022}}</ref>
In October 2024, a week before his 90th birthday, Garner published a second set of memoirs, Powsels and Thrums, framed and inspired by his grandfather. This book contains short essays on a variety of people and events in Garner's life from his starting at Manchester Grammar in 1946 through to his discovery of Alderley Edge in the 1950s, interspersed with poems.
Personal life
With his first wife Ann Cook he had three children.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} In 1972, he married for a second time, this time to Griselda Greaves, a teacher and critic with whom he had two children.{{sfn|Garth|2013}} In a 2014 interview conducted with Mike Pitts for British Archaeology magazine, Garner stated that "I don't have anything to do with the literary world. I avoid writers. I don't like them. Most of my close personal friends are professional archaeologists."{{sfn|Pitts|Garner|2014|p15}}Literary style{{Quote box|width25em|alignright|"I have four filing cabinets of correspondence from readers, and over the years the message is clear and unwavering. Readers under the age of eighteen read what I write with more passion, understanding, and clarity of perception than do adults. Adults bog down, claim that I'm difficult, obscurantist, wilful, and sometimes simply trying to confuse. I'm not; I'm just trying to get the simple story simply told... I didn't consciously set out to write for children, but somehow I connect with them. I think that's something to do with my psychopathology, and I'm not equipped to evaluate it."|source Alan Garner, 1989{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} }}
Although Garner's early work is often labelled as "children's literature", Garner himself rejects such a description, informing one interviewer that "I certainly have never written for children" but that instead, he has always written purely for himself.{{sfn|Thompson|Garner|1989}} Neil Philip, in his critical study of Garner's work (1981), commented that up until that point "Everything Alan Garner has published has been published for children",{{sfn|Philip|1981|p7}} although he went on to relate that "It may be that Garner's is a case" where the division between children's and adults' literature is "meaningless" and that his fiction is instead "enjoyed by a type of person, no matter what their age."{{sfn|Philip|1981|p8}} He said "An adult point of view would not give me the ability to be as fresh in my vision as a child's point of view, because the child is still discovering the universe and many adults are not."<ref>{{Cite book |titleThe Oxford Companion to Children's Literature |year1984 |pages=199}}</ref>
Philip offered the opinion that the "essence of his work" was "the struggle to render the complex in simple, bare terms; to couch the abstract in the concrete and communicate it directly to the reader".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p9}} He added that Garner's work is "intensely autobiographical, in both obvious and subtle ways".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p9}} Highlighting Garner's use of mythological and folkloric sources, Philip stated that his work explores "the disjointed and troubled psychological and emotional landscape of the twentieth century through the symbolism of myth and folklore."{{sfn|Philip|1981|p21}} He also expressed the opinion that "Time is Garner's most consistent theme".{{sfn|Philip|1981|p16}}
The English author and academic Catherine Butler noted that Garner was attentive to the "geological, archaeological and cultural history of his settings, and careful to integrate his fiction with the physical reality beyond the page."{{sfn|Butler|2009|p146}} As a part of this, Garner had included maps of Alderley Edge in both The Weirdstone of Brisingamen and The Moon of Gomrath.{{sfn|Butler|2009|pp146–147}} Garner has spent much time investigating the areas that he deals with in his books; writing in the Times Literary Supplement in 1968, Garner commented that in preparation for writing his book Elidor:{{sfn|Garner|1968|p=577}}
<blockquote>I had to read extensively textbooks on physics, Celtic symbolism, unicorns, medieval watermarks, megalithic archaeology; study the writings of Jung; brush up my Plato; visit Avebury, Silbury and Coventry Cathedral; spend a lot of time with demolition gangs on slum clearance sites; and listen to the whole of Britten's War Requiem nearly every day.</blockquote>
Recognition and legacy
In a paper published in the ''Children's Literature Association Quarterly'', Maria Nikolajeva characterised Garner as "one of the most controversial" authors of modern children's literature.{{sfn|Nikolajeva|1989|p=128}}
In the fiftieth anniversary edition of The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, published by HarperCollins in 2010, several notable British fantasists praised Garner and his work. Susan Cooper wrote that "The power and range of Alan Garner's astounding talent has grown with every book he's written", and David Almond called him one of Britain's "greatest writers" whose works "really matter".{{sfnm|1a1Pullman|1a2Gaiman|1a3Cooper|1a4Nix|1y2010|1p2}} Philip Pullman, the author of the His Dark Materials trilogy, went further:
<blockquote>Garner is indisputably the great originator, the most important British writer of fantasy since Tolkien, and in many respects better than Tolkien, because deeper and more truthful... Any country except Britain would have long ago recognised his importance, and celebrated it with postage stamps and statues and street-names. But that's the way with us: our greatest prophets go unnoticed by the politicians and the owners of media empires. I salute him with the most heartfelt respect and admiration.{{sfnm|1a1Pullman|1a2Gaiman|1a3Cooper|1a4Nix|1y2010|1p1}}
</blockquote>
Another British fantasy writer, Neil Gaiman, claimed that "Garner's fiction is something special" in that it was "smart and challenging, based in the here and the now, in which real English places emerged from the shadows of folklore, and in which people found themselves walking, living and battling their way through the dreams and patterns of myth."{{sfnm|1a1Pullman|1a2Gaiman|1a3Cooper|1a4Nix|1y2010|1p1}} Praise also came from Nick Lake, the editorial director of HarperCollins Children's Books, who proclaimed that "Garner is, quite simply, one of the greatest and most influential writers this country has ever produced."{{sfn|Lake|2010|pp315–316}} Emma Donoghue recalls reading Red Shift as a teenager: "It looked like other Garners I had read: a children's fantasy. But Red Shift, with its passionately bickering adolescent lovers and vertiginous plunges through the wormhole of time, shook me to my core every time I read it, and still does... Garner makes the past numinous, terrifyingly real: anything but passed."<ref>{{Cite news |lastDonoghue |firstEmma |dateJanuary 28, 2011 |titleBook Of A Lifetime: Red Shift, By Alan Garner |workThe Independent |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/book-of-a-lifetime-red-shift-by-alan-garner-2196201.html}}</ref>AwardsThe biennial Hans Christian Andersen Award conferred by the International Board on Books for Young People is the highest recognition available to a writer or illustrator of children's books. Garner was the sole runner-up for the writing award in 1978.<ref nameandersen>[http://www.ibby.org/index.php?id273 "Hans Christian Andersen Awards"]. International Board on Books for Young People (IBBY). Retrieved 29 July 2013.</ref><ref nameibby-nominee>[https://archive.today/20130114185952/http://www.literature.at/viewer.alo?objid14769&viewmodefullscreen&scale3.33&rotate&page=105 "Candidates for the Hans Christian Andersen Awards 1956–2002"]. The Hans Christian Andersen Awards, 1956–2002. IBBY. Gyldendal. 2002. Pages 110–18. Hosted by Austrian Literature Online (literature.at). Retrieved 29 July 2013.</ref>
Garner was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) for services to literature in the 2001 New Year's Honours list. He received the British Fantasy Society's occasional Karl Edward Wagner Award in 2003 and the World Fantasy Award for Life Achievement in 2012.<ref>[http://www.sfadb.com/Alan_Garner "Alan Garner"]. Science Fiction Awards Database (sfadb.com). Mark R. Kelly and the Locus Science Fiction Foundation. Retrieved 29 July 2013.</ref> In January 2011, the University of Warwick awarded the degree of Doctor of Letters (honoris causa).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www2.warwick.ac.uk/newsandevents/pressreleases/warwick_awards_honorary/|titleWarwick awards honorary degree to acclaimed Cheshire author Alan Garner |workNews & Events |publisherUniversity of Warwick |date21 January 2011 |access-date25 January 2011}}</ref> On that occasion he gave a half-hour interview about his work.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/arts/english/writingprog/archive/writers/garneralan/200111|titleAlan Garner – The Weirdstone of Brisingamen |workWriters at Warwick Archive |publisherUniversity of Warwick |date20 January 2011 |access-date13 July 2012}}</ref> He has also been awarded honorary doctorates from the University of Salford (2011) and the University of Huddersfield in (2012).
He has been recognised several times for particular works.
* The Owl Service (1967) won both the Carnegie Medal<ref name"medal1967">[http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/livingarchive/title.php?id91 (Carnegie Winner 1967)] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130106194213/http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/livingarchive/title.php?id91|date6 January 2013}}. Living Archive: Celebrating the Carnegie and Greenaway Winners. CILIP. Retrieved 11 July 2012.</ref> and the Guardian Children's Fiction Prize,<ref name"relaunch">[https://www.theguardian.com/books/2001/mar/12/guardianchildrensfictionprize2001.guardianchildrensfictionprize "Guardian children's fiction prize relaunched: Entry details and list of past winners"]. The Guardian 12 March 2001. Retrieved 2 August 2012.</ref> For the 70th anniversary of the Carnegie in 2007 it was named one of the top ten Medal-winning works, selected by a panel to compose the ballot for a public election of the all-time favourite.<ref name"topten">[http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/celebration/top_tens.php?actionlist "70 Years Celebration: Anniversary Top Tens"] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161027022418/http://www.carnegiegreenaway.org.uk/celebration/top_tens.php?actionlist|date=27 October 2016}}. The CILIP Carnegie & Kate Greenaway Children's Book Awards. CILIP. Retrieved 11 July 2012.</ref>
* The Weirdstone of Brisingamen (1960) was named to the Lewis Carroll Shelf Award list by the University of Wisconsin–Madison School of Education in 1970, denoting that it "belongs on the same shelf" with the 1865 classic Alice in Wonderland and its sequel.
* The Stone Book (1976), first in the Stone Book series,<ref name"isfdb-stonebook">[http://www.isfdb.org/cgi-bin/pe.cgi?12025 Stone Book series]. The Internet Speculative Fiction Database. Retrieved 11 July 2012.</ref> won the 1996 Phoenix Award as the best English-language children's book that did not win a major award when it was originally published twenty years earlier.<ref>[http://www.childlitassn.org/images/resources/resources-Children-squo-s_Lit_-_Phoenix_Award_Brochure_2012.pdf "Phoenix Award Brochure 2012"]{{dead link|dateJune 2017|botInternetArchiveBot|fix-attemptedyes}}. Children's Literature Association. Retrieved 12 December 2012.<br /> See also the current homepage [http://www.childlitassn.org/index.php?pageabout&familyawards&category06--Phoenix_Award&display27 "Phoenix Award"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120320175700/http://www.childlitassn.org/index.php?pageabout&familyawards&category06--Phoenix_Award&display27|date20 March 2012}}.</ref>
* The 1981 film Images won First Prize at the Chicago International Film Festival<ref>{{cite web |title"Alan Garner", Guardian 22 July 2008 |websiteTheGuardian.com |date22 July 2008 |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jun/13/alan.garner}}</ref>
* Treacle Walker was shortlisted for the 2022 Booker Prize, making Garner the oldest writer nominated at the time.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Booker Prize 2022 {{!}} The Booker Prizes |urlhttps://thebookerprizes.com/the-booker-library/prize-years/2022 |access-date2022-10-05 |websitethebookerprizes.com |languageen}}</ref>Television, radio, and other adaptations* The Weirdstone of Brisingamen was dramatised in 6 30-minute parts by Nan Macdonald for the BBC's Home Service broadcast in November 1963.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/be2d256acd45425fb0d8f2ac07bb450a | titleBBC Programme Index | date8 November 1963 }}</ref>
* Elidor was read in instalments by John Stride for the BBC's Jackanory programme in June 1968.
* The Owl Service (1969), a British TV series transmitted by Granada Television based on Garner's novel of the same name.
* A second adaptation of Elidor was read on a BBC Radio 4 in July 1972.
* Red Shift (BBC, transmitted 17 January 1978); directed by John Mackenzie; part of the BBC's Play for Today series.
* To Kill a King (1980), part of the BBC series of plays on supernatural themes, Leap in the Dark: an atmospheric story about a writer overcoming depression and writer's block. The hero's home appears to be Garner's own house.
* The Keeper (ITV, transmitted 13 June 1983), an episode of the ITV children's series Dramarama: Spooky series
* Garner and Don Webb adapted Elidor as a BBC children's television series shown in 1995, comprising six half-hour episodes, starring Damian Zuk as Roland and Suzanne Shaw as Helen.<ref>[http://imdb.com/title/tt0303455/ "Elidor (1995– )"]. IMDb. Retrieved 18 August 2010.</ref><ref>[http://www.classickidstv.co.uk/wiki/Elidor "Elidor"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100527222602/http://www.classickidstv.co.uk/wiki/Elidor |date27 May 2010 }}. Classic Kids TV (classickidstv.com). Retrieved 18 August 2010.</ref>
* The Owl Service was adapted for the stage in 2004 by The Drum Theatre in Plymouth.
* Elidor was dramatised as a radio play in four-parts by Don Webb, broadcast on BBC Radio 4 Extra in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |titleAlan Garner - Elidor |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b0106x20 |websiteBBC Radio |access-date22 August 2018}}</ref>
Works
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
Novels
* The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, 1960
* The Moon of Gomrath, 1963
* Elidor, 1965
* The Owl Service, 1967
* Red Shift, 1973
* Strandloper, 1996
* Thursbitch, 2003
* Boneland, 2012
* Treacle Walker, 2021
{{col-break}}
Short story collections
* The Hamish Hamilton Book of Goblins, 1969
* The Guizer: A Book of Fools, 1975
* The Stone Book Quartet, 1979
* The Lad of the Gad, 1980
* Fairytales of Gold, 1980, (Illustrated by Michael Foreman).
* Book of British Fairy Tales, 1984, (Illustrated by Derek Collard).
* A Bag of Moonshine, 1986, (Illustrated by P. J. Lynch).
* Once Upon a Time, 1993
* Collected Folk Tales, 2011
{{col-break}}
Other books
* Holly from the Bongs: A Nativity Play, 1966
* The Old Man of Mow, 1967
* The Breadhorse, 1975
* Jack and the Beanstalk, 1992, (Illustrated by Julek Heller).
* The Little Red Hen, 1997
* The Well of the Wind, 1998
* Grey Wolf, Prince Jack and the Firebird, 1998
* The Voice That Thunders, 1997
* Where Shall We Run To?, 2018
* Powsels and Thrums'', 2024
{{col-end}}
See also
{{Portal |Fantasy |Wales }}
{{Portal bar |Children's literature |Fantasy |Mythology }} <!-- delete the word "bar" if there are enough ordinary See also -->
References
Footnotes
{{Reflist|25em}}
Sources
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.theblackdentrust.org.uk/aboutus_toadhall.php |titleToad Hall |lastBlackden Trust |year2008 |access-date10 September 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141108172422/http://www.theblackdentrust.org.uk/aboutus_toadhall.php |archive-date8 November 2014 |url-statusdead}}
* {{cite journal |lastButler |firstCharles |year2001 |titleAlan Garner's Red Shift and the Shifting Ballad of "Tam Lin" |journalChildren's Literature Association Quarterly |volume26 |issue2 |pages74&ndash;83 |doi10.1353/chq.0.1604 |s2cid144862859 }}
* {{cite contribution |lastButler |firstCharles |year2009 |titleChildren of the Stones: Prehistoric Sites in British Children's Fantasy, 1965–2005 |journalWritten on Stone: The Cultural Reception of British Prehistoric Monuments |othersJoanne Parker (ed.) |publisherCambridge Scholars Publishing |locationNewcastle upon Tyne |pages145–154 |isbn978-1443813389 }}
* {{cite news |titleA Bit More Practice |lastGarner |firstAlan |newspaperTimes Literary Supplement |locationLondon |date6 June 1968 }}
* {{cite contribution |lastGarner |firstAlan |year2010 |contributionIntroduction by the Author |titleThe Weirdstone of Brisingamen |edition50th Anniversary |publisherHarperCollins Children's Books |locationLondon |pages=05–14 }}
* {{cite web |lastGarth |firstJohn |titleThe Storyteller |date22 May 2013 |websiteOxford Today |urlhttp://www.oxfordtoday.ox.ac.uk/features/storyteller# |access-date8 November 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141029060443/http://www.oxfordtoday.ox.ac.uk/features/storyteller |archive-date29 October 2014 |url-statusdead }}
* {{cite journal |lastGillies |firstCarolyn |titlePossession and Structure in the Novels of Alan Garner |journalChildren's Literature in Education |year1975 |volume6 |issue3 |pages107&ndash;117 |doi10.1007/BF01263341 |s2cid144402971 }}
* {{cite journal |lastHardwick |firstPaul |title"Not in the Middle Ages"?: Alan Garner's The Owl Service and the Literature of Adolescence |volume31 |number1 |pages23&ndash;30 |journalChildren's Literature in Education |year2000 |doi10.1023/A:1005182802582 |s2cid142545187 }}
* {{cite contribution |lastLake |firstNick |year2010 |contributionA Note from the Publisher |titleThe Weirdstone of Brisingamen |edition50th Anniversary |publisherHarperCollins Children's Books |locationLondon |pages=315–320 }}
* {{cite journal |lastLockwood |firstMichael |title"A Sense of the Spoken": Language in The Owl Service |journalChildren's Literature in Education |year1992 |volume23 |issue2 |pages83&ndash;92 |doi10.1007/BF01141845 |s2cid144861457 }}
* {{cite journal |lastNikolajeva |firstMaria |titleThe Insignificance of Time: Red Shift |journal Children's Literature Association Quarterly |volume14 |number3 |pages128&ndash;131 |year1989 |doi10.1353/chq.0.0763 |s2cid145471358 }}
* {{cite book |titleA Fine Anger: A Critical Introduction to the Work of Alan Garner |lastPhilip |firstNeil |year1981 |publisherCollins |locationLondon |isbn=978-0-00-195043-6 }}
* {{cite journal |titleColouring the Imagination with Facts |last1Pitts |first1Mike |last2Garner |first2Alan |year2014 |journalBritish Archaeology |publisherCouncil for British Archaeology |number139 |pages14&ndash;15 }}
* {{cite contribution |last1Pullman |first1Philip |last2Gaiman |first2Neil |last3Cooper |first3Susan |last4Nix |first4Garth |last5Almond |first5David |last6Faber |first6Michael |year2010 |contributionPraise for Garner |titleThe Weirdstone of Brisingamen |edition50th Anniversary |publisherHarperCollins Children's Books |locationLondon |pages=1–2 }}
* {{cite journal |lastReimer |firstMavis |titleThe Family as Mythic Reservoir in Alan Garner's Stone Book Quartet |year1989 |journalChildren's Literature Association Quarterly |volume14 |issue3 |pages132&ndash;135 |doi10.1353/chq.0.0786 |s2cid143190112 }}
* {{cite web |urlhttp://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/intrvws/garner.htm |titleInterview with Alan Garner |last1Thompson |first1Raymond H. |last2Garner |first2Alan |date12 April 1989 |access-date10 September 2011 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141108181114/http://d.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/text/interview-with-alan-garner |archive-date8 November 2014 |url-status=live}}
{{Refend}}
Further reading
* {{cite book |titleFour British Fantasists: Place and Culture in the Children's Fantasies of Penelope Lively, Alan Garner, Diana Wynne Jones, and Susan Cooper |lastButler, Charles |year2006 |publisherScarecrow |locationLanham MD |isbn978-0-8108-5242-6 |refBut06 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/fourbritishfanta0000butl }}External links* [https://www.theguardian.com/books/alangarner?INTCMPSRCH Alan Garner] coverage by The Guardian
* {{IMDb name|1241337}}
* {{isfdb name|668}}
* {{LCAuth|n81044536|Alan Garner|48|ue}}
* [https://scua.uoregon.edu/repositories/2/resources/3450 Alan Garner papers] at the University of Oregon Special Collections and University Archives
{{Alan Garner}}
{{World Fantasy Award Life Achievement}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Garner, Alan}}
Category:English short story writers
Category:English children's writers
Category:English fantasy writers
Category:Carnegie Medal in Literature winners
Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
Category:Guardian Children's Fiction Prize winners
Category:Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Category:Alumni of Magdalen College, Oxford
Category:People educated at Manchester Grammar School
Category:People from Alderley Edge
Category:People from Congleton
Category:People with bipolar disorder
Category:World Fantasy Award–winning writers
Category:1934 births
Category:Living people
Category:English male novelists | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Garner | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.265382 |
1154 | August 2 | {{About||the 2012 film|August 2 (film)}}
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
*338 BC &ndash; A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea, securing Macedonian hegemony in Greece and the Aegean.<ref>{{cite book |last1Gagarin |first1Michael |titleThe Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome |date31 December 2009 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-517072-6 |page81 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idlNV6-HsUppsC&pgRA1-PA81 |language=en}}</ref>
*216 BC &ndash; The Carthaginian army led by Hannibal defeats a numerically superior Roman army at the Battle of Cannae.
*49 BC &ndash; Caesar, who marched to Spain earlier in the year, leaving Marcus Antonius in charge of Italy, defeats Pompey's general Afranius and Petreius in Ilerda (Lerida) north of the Ebro river.<ref>{{Cite book |lastLegrand |firstJacques |titleChronicle of the World |publisherEca, Publication |year1989 |isbn0-13-133463-8 |page=192}}</ref>
* 461 &ndash; Majorian is arrested near Tortona (northern Italy) and deposed by the Suebian general Ricimer as puppet emperor.
* 932 &ndash; After a two-year siege, the city of Toledo, in Spain, surrenders to the forces of the Caliph of Córdoba Abd al-Rahman III, assuming an important victory in his campaign to subjugate the Central March.<ref>{{Cite web |date26 June 2019 |titleAbderramán III, el primer califa andalusí |url=https://historia.nationalgeographic.com.es/a/abderraman-iii-primer-califa-andalusi_14444/}}</ref>
*1274 &ndash; Edward I of England returns from the Ninth Crusade and is crowned King seventeen days later.
*1343 &ndash; After the execution of her husband, Jeanne de Clisson sells her estates and raises a force of men with which to attack French shipping and ports.
*1377 &ndash; Russian troops are defeated by forces of the Blue Horde Khan Arapsha in the Battle on Pyana River.
*1415 &ndash; Thomas Grey is executed for participating in the Southampton Plot.
*1492 &ndash; The Jews are expelled from Spain: 40,000–200,000 leave. Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire, learning of this, dispatches the Ottoman Navy to bring the Jews safely to Ottoman lands, mainly to the cities of Thessaloniki (in modern-day Greece) and İzmir (in modern-day Turkey).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Turkey.html|titleTurkey Virtual Jewish History Tour|websitewww.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref>1601–1900
*1610 &ndash; During Henry Hudson's search for the Northwest Passage, he sails into what is now known as Hudson Bay.
*1776 &ndash; The signing of the United States Declaration of Independence took place.
*1784 &ndash; The first British mail coach service ran from Bristol to London.<ref name"CBOD">{{cite book |last1Fergusson |first1Rosalind |titleBook of Days: A miscellany of popular antiquities in connection with the calendar |date2004 |publisherChambers |isbn0550100830 |page377}}</ref>
*1790 &ndash; The first United States Census is conducted.
*1798 &ndash; French Revolutionary Wars: The Battle of the Nile concludes in a British victory.
*1830 &ndash; Charles X of France abdicates the throne in favor of his grandson Henri.
*1858 &ndash; The Government of India Act 1858 replaces Company rule in India with that of the British Raj.<ref name="CBOD"/>
*1869 &ndash; Japan's Edo society class system is abolished as part of the Meiji Restoration reforms.
*1870 &ndash; Tower Subway, the world's first underground tube railway, opens in London, England, United Kingdom.
*1873 &ndash; The Clay Street Hill Railroad begins operating the first cable car in San Francisco's famous cable car system.
*1897 &ndash; Anglo-Afghan War: The Siege of Malakand ends when a relief column is able to reach the British garrison in the Malakand states.
1901–present
*1903 &ndash; The Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising against the Ottoman Empire begins.
*1914 &ndash; The German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I begins.
*1916 &ndash; World War I: Austrian sabotage causes the sinking of the Italian battleship Leonardo da Vinci in Taranto.
*1918 &ndash; The first general strike in Canadian history takes place in Vancouver.
*1922 &ndash; A typhoon hits Shantou, Republic of China, killing more than 50,000 people.
*1923 &ndash; Vice President Calvin Coolidge becomes U.S. President upon the death of President Warren G. Harding.
*1932 &ndash; The positron (antiparticle of the electron) is discovered by Carl D. Anderson.
*1934 &ndash; Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler becomes Führer of Germany following the death of President Paul von Hindenburg.
*1937 &ndash; The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 is passed in America, the effect of which is to render marijuana and all its by-products illegal.
*1939 &ndash; Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard write a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, urging him to begin the Manhattan Project to develop a nuclear weapon.
*1943 &ndash; The Holocaust: Jewish prisoners stage a revolt at Treblinka, one of the deadliest of Nazi death camps where approximately 900,000 persons were murdered in less than 18 months.
* 1943 &ndash; World War II: The Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109 is rammed by the Japanese destroyer Amagiri and sinks. Lt. John F. Kennedy, future U.S. president, saves all but two of his crew.
*1944 &ndash; ASNOM: Birth of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia, celebrated as Day of the Republic in North Macedonia.
* 1944 &ndash; World War II: The largest trade convoy of the world wars arrives safely in the Western Approaches.
*1945 &ndash; World War II: End of the Potsdam Conference.
*1947 &ndash; A British South American Airways Avro Lancastrian airliner crashes into a mountain during a flight from Buenos Aires, Argentina to Santiago, Chile. The wreckage would not be found until 1998.
*1968 &ndash; An earthquake hits Casiguran, Aurora, Philippines killing more than 270 people and wounding 261.
*1973 &ndash; A flash fire kills 50 people at the Summerland amusement centre at Douglas, Isle of Man.
*1980 &ndash; A bomb explodes at the railway station in Bologna, Italy, killing 85 people and wounding more than 200.<ref>{{cite magazine |last1LaFrance |first1Adrienne |titleThe New Anarchy |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2023/04/us-extremism-portland-george-floyd-protests-january-6/673088/ |access-date18 March 2023 |magazineThe Atlantic |volume331 |issue3 |date6 March 2023 |page28 |languageen |url-accesssubscription |issn=1072-7825}}</ref>
*1982 &ndash; The Helsinki Metro, the first rapid transit system of Finland, is opened to the general public.<ref>{{Cite book |lastTolmunen |firstTapio |titleMutkatonta matkaa vuodesta 1982. Raka spår från år 1982 |publisherHelsingin kaupungin liikennelaitos |year2002 |isbn951-8926-84-0 |locationHelsinki |pages43–44 |languagefi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date19 March 2012 |titleHelsinki City Transport - About HKL - History - A brief history of the metro |urlhttp://www.hel.fi/hki/HKL/en/About+HKL/History/History+of+metro+transport |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150512153035/http://www.hel.fi/hki/HKL/en/About%2BHKL/History/History%2Bof%2Bmetro%2Btransport |archive-date12 May 2015 |access-date21 September 2013 |publisher=Helsinki City Transport}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Delta Air Lines Flight 191, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, crashes at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport killing 137.
*1989 &ndash; Pakistan is re-admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations after having restored democracy for the first time since 1972.
* 1989 &ndash; A massacre is carried out by an Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka killing 64 ethnic Tamil civilians.
*1990 &ndash; Iraq invades Kuwait, eventually leading to the Gulf War.
*1991 – Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched on STS-43 to deploy the TDRS-5 satellite.<ref name"nasasts43">{{cite web |titleSTS-43 |urlhttp://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html |access-dateNovember 16, 2022 |publisher=NASA}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; The Gaisal train disaster claims 285 lives in Assam, India.
*2005 &ndash; Air France Flight 358 lands at Toronto Pearson International Airport and runs off the runway, causing the plane to burst into flames, leaving 12 injuries and no fatalities.
*2014 &ndash; At least 146 people were killed and more than 114 injured in a factory explosion in Kunshan, Jiangsu, China.
Births
Pre-1600
*1260 &ndash; Kyawswa of Pagan, last ruler of the Pagan Kingdom (d. 1299)
*1455 &ndash; John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1499)
*1533 &ndash; Theodor Zwinger, Swiss physician and scholar (d. 1588)
*1549 &ndash; Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł, Polish nobleman (d. 1616)
1601–1900
*1612 &ndash; Saskia van Uylenburgh, Dutch model and wife of Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1642)
*1627 &ndash; Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten, Dutch painter (d. 1678)
*1630 &ndash; Estephan El Douaihy, Maronite patriarch (d. 1704)
*1646 &ndash; Jean-Baptiste du Casse, French admiral and buccaneer (d. 1715)
*1672 &ndash; Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, Swiss paleontologist and scholar (d. 1733)
*1674 &ndash; Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (d. 1723)
*1696 &ndash; Mahmud I, Ottoman sultan (d. 1754)
*1702 &ndash; Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1769)
*1703 &ndash; Lorenzo Ricci, Italian religious leader, 18th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1775)
*1740 &ndash; Jean Baptiste Camille Canclaux, French general (d. 1817)
*1754 &ndash; Pierre Charles L'Enfant, French-American architect and engineer, designed Washington, D.C. (d. 1825)
*1788 &ndash; Leopold Gmelin, German chemist and academic (d. 1853)
*1815 &ndash; Adolf Friedrich von Schack, German poet and historian (d. 1894)
*1820 &ndash; John Tyndall, Irish-English physicist and mountaineer (d. 1893)
*1828 &ndash; Manuel Pavía y Rodríguez de Alburquerque, Spanish general (d. 1895)
*1834 &ndash; Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, French sculptor, designed the Statue of Liberty (d. 1904)
*1835 &ndash; Elisha Gray, American businessman, co-founded Western Electric (d. 1901)<ref name="CBOD"/>
*1861 &ndash; Prafulla Chandra Ray, Indian chemist and academic (d. 1944)
*1865 &ndash; Irving Babbitt, American academic and critic (d. 1933)
* 1865 &ndash; John Radecki, Australian stained glass artist (d. 1955)
*1867 &ndash; Ernest Dowson, English poet, novelist, and short story writer (d. 1900)
*1868 &ndash; Constantine I of Greece (d. 1923)
*1870 &ndash; Marianne Weber, German sociologist and suffragist (d. 1954)<ref>{{Cite book |last1Lengermann |first1Patricia M. |titleThe Women Founders: Sociology and Social Theory, 1830-1930 : a Text/reader |last2Niebrugge-Brantley |first2Jill |publisherMcGraw-Hill |year1998 |isbn978-1-57766-509-0 |locationBoston |page194 |chapter=Marianne Weber (1870- 1954): A Woman-Centered Sociology}}</ref>
*1871 &ndash; John French Sloan, American painter and illustrator (d. 1951)
*1872 &ndash; George E. Stewart, Australian-American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1946)
*1876 &ndash; Pingali Venkayya, Indian geologist, designed the Flag of India (d. 1963)
*1877 &ndash; Ravishankar Shukla, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh (d. 1956)
*1878 &ndash; Aino Kallas, Finnish-Estonian author (d. 1956)
*1880 &ndash; Arthur Dove, American painter and educator (d. 1946)
*1882 &ndash; Red Ames, American baseball player and manager (d. 1936)
* 1882 &ndash; Albert Bloch, American painter and academic (d. 1961)
*1884 &ndash; Rómulo Gallegos, Venezuelan author and politician, 46th President of Venezuela (d. 1969)
*1886 &ndash; John Alexander Douglas McCurdy, Canadian pilot and politician, 20th Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia (d. 1961)
*1887 &ndash; Oskar Anderson, Bulgarian-German mathematician and statistician (d. 1960)
*1889 &ndash; Margaret Lawrence, American stage actress (d. 1929)
*1891 &ndash; Arthur Bliss, English composer and conductor (d. 1975)
* 1891 &ndash; Viktor Zhirmunsky, Russian linguist and historian (d. 1971)
*1892 &ndash; Jack L. Warner, Canadian-born American production manager and producer, co-founded Warner Bros. (d. 1978)
*1894 &ndash; Bertha Lutz, Brazilian feminist and scientist (d. 1976)
*1895 &ndash; Matt Henderson, New Zealand cricketer (d. 1970)
*1897 &ndash; Karl-Otto Koch, German SS officer (d. 1945)
* 1897 &ndash; Max Weber, Swiss lawyer and politician (d. 1974)
*1898 &ndash; Ernő Nagy, Hungarian fencer (d. 1977)
*1899 &ndash; Charles Bennett, English director and screenwriter (d. 1995)
*1900 &ndash; Holling C. Holling, American author and illustrator (d. 1973)
* 1900 &ndash; Helen Morgan, American actress and singer (d. 1941)
1901–present
*1902 &ndash; Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria (d. 1971)
* 1902 &ndash; Mina Rees, American mathematician (d. 1997)<ref>{{Cite book |lastFox |firstPhyllis |titleWomen of Mathematics: a Biobibliographic Sourcebook |publisherGreenwood Press |year1987 |isbn978-0-3132-4849-8 |editor-lastGrinstein |editor-firstLouise S. |locationNew York |page[https://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/175 175] |chapterMina Rees |editor-last2Campbell |editor-first2Paul J. |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/175}}</ref>
*1905 &ndash; Karl Amadeus Hartmann, German composer (d. 1963)
* 1905 &ndash; Myrna Loy, American actress (d. 1993)
* 1905 &ndash; Ruth Nelson, American actress (d. 1992)<ref>[https://www.ibdb.com/broadway-cast-staff/ruth-nelson-54389 "Ruth Nelson"]. IBDb. Retrieved November 1, 2022.</ref><ref>Haun, Harry (2000). ''[https://archive.org/details/cinematiccentury00harr/page/n273/mode/2up?q=%22robert+de+niro+and+ruth+nelson+in+awakenings%22 The Cinematic Century: An Intimate Diary of America's Affair with the Movies]''. New York: Applause. {{ISBN|1557834008}}.</ref>
*1907 &ndash; Mary Hamman, American journalist and author (d. 1984)
*1910 &ndash; Roger MacDougall, Scottish director, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1993)
*1911 &ndash; Ann Dvorak, American actress (d. 1979)
*1912 &ndash; Palle Huld, Danish actor (d. 2010)
* 1912 &ndash; Håkon Stenstadvold, Norwegian painter, illustrator, and critic (d. 1977)
* 1912 &ndash; Vladimir Žerjavić, Croatian economist and author (d. 2001)
*1913 &ndash; Xavier Thaninayagam, Sri Lankan scholar and academic (d. 1980)
*1914 &ndash; Félix Leclerc, Canadian singer-songwriter, actor, and poet (d. 1988)
* 1914 &ndash; Big Walter Price, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2012)
* 1914 &ndash; Beatrice Straight, American actress (d. 2001)
*1915 &ndash; Gary Merrill, American actor (d. 1990)
*1916 &ndash; Alfonso A. Ossorio, Filipino-American painter and sculptor (d. 1990)
*1917 &ndash; Wah Chang, Chinese-American artist and designer (d. 2003)<ref>{{Cite book |lastLentz |firstHarris M. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idsXrGCwAAQBAJ |titleObituaries in the Performing Arts 2003: Film, Television, Radio, Theatre, Dance, Music, Cartoons and Pop Culture |date2004 |publisherMcFarland and Company |isbn9780786417568 |locationJefferson, N.C. |page74}}</ref>
*1919 &ndash; Nehemiah Persoff, Israeli-American actor (d. 2022)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://deadline.com/2022/04/nehemiah-persoff-dead-obituary-actor-yentl-gunsmoke-was-102-1234995573/|titleNehemiah Persoff Dies: Prolific Actor Of 'Yentl', 'The Twilight Zone', 'Gunsmoke' & Many More Was 102|websiteDeadline Hollywood|access-dateApril 6, 2022|date=April 6, 2022}}</ref>
*1920 &ndash; Louis Pauwels, French journalist and author (d. 1997)
* 1920 &ndash; Augustus Rowe, Canadian physician and politician (d. 2013)
*1922 &ndash; Betsy Bloomingdale, American philanthropist and socialite (d. 2016)
* 1922 &ndash; Geoffrey Dutton, Australian historian and author (d. 1998)
* 1922 &ndash; Len Murray, British trade union leader (d. 2004)<ref name="CBOD"/>
*1923 &ndash; Shimon Peres, Polish-Israeli lawyer and politician, 9th President of Israel (d. 2016)<ref>{{Cite news |date28 September 2016 |titleObituary: Shimon Peres, Israeli founding father |workBBC News |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27410614 |access-date=28 July 2020}}</ref>
* 1923 &ndash; Ike Williams, American boxer (d. 1994)
*1924 &ndash; James Baldwin, American novelist, poet, and critic (d. 1987)
* 1924 &ndash; Joe Harnell, American pianist and composer (d. 2005)
* 1924 &ndash; Carroll O'Connor, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001)
*1925 &ndash; K. Arulanandan, Ceylon-American engineer and academic (d. 2004)
* 1925 &ndash; John Dexter, English director and producer (d. 1990)
* 1925 &ndash; John McCormack, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017)
* 1925 &ndash; Jorge Rafael Videla, Argentinian general and politician, 43rd President of Argentina (d. 2013)
* 1925 &ndash; Alan Whicker, Egyptian-born British journalist and broadcaster (d. 2013)<ref name"CBOD"/><ref>{{cite web |last1Barker |first1Dennis |titleAlan Whicker obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2013/jul/12/alan-whicker-tv-world-dies |websitetheguardian.com |publisherThe Guardian |access-date21 February 2025}}</ref>
*1927 &ndash; Peter Swinnerton-Dyer, English mathematician and academic (d. 2018)
*1928 &ndash; Malcolm Hilton, English cricketer (d. 1990)
*1929 &ndash; Roy Crimmins, English trombonist and composer (d. 2014)
* 1929 &ndash; John Gale, English director and producer
* 1929 &ndash; Vidya Charan Shukla, Indian politician, Indian Minister of External Affairs (d. 2013)
* 1929 &ndash; David Waddington, Baron Waddington, English lawyer and politician, Governor of Bermuda (d. 2017)
* 1929 &ndash; K. M. Peyton, British children's author (d. 2023)<ref>{{Cite news |lastEccleshare |firstJulia |date2024-01-02 |titleKM Peyton obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/books/2024/jan/02/km-peyton-obituary-kathleen-peyton |access-date2024-11-24 |workThe Guardian |languageen-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
*1930 &ndash; Vali Myers, Australian painter and dancer (d. 2003)
*1931 &ndash; Pierre DuMaine, American bishop and academic (d. 2019)
* 1931 &ndash; Eddie Fuller, South African cricketer (d. 2008)
* 1931 &ndash; Karl Miller, English journalist and critic (d. 2014)
* 1931 &ndash; Viliam Schrojf, Czech footballer (d. 2007)
*1932 &ndash; Lamar Hunt, American businessman, co-founded the American Football League and World Championship Tennis (d. 2006)
* 1932 &ndash; Peter O'Toole, British-Irish actor and producer (d. 2013)<ref name="CBOD"/>
*1933 &ndash; Ioannis Varvitsiotis, Greek politician, Greek Minister of Defence
*1934 &ndash; Valery Bykovsky, Russian general and cosmonaut (d. 2019)<ref>{{cite book |last1Burgess |first1Colin |last2Hall |first2Rex |titleThe First Soviet Cosmonaut Team: Their Lives, Legacy, and Historical Impact |date2009 |publisherSpringer |locationBerlin |isbn9780387848235 |page38 |lccn=2008935694}}</ref>
*1935 &ndash; Hank Cochran, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010)
*1936 &ndash; Anthony Payne, English composer and author (d. 2021)<ref>{{Cite web |date4 May 2021 |titleAnthony Payne obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/may/04/anthony-payne-obituary |access-date1 August 2021 |website=The Guardian}}</ref>
*1937 &ndash; Ron Brierley, New Zealand businessman
* 1937 &ndash; Billy Cannon, American football player and dentist (d. 2018)
* 1937 &ndash; María Duval, Mexican actress and singer<ref>{{Cite news |date20 May 1965 |titleMiscelanea |workEl Siglo de Torreón |urlhttp://h.elsiglodetorreon.com.mx/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?FromSearch&KeyEDT/1965/05/20/13/Ar01316.xml&CollNameEDT_1960_1969&DOCID389935&PageLabelPrint13&skinElSiglo&sPublicationEDT&sLanguageEnglish&ContentALL&selLanguage&sQuerymaria%2bduval&rEntityType&sScopeIDDR&sDateFrom&sDateTo&sSortingIssueDateID%252Casc&x32&y7&RefineQueryView&StartFrom70&ViewModeGIF |access-date27 June 2014}}</ref>
* 1937 &ndash; Garth Hudson, Canadian keyboard player, songwriter, and producer (d. 2025)<ref name"auto">{{Cite web |lastKrewen |firstNick |date2025-01-21 |titleGarth Hudson, the last living member of The Band, dead at 87 |urlhttps://www.thestar.com/entertainment/music/garth-hudson-the-last-living-member-of-the-band-dead-at-87/article_983498e8-d7fc-11ef-ac3c-4b6836c7f137.html |access-date2025-01-21 |websiteToronto Star |language=en}}</ref>
* 1937 &ndash; Tim Bowden, Australian historian and television presenter (d. 2024)<ref>{{cite news |title'Huge contribution': former ABC presenter Tim Bowden dies, 87 |urlhttps://www.theaustralian.com.au/subscribe/news/1/?sourceCodeTAWEB_WRE170_a&desthttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.theaustralian.com.au%2Fbusiness%2Fmedia%2Fhuge-contribution-to-nation-former-abc-presenter-tim-bowden-dies-aged-87%2Fnews-story%2F7d4a7dd724c7e333e81e90696e8794ae&memtypeanonymous&modepremium&v21GROUPB-Segment-1-NOSCORE&V21spcbehaviourappend |access-date3 September 2024 |publisherThe Australian |date=3 September 2024}}</ref>
*1938 &ndash; Dave Balon, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2007)
* 1938 &ndash; Pierre de Bané, Israeli-Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2019)<ref>{{Cite web |titleProfile |urlhttps://lop.parl.ca/sites/ParlInfo/default/en_CA/People/Profile?personId3094 |access-date8 March 2019 |website=lop.parl.ca}}</ref>
* 1938 &ndash; Terry Peck, Falkland Islander soldier (d. 2006)
*1939 &ndash; Benjamin Barber, American theorist, author, and academic (d. 2017)
* 1939 &ndash; Wes Craven, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015)
* 1939 &ndash; John W. Snow, American businessman and politician, 73rd United States Secretary of the Treasury
*1940 &ndash; Angel Lagdameo, Filipino archbishop (d. 2022)
* 1940 &ndash; Beko Ransome-Kuti, Nigerian physician and activist (d. 2006)
* 1940 &ndash; Will Tura, Belgian singer-songwriter and guitarist
*1941 &ndash; Doris Coley, American singer (d. 2000)
* 1941 &ndash; Jules A. Hoffmann, Luxembourgish-French biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1941 &ndash; François Weyergans, Belgian director and screenwriter (d. 2022)
*1942 &ndash; Isabel Allende, Chilean-American novelist, essayist, essayist
* 1942 &ndash; Leo Beenhakker, Dutch football manager
* 1942 &ndash; Juan Formell, Cuban singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2014)
* 1942 &ndash; Nell Irvin Painter, American author and historian
*1943 &ndash; Herbert M. Allison, American lieutenant and businessman (d. 2013)
* 1943 &ndash; Tom Burgmeier, American baseball player and coach
* 1943 &ndash; Jon R. Cavaiani, English-American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2014)
* 1943 &ndash; Rose Tremain, English novelist and short story writer
*1944 &ndash; Jim Capaldi, English drummer and singer-songwriter (d. 2005)
* 1944 &ndash; Naná Vasconcelos, Brazilian singer and berimbau player (d. 2016)
*1945 &ndash; Joanna Cassidy, American actress
* 1945 &ndash; Alex Jesaulenko, Austrian-Australian footballer and coach
* 1945 &ndash; Bunker Roy, Indian educator and activist
* 1945 &ndash; Eric Simms, Australian rugby league player and coach
*1946 &ndash; James Howe, American journalist and author
*1947 &ndash; Ruth Bakke, Norwegian organist and composer
* 1947 &ndash; Lawrence Wright, American journalist, author, and screenwriter
*1948 &ndash; Andy Fairweather Low, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer
* 1948 &ndash; Dennis Prager, American radio host and author
* 1948 &ndash; Tapan Kumar Sarkar, Indian-American electrical engineer and academic (d. 2021)<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Hua |first1Y. |last2Sarkar |first2T.K. |date1989 |titleGeneralized pencil-of-function method for extracting poles of an EM system from its transient response |urlhttps://escholarship.org/uc/item/53k15111 |journalIEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation |volume37 |issue2 |pages229–234 |bibcode1989ITAP...37..229H |doi10.1109/8.18710|s2cid122969497 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastLyons |firstGregory |date13 March 2021 |titleIn Memoriam: Prof. Tapan Sarkar |urlhttps://mtt.org/in-memoriam-prof-tapan-sarkar/ |access-dateMarch 15, 2021 |websitemtt.org |publisherIEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Society}}</ref>
* 1948 &ndash; James Street, American football and baseball player (d. 2013)
* 1948 &ndash; Snoo Wilson, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2013)
*1949 &ndash; James Fallows, American journalist and author
* 1949 &ndash; Bertalan Farkas, Hungarian general and cosmonaut<ref>{{cite book |last1Burgess |first1Colin |titleInterkosmos: The Eastern Bloc's Early Space Program |date2016 |publisherSpringer Praxis Books |locationCham |isbn9783319241630 |page93}}</ref>
*1950 &ndash; Jussi Adler-Olsen, Danish author and publisher
* 1950 &ndash; Ted Turner, British guitarist
*1951 &ndash; Andrew Gold, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2011)
* 1951 &ndash; Steve Hillage, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1951 &ndash; Burgess Owens, American football player and politician<ref>{{cite web |last1Chalfant |first1Morgan |titleRep.-elect Burgess Owens (R-Utah-04) |urlhttps://thehill.com/new-members-guide-2020/527849-rep-elect-burgess-owens-r-utah-04/ |workThe Hill |access-date1 August 2023 |date=30 November 2020}}</ref>
* 1951 &ndash; Joe Lynn Turner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1951 &ndash; Per Westerberg, Swedish businessman and politician, Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden
*1952 &ndash; Alain Giresse, French footballer and manager<ref>{{Cite web |titleFIFA Player Statistics: Alain GIRESSE |urlhttps://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/statisticsandrecords/players/player174563/index.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080402065714/http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/statisticsandrecords/players/player174563/index.html |url-statusdead |archive-dateApril 2, 2008 |access-date2 January 2017 |publisher=FIFA.com}}</ref>
*1953 &ndash; Donnie Munro, Scottish singer and guitarist
* 1953 &ndash; Butch Patrick, American actor<ref>{{Cite web |dateAugust 2, 2008 |titleToday's birthdays |urlhttp://www.vindy.com/news/2008/aug/02/magazine-gets-rights-to-brangelina-babies/ |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140225010724/http://www.vindy.com/news/2008/aug/02/magazine-gets-rights-to-brangelina-babies/ |archive-dateFebruary 25, 2014 |access-dateAugust 2, 2018 |websiteYoungstown Vindicator}}</ref>
* 1953 &ndash; Anthony Seldon, English historian and author
*1954 &ndash; Sammy McIlroy, Northern Irish footballer and manager
*1955 &ndash; Caleb Carr, American historian and author (d. 2024)<ref>{{Cite news |lastGreen |firstPenelope |date2024-05-24 |titleCaleb Carr, Author of Dark Histories, Dies at 68 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/05/24/books/caleb-carr-dead.html |access-date2024-05-26 |workThe New York Times |languageen-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>
* 1955 &ndash; Tony Godden, English footballer and manager
* 1955 &ndash; Butch Vig, American drummer, songwriter, and record producer
*1956 &ndash; Fulvio Melia, Italian-American physicist, astrophysicist, and author
*1957 &ndash; Jacky Rosen, United States senator <ref>{{Cite web |titleROSEN, Jacklyn Sheryl (1957-) |urlhttps://bioguideretro.congress.gov/Home/MemberDetails?memIndexR000608 |access-dateAugust 3, 2020}}</ref>
*1959 &ndash; Jim Doughan, American actor<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1988-09-18-8801310848-story.html | titleKate Benton, James Doughan | websiteChicago Tribune | date18 September 1988 }}</ref>
* 1959 &ndash; Victoria Jackson, American actress and singer
* 1959 &ndash; Johnny Kemp, Bahamian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2015)
* 1959 &ndash; Apollonia Kotero, American singer and actress
*1960 &ndash; Linda Fratianne, American figure skater
* 1960 &ndash; Neal Morse, American singer and keyboard player
* 1960 &ndash; David Yow, American singer-songwriter
*1961 &ndash; Pete de Freitas, Trinidadian-British drummer and producer (d. 1989)
*1962 &ndash; Lee Mavers, English singer, songwriter and guitarist
* 1962 &ndash; Cynthia Stevenson, American actress<ref name"rose">{{Cite news |lastRose |firstMike |dateAugust 2, 2018 |titleToday's top celebrity birthdays list for August 2, 2018 |workThe Plain Dealer |urlhttps://www.cleveland.com/expo/life-and-culture/erry-2018/08/56391aa86c8078/todays-top-celebrity-birthdays.html |access-dateAugust 2, 2018}}</ref>
*1963 &ndash; Laura Bennett, American architect and fashion designer
* 1963 &ndash; Uğur Tütüneker, Turkish footballer and manager
*1964 &ndash; Frank Biela, German race car driver
* 1964 &ndash; Mary-Louise Parker, American actress
*1965 &ndash; Joe Hockey, Australian lawyer and politician, 38th Treasurer of Australia
* 1965 &ndash; Hisanobu Watanabe, Japanese baseball player and coach
*1966 &ndash; Takashi Iizuka, Japanese wrestler
* 1966 &ndash; Grainne Leahy, Irish cricketer
* 1966 &ndash; Tim Wakefield, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2023)
*1967 &ndash; Aaron Krickstein, American tennis player
* 1967 &ndash; Aline Brosh McKenna, American screenwriter and producer
*1968 &ndash; Stefan Effenberg, German footballer and sportscaster
*1969 &ndash; Cedric Ceballos, American basketball player
* 1969 &ndash; Fernando Couto, Portuguese footballer and manager
*1970 &ndash; Tony Amonte, American ice hockey player and coach
* 1970 &ndash; Kevin Smith, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter<ref>{{Cite web |titleKevin Smith Biography (1970–) |urlhttp://www.filmreference.com/film/89/Kevin-Smith.html |access-dateMarch 30, 2015 |publisherFilmReference.com}} Note: At least one source, Yahoo! Movies, gives birthplace as Highlands, New Jersey.</ref>
* 1970 &ndash; Philo Wallace, Barbadian cricketer
*1971 &ndash; Jason Bell, Australian rugby league player
* 1971 &ndash; Michael Hughes, Irish footballer and manager
*1972 &ndash; Mohamed Al-Deayea, Saudi Arabian footballer
* 1972 &ndash; Muriel Bowser, American politician, Mayor of Washington, D.C.<ref>{{Cite web |titleMuriel Bowser |urlhttps://awpc.cattcenter.iastate.edu/directory/muriel-bowser/ |publisherArchives of Women's Political Communication |access-date1 October 2021}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Danie Keulder, Namibian cricketer
* 1973 &ndash; Miguel Mendonca, Zimbabwean journalist and author
* 1973 &ndash; Susie O'Neill, Australian swimmer
*1974 &ndash; Phil Williams, English journalist and radio host
*1975 &ndash; Mineiro, Brazilian footballer
* 1975 &ndash; Xu Huaiwen, Chinese-German badminton player and coach
* 1975 &ndash; Tamás Molnár, Hungarian water polo player
*1976 &ndash; Reyes Estévez, Spanish runner
* 1976 &ndash; Jay Heaps, American soccer player and coach
* 1976 &ndash; Michael Weiss, American figure skater
* 1976 &ndash; Sam Worthington, English-Australian actor and producer<ref name=rose />
* 1976 &ndash; Mohammad Zahid, Pakistani cricketer
*1977 &ndash; Edward Furlong, American actor<ref name=rose />
*1978 &ndash; Goran Gavrančić, Serbian footballer
* 1978 &ndash; Matt Guerrier, American baseball player
* 1978 &ndash; Deividas Šemberas, Lithuanian footballer
* 1978 &ndash; Dragan Vukmir, Serbian footballer
*1979 &ndash; Marco Bonura, Italian footballer
* 1979 &ndash; Reuben Kosgei, Kenyan runner
*1980 &ndash; Ivica Banović, Croatian footballer
*1981 &ndash; Alexander Emelianenko, Russian mixed martial artist and boxer
* 1981 &ndash; Tim Murtagh, English-Irish cricketer
*1982 &ndash; Hélder Postiga, Portuguese footballer
* 1982 &ndash; Kerry Rhodes, American football player
* 1982 &ndash; Grady Sizemore, American baseball player
*1983 &ndash; Michel Bastos, Brazilian footballer
* 1983 &ndash; Huston Street, American baseball player<ref>{{cite web |titleHuston Street |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/huston-street-434718 |publisherMajor League Baseball |access-date1 August 2023}}</ref>
*1984 &ndash; Giampaolo Pazzini, Italian footballer
* 1984 &ndash; JD Vance, vice president of the United States<ref>{{cite web |last1Gomez |first1Henry |titleJD Vance discusses his rocky debut and what role he wants to play as Trump's VP |urlhttps://www.nbcnews.com/politics/2024-election/jd-vance-discusses-rocky-debut-role-wants-play-vp-rcna164295 |websiteNBC News |date31 July 2024 |access-date=July 31, 2024}}</ref>
*1985 &ndash; Stephen Ferris, Irish rugby player
* 1985 &ndash; David Hart Smith, Canadian wrestler
* 1985 &ndash; Britt Nicole, American Christian pop artist
*1986 &ndash; Mathieu Razanakolona, Canadian skier
*1986 &ndash; Lily Gladstone, American actress<ref>{{cite web |titleLily Gladstone profile |urlhttps://goldenglobes.com/person/lily-gladstone/ |publisherGolden Globes |access-dateJanuary 16, 2024}}</ref>
*1988 &ndash; Rob Kwiet, Canadian ice hockey player
* 1988 &ndash; Golden Tate, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleGolden Tate |urlhttps://www.espn.com/nfl/player/_/id/13217/golden-tate |publisherESPN |access-date1 August 2023}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Nacer Chadli, Belgian footballer
*1990 &ndash; Ima Bohush, Belarusian tennis player
* 1990 &ndash; Vitalia Diatchenko, Russian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleVitalia Diatchenko {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/315030/vitalia-diatchenko |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
* 1990 &ndash; Skylar Diggins-Smith, American basketball player<ref>{{Cite web |titleSkylar Diggins-Smith |urlhttps://www.wnba.com/player/skylar-diggins-smith/ |websiteWNBA.com - Official Site of the WNBA |accessdateAugust 19, 2021}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Evander Kane, Canadian ice hockey player<ref>{{cite web |titleEvander Kane Stats And News |urlhttps://www.nhl.com/oilers/player/evander-kane-8475169 |websiteNHL.com |access-dateJuly 31, 2024}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Charli XCX, English singer-songwriter<ref>{{Cite web |titleCharli XCX |urlhttps://thevogue.com/artists/charli-xcx/ |websitethevogue.com |access-date1 October 2021}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Gael Bussa, Congolese politician<ref>{{Cite web |date2019-08-29 |titleLe Phare : " Validation des mandats : Assemblée nationale, les enfants d'abord ! " |urlhttps://www.radiookapi.net/2019/08/29/actualite/revue-de-presse/le-phare-validation-des-mandats-assemblee-nationale-les-enfants |access-date2021-07-03 |websiteRadio Okapi |languagefr}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Cr1TiKaL, American YouTuber and streamer<ref>{{Cite tweet |number892769635497541634 |userMoistCr1TiKaL |titleToday is my birthday; my wish is for everyone to acknowledge that John Wick once killed three men in a bar with a pencil. A fucking pencil |dateAugust 2, 2017 |access-date=July 31, 2024}}</ref>
* 1994 &ndash; Laura Pigossi, Brazilian tennis player
* 1994 &ndash; Laremy Tunsil, American football player
*1995 &ndash; Kristaps Porziņģis, Latvian basketball player
* 1995 &ndash; Vikkstar123, English internet personality<ref>{{Cite tweet |number1290025072539779072 |userVikkstar123 |title25 years on this big rock. Super happy & grateful. Thanks for all the Birthday wishes! |date2 August 2020 |access-date23 February 2021 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200802204243/https://twitter.com/Vikkstar123/status/1290025072539779072 |archive-date2 August 2020 |url-statuslive |lastBarn |firstVikram}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Keston Hiura, American baseball player<ref>{{Cite web |titleKeston Hiura |urlhttps://www.mlb.com/player/keston-hiura-669374 |access-date7 August 2020 |websiteMLB.com |publisher=Major League Baseball}}</ref>
* 1996 &ndash; Simone Manuel, American swimmer<ref>{{Cite web |titleSimone Manuel |urlhttps://www.olympic.org/simone-manuel |access-date25 April 2020 |publisherInternational Olympic Committee}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Austin Theory, American wrestler<ref>{{cite web |titleAustin Theory |urlhttps://www.espn.com/wwe/story/_/id/29202013/theory |publisherESPN |access-date1 August 2023 |date=28 November 2022}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Mark Lee, Korean-Canadian singer<ref>{{Cite web |date2018-07-27 |titleMark (NCT) Profile and Facts; Mark's Ideal Type (Updated!) |urlhttps://kprofiles.com/mark-nct-profile-facts/ |access-date2020-07-12 |website=Kpop Profiles}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Varvara Gracheva, Russian tennis player<ref>{{Cite web |titleVarvara Gracheva {{!}} Player Stats & More – WTA Official |urlhttps://www.wtatennis.com/players/325836/varvara-gracheva |access-date2022-10-17 |websiteWomen's Tennis Association |language=en}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Mohammed Kudus, Ghanaian footballer<ref name"FIFA 2022">{{cite web |urlhttps://fdp.fifa.org/assetspublic/ce44/pdf/SquadLists-English.pdf |titleFIFA World Cup Qatar 2022: List of Players: Ghana |publisherFIFA |page14 |date15 November 2022 |access-date22 November 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221218195301/https://fdp.fifa.org/assetspublic/ce44/pdf/SquadLists-English.pdf |archive-date18 December 2022 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add your own name or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
*216 BC &ndash; Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, Roman consul
* 216 BC &ndash; Lucius Aemilius Paullus, Roman consul and general
* 216 BC &ndash; Marcus Minucius Rufus, Roman consul
* 257 &ndash; Pope Stephen I
* 575 &ndash; Ahudemmeh, Syriac Orthodox Grand Metropolitan of the East.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |year2011 |titleAḥudemmeh of Balad |encyclopediaGorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage: Electronic Edition |publisherBeth Mardutho |urlhttps://gedsh.bethmardutho.org/Ahudemmeh-of-Balad |access-date18 February 2021 |lastBrock |firstSebastian P. |editor-lastBrock | editor-firstSebastian P. |editor-linkSebastian P. Brock |page13 |editor2Aaron M. Butts |editor3George A. Kiraz |editor3-linkGeorge A. Kiraz |editor4Lucas Van Rompay}}</ref>
* 640 &ndash; Pope Severinus
* 686 &ndash; Pope John V<ref>{{cite web |titleJohn V {{!}} pope |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/John-V-pope |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date12 June 2022 |language=en}}</ref>
* 855 &ndash; Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Arab theologian and jurist (b. 780)
* 924 &ndash; Ælfweard of Wessex (b. 904)
*1075 &ndash; Patriarch John VIII of Constantinople
*1100 &ndash; William II of England (b. 1056)<ref>{{Cite journal |lastHollister |firstC. Warren |date1 October 1973 |titleThe Strange Death of William Rufus |urlhttps://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.2307/2856221 |journalSpeculum |volume48 |issue4 |pages637–653 |doi10.2307/2856221 |issn0038-7134 |jstor2856221 |access-date29 July 2020 |s2cid162819807}}</ref>
*1222 &ndash; Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse (b. 1156)
*1277 &ndash; Mu'in al-Din Sulaiman Pervane, Chancellor and Regent of the Sultanate of Rum
*1316 &ndash; Louis of Burgundy (b. 1297)
*1330 &ndash; Yolande of Dreux, Queen consort of Scotland and Duchess consort of Brittany (b. 1263)<ref>{{Cite web |titleYolande de Dreux: Biography on Undiscovered Scotland |urlhttps://www.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk/usbiography/d/yolandededreux.html |access-date17 January 2020 |websitewww.undiscoveredscotland.co.uk}}</ref>
*1332 &ndash; King Christopher II of Denmark (b. 1276)
*1415 &ndash; Thomas Grey, English conspirator (b. 1384)
*1445 &ndash; Oswald von Wolkenstein, Austrian poet and composer (b. 1376)
*1451 &ndash; Elizabeth of Görlitz (b. 1390)
*1511 &ndash; Andrew Barton, Scottish admiral (b. 1466)
*1512 &ndash; Alessandro Achillini, Italian physician and philosopher (b. 1463)
*1589 &ndash; Henry III of France (b. 1551)
1601–1900
*1605 &ndash; Richard Leveson, English admiral (b. c. 1570)
*1611 &ndash; Katō Kiyomasa, Japanese daimyō (b. 1562)
*1667 &ndash; Francesco Borromini, Swiss architect, designed San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and Sant'Agnese in Agone (b. 1599)
*1696 &ndash; Robert Campbell of Glenlyon (b. 1630)
*1769 &ndash; Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1689)
*1788 &ndash; Thomas Gainsborough, English painter (b. 1727)<ref name="CBOD"/>
*1799 &ndash; Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier, French inventor, co-invented the hot air balloon (b. 1745)
*1815 &ndash; Guillaume Brune, French general and politician (b. 1763)
*1823 &ndash; Lazare Carnot, French mathematician, general, and politician, president of the National Convention (b. 1753)
*1834 &ndash; Harriet Arbuthnot, English diarist (b. 1793)
*1849 &ndash; Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Ottoman Albanian commander (b. 1769)
*1854 &ndash; Heinrich Clauren, German author (b. 1771)
*1859 &ndash; Horace Mann, American educator and politician (b. 1796)
*1876 &ndash; "Wild Bill" Hickok, American sheriff (b. 1837)<ref name="CBOD"/>
*1889 &ndash; Eduardo Gutiérrez, Argentinian author (b. 1851)
*1890 &ndash; Louise-Victorine Ackermann, French poet and author (b. 1813)
1901–present
*1903 &ndash; Eduard Magnus Jakobson, Estonian missionary and engraver (b. 1847)
* 1903 &ndash; Edmond Nocard, French veterinarian and microbiologist (b. 1850)
*1911 &ndash; Ioryi Mucitano, Aromanian revolutionary<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://struma.news/istoriya-i-tradicii/na-6-maj-1869-g-v-selo-bojmica-e-roden-apostol-petkov-terziev-postol-vojvoda/|titleНа 6 май 1869 г. в село Боймица е роден Апостол Петков Терзиев (Постол войвода)|firstSimona|lastGeorgieva|newspaperStruma News|date6 May 2020|language=bg}}</ref>
*1913 &ndash; Ferenc Pfaff, Hungarian architect and academic, designed Zagreb Central Station (b. 1851)
*1915 &ndash; John Downer, Australian politician, 16th premier of South Australia (b. 1843)
*1917 &ndash; Jaan Mahlapuu, Estonian military pilot (b. 1894)
*1921 &ndash; Enrico Caruso, Italian tenor and actor (b. 1873)
*1922 &ndash; Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-Canadian engineer, invented the telephone (b. 1847)<ref name="CBOD"/>
*1923 &ndash; Warren G. Harding, American journalist and politician, 29th president of the United States (b. 1865)
*1923 &ndash; Joseph Whitty, Irish Republican died on hunger strike during the 1923 Irish Hunger Strikes (b. 1904)<ref>The Civil War". rootsireland.ie. roots ireland. Retrieved 29 August 2021. Joe Whitty aged 19 who died on hunger-strike</ref>
*1934 &ndash; Paul von Hindenburg, German field marshal and politician, 2nd president of Germany (b. 1847)
*1937 &ndash; Artur Sirk, Estonian soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1900)
*1939 &ndash; Harvey Spencer Lewis, American mystic and author (b. 1883)
*1945 &ndash; Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer and educator (b. 1863)
*1955 &ndash; Alfred Lépine, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1901)
* 1955 &ndash; Wallace Stevens, American poet and educator (b. 1879)
*1963 &ndash; Oliver La Farge, American anthropologist and author (b. 1901)
*1967 &ndash; Walter Terence Stace, English-American epistemologist, philosopher, and academic (b. 1886)
*1970 &ndash; Angus MacFarlane-Grieve, English academic, mathematician, rower, and soldier (b. 1891)
*1972 &ndash; Brian Cole, American bass player (b. 1942)
* 1972 &ndash; Paul Goodman, American psychotherapist and author (b. 1911)
* 1972 &ndash; Helen Hoyt, American poet and author (b. 1887)
*1973 &ndash; Ismail Abdul Rahman, Former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia (b. 1915)<ref>{{Cite web|titleTun Ismail bin Datoʿ Abdul Rahman {{!}} Malay politician|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/Tun-Ismail-bin-Dato-Abdul-Rahman|access-date2021-09-09|websiteEncyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>
*1973 &ndash; Jean-Pierre Melville, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1917)
*1974 &ndash; Douglas Hawkes, English race car driver and businessman (b. 1893)
*1976 &ndash; László Kalmár, Hungarian mathematician and academic (b. 1905)
* 1976 &ndash; Fritz Lang, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1890)
*1978 &ndash; Carlos Chávez, Mexican composer and conductor (b. 1899)
* 1978 &ndash; Antony Noghès, French businessman, founded the Monaco Grand Prix (b. 1890)
*1979 &ndash; Thurman Munson, American baseball player (b. 1947)<ref>{{Cite news |dateAugust 3, 1979 |titleYankees' star Munson is killed in plane crash |workToledo Blade |agencyAssociated Press |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idCw0wAAAAIBAJ&pg3091%2C2937686 |access-date29 July 2020}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Kieran Doherty, Irish hunger striker and politician (b. 1955)<ref>{{Cite web |date6 May 2014 |titleRoll of Honor/Hunger Strikers |url=https://republicansinnfein.org/hunger-strike-roll-of-honour/}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Stefanie Clausen, Danish diver (b. 1900)
*1983 &ndash; James Jamerson, American bass player<ref>{{Cite news |date6 August 1983 |titleJames Jamerson Dies at 45; Bassist Backed Detroit Stars |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1983/08/06/obituaries/james-jamerson-dies-at-45-bassist-backed-detroit-stars.html}}</ref> (b. 1936)
*1986 &ndash; Roy Cohn, American lawyer and politician (b. 1927)
*1988 &ndash; Joe Carcione, American activist and author (b. 1914)
* 1988 &ndash; Raymond Carver, American short story writer and poet (b. 1938)
*1990 &ndash; Norman Maclean, American short story writer and essayist (b. 1902)
* 1990 &ndash; Edwin Richfield, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1921)
*1992 &ndash; Michel Berger, French singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1947)
*1996 &ndash; Michel Debré, French lawyer and politician, 150th prime minister of France (b. 1912)
* 1996 &ndash; Obdulio Varela, Uruguayan footballer and manager (b. 1917)
* 1996 &ndash; Mohamed Farrah Aidid, Somalian general and politician, 5th president of Somalia (b. 1934)<ref>{{Citation |lastSerrill |firstMichael |titleDead by the Sword |date12 August 1996 |urlhttp://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,7034,00.html |magazineTime |access-date=2011-03-19}}</ref>
* 1996 &ndash; Sergey Golovkin, Russian serial killer and rapist, last person executed by Russia (b. 1959)<ref>{{Cite web |titleGolovkin |urlhttp://www.serial-killers.ru/karts/golovkin.htm |website=www.serial-killers.ru}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; William S. Burroughs, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1914)<ref name="CBOD"/>
* 1997 &ndash; Harald Kihle, Norwegian painter and illustrator (b. 1905)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleHarald Kihle |first |last|encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date23 August 2023|editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Harald_Kihle |languageno|access-date28 March 2024}}</ref>
* 1997 &ndash; Fela Kuti, Nigerian singer-songwriter and activist (b. 1938)
*1998 &ndash; Shari Lewis, American television host and puppeteer (b. 1933)
*1999 &ndash; Willie Morris, American writer (b. 1934)
*2003 &ndash; Peter Safar, Austrian-American physician and academic (b. 1924)
*2004 &ndash; Ferenc Berényi, Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1929)
* 2004 &ndash; François Craenhals, Belgian illustrator (b. 1926)
* 2004 &ndash; Heinrich Mark, Estonian lawyer and politician, 5th prime minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1911)
*2005 &ndash; Steven Vincent, American journalist and author (b. 1955)
*2007 &ndash; Chauncey Bailey, American journalist (b. 1950)
*2008 &ndash; Fujio Akatsuka, Japanese illustrator (b. 1935)
*2011 &ndash; José Sanchis Grau, Spanish author and illustrator (b. 1932)
*2012 &ndash; Gabriel Horn, English biologist and academic (b. 1927)
* 2012 &ndash; Magnus Isacsson, Canadian director and producer (b. 1948)
* 2012 &ndash; Jimmy Jones, American singer-songwriter (b. 1930)
* 2012 &ndash; John Keegan, English historian and journalist (b. 1934)
* 2012 &ndash; Bernd Meier, German footballer (b. 1972)
* 2012 &ndash; Marguerite Piazza, American soprano (b. 1920)
*2013 &ndash; Julius L. Chambers, American lawyer and activist (b. 1936)
* 2013 &ndash; Richard E. Dauch, American businessman, co-founded American Axle (b. 1942)
* 2013 &ndash; Alla Kushnir, Russian–Israeli chess player (b. 1941)
*2014 &ndash; Ed Joyce, American journalist (b. 1932)
* 2014 &ndash; Billie Letts, American author and educator (b. 1938)
* 2014 &ndash; Barbara Prammer, Austrian social worker and politician (b. 1954)
* 2014 &ndash; James Thompson, American-Finnish author (b. 1964)
*2015 &ndash; Forrest Bird, American pilot and engineer (b. 1921)
* 2015 &ndash; Giovanni Conso, Italian jurist and politician, Italian Minister of Justice (b. 1922)
* 2015 &ndash; Piet Fransen, Dutch footballer (b. 1936)
* 2015 &ndash; Jack Spring, American baseball player (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite web |titleJack Spring |urlhttps://sabr.org/bioproj/person/jack-spring/ |websiteSociety for American Baseball Research |access-date2 August 2022}}</ref>
*2016 &ndash; Terence Bayler, New Zealand actor (b. 1930)
* 2016 &ndash; David Huddleston, American actor (b. 1930)
* 2016 &ndash; Franciszek Macharski, Polish cardinal (b. 1927)
* 2016 &ndash; Ahmed Zewail, Egyptian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1946)
*2017 &ndash; Judith Jones, American literary and cookbook editor (b. 1924)<ref>{{Cite web |date10 August 2017 |titleRemembered: Judith Jones, editor who rescued Anne Frank's diary |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/remembered-judith-jones-editor-a7884306.html |access-date1 July 2020 |website=The Independent}}</ref>
*2020 &ndash; Suzanne Perlman, Hungarian-Dutch visual artist (b. 1922)<ref>{{Cite web |date23 October 2020 |titleSuzanne Perlman obituary {{!}} Philip Vann |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2020/oct/23/suzanne-perlman-obituary |access-date25 October 2020 |website=The Guardian}}</ref>
*2022 &ndash; Vin Scully, American sportscaster and game show host (b. 1927)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.mlb.com/news/vin-scully-legendary-announcer-dies | titleVin Scully, legendary broadcaster, dies at 94 | website=MLB.com }}</ref>
*2023 &ndash; Nitin Chandrakant Desai, Indian art director, production designer, and film and television producer (b. 1965)<ref>{{cite magazine |last1Sharma |first1Devesh |titleRemembering Nitin Chandrakant Desai |magazineFilmfare |dateAugust 2023 |page108 |volume72 |issn0971-7277}}</ref>
<!-- Do not add people without Wikipedia articles to this list. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. -->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Ahudemmeh (Syriac Orthodox Church).<ref>{{Cite book |lastFiey |firstJean Maurice |titleSaints Syriaques |date2004 |publisherThe Darwin Press |editor-lastLawrence Conrad |editor-linkLawrence Conrad |page32 |languagefr |author-linkJean Maurice Fiey}}</ref>
**Basil Fool for Christ (Russian Orthodox Church)
**Justin Russolillo
**Eusebius of Vercelli
**Peter Faber
**Peter Julian Eymard
**Plegmund<ref>{{cite web |titleSaints of the British Isles: Plegmund |urlhttp://www.thyateira.org.uk/plegmund/ |websiteArchdiocese of Thyateira and Great Britain |access-date28 May 2022}}</ref>
**Pope Stephen I
** Portiuncola Indulgence ("Pardon of Assisi"), the plenary indulgence related to St. Francis of Assisi (Catholic Church).<ref>{{Cite web |titleSt. Francis of Assisi National Shrine: Indulgences |urlhttp://www.shrinesf.org/pardon-of-assisi.html |websitewww.shrinesf.org |accessdateAugust 19, 2021}}</ref>
**Samuel David Ferguson (Episcopal Church){{citation needed|date=July 2024}}
**August 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*Day of Azerbaijani cinema (Azerbaijan)
*Our Lady of the Angels Day (Costa Rica)
*Paratroopers Day (Russia)
*Republic Day (North Macedonia)
*Romani genocide-related observances, including:
**Roma Holocaust Memorial Day (Council of Europe, European Parliament)
References
{{reflist}}
External links
{{commons}}
*{{Cite web |titleOn This Day |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/august/2 |publisher=BBC}}
*{{NYT On this day|month08|day02}}
*{{Cite web |titleHistorical Events on August 2 |urlhttps://www.onthisday.com/events/august/2 |publisher=OnThisDay.com}}
{{months}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:August 2}}
Category:Days of August | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_2 | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.361058 |
1155 | Atlantic (disambiguation) | The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's oceans, that separates the old world from the new world.
Atlantic may also refer to:
Places
In Canada
Atlantic, Nova Scotia
Atlantic Canada
In the United States
Atlantic, Iowa
Atlantic, Massachusetts
Atlantic, North Carolina, an unincorporated community in eastern Carteret County
Atlantic, Pennsylvania
Atlantic, Seattle, a neighborhood in Washington state
Atlantic, Virginia
Atlantic City, New Jersey
Atlantic County, New Jersey
Atlantic Peak (Colorado), a mountain
Art, entertainment, and media
Companies and labels
Atlantic Books, an independent British publishing house
Atlantic Monthly Press, an American publishing house
Atlantic Entertainment Group, a defunct movie studio company
Atlantic FM, a former radio station serving Cornwall, United Kingdom
Atlantic Records, a record company
Music
The Atlantics, an Australian surf rock band formed in the early 1960s
Albums
Atlantic (Dufresne album)
Songs
"Atlantic" (song), by Keane
"Atlantic", a song by Björk from Vessel (DVD)
"Atlantic", a song by Thrice from Vheissu
"Atlantic", a song by Sleep Token from This Place Will Become Your Tomb
Other art, entertainment, and media
Atlantic (film), a 1929 black and white British film
The Atlantic, an American magazine founded as The Atlantic Monthly in 1857
Atlantic., a 2014 Dutch film
Atlantic (2015 film), an Irish documentary film, awarded Best Irish Documentary at the 2016 Dublin International Film Festival
Enterprises and organizations
Atlantic (cinema), a movie theater in Warsaw, Poland
Atlantic (toy company), a defunct Italian toy manufacturer
Atlantic (supermarkets), a defunct supermarket chain in Greece
Atlantic Broadband, a cable company in Massachusetts
Atlantic City Electric, a division of Elexon supplying electricity in New Jersey
Atlantic LNG, a liquefied natural gas producing company based in Trinidad and Tobago
Atlantic Petroleum, a former oil company in the United States
Atlantic Petroleum (Faroe Islands), an oil and gas production company
Atlantic Philanthropies, a defunct private foundation
Atlantic Technological University, north-western Ireland
Atlantic University, Virginia Beach, Virginia
Groupe Atlantic, a French climate control engineering company
Real Atlantic Superstore, a Canadian supermarket chain
Sports
Atlantic Championship Series, developmental open-wheel racing series in North America
Atlantic League of Professional Baseball, an American professional baseball league
Structures
Atlantic Building or Edificio Atlantic, a condominium building in Havana, Cuba
The Atlantic (Atlanta), a skyscraper in Atlanta, Georgia, United States
Transportation
Airlines
Air Atlantic, a Canadian airline
Atlantic Airways, a Faroese airline company
Aircraft
Breguet Atlantic, a French long-range maritime patrol aircraft (1961)
Motor vehicles
Atlantic (1921 automobile), a defunct automobile company
Austin Atlantic, a British car produced by the Austin Motor Company from 1949 to 1952
Fisker Atlantic, a 2012 plug-in electric concept car
Railroads and trains
Atlantic (locomotive), name of an early steam-powered locomotive of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad
Atlantic station (Los Angeles Metro)
Atlantic station (Staten Island Railway)
Atlantic (train), a named passenger train operated by Canadian Pacific Railway and later Via Rail
Atlantic, a type of steam locomotive with a 4-4-2 wheel arrangement (UIC classification 2B1)
Ships
, any one of several vessels by that name
Atlantic (yacht), a three-masted gaff-rigged schooner
Atlantic 85-class lifeboats, lifeboats that serve the shores of the United Kingdom and Ireland as a part of the RNLI inshore fleet
Other uses
Atlantic (period) of palaeoclimatology
Atlantic languages (formerly West Atlantic), a language family in West Africa
Atlantic (horse), British-bred Thoroughbred racehorse of the 1870s
See also
Atlantik (disambiguation)
Atlantique (disambiguation)
Atlantic Beach (disambiguation)
Atlantic Bridge (disambiguation)
Atlantic City (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.366736 |
1158 | Algebraic number | {{Short description|Complex number that is a root of a non-zero polynomial in one variable with rational coefficients}}
{{Distinguish|Algebraic solution}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=September 2024}}
of a right triangle with legs of length 1.]]
An algebraic number is a number that is a root of a non-zero polynomial in one variable with integer (or, equivalently, rational) coefficients. For example, the golden ratio, <math>(1 + \sqrt{5})/2</math>, is an algebraic number, because it is a root of the polynomial {{math|x{{sup|2}} − x − 1}}. That is, it is a value for x for which the polynomial evaluates to zero. As another example, the complex number <math>1 + i</math> is algebraic because it is a root of {{math|x{{sup|4}} + 4}}.
All integers and rational numbers are algebraic, as are all roots of integers. Real and complex numbers that are not algebraic, such as {{pi}} and {{mvar|e}}, are called transcendental numbers.
The set of algebraic (complex) numbers is countably infinite and has measure zero in the Lebesgue measure as a subset of the uncountable complex numbers. In that sense, almost all complex numbers are transcendental. Similarly, the set of algebraic (real) numbers is countably infinite and has Lebesgue measure zero as a subset of the real numbers, and in that sense almost all real numbers are transcendental.
Examples
* All rational numbers are algebraic. Any rational number, expressed as the quotient of an integer {{mvar|a}} and a (non-zero) natural number {{mvar|b}}, satisfies the above definition, because {{math|x {{}} {{sfrac|a|b}}}} is the root of a non-zero polynomial, namely {{math|bx − a}}.<ref>Some of the following examples come from {{harvtxt|Hardy|Wright|1972|pp159–160, 178–179}}</ref>
* Quadratic irrational numbers, irrational solutions of a quadratic polynomial {{math|ax{{sup|2}} + bx + c}} with integer coefficients {{mvar|a}}, {{mvar|b}}, and {{mvar|c}}, are algebraic numbers. If the quadratic polynomial is monic ({{math|a {{=}} 1}}), the roots are further qualified as quadratic integers.
** Gaussian integers, complex numbers {{math|a + bi}} for which both {{mvar|a}} and {{mvar|b}} are integers, are also quadratic integers. This is because {{math|a + bi}} and {{math|a − bi}} are the two roots of the quadratic {{math|x{{sup|2}} − 2ax + a{{sup|2}} + b{{sup|2}}}}.
* A constructible number can be constructed from a given unit length using a straightedge and compass. It includes all quadratic irrational roots, all rational numbers, and all numbers that can be formed from these using the basic arithmetic operations and the extraction of square roots. (By designating cardinal directions for +1, −1, +{{mvar|i}}, and −{{mvar|i}}, complex numbers such as <math>3+i \sqrt{2}</math> are considered constructible.)
* Any expression formed from algebraic numbers using any combination of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of {{mvar|n}}th roots gives another algebraic number.
* Polynomial roots that cannot be expressed in terms of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of {{mvar|n}}th roots (such as the roots of {{math|x<sup>5</sup> − x + 1}}). That happens with many but not all polynomials of degree 5 or higher.
* Values of trigonometric functions of rational multiples of {{pi}} (except when undefined): for example, {{math|cos {{sfrac|{{math|π}}|7}}}}, {{math|cos {{sfrac|3{{math|π}}|7}}}}, and {{math|cos {{sfrac|5{{math|π}}|7}}}} satisfy {{math|8x<sup>3</sup> − 4x<sup>2</sup> − 4x + 1 {{}} 0}}. This polynomial is irreducible over the rationals and so the three cosines are conjugate algebraic numbers. Likewise, {{math|tan {{sfrac|3{{math|π}}|16}}}}, {{math|tan {{sfrac|7{{math|π}}|16}}}}, {{math|tan {{sfrac|11{{math|π}}|16}}}}, and {{math|tan {{sfrac|15{{math|π}}|16}}}} satisfy the irreducible polynomial {{math|x<sup>4</sup> − 4x<sup>3</sup> − 6x<sup>2</sup> + 4x + 1 {{}} 0}}, and so are conjugate algebraic integers. This is the equivalent of angles which, when measured in degrees, have rational numbers.{{sfn|Garibaldi|2008}}
* Some but not all irrational numbers are algebraic:
** The numbers <math>\sqrt{2}</math> and <math>\frac{ \sqrt[3]{3} }{ 2 }</math> are algebraic since they are roots of polynomials {{math|x<sup>2</sup> − 2}} and {{math|8x<sup>3</sup> − 3}}, respectively.
** The golden ratio {{mvar|φ}} is algebraic since it is a root of the polynomial {{math|x<sup>2</sup> − x − 1}}.
** The numbers {{pi}} and e are not algebraic numbers (see the Lindemann–Weierstrass theorem).<ref>Also, Liouville's theorem can be used to "produce as many examples of transcendental numbers as we please," cf. {{harvtxt|Hardy|Wright|1972|p161ff}}</ref><span class"anchor" id"Degree of an algebraic number"></span> Properties
<!--This anchor tag serves to provide a target for incoming section links. Please do not modify or remove it. See Template:Anchor for details.-->
colored by degree (bright orange/red 1, green 2, blue 3, yellow 4). The larger points come from polynomials with smaller integer coefficients.]]
*If a polynomial with rational coefficients is multiplied through by the least common denominator, the resulting polynomial with integer coefficients has the same roots. This shows that an algebraic number can be equivalently defined as a root of a polynomial with either integer or rational coefficients.
*Given an algebraic number, there is a unique monic polynomial with rational coefficients of least degree that has the number as a root. This polynomial is called its minimal polynomial. If its minimal polynomial has degree {{mvar|n}}, then the algebraic number is said to be of degree {{mvar|n}}. For example, all rational numbers have degree 1, and an algebraic number of degree 2 is a quadratic irrational.
*The algebraic numbers are dense in the reals. This follows from the fact they contain the rational numbers, which are dense in the reals themselves.
*The set of algebraic numbers is countable,{{sfn|Hardy|Wright|1972|p160|loc2008:205}}{{sfn|Niven|1956|loc=Theorem 7.5.}} and therefore its Lebesgue measure as a subset of the complex numbers is 0 (essentially, the algebraic numbers take up no space in the complex numbers). That is to say, "almost all" real and complex numbers are transcendental.
*All algebraic numbers are computable and therefore definable and arithmetical.
*For real numbers {{math|a}} and {{math|b}}, the complex number {{math|a + bi}} is algebraic if and only if both {{math|a}} and {{math|b}} are algebraic.{{sfn|Niven|1956|locCorollary 7.3.}}Degree of simple extensions of the rationals as a criterion to algebraicityFor any {{math|&alpha;}}, the simple extension of the rationals by {{math|&alpha;}}, denoted by <math>\Q(\alpha) \equiv \{\sum_{i-{n_1}}^{n_2} \alpha^i q_i | q_i\in \Q, n_1,n_2\in \N\}</math>, is of finite degree if and only if {{math|&alpha;}} is an algebraic number.
The condition of finite degree means that there is a finite set <math>\{a_i | 1\le i\le k\}</math> in <math>\Q(\alpha)</math> such that <math>\Q(\alpha) \sum_{i1}^k a_i \Q</math>; that is, every member in <math>\Q(\alpha)</math> can be written as <math>\sum_{i=1}^k a_i q_i</math> for some rational numbers <math>\{q_i | 1\le i\le k\}</math> (note that the set <math>\{a_i\}</math> is fixed).
Indeed, since the <math>a_i-s</math> are themselves members of <math>\Q(\alpha)</math>, each can be expressed as sums of products of rational numbers and powers of {{math|&alpha;}}, and therefore this condition is equivalent to the requirement that for some finite <math>n</math>, <math>\Q(\alpha) \{\sum_{i-n}^n \alpha^{i} q_i | q_i\in \Q\}</math>.
The latter condition is equivalent to <math>\alpha^{n+1}</math>, itself a member of <math>\Q(\alpha)</math>, being expressible as <math>\sum_{i-n}^n \alpha^i q_i</math> for some rationals <math>\{q_i\}</math>, so <math>\alpha^{2n+1} \sum_{i0}^{2n} \alpha^i q_{i-n}</math> or, equivalently, {{math|&alpha;}} is a root of <math>x^{2n+1}-\sum_{i0}^{2n} x^i q_{i-n}</math>; that is, an algebraic number with a minimal polynomial of degree not larger than <math>2n+1</math>.
It can similarly be proven that for any finite set of algebraic numbers <math>\alpha_1</math>, <math>\alpha_2</math>... <math>\alpha_n</math>, the field extension <math>\Q(\alpha_1, \alpha_2, ... \alpha_n)</math> has a finite degree.
Field
The sum, difference, product, and quotient (if the denominator is nonzero) of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic:
For any two algebraic numbers {{math|&alpha;}}, {{math|&beta;}}, this follows directly from the fact that the simple extension <math>\Q(\gamma)</math>, for <math>\gamma</math> being either <math>\alpha+\beta</math>, <math>\alpha-\beta</math>, <math>\alpha\beta</math> or (for <math>\beta\ne 0</math>) <math>\alpha/\beta</math>, is a linear subspace of the finite-degree field extension <math>\Q(\alpha,\beta)</math>, and therefore has a finite degree itself, from which it follows (as shown above) that <math>\gamma</math> is algebraic.
An alternative way of showing this is constructively, by using the resultant.
Algebraic numbers thus form a field{{sfn|Niven|1956|p92}} <math>\overline{\mathbb{Q}}</math> (sometimes denoted by <math>\mathbb A</math>, but that usually denotes the adele ring).Algebraic closure
Every root of a polynomial equation whose coefficients are algebraic numbers is again algebraic. That can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is algebraically closed. In fact, it is the smallest algebraically closed field containing the rationals and so it is called the algebraic closure of the rationals.
That the field of algebraic numbers is algebraically closed can be proven as follows: Let {{math|&beta;}} be a root of a polynomial <math> \alpha_0 + \alpha_1 x + \alpha_2 x^2 ... +\alpha_n x^n</math> with coefficients that are algebraic numbers <math>\alpha_0</math>, <math>\alpha_1</math>, <math>\alpha_2</math>... <math>\alpha_n</math>. The field extension <math>\Q^\prime \equiv \Q(\alpha_1, \alpha_2, ... \alpha_n)</math> then has a finite degree with respect to <math>\Q</math>. The simple extension <math>\Q^\prime(\beta)</math> then has a finite degree with respect to <math>\Q^\prime</math> (since all powers of {{math|&beta;}} can be expressed by powers of up to <math>\beta^{n-1}</math>). Therefore, <math>\Q^\prime(\beta) \Q(\beta, \alpha_1, \alpha_2, ... \alpha_n)</math> also has a finite degree with respect to <math>\Q</math>. Since <math>\Q(\beta)</math> is a linear subspace of <math>\Q^\prime(\beta)</math>, it must also have a finite degree with respect to <math>\Q</math>, so {{math|&beta;}} must be an algebraic number.Related fieldsNumbers defined by radicals
Any number that can be obtained from the integers using a finite number of additions, subtractions, multiplications, divisions, and taking (possibly complex) {{mvar|n}}th roots where {{mvar|n}} is a positive integer are algebraic. The converse, however, is not true: there are algebraic numbers that cannot be obtained in this manner. These numbers are roots of polynomials of degree&nbsp;5 or higher, a result of Galois theory (see Quintic equations and the Abel–Ruffini theorem). For example, the equation:
:<math>x^5-x-1=0</math>
has a unique real root, ≈ 1.1673, that cannot be expressed in terms of only radicals and arithmetic operations.
Closed-form number
{{Main|Closed-form number}}
Algebraic numbers are all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials, starting from the rational numbers. One may generalize this to "closed-form numbers", which may be defined in various ways. Most broadly, all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials, exponentials, and logarithms are called "elementary numbers", and these include the algebraic numbers, plus some transcendental numbers. Most narrowly, one may consider numbers explicitly defined in terms of polynomials, exponentials, and logarithms – this does not include all algebraic numbers, but does include some simple transcendental numbers such as {{mvar|e}} or ln&nbsp;2.
Algebraic integers
{{Main|Algebraic integer}}
An algebraic integer is an algebraic number that is a root of a polynomial with integer coefficients with leading coefficient 1 (a monic polynomial). Examples of algebraic integers are <math>5 + 13 \sqrt{2},</math> <math>2 - 6i,</math> and <math display=inline>\frac{1}{2}(1+i\sqrt{3}).</math> Therefore, the algebraic integers constitute a proper superset of the integers, as the latter are the roots of monic polynomials {{math|x − k}} for all <math>k \in \mathbb{Z}</math>. In this sense, algebraic integers are to algebraic numbers what integers are to rational numbers.
The sum, difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers, which means that the algebraic integers form a ring. The name algebraic integer comes from the fact that the only rational numbers that are algebraic integers are the integers, and because the algebraic integers in any number field are in many ways analogous to the integers. If {{math|K}} is a number field, its ring of integers is the subring of algebraic integers in {{math|K}}, and is frequently denoted as {{math|O<sub>K</sub>}}. These are the prototypical examples of Dedekind domains.
Special classes
*Algebraic solution
*Gaussian integer
*Eisenstein integer
*Quadratic irrational number
*Fundamental unit
*Root of unity
*Gaussian period
*Pisot–Vijayaraghavan number
*Salem number
Notes
{{Reflist}}
References
*{{citation |lastArtin |firstMichael |author-linkMichael Artin |year1991 |titleAlgebra |publisherPrentice Hall |isbn0-13-004763-5 |mr1129886 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/algebra0000arti_x4a1/ |url-accesslimited }}
*{{citation
| last Garibaldi | first Skip
| date = June 2008
| doi = 10.1080/0025570x.2008.11953548
| issue = 3
| journal = Mathematics Magazine
| jstor = 27643106
| pages = 191–200
| title = Somewhat more than governors need to know about trigonometry
| volume = 81}}
*{{citation |last1Hardy |first1Godfrey Harold |author-link1G. H. Hardy |last2Wright |first2Edward M. |author-link2E. M. Wright |date1972 |titleAn introduction to the theory of numbers |edition5th |locationOxford |publisherClarendon|isbn0-19-853171-0}}
*{{citation |last1Ireland |first1Kenneth |last2Rosen |first2Michael |year1990 |orig-year1st ed. 1982 |titleA Classical Introduction to Modern Number Theory |edition2nd |placeBerlin |publisherSpringer |isbn0-387-97329-X |mr1070716 |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-2103-4}}
*{{citation |lastLang |firstSerge |year2002 |orig-year1st ed. 1965 |titleAlgebra |edition3rd |placeNew York |publisherSpringer |isbn978-0-387-95385-4 |mr1878556 |url=https://archive.org/details/algebra-serge-lang/ }}
*{{citation |lastNiven |firstIvan M. |author-linkIvan M. Niven |year1956 |titleIrrational Numbers |publisherMathematical Association of America |urlhttps://archive.org/details/irrationalnumber00nive/ |url-accesslimited }}
*{{citation|lastOre |firstØystein |author-linkØystein Ore |year1948 |titleNumber Theory and Its History |publisherMcGraw-Hill |locationNew York |urlhttps://archive.org/details/numbertheoryitsh00ore/ |url-access=limited }}
{{Algebraic numbers}}
{{Number systems}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Algebraic Number}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_number | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.378672 |
1160 | Automorphism | {{Short description|Isomorphism of an object to itself}}
of the Klein four-group shown as a mapping between two Cayley graphs, a permutation in cycle notation, and a mapping between two Cayley tables.]]
In mathematics, an automorphism is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself. It is, in some sense, a symmetry of the object, and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure. The set of all automorphisms of an object forms a group, called the automorphism group. It is, loosely speaking, the symmetry group of the object.
Definition
In an algebraic structure such as a group, a ring, or vector space, an automorphism is simply a bijective homomorphism of an object into itself. (The definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure; see, for example, group homomorphism, ring homomorphism, and linear operator.)
More generally, for an object in some category, an automorphism is a morphism of the object to itself that has an inverse morphism; that is, a morphism <math>f: X\to X</math> is an automorphism if there is a morphism <math>g: X\to X</math> such that <math>g\circ ff\circ g \operatorname {id}_X,</math> where <math>\operatorname {id}_X</math> is the identity morphism of {{mvar|X}}. For algebraic structures, the two definitions are equivalent; in this case, the identity morphism is simply the identity function, and is often called the trivial automorphism.
Automorphism group
{{main|Automorphism group}}
The automorphisms of an object {{mvar|X}} form a group under composition of morphisms, which is called the automorphism group of {{mvar|X}}. This results straightforwardly from the definition of a category.
The automorphism group of an object {{math|X}} in a category {{math|C}} is often denoted {{math|Aut<sub>C</sub>(X)}}{{math|}}, or simply Aut(X) if the category is clear from context.
Examples
* In set theory, an arbitrary permutation of the elements of a set X is an automorphism. The automorphism group of X is also called the symmetric group on X.
* In elementary arithmetic, the set of integers, {{tmath|\Z}}, considered as a group under addition, has a unique nontrivial automorphism: negation. Considered as a ring, however, it has only the trivial automorphism. Generally speaking, negation is an automorphism of any abelian group, but not of a ring or field.
* A group automorphism is a group isomorphism from a group to itself. Informally, it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged. For every group G there is a natural group homomorphism G → Aut(G) whose image is the group Inn(G) of inner automorphisms and whose kernel is the center of G. Thus, if G has trivial center it can be embedded into its own automorphism group.<ref namePahl>{{cite book |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkvoaoWOfqd8C&pgPA376 |page376 |chapter§7.5.5 Automorphisms |titleMathematical foundations of computational engineering |editionFelix Pahl translation |authorPJ Pahl, R Damrath |isbn3-540-67995-2 |year2001 |publisherSpringer}}</ref>
* In linear algebra, an endomorphism of a vector space V is a linear operator V → V. An automorphism is an invertible linear operator on V. When the vector space is finite-dimensional, the automorphism group of V is the same as the general linear group, GL(V). (The algebraic structure of all endomorphisms of V is itself an algebra over the same base field as V, whose invertible elements precisely consist of GL(V).)
* A field automorphism is a bijective ring homomorphism from a field to itself.
**The field <math>\Q </math> of the rational numbers has no other automorphism than the identity, since an automorphism must fix the additive identity {{math|0}} and the multiplicative identity {{math|1}}; the sum of a finite number of {{math|1}} must be fixed, as well as the additive inverses of these sums (that is, the automorphism fixes all integers); finally, since every rational number is the quotient of two integers, all rational numbers must be fixed by any automorphism.
**The field <math>\R </math> of the real numbers has no automorphisms other than the identity. Indeed, the rational numbers must be fixed by every automorphism, per above; an automorphism must preserve inequalities since <math>x<y</math> is equivalent to <math>\exists z\mid y-x=z^2,</math> and the latter property is preserved by every automorphism; finally every real number must be fixed since it is the least upper bound of a sequence of rational numbers.
** The field <math>\Complex</math> of the complex numbers has a unique nontrivial automorphism that fixes the real numbers. It is the complex conjugation, which maps <math>i</math> to <math>-i.</math> The axiom of choice implies the existence of uncountably many automorphisms that do not fix the real numbers.<ref>{{cite journal | last Yale | first Paul B. | journal Mathematics Magazine | title Automorphisms of the Complex Numbers | volume 39 | issue 3 |dateMay 1966 | pages 135–141 | url http://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/upload_library/22/Ford/PaulBYale.pdf | doi 10.2307/2689301 | jstor 2689301}}</ref><ref>{{citation |lastLounesto |firstPertti |year2001 |publisherCambridge University Press |titleClifford Algebras and Spinors | edition 2nd |pages 22–23|isbn=0-521-00551-5 }}</ref>
** The study of automorphisms of algebraic field extensions is the starting point and the main object of Galois theory.
* The automorphism group of the quaternions ({{tmath|\mathbb H}}) as a ring are the inner automorphisms, by the Skolem–Noether theorem: maps of the form {{nowrap|a ↦ bab<sup>−1</sup>}}.{{refn|{{citation|year2003|titleHandbook of algebra|volume3|publisherElsevier|page=453}}}} This group is isomorphic to SO(3), the group of rotations in 3-dimensional space.
* The automorphism group of the octonions ({{tmath|\mathbb O}}) is the exceptional Lie group G<sub>2</sub>.
* In graph theory an automorphism of a graph is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and non-edges. In particular, if two nodes are joined by an edge, so are their images under the permutation.
* In geometry, an automorphism may be called a motion of the space. Specialized terminology is also used:
** In metric geometry an automorphism is a self-isometry. The automorphism group is also called the isometry group.
** In the category of Riemann surfaces, an automorphism is a biholomorphic map (also called a conformal map), from a surface to itself. For example, the automorphisms of the Riemann sphere are Möbius transformations.
** An automorphism of a differentiable manifold M is a diffeomorphism from M to itself. The automorphism group is sometimes denoted Diff(M).
** In topology, morphisms between topological spaces are called continuous maps, and an automorphism of a topological space is a homeomorphism of the space to itself, or self-homeomorphism (see homeomorphism group). In this example it is not sufficient for a morphism to be bijective to be an isomorphism.
History
One of the earliest group automorphisms (automorphism of a group, not simply a group of automorphisms of points) was given by the Irish mathematician William Rowan Hamilton in 1856, in his icosian calculus, where he discovered an order two automorphism,<ref>{{Cite journal
|title=Memorandum respecting a new System of Roots of Unity
|author=Sir William Rowan Hamilton
|author-link=William Rowan Hamilton
|urlhttp://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Hamilton/Icosian/NewSys.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Hamilton/Icosian/NewSys.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive
|journal=Philosophical Magazine
|volume=12
|year=1856
|pages=446
}}</ref> writing:
<blockquote>so that <math>\mu</math> is a new fifth root of unity, connected with the former fifth root <math>\lambda</math> by relations of perfect reciprocity.</blockquote>
Inner and outer automorphisms
{{main article|Inner automorphism|Outer automorphism group}}
In some categories—notably groups, rings, and Lie algebras—it is possible to separate automorphisms into two types, called "inner" and "outer" automorphisms.
In the case of groups, the inner automorphisms are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself. For each element a of a group G, conjugation by a is the operation {{nowrap|φ<sub>a</sub> : G → G}} given by {{nowrap|1φ<sub>a</sub>(g) aga<sup>−1</sup>}} (or a<sup>−1</sup>ga; usage varies). One can easily check that conjugation by a is a group automorphism. The inner automorphisms form a normal subgroup of Aut(G), denoted by Inn(G); this is called Goursat's lemma.
The other automorphisms are called outer automorphisms. The quotient group {{nowrap|Aut(G) / Inn(G)}} is usually denoted by Out(G); the non-trivial elements are the cosets that contain the outer automorphisms.
The same definition holds in any unital ring or algebra where a is any invertible element. For Lie algebras the definition is slightly different.
See also
* Antiautomorphism
* Automorphism (in Sudoku puzzles)
* Characteristic subgroup
* Endomorphism ring
* Frobenius automorphism
* Morphism
* Order automorphism (in order theory).
* Relation-preserving automorphism
* Fractional Fourier transform
References
<!-- See Wikipedia:Footnotes for instructions. -->
<references />
External links
* [http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php/Automorphism Automorphism at Encyclopaedia of Mathematics]
* {{MathWorld | urlnameAutomorphism | title Automorphism}}
Category:Morphisms
Category:Abstract algebra
Category:Symmetry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphism | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.388513 |
1162 | Accordion | thumb|upright=1.2|An accordionist
Accordions (from 19th-century German , from —"musical chord, concord of sounds") are a family of box-shaped musical instruments of the bellows-driven free reed aerophone type (producing sound as air flows past a reed in a frame). The essential characteristic of the accordion is to combine in one instrument a melody section, also called the diskant, usually on the right-hand keyboard, with an accompaniment or Basso continuo functionality on the left-hand. The musician normally plays the melody on buttons or keys on the right-hand side (referred to as the keyboard or sometimes the manual), and the accompaniment on bass or pre-set chord buttons on the left-hand side. A person who plays the accordion is called an accordionist.
The accordion belongs to the free-reed aerophone family. Other instruments in this family include the concertina, harmonica, and bandoneon. The concertina and bandoneon do not have the melody–accompaniment duality. The harmoneon is also related and, while having the descant vs. melody dualism, tries to make it less pronounced. The harmonium and American reed organ are in the same family, but are typically larger than an accordion and sit on a surface or the floor.
The accordion is played by compressing or expanding the bellows while pressing buttons or keys, causing pallets to open, which allow air to flow across strips of brass or steel, called reeds. These vibrate to produce sound inside the body. Valves on opposing reeds of each note are used to make the instrument's reeds sound louder without air leaking from each reed block.
The accordion is widely spread across the world because of the waves of migration from Europe to the Americas and other regions. In some countries (for example: Argentina, Brazil, Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Mexico, and Panama) it is used in popular music (for example: Chamamé in Argentina; gaucho, forró, and sertanejo in Brazil; vallenato in Colombia; merengue in the Dominican Republic; and norteño in Mexico), whereas in other regions (such as Europe, North America, and other countries in South America) it tends to be more used for dance-pop and folk music.
In Europe and North America, some popular music acts also make use of the instrument. Additionally, the accordion is used in cajun, zydeco, jazz, and klezmer music, and in both solo and orchestral performances of classical music. Many conservatories in Europe have classical accordion departments. The oldest name for this group of instruments is harmonika, from the Greek , meaning "harmonic, musical". Today, native versions of the name accordion are more common. These names refer to the type of accordion patented by Cyrill Demian, which concerned "automatically coupled chords on the bass side".
History
thumb|left|Eight-key bisonoric diatonic accordion (c. 1830)
The accordion's basic form is believed to have been invented in Berlin, in 1822, by Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann, although one instrument was discovered in 2006 that appears to have been built earlier.
The earliest history of the accordion in Russia is poorly documented. Nevertheless, according to Russian researchers, the earliest known simple accordions were made in Tula, Russia, by Ivan Sizov and Timofey Vorontsov around 1830, after they received an early accordion from Germany. By the late 1840s, the instrument was already very widespread; together the factories of the two masters were producing 10,000 instruments a year. By 1866, over 50,000 instruments were being produced yearly by Tula and neighbouring villages, and by 1874 the yearly production was over 700,000. By the 1860s, Novgorod, Vyatka and Saratov governorates also had significant accordion production. By the 1880s, the list included Oryol, Ryazan, Moscow, Tver, Vologda, Kostroma, Nizhny Novgorod and Simbirsk, and many of these places created their own varieties of the instrument.
The accordion is one of several European inventions of the early 19th century that use free reeds driven by a bellows. An instrument called accordion was first patented in 1829 by Cyrill Demian in Vienna. Demian's instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments. It only had a left-hand buttonboard, with the right hand simply operating the bellows. One key feature for which Demian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key. His instrument could also sound two chords with the same key, one for each bellow direction (a bisonoric action). At that time in Vienna, mouth harmonicas with Kanzellen (chambers) had already been available for many years, along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows. The diatonic key arrangement was also already used on mouth-blown instruments. Demian's patent thus covered an accompanying instrument: an accordion played with the left hand, opposite to how contemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played, small and light enough for travelers to take with them and used to accompany singing. The patent also described instruments with both bass and treble sections, although Demian preferred the bass-only instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages.
The accordion was introduced from Germany into Britain in about the year 1828. The instrument was noted in The Times in 1831 as one new to British audiences and was not favourably reviewed, but nevertheless it soon became popular. It had also become popular with New Yorkers by the mid-1840s.
After Demian's invention, other accordions appeared, some featuring only the right-handed keyboard for playing melodies. It took English inventor Charles Wheatstone to bring both chords and keyboard together in one squeezebox. His 1844 patent for what he called a concertina also featured the ability to easily tune the reeds from the outside with a simple tool.
thumb|The first pages in Adolf Müller's accordion book
The Austrian musician Adolf Müller described a great variety of instruments in his 1854 book . At the time, Vienna and London had a close musical relationship, with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year, so it is possible that Wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his key-arrangement ideas into practice.
Jeune's flutina resembles Wheatstone's concertina in internal construction and tone colour, but it appears to complement Demian's accordion functionally. The flutina is a one-sided bisonoric melody-only instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows are operated with the left. When the two instruments are combined, the result is quite similar to diatonic button accordions still manufactured today.
Further innovations followed and continue to the present. Various buttonboard and keyboard systems have been developed, as well as voicings (the combination of multiple tones at different octaves), with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance, and different methods of internal construction to improve tone, stability, and durability. Modern accordions may incorporate electronics such as condenser microphones and tone and volume controls so that the accordion can be plugged into a PA system or keyboard amplifier for live shows. Some 2010s-era accordions may incorporate MIDI sensors and circuitry, enabling the accordion to be plugged into a synth module and produce accordion sounds or other synthesized instrument sounds, such as piano or organ.
Construction
thumb|A diatonic button accordion being played
Accordions have many configurations and types. What may be easy to do with one type of accordion could be technically challenging or impossible with another, and proficiency with one layout may not translate to another.
The most obvious difference between accordions is their right-hand sides. Piano accordions use a piano-style musical keyboard; button accordions use a buttonboard. Button accordions are furthermore differentiated by their usage of a chromatic or diatonic buttonboard for the right-hand side.
Accordions may be either bisonoric, producing different pitches depending on the direction of bellows movement, or unisonoric, producing the same pitch in both directions. Piano accordions are unisonoric. Chromatic button accordions also tend to be unisonoric, while diatonic button accordions tend to be bisonoric, though notable exceptions exist.
Accordion size is not standardized, and may vary significantly from model to model. Accordions vary not only in their dimensions and weight, but also in the number of buttons or keys present in the right- and left-hand keyboards. For example, piano accordions may have as few as 8 bass buttons (two rows of four), or up to 140 (seven rows of twenty) or beyond. Accordions also vary by their available registers and by their specific tuning and voicing.
Despite these differences, all accordions share several common components.
Universal components
Bellows
thumb|265px|Bellows-driven instruments
The bellows is the most recognizable part of the instrument, and the primary means of articulation. The production of sound in an accordion is in direct proportion to the motion of the bellows by the player. In a sense, the role of the bellows can be compared to the role of moving a violin's bow on bowed strings. For a more direct analogy, the bellows can be compared to the role of breathing for a singer. The bellows is located between the right- and left-hand keyboards, and is made from pleated layers of cloth and cardboard, with added leather and metal. It is used to create pressure and vacuum, driving air across the internal reeds and producing sound by their vibrations, applied pressure increases the volume.
The keyboard touch is not expressive and does not affect dynamics: all expression is effected through the bellows. Bellows effects include:
Volume control, including swells and fades
Repeated short, rapid changes of direction ("bellows shake"), which has been popularized by musicians such as Renato Borghetti (gaucho music) and Luiz Gonzaga, and extensively used in Forró, called resfulego in Brazil
Constant bellows motion while applying pressure at intervals
Constant bellows motion to produce clear tones with no resonance
Subtly changing the intonation to mimic the expressiveness of a singer
Using the bellows with the silent air button gives the sound of air moving ("whooshing"), which is sometimes used in contemporary compositions for this instrument
Body
thumb|left|Showroom of accordions (Petosa Accordions, Seattle, Washington)
The accordion's body consists of two boxes, commonly made of wood, joined by the bellows. These boxes house reed chambers for the right- and left-hand keyboards. Each side has grilles in order to facilitate the transmission of air in and out of the instrument and to allow the sound to project. The grille at the right-hand side is usually larger and is often shaped for decorative purposes. The right-hand keyboard is normally used for playing the melody and the left-hand one for playing the accompaniment; however, skilled players can reverse these roles and play melodies with the left hand.
The size and weight of an accordion varies depending on its type, layout and playing range, which can be as small as to have only one or two rows of basses and a single octave on the right-hand keyboard, to the most common 120-bass accordion and through to large and heavy 160-bass free-bass converter models.
Pallet mechanism
The accordion is an aerophone. The keyboard mechanisms of the instrument either enable the air flow, or disable it:
upright3.4|thumb|center|A side view of the pallet mechanism in a piano accordion. As the key is pressed down the pallet is lifted, allowing for air to enter the tone chamber in either direction and excite the reeds; air flow direction depends on the direction of bellows movement. A similar mechanical pallet movement is used in button accordions, as well as for bass mechanisms such as the Stradella bass machine that translates a single button press into multiple pallet openings for the notes of a chord.|altAccordion; cross-sectional view
Variable components
The term accordion covers a wide range of instruments, with varying components. All instruments have reed ranks of some format, apart from reedless digital accordions. Not all have switches to change registers or ranks, as some have only one treble register and one bass register. The most typical accordion is the piano accordion, which is used for many musical genres. Another type of accordion is the button accordion, which is used in musical traditions including Cajun, Conjunto and Tejano music, Swiss and Slovenian-Austro-German Alpine music, and Argentinian tango music. The Helikon-style accordion has multiple flared horns projecting out of the left side to strengthen the bass tone. The word "Helikon" refers to a deep-pitched tuba.
Right-hand keyboard systems
Different systems exist for the right-hand keyboard of an accordion, which is normally used for playing the melody (while it can also play chords). Some use a button layout arranged in one way or another, while others use a piano-style keyboard. Each system has different claimed benefits by those who prefer it. They are also used to define one accordion or another as a different "type":
Chromatic button accordions and the bayan, a Russian variant, use a buttonboard where notes are arranged chromatically. Two major systems exist, referred to as the B-system and the C-system (there are also regional variants). Rarely, some chromatic button accordions have a decorative right-hand keyboard in addition to the rows of buttons, an approach used by the virtuoso accordionist Pietro Frosini.
Diatonic button accordions use a buttonboard designed around the notes of diatonic scales in a small number of keys. The keys are often arranged in one row for each key available. Chromatic scales may be available by combining notes from different rows. The adjective "diatonic" is also commonly used to describe bisonic or bisonoric accordions—that is, instruments whose right-hand (and in some instances even bass) keys each sound two different notes depending on the direction of the bellows (for instance, producing major triad sequences while closing the bellows and dominant seventh or 7–9 while opening). Such is the case, for instance, with the Argentinian bandoneon, the Slovenian-Austro-German Steirische Harmonika, the Czech Heligonka Harmonika, the Italian organetto, the Swiss Schwyzerörgeli and the Anglo concertina.
Piano accordions use a musical keyboard similar to a piano, at right angles to the cabinet, the tops of the keys inward toward the bellows.
The rarely used bass accordion has only a right-hand keyboard, with ranks of 8', 16', and 32' reeds, with the lowest note being the deepest pitch on a pipe organ pedal keyboard (pedal C). It is intended for performing basslines in accordion orchestras.
The rarely used piccolo accordion also has only a right-hand keyboard.
6-plus-6 accordions use a buttonboard with three rows of buttons in a "uniform" or "whole-tone" arrangement, generally known as a Jankó keyboard. The chromatic scale consists of two rows. The third row is a repetition of the first row, so there is the same fingering in all twelve scales. These accordions are produced only in special editions e.g. the logicordion produced by Harmona.
Italian Button Accordion QM r.jpg|A button key accordion made by the company Marrazza in Italy. It was brought by Italian immigrants to Australia as a reminder of their homeland.
PianoAccordeon.jpg|A Weltmeister piano accordion by VEB Klingenthaler Harmonikawerke
Left-hand keyboard systems
thumb|right|300px|Typical 120-button Stradella bass system. This is the left-hand keyboard system found on most unisonoric accordions today.
Different systems are also in use for the left-hand keyboard, which is normally used for playing the accompaniment. These usually use distinct bass buttons and often have buttons with concavities or studs to help the player navigate the layout despite not being able to see the buttons while playing. There are three general categories:
thumb|right|200px|The bass buttons trigger a complex mechanism of wires, rods, and levers, which is normally hidden inside the instrument.
The Stradella bass system, also called standard bass, is arranged in a circle of fifths and uses single buttons for bass notes and additional rows of single buttons for preset major, minor, dominant seventh, and diminished chords. The dominant seventh and diminished chords are three-note chord voicings that omit the fifths of the chords.
The Belgian bass system is a variation used in Belgian chromatic accordions. It is also arranged in a circle of fifths but in reverse order. This system has three rows of basses, three rows of chord buttons allowing easier fingering for playing melodies, combined chords, better use of fingers one and five, and more space between the buttons. This system was rarely used outside of its native Belgium.
Various free-bass systems for greater access to playing melodies and complex basslines on the left-hand keyboard and to forming one's own chords note-by-note. These are often chosen for playing jazz and classical music. Some models can convert between free-bass and Stradella bass; this is called converter bass. The free-bass left hand notes are arranged chromatically in three rows with one additional duplicate row of buttons.
Luttbeg double-keyboard piano accordions have a piano keyboard layout on both the treble and bass sides. This allows pianists, most notably Duke Ellington, to double up on the accordion without difficulty. The Bercandeon is an improved version of that instrument, also making it a "keyboard bandoneon".
In 2021, a patent was published by Valerio Chiovarelli for a new bass system called the "Chiovarelli Jazz System". This system is a variation of the Stradella bass system where, instead of triads, the chordal buttons of this system produce bichords (chords with only 2 pitches instead of 3). The "Chiovarellia Jazz System" (or "CJS" for short) prioritizes the effectiveness of left hand accordion in jazz music, hence the name of the system, but according to the inventor, these chords can be useful when playing many varieties of music.
Reed ranks and switches
upright=0.75|thumb|right|Accordion reed ranks with closeup of reeds
Inside the accordion are the reeds that generate the instrument tones. These are organized in different sounding banks, which can be further combined into registers producing differing timbres. All but the smaller accordions are equipped with switches that control which combination of reed banks operate, organized from high to low registers. Each register stop produces a separate sound timbre, many of which also differ in octaves or in how different octaves are combined. See the accordion reed ranks and switches article for further explanation and audio samples. All but the smaller accordions usually have treble switches. The larger and more expensive accordions often also have bass switches to give options for the reed bank on the bass side.
Classification of chromatic and piano type accordions
In describing or pricing an accordion, the first factor is size, expressed in number of keys on either side. For a piano type, this could for one example be 37/96, meaning 37 treble keys (three octaves plus one note) on the treble side and 96 bass keys. A second aspect of size is the width of the white keys, which means that even accordions with the same number of keys have keyboards of different lengths, ranging from for a child's accordion to for an adult-sized instrument. After size, the price and weight of an accordion is largely dependent on the number of reed ranks on either side, either on a cassotto or not, and to a lesser degree on the number of combinations available through register switches. The next, but important, factor is the quality of the reeds, the highest grade called "a mano" (meaning "hand-made"), the next "tipo a mano" ("like hand-made"), lower grades including "export" and several more.
Price is also affected by the use of costly woods, luxury decorations, and features such as a palm switch, grille mute, and so on. Some accordion makers sell a range of different models, from a less-expensive base model to a more costly luxury model. Typically, the register switches are described as Reeds: 5 + 3, meaning five reeds on the treble side and three on the bass, and Registers: 13 + M, 7, meaning 13 register buttons on the treble side plus a special "master" that activates all ranks, like the "tutti" or "full organ" switch on an organ, and seven register switches on the bass side. Another factor affecting the price is the presence of electronics, such as condenser microphones, volume and tone controls, or MIDI sensors and connections.
thumb|Accordion player on a street in the historic centre of Quito, Ecuador
Straps
The larger piano and chromatic button accordions are usually heavier than other smaller squeezeboxes, and are equipped with two shoulder straps to make it easier to balance the weight and increase bellows control while sitting, and avoid dropping the instrument while standing. Other accordions, such as the diatonic button accordion, have only a single shoulder strap and a right hand thumb strap. All accordions have a (mostly adjustable) leather strap on the left-hand side to keep the player's hand in position while drawing the bellows. There are also straps above and below the bellows to keep it securely closed when the instrument is not being played.
Electronic and digital
thumb|right|200px|Rainer von Vielen playing a Roland digital V-Accordion. The bank of electronic switches can change the accordion's sound, tone and volume.
In the 2010s, a range of electronic and digital accordions were introduced. They have an electronic sound module which creates the accordion sound, and most use MIDI systems to encode the keypresses and transmit them to the sound module. A digital accordion can have hundreds of sounds, which can include different types of accordions and even non-accordion sounds, such as pipe organ, piano, or guitar. Sensors are used on the buttons and keys, such as magnetic reed switches. Sensors are also used on the bellows to transmit the pushing and pulling of the bellows to the sound module. Digital accordions may have features not found in acoustic instruments, such as a piano-style sustain pedal, a modulation control for changing keys, and a portamento effect.
As an electronic instrument, these types of accordions are plugged into a PA system or keyboard amplifier to produce sound. Some digital accordions have a small internal speaker and amplifier, so they can be used without a PA system or keyboard amplifier, at least for practicing and small venues like coffeehouses. One benefit of electronic accordions is that they can be practiced with headphones, making them inaudible to other people nearby. On a digital accordion, the volume of the right-hand keyboard and the left-hand buttons can be independently adjusted.
Acoustic-digital hybrid accordions also exist. They are acoustic accordions (with reeds, bellows, and so on), but they also contain sensors, electronics, and MIDI connections, which provides a wider range of sound options. An acoustic-digital hybrid may be manufactured in this form, or it may be an acoustic accordion which has had aftermarket electronics sensors and connections added. Several companies sell aftermarket electronics kits, but they are typically installed by professional accordion technicians, because of the complex and delicate nature of the internal parts of an accordion.
Unusual accordions
Various hybrid accordions have been created between instruments of different buttonboards and actions. Many remain curiosities – only a few have remained in use:
The Schrammel accordion, used in Viennese chamber music and klezmer, which has the treble buttonboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass buttonboard, similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion
The Steirische Harmonika, a type of bisonoric diatonic button accordion particular to the Alpine folk music of Slovenia, Austria, the Czech Republic, the German state of Bavaria, and the Italian South Tyrol
The schwyzerörgeli or Swiss organ, which usually has a three-row diatonic treble and 18 unisonoric bass buttons in a bass/chord arrangement – a subset of the Stradella system in reverse order like the Belgian bass – that travel parallel to the bellows motion
The trikitixa of the Basque people, which has a two-row diatonic, bisonoric treble and a 12-button diatonic unisonoric bass
The British chromatic accordion, the favoured diatonic accordion in Scotland. While the right hand is bisonoric, the left hand follows the Stradella system. The elite form of this instrument is generally considered the German manufactured Shand Morino, produced by Hohner with the input of Sir Jimmy Shand
Pedal harmony, a type of accordion used sometimes in Polish folk music, which has a pair of pump organ-like bellows attached.
The Finnish composer and accordionist Veli Kujala developed a quarter tone accordion together with the Italian accordion manufacturer Pigini in 2005, and has written works for it. It deploys the same system as the concert accordion, with a scale of five octaves, each divided into 24 quarter tones. Other notable composers who have written concertos for the quarter tone accordion include Jukka Tiensuu and Sampo Haapamäki.
Manufacturing process
The most expensive accordions are typically fully hand-made, particularly the reeds; completely hand-made reeds have a better tonal quality than even the best automatically manufactured ones. Some accordions have been modified by individuals striving to bring a more pure sound out of low-end instruments, such as the ones improved by Yutaka Usui, a Japanese craftsman.
The manufacture of an accordion is only a partly automated process. In a sense, all accordions are handmade, since there is always some hand assembly of the small parts required. The general process involves making the individual parts, assembling the subsections, assembling the entire instrument, and final decorating and packaging.
Notable centres of production are the Italian cities of Stradella and Castelfidardo, with many small and medium size manufacturers especially at the latter. Castelfidardo honours the memory of Paolo Soprani who was one of the first large-scale producers. has built accordions in the French town of Tulle since 1919, and the company is now the last complete-process manufacturer of accordions in France. German companies such as Hohner and Weltmeister made large numbers of accordions, but production diminished by the end of the 20th century. Hohner still manufactures its top-end models in Germany, and Weltmeister instruments are still handmade by HARMONA Akkordeon GmbH in Klingenthal.
Use in various music genres
thumb|A street performer playing the accordion
The accordion has traditionally been used to perform folk or ethnic music, popular music, and transcriptions from the operatic and light-classical music repertoire. It was also used by the Kikuyu tribe in Kenya and is the main instrument in the traditional Mwomboko dance. Today the instrument is sometimes heard in contemporary pop styles, such as rock and pop-rock, and occasionally even in serious classical music concerts, as well as advertisements.
Use in traditional music
right|thumb|A folk accordionist, 2009
The accordion's popularity spread rapidly: it has mostly been associated with the common people, and was propagated by Europeans who emigrated around the world. The accordion in both button and piano forms became a favorite of folk musicians and has been integrated into traditional music styles all over the world: see the list of music styles that incorporate the accordion.
Use in jazz
Notable jazz accordionists
Early jazz accordionists include Charles Melrose, who recorded Wailing Blues/Barrel House Stomp (1930, Voc. 1503) with the Cellar Boys; Buster Moten, who played second piano and accordion in the Bennie Moten orchestra; and Jack Cornell, who did recordings with Irving Mills. Later jazz accordionists from the United States include Steve Bach, Milton DeLugg, Orlando DiGirolamo, Angelo Di Pippo, Dominic Frontiere, Guy Klucevsek, Yuri Lemeshev, Frank Marocco, Dr. William Schimmel, John Serry Sr., Lee Tomboulian, and Art Van Damme. French jazz accordionists include Richard Galliano, Bernard Lubat, and Vincent Peirani. Norwegian jazz accordionists include Asmund Bjørken, Stian Carstensen, Gabriel Fliflet, Frode Haltli, and Eivin One Pedersen.
Left hand techniques
The constraints of the Stradella bass system, limiting the left hand to preset chord buttons, is a barrier to some jazz chord conventions. Jazz accordionists expand the range of chord possibilities by using more than one chord button simultaneously, or by using combinations of a chord button and a bass note other than the typical root of the chord. An example of the former technique is used to play a minor seventh chord. To play an Am7(add9) chord, the Am and Em preset buttons are pressed simultaneously, along with an A bassnote. An example of the latter technique is used to play the half-diminished chord. To play an Eø7, a Gm preset button is pressed along with an E bassnote.
For the left hand, the free-bass system is used in jazz as a means of creating complex chord voicings. Jazz harmony that would otherwise be difficult to replicate with the Stradella bass system, such as tritone substitutions, become more accessible using a free-bass accordion.
Use in popular music
thumb|John Linnell of They Might Be Giants playing a Main Squeeze 911
The accordion appeared in popular music from the 1900s to the 1960s. This half-century is often called the "golden age of the accordion". Five players, Pietro Frosini, the two brothers Count Guido Deiro and Pietro Deiro and Slovenian brothers Vilko Ovsenik and Slavko Avsenik, Charles Magnante were major influences at this time.
Most vaudeville theaters closed during the Great Depression, but accordionists during the 1930s–1950s taught and performed for radio. Included among this group was the concert virtuoso John Serry, Sr. During the 1950s through the 1980s the accordion received significant exposure on television with performances by Myron Floren on The Lawrence Welk Show. In the late 1950s and early 1960s, the accordion declined in popularity because of the rise of rock and roll. The first accordionist to appear and perform at the Newport Jazz Festival was Angelo DiPippo. He can be seen playing his accordion in the motion picture The Godfather. He also composed and performed with his accordion on part of the soundtrack of Woody Allen's movie To Rome With Love. He was featured twice on The Tonight Show with Johnny Carson.
Richard Galliano is an internationally known accordionist whose repertoire covers jazz, tango nuevo, Latin, and classical. Some popular bands use the instrument to create distinctive sounds. A notable example is Grammy Award–winning parodist "Weird Al" Yankovic, who plays the accordion on many of his musical tracks, particularly his polkas. Yankovic was trained in the accordion as a child.
The accordion has also been used in the rock genre, most notably by John Linnell of They Might Be Giants, featuring more prominently in the band's earlier works. The instrument is still frequently used during live performances, and continues to make appearances in their studio albums. Accordion is also used in the music of the Dropkick Murphys and Gogol Bordello.
Tom Waits used the Accordion extensively (Dr.William Schimmel) in "Raindogs" and "Frank's Wild Years", folk metal subgenre, and are otherwise generally rare. Full-time accordionists in folk metal seem even rarer, but they are still utilized for studio work, as flexible keyboardists are usually more accessible for live performances. The Finnish symphonic folk-metal band Turisas used to have a full-time accordionist, employing classical and polka sensibilities alongside a violinist. One of their accordionists, Netta Skog, is now a member of Ensiferum, another folk-metal band. Another Finnish metal band, Korpiklaani, invokes a type of Finnish polka called humppa, and also has a full-time accordionist. Sarah Kiener, the former hurdy-gurdy player for the Swiss melodic-death-folk metal band Eluveitie, played a Helvetic accordion known as a zugerörgeli.
Use in classical music
Although best known as a folk instrument, it has grown in popularity among classical composers. The earliest surviving concert piece is , written in 1836 by Louise Reisner of Paris. Other composers, including the Russian Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, the Italian Umberto Giordano, and the American Charles Ives, wrote works for the diatonic button accordion.
thumb|Finnish accordionist Esa Pakarinen (Feeliks Esaias Pakarinen, 1911–1989)
The first composer to write specifically for the chromatic accordion was Paul Hindemith. In 1922, the Austrian Alban Berg included an accordion in Wozzeck, Op. 7. In 1937, the first accordion concerto was composed in Russia. Other notable composers have written for the accordion during the first half of the 20th century. Included among this group was the Italian-American John Serry Sr., whose Concerto for Free Bass Accordion was completed in 1964. In addition, the American accordionist Robert Davine composed his Divertimento for Flute, Clarinet, Bassoon and Accordion as a work for chamber orchestra. American composer William P. Perry featured the accordion in his orchestral suite Six Title Themes in Search of a Movie (2008). The experimental composer Howard Skempton began his musical career as an accordionist, and has written numerous solo works for it. In his work Drang (1999), British composer John Palmer pushed the expressive possibilities of the accordion/bayan. Luciano Berio wrote Sequenza XIII (1995) for accordionist Teodoro Anzellotti. Accordionists like Mogens Ellegaard, Joseph Macerollo, Nick Ariondo, Friedrich Lips, Hugo Noth, Dr. William Schimmel (also a composer), Stefan Hussong, Teodoro Anzellotti, and Geir Draugsvoll, encouraged composers to write new music for the accordion (solo and chamber music) and also started playing baroque music on the free bass accordion.
French composer Henri Dutilleux used an accordion in both his late song cycles Correspondences (2003) and Le Temps L'Horloge (2009). Russian-born composer Sofia Gubaidulina has composed solos, concertos, and chamber works for accordion. Astor Piazzolla's concert tangos are performed widely. Piazzolla performed on the bandoneon, but his works are also performed on or accordion. Dr. William schimmel and "The Tango Project" recorded a number of hit recordings and appeared in the movie Scent of a Woman with Al Pacino which earned Pacino an Oscar. Their recordings were used in many films.
Australia
The earliest mention of the novel accordion instrument in Australian music occurs in the 1830s.
The accordion initially competed against cheaper and more convenient reed instruments such as mouth organ, concertina and melodeon.
Frank Fracchia was an Australian accordion composer and copies of his works "My dear, can you come out tonight" and "Dancing with you" are preserved in Australian libraries.
Other Australian composers who arranged music for accordion include Reginald Stoneham.
The popularity of the accordion peaked in the late 1930s and continued until the 1950s.
The accordion was particularly favoured by buskers.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
The accordion is a traditional instrument in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It is the dominant instrument used in sevdalinka, a traditional genre of folk music from Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Brazil
thumb|right|150px|Brazilian accordionist Dominguinhos (José Domingos de Morais, 1941–2013)
The accordion was brought to Brazil by settlers and immigrants from Europe, especially from Italy and Germany, who mainly settled in the south (Rio Grande do Sul, Santa Catarina and Paraná). The first instrument brought was a "Concertina" (a 120 button chromatic accordion). The instrument was popular in the 1950s, and it was common to find several accordions in the same house. There are many different configurations and tunes which were adapted from the cultures that came from Europe.
Accordion is the official symbol instrument of the Rio Grande do Sul state, where was voted by unanimity in the deputy chamber.
During the boom of accordions there were around 65 factories in Brazil, where most of them (52) in the south, in Rio Grande do Sul state, with only 7 outside the south. One of the most famous and genuinely Brazilian brands was Accordeões Todeschini from Bento Gonçalves-RS, closed in 1973. The Todeschini accordion is very appreciated today and survives with very few maintainers. The most notable musicians of button accordions are Renato Borghetti, Adelar Bertussi, Albino Manique and Edson Dutra.
In the late 20th century, the development of high performance standards for the accordion within China's halls of academe was also influenced by several American virtuosos including Robert Davine, who was invited by the Ministry of Culture of the People's Republic to present Master Classes and to broaden its national program of music for the accordion in 1984.
Colombia
The accordion is also a traditional instrument in Colombia, commonly associated with the vallenato and cumbia genres. The accordion has been used by tropipop musicians such as Carlos Vives, Andrés Cabas, Fonseca (singer) and Bacilos, as well as rock musicians such as Juanes and pop musicians as Shakira. Vallenato, who emerged in the early twentieth century in Valledupar, and have come to symbolize the folk music of Colombia.
Every year in April, Colombia holds one of the most important musical festivals in the country: the Vallenato Legend Festival. The festival holds contests for best accordion player. Once every decade, the "King of Kings" accordion competition takes place, where winners of the previous festivals compete for the highest possible award for a vallenato accordion player: the Pilonera Mayor prize. This is the world's largest competitive accordion festival.
Czech Republic
thumb|At U Flekú, Prague
Accordion is often played at traditional Czech pubs, such as U Flekú, Prague.
Mexico
thumb|right|200px|A Norteño band, including an accordion
Norteño heavily relies on the accordion; it is a genre related to polka. Ramón Ayala, known in Mexico as the "King of the Accordion", is a norteño musician. Cumbia, which features the accordion, is also popular with musicians such as Celso Piña, creating a more contemporary style. U.S.-born Mexican musician Julieta Venegas incorporates the sound of the instrument into rock, pop and folk. She was influenced by her fellow Chicanos Los Lobos who also use the music of the accordion.
North Korea
According to Barbara Demick in Nothing to Envy, the accordion is known as "the people's instrument" and all North Korean teachers were expected to learn the accordion.
United States
Accordions are played in Tejano music, Cajun and Creole music, zydeco, klezmer, and polka.
During the post-World War II era from the 1940s to the 1960s, accordions were widely used in the United States for performances of traditional Western classical music within the configuration of large free-reed symphonic orchestras both in live performances on the concert hall stage and in phonograph recordings. Included among the leading accordion orchestras were: The New York Accordion Symphony in New York City, The Springfield Accordion Orchestra in Massachusetts, The Houston Accordion Symphony in Houston, Texas and The Philadelphia Accordion Orchestra in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Prominent orchestra members included: Joe Biviano (President of the American Accordionists Association) Carmen Carrozza, Orlando Di Girolamo (President of the American Symphony Society), Tony Mecca (who collaborated with Leonard Bernstein), Angelo Di Pippo (jazz accordionist and arranger for Robert Merrill), and Alfonso Veltri (Director of the National Conservatory of Music). By the 1960s recordings by such orchestras were even praised for their high level of musicality in The Billboard'' magazine.
Other audio samples
See also
List of accordionists
Steirische Harmonika
Confédération internationale des accordéonistes
Notes
References
External links
Category:Folk music instruments
Category:Articles containing video clips
Category:German inventions
Category:19th-century inventions
Category:Symbols of Rio Grande do Sul | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accordion | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.487292 |
1164 | Artificial intelligence | {{Short description|Intelligence of machines}}
{{Redirect|AI|other uses|AI (disambiguation)|and|Artificial intelligence (disambiguation)}}<!-- related -->
{{Use dmy dates|dateJuly 2023}}{{Pp|smallyes}}<!-- details only a Wikipedian could love -->
{{Artificial intelligence}}<!-- portal -->
<!-- DEFINITIONS -->
Artificial intelligence (AI) refers to the capability of computational systems to perform tasks typically associated with human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and decision-making. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=1–4}} Such machines may be called AIs.
<!-- APPLICATIONS -->
High-profile applications of AI include advanced web search engines (e.g., Google Search); recommendation systems (used by YouTube, Amazon, and Netflix); virtual assistants (e.g., Google Assistant, Siri, and Alexa); autonomous vehicles (e.g., Waymo); generative and creative tools (e.g., ChatGPT and AI art); and superhuman play and analysis in strategy games (e.g., chess and Go). However, many AI applications are not perceived as AI: "A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general applications, often without being called AI because once something becomes useful enough and common enough it's not labeled AI anymore."<ref>[http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/ AI set to exceed human brain power] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080219001624/http://www.cnn.com/2006/TECH/science/07/24/ai.bostrom/|date2008-02-19}} CNN.com (July 26, 2006)</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Kaplan |first1Andreas |last2Haenlein |first2Michael |date2019 |titleSiri, Siri, in my hand: Who's the fairest in the land? On the interpretations, illustrations, and implications of artificial intelligence |journalBusiness Horizons |volume62 |pages15–25 |doi10.1016/j.bushor.2018.08.004 |issn0007-6813 |s2cid158433736}}</ref>
<!-- GOALS AND TOOLS: SCOPE OF AI -->
Various subfields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include learning, reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, natural language processing, perception, and support for robotics.{{Efn|name"Problems of AI"}} General intelligence—the ability to complete any task performed by a human on an at least equal level—is among the field's long-term goals.<ref name"Artificial general intelligence" /> To reach these goals, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of techniques, including search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on statistics, operations research, and economics.{{Efn|name"Tools of AI"}} AI also draws upon psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, and other fields.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc§1.2}}.</ref>
<!-- HISTORY AND ETHICS -->
Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956,<ref name"Dartmouth workshop"/> and the field went through multiple cycles of optimism throughout its history,<ref name"Succ1"/><ref name"Fund01"/> followed by periods of disappointment and loss of funding, known as AI winters.<ref name"First AI Winter"/><ref name"Second AI Winter"/> Funding and interest vastly increased after 2012 when deep learning outperformed previous AI techniques.<ref name"Deep learning revolution"/> This growth accelerated further after 2017 with the transformer architecture,{{Sfnp|Toews|2023}} and by the early 2020s many billions of dollars were being invested in AI and the field experienced rapid ongoing progress in what has become known as the AI boom. The emergence of advanced generative AI in the midst of the AI boom and its ability to create and modify content exposed several unintended consequences and harms in the present and raised concerns about the risks of AI and its long-term effects in the future, prompting discussions about regulatory policies to ensure the safety and benefits of the technology.
Goals
The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into subproblems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research.{{Efn|name"Problems of AI"|This list of intelligent traits is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998}} and {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998}}}} Reasoning and problem-solving Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.<ref>Problem-solving, puzzle solving, game playing, and deduction: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 3–5}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 6}} (constraint satisfaction), {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|locchpt. 2, 3, 7, 9}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|locchpt. 3, 4, 6, 8}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 7–12}}</ref> By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics.<ref>Uncertain reasoning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 12–18}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp345–395}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp333–381}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 7–12}}</ref>
Many of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a "combinatorial explosion": They become exponentially slower as the problems grow.<ref name"Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion">Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p21}}</ref> Even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments.<ref name"Psychological evidence of the prevalence of sub">Psychological evidence of the prevalence of sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge: {{Harvtxt|Kahneman|2011}}, {{Harvtxt|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}}, {{Harvtxt|Wason|Shapiro|1966}}, {{Harvtxt|Kahneman|Slovic|Tversky|1982}}</ref> Accurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem. Knowledge representation Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering<ref>Knowledge representation and knowledge engineering: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 10}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp23–46, 69–81, 169–233, 235–277, 281–298, 319–345}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp227–243}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 17.1–17.4, 18}}</ref> allow AI programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions about real-world facts. Formal knowledge representations are used in content-based indexing and retrieval,{{Sfnp|Smoliar|Zhang|1994}} scene interpretation,{{Sfnp|Neumann|Möller|2008}} clinical decision support,{{Sfnp|Kuperman|Reichley|Bailey|2006}} knowledge discovery (mining "interesting" and actionable inferences from large databases),{{Sfnp|McGarry|2005}} and other areas.{{Sfnp|Bertini|Del Bimbo|Torniai|2006}}
A knowledge base is a body of knowledge represented in a form that can be used by a program. An ontology is the set of objects, relations, concepts, and properties used by a particular domain of knowledge.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp272}} Knowledge bases need to represent things such as objects, properties, categories, and relations between objects;<ref>Representing categories and relations: Semantic networks, description logics, inheritance (including frames, and scripts): {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc§10.2 & 10.5}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp174–177}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp248–258}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 18.3}}</ref> situations, events, states, and time;<ref>Representing events and time:Situation calculus, event calculus, fluent calculus (including solving the frame problem): {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc§10.3}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp281–298}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 18.2}}</ref> causes and effects;<ref>Causal calculus: {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp335–337}}</ref> knowledge about knowledge (what we know about what other people know);<ref>Representing knowledge about knowledge: Belief calculus, modal logics: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc§10.4}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp275–277}}</ref> default reasoning (things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are changing);<ref name"Default reasoning">Default reasoning, Frame problem, default logic, non-monotonic logics, circumscription, closed world assumption, abduction: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc§10.6}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp248–256, 323–335}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp335–363}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|loc~18.3.3}}
(Poole et al. places abduction under "default reasoning". Luger et al. places this under "uncertain reasoning").</ref> and many other aspects and domains of knowledge.
Among the most difficult problems in knowledge representation are the breadth of commonsense knowledge (the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous);<ref name"Breadth of commonsense knowledge">Breadth of commonsense knowledge: {{Harvtxt|Lenat|Guha|1989|locIntroduction}}, {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp113–114}}, {{Harvtxt|Moravec|1988|p13}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp241, 385, 982}} (qualification problem)</ref> and the sub-symbolic form of most commonsense knowledge (much of what people know is not represented as "facts" or "statements" that they could express verbally).<ref name"Psychological evidence of the prevalence of sub"/> There is also the difficulty of knowledge acquisition, the problem of obtaining knowledge for AI applications.{{Efn|It is among the reasons that expert systems proved to be inefficient for capturing knowledge.{{Sfnp|Newquist|1994|p296}}{{Sfnp|Crevier|1993|pp204–208}}}}
Planning and decision-making
An "agent" is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world. A rational agent has goals or preferences and takes actions to make them happen.{{Efn|
"Rational agent" is general term used in economics, philosophy and theoretical artificial intelligence. It can refer to anything that directs its behavior to accomplish goals, such as a person, an animal, a corporation, a nation, or in the case of AI, a computer program.
}}{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p528}} In automated planning, the agent has a specific goal.<ref>Automated planning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 11}}.</ref> In automated decision-making, the agent has preferences—there are some situations it would prefer to be in, and some situations it is trying to avoid. The decision-making agent assigns a number to each situation (called the "utility") that measures how much the agent prefers it. For each possible action, it can calculate the "expected utility": the utility of all possible outcomes of the action, weighted by the probability that the outcome will occur. It can then choose the action with the maximum expected utility.<ref>Automated decision making, Decision theory: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=chpt. 16–18}}.</ref>
In classical planning, the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be.<ref>Classical planning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locSection 11.2}}.</ref> In most real-world problems, however, the agent may not be certain about the situation they are in (it is "unknown" or "unobservable") and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action (it is not "deterministic"). It must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation to see if the action worked.<ref>Sensorless or "conformant" planning, contingent planning, replanning (a.k.a online planning): {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locSection 11.5}}.</ref>
In some problems, the agent's preferences may be uncertain, especially if there are other agents or humans involved. These can be learned (e.g., with inverse reinforcement learning), or the agent can seek information to improve its preferences.<ref>Uncertain preferences: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=Section 16.7}}
Inverse reinforcement learning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locSection 22.6}}</ref> Information value theory can be used to weigh the value of exploratory or experimental actions.<ref>Information value theory: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locSection 16.6}}.</ref> The space of possible future actions and situations is typically intractably large, so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain of what the outcome will be.
A Markov decision process has a transition model that describes the probability that a particular action will change the state in a particular way and a reward function that supplies the utility of each state and the cost of each action. A policy associates a decision with each possible state. The policy could be calculated (e.g., by iteration), be heuristic, or it can be learned.<ref>Markov decision process: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=chpt. 17}}.</ref>
Game theory describes the rational behavior of multiple interacting agents and is used in AI programs that make decisions that involve other agents.<ref>Game theory and multi-agent decision theory: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 18}}.</ref> Learning Machine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task automatically.<ref>Learning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 19–22}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp397–438}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp385–542}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 3.3, 10.3, 17.5, 20}}</ref> It has been a part of AI from the beginning.{{Efn
|Alan Turing discussed the centrality of learning as early as 1950, in his classic paper "Computing Machinery and Intelligence".{{Sfnp|Turing|1950}} In 1956, at the original Dartmouth AI summer conference, Ray Solomonoff wrote a report on unsupervised probabilistic machine learning: "An Inductive Inference Machine".{{Sfnp|Solomonoff|1956}}
}}
There are several kinds of machine learning. Unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance.<ref>Unsupervised learning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp653}} (definition), {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp738–740}} (cluster analysis), {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp846–860}} (word embedding)</ref> Supervised learning requires labeling the training data with the expected answers, and comes in two main varieties: classification (where the program must learn to predict what category the input belongs in) and regression (where the program must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input).<ref name"Supervised learning">Supervised learning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc§19.2}} (Definition), {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locChpt. 19–20}} (Techniques)</ref>
In reinforcement learning, the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones. The agent learns to choose responses that are classified as "good".<ref>Reinforcement learning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 22}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp442–449}}</ref> Transfer learning is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem.<ref>Transfer learning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp281}}, {{Harvtxt|The Economist|2016}}</ref> Deep learning is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through biologically inspired artificial neural networks for all of these types of learning.<ref>{{Cite web |titleArtificial Intelligence (AI): What Is AI and How Does It Work? {{!}} Built In |urlhttps://builtin.com/artificial-intelligence |access-date2023-10-30 |website=builtin.com}}</ref>
Computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity, by sample complexity (how much data is required), or by other notions of optimization.<ref>Computational learning theory: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=672–674}}, {{Harvtxt|Jordan|Mitchell|2015}}</ref>
{{Clear}}
Natural language processing
<!-- This is linked to in the introduction -->
Natural language processing (NLP)<ref>Natural language processing (NLP): {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 23–24}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp91–104}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp591–632}}</ref> allows programs to read, write and communicate in human languages such as English. Specific problems include speech recognition, speech synthesis, machine translation, information extraction, information retrieval and question answering.<ref>Subproblems of NLP: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp849–850}}</ref>
Early work, based on Noam Chomsky's generative grammar and semantic networks, had difficulty with word-sense disambiguation{{Efn|See {{Section link|AI winter|Machine translation and the ALPAC report of 1966
}}}} unless restricted to small domains called "micro-worlds" (due to the common sense knowledge problem<ref name="Breadth of commonsense knowledge"/>). Margaret Masterman believed that it was meaning and not grammar that was the key to understanding languages, and that thesauri and not dictionaries should be the basis of computational language structure.
Modern deep learning techniques for NLP include word embedding (representing words, typically as vectors encoding their meaning),{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp856–858}} transformers (a deep learning architecture using an attention mechanism),{{Sfnp|Dickson|2022}} and others.<ref>Modern statistical and deep learning approaches to NLP: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 24}}, {{Harvtxt|Cambria|White|2014}}</ref> In 2019, generative pre-trained transformer (or "GPT") language models began to generate coherent text,{{Sfnp|Vincent|2019}}{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp875–878}} and by 2023, these models were able to get human-level scores on the bar exam, SAT test, GRE test, and many other real-world applications.{{Sfnp|Bushwick|2023}} Perception <!-- This is linked to in the introduction -->
Machine perception is the ability to use input from sensors (such as cameras, microphones, wireless signals, active lidar, sonar, radar, and tactile sensors) to deduce aspects of the world. Computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input.<ref>Computer vision: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 25}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 6}}</ref>
The field includes speech recognition,{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp849–850}} image classification,{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp895–899}} facial recognition, object recognition,{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp899–901}}object tracking,{{Sfnp|Challa|Moreland|Mušicki|Evans|2011}} and robotic perception.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp931–938}}
Social intelligence
, a robot head which was made in the 1990s; it is a machine that can recognize and simulate emotions.{{Sfnp|MIT AIL|2014}}]]
Affective computing is a field that comprises systems that recognize, interpret, process, or simulate human feeling, emotion, and mood.<ref>Affective computing: {{Harvtxt|Thro|1993}}, {{Harvtxt|Edelson|1991}}, {{Harvtxt|Tao|Tan|2005}}, {{Harvtxt|Scassellati|2002}}</ref> For example, some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously; it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction, or to otherwise facilitate human–computer interaction.
However, this tends to give naïve users an unrealistic conception of the intelligence of existing computer agents.{{Sfnp|Waddell|2018}} Moderate successes related to affective computing include textual sentiment analysis and, more recently, multimodal sentiment analysis, wherein AI classifies the effects displayed by a videotaped subject.{{Sfnp|Poria|Cambria|Bajpai |Hussain|2017}}
General intelligence
A machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence.<ref name="Artificial general intelligence" >
Artificial general intelligence: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp32–33, 1020–1021}}<br />Proposal for the modern version: {{Harvtxt|Pennachin|Goertzel|2007}}<br />Warnings of overspecialization in AI from leading researchers: {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1995}}, {{Harvtxt|McCarthy|2007}}, {{Harvtxt|Beal|Winston|2009}}</ref> Techniques AI research uses a wide variety of techniques to accomplish the goals above.{{Efn|name"Tools of AI"|This list of tools is based on the topics covered by the major AI textbooks, including: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998}} and {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998}}}}
Search and optimization
AI can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions.<ref>Search algorithms: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpts. 3–5}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp113–163}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp79–164, 193–219}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpts. 7–12}}</ref> There are two very different kinds of search used in AI: state space search and local search.
State space search
State space search searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state.<ref>State space search: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 3}}</ref> For example, planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals, attempting to find a path to a target goal, a process called means-ends analysis.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 11.2}}
Simple exhaustive searches<ref>Uninformed searches (breadth first search, depth-first search and general state space search): {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 3.4}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp113–132}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp79–121}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 8}}</ref> are rarely sufficient for most real-world problems: the search space (the number of places to search) quickly grows to astronomical numbers. The result is a search that is too slow or never completes.<ref name"Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion"/> "Heuristics" or "rules of thumb" can help prioritize choices that are more likely to reach a goal.<ref>Heuristic or informed searches (e.g., greedy best first and A*): {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 3.5}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp132–147}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|2017|locsect. 3.6}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp=133–150}}</ref>
Adversarial search is used for game-playing programs, such as chess or Go. It searches through a tree of possible moves and countermoves, looking for a winning position.<ref>Adversarial search: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 5}}</ref> Local search for 3 different starting points; two parameters (represented by the plan coordinates) are adjusted in order to minimize the loss function (the height)]] Local search uses mathematical optimization to find a solution to a problem. It begins with some form of guess and refines it incrementally.<ref>Local or "optimization" search: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 4}}</ref>
Gradient descent is a type of local search that optimizes a set of numerical parameters by incrementally adjusting them to minimize a loss function. Variants of gradient descent are commonly used to train neural networks,<ref>{{Cite web |lastSingh Chauhan |firstNagesh |dateDecember 18, 2020 |titleOptimization Algorithms in Neural Networks |urlhttps://www.kdnuggets.com/optimization-algorithms-in-neural-networks |access-date2024-01-13 |website=KDnuggets}}</ref> through the backpropagation algorithm.
Another type of local search is evolutionary computation, which aims to iteratively improve a set of candidate solutions by "mutating" and "recombining" them, selecting only the fittest to survive each generation.<ref>Evolutionary computation: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=sect. 4.1.2}}</ref>
Distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms. Two popular swarm algorithms used in search are particle swarm optimization (inspired by bird flocking) and ant colony optimization (inspired by ant trails).{{Sfnp|Merkle|Middendorf|2013}}
Logic
Formal logic is used for reasoning and knowledge representation.<ref>Logic: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpts. 6–9}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp35–77}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 13–16}}</ref>
Formal logic comes in two main forms: propositional logic (which operates on statements that are true or false and uses logical connectives such as "and", "or", "not" and "implies")<ref>Propositional logic: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 6}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp45–50}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 13}}</ref> and predicate logic (which also operates on objects, predicates and relations and uses quantifiers such as "Every X is a Y" and "There are some Xs that are Ys").<ref>First-order logic and features such as equality: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 7}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp268–275}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp50–62}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|loc=chpt. 15}}</ref>
Deductive reasoning in logic is the process of proving a new statement (conclusion) from other statements that are given and assumed to be true (the premises).<ref>Logical inference: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=chpt. 10}}</ref> Proofs can be structured as proof trees, in which nodes are labelled by sentences, and children nodes are connected to parent nodes by inference rules.
Given a problem and a set of premises, problem-solving reduces to searching for a proof tree whose root node is labelled by a solution of the problem and whose leaf nodes are labelled by premises or axioms. In the case of Horn clauses, problem-solving search can be performed by reasoning forwards from the premises or backwards from the problem.<ref>logical deduction as search: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsects. 9.3, 9.4}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp~46–52}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp62–73}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 4.2, 7.2}}</ref> In the more general case of the clausal form of first-order logic, resolution is a single, axiom-free rule of inference, in which a problem is solved by proving a contradiction from premises that include the negation of the problem to be solved.<ref>Resolution and unification: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc= sections 7.5.2, 9.2, 9.5}}</ref>
Inference in both Horn clause logic and first-order logic is undecidable, and therefore intractable. However, backward reasoning with Horn clauses, which underpins computation in the logic programming language Prolog, is Turing complete. Moreover, its efficiency is competitive with computation in other symbolic programming languages.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Warren |first1D.H. |last2Pereira |first2L.M. |last3Pereira |first3F. |date1977 |titleProlog-the language and its implementation compared with Lisp |journalACM SIGPLAN Notices |volume12 |issue8 |pages109–115 |doi=10.1145/872734.806939}}</ref>
Fuzzy logic assigns a "degree of truth" between 0 and 1. It can therefore handle propositions that are vague and partially true.<ref>Fuzzy logic: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=214, 255, 459}}, {{Harvtxt|Scientific American|1999}}</ref>
Non-monotonic logics, including logic programming with negation as failure, are designed to handle default reasoning.<ref name"Default reasoning"/> Other specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains. Probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning
, with the associated conditional probability tables]]
Many problems in AI (including in reasoning, planning, learning, perception, and robotics) require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information. AI researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and economics.<ref name"Stoch">Stochastic methods for uncertain reasoning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 12–18, 20}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp345–395}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp165–191, 333–381}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 19}}</ref> Precise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan, using decision theory, decision analysis,<ref>decision theory and decision analysis: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 16–18}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp381–394}}</ref> and information value theory.<ref>Information value theory: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 16.6}}</ref> These tools include models such as Markov decision processes,<ref>Markov decision processes and dynamic decision networks: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 17}}</ref> dynamic decision networks,<ref name"Stochastic temporal models"/> game theory and mechanism design.<ref>Game theory and mechanism design: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=chpt. 18}}</ref>
Bayesian networks<ref>Bayesian networks: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsects. 12.5–12.6, 13.4–13.5, 14.3–14.5, 16.5, 20.2–20.3}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp361–381}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp~182–190, ≈363–379}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 19.3–19.4}}</ref> are a tool that can be used for reasoning (using the Bayesian inference algorithm),{{Efn|
Compared with symbolic logic, formal Bayesian inference is computationally expensive. For inference to be tractable, most observations must be conditionally independent of one another. AdSense uses a Bayesian network with over 300&nbsp;million edges to learn which ads to serve.{{Sfnp|Domingos|2015|loc=chpt. 6}}
}}<ref>Bayesian inference algorithm: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 13.3–13.5}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp361–381}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp~363–379}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 19.4 & 7}}</ref> learning (using the expectation–maximization algorithm),{{Efn|Expectation–maximization, one of the most popular algorithms in machine learning, allows clustering in the presence of unknown latent variables.{{Sfnp|Domingos|2015|p210}}}}<ref>Bayesian learning and the expectation–maximization algorithm: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 20}}, {{Harvtxt|Poole|Mackworth|Goebel|1998|pp424–433}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 20}}, {{Harvtxt|Domingos|2015|p210}}</ref> planning (using decision networks)<ref>Bayesian decision theory and Bayesian decision networks: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 16.5}}</ref> and perception (using dynamic Bayesian networks).<ref name="Stochastic temporal models"/>
Probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering, prediction, smoothing, and finding explanations for streams of data, thus helping perception systems analyze processes that occur over time (e.g., hidden Markov models or Kalman filters).<ref name"Stochastic temporal models">Stochastic temporal models: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 14}}
Hidden Markov model: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=sect. 14.3}}
Kalman filters: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=sect. 14.4}}
Dynamic Bayesian networks: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=sect. 14.5}}</ref>
clustering of Old Faithful eruption data starts from a random guess but then successfully converges on an accurate clustering of the two physically distinct modes of eruption.]]
Classifiers and statistical learning methods
The simplest AI applications can be divided into two types: classifiers (e.g., "if shiny then diamond"), on one hand, and controllers (e.g., "if diamond then pick up"), on the other hand. Classifiers<ref>Statistical learning methods and classifiers: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 20}},</ref> are functions that use pattern matching to determine the closest match. They can be fine-tuned based on chosen examples using supervised learning. Each pattern (also called an "observation") is labeled with a certain predefined class. All the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set. When a new observation is received, that observation is classified based on previous experience.<ref name"Supervised learning"/>
There are many kinds of classifiers in use.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Ciaramella |first1Alberto |author-linkAlberto Ciaramella |titleIntroduction to Artificial Intelligence: from data analysis to generative AI |last2Ciaramella |first2Marco |date2024 |publisherIntellisemantic Editions |isbn978-8-8947-8760-3}}</ref> The decision tree is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm.<ref>Decision trees: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 19.3}}, {{Harvtxt|Domingos|2015|p88}}</ref> K-nearest neighbor algorithm was the most widely used analogical AI until the mid-1990s, and Kernel methods such as the support vector machine (SVM) displaced k-nearest neighbor in the 1990s.<ref>Non-parameteric learning models such as K-nearest neighbor and support vector machines: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 19.7}}, {{Harvtxt|Domingos|2015|p=187}} (k-nearest neighbor)
* {{Harvtxt|Domingos|2015|p=88}} (kernel methods)</ref>
The naive Bayes classifier is reportedly the "most widely used learner"{{Sfnp|Domingos|2015|p152}} at Google, due in part to its scalability.<ref>Naive Bayes classifier: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 12.6}}, {{Harvtxt|Domingos|2015|p=152}}</ref>
Neural networks are also used as classifiers.<ref name"Neural networks"/> Artificial neural networks
s in the human brain.]]
An artificial neural network is based on a collection of nodes also known as artificial neurons, which loosely model the neurons in a biological brain. It is trained to recognise patterns; once trained, it can recognise those patterns in fresh data. There is an input, at least one hidden layer of nodes and an output. Each node applies a function and once the weight crosses its specified threshold, the data is transmitted to the next layer. A network is typically called a deep neural network if it has at least 2 hidden layers.<ref name"Neural networks">Neural networks: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 21}}, {{Harvtxt|Domingos|2015|loc=Chapter 4}}</ref>
Learning algorithms for neural networks use local search to choose the weights that will get the right output for each input during training. The most common training technique is the backpropagation algorithm.<ref>Gradient calculation in computational graphs, backpropagation, automatic differentiation: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 21.2}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp467–474}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 3.3}}</ref> Neural networks learn to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find patterns in data. In theory, a neural network can learn any function.<ref>Universal approximation theorem: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p752}}
The theorem: {{Harvtxt|Cybenko|1988}}, {{Harvtxt|Hornik|Stinchcombe|White|1989}}</ref>
In feedforward neural networks the signal passes in only one direction.<ref>Feedforward neural networks: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 21.1}}</ref> Recurrent neural networks feed the output signal back into the input, which allows short-term memories of previous input events. Long short term memory is the most successful network architecture for recurrent networks.<ref>Recurrent neural networks: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locsect. 21.6}}</ref> Perceptrons<ref>Perceptrons: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp21, 22, 683, 22}}</ref> use only a single layer of neurons; deep learning<ref name"Deep learning"/> uses multiple layers. Convolutional neural networks strengthen the connection between neurons that are "close" to each other—this is especially important in image processing, where a local set of neurons must identify an "edge" before the network can identify an object.<ref>Convolutional neural networks: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|loc=sect. 21.3}}</ref>
{{Clear}}
Deep learning
Deep learning<ref name"Deep learning">Deep learning: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|locchpt. 21}}, {{Harvtxt|Goodfellow|Bengio|Courville|2016}}, {{Harvtxt|Hinton et al.|2016}}, {{Harvtxt|Schmidhuber|2015}}</ref> uses several layers of neurons between the network's inputs and outputs. The multiple layers can progressively extract higher-level features from the raw input. For example, in image processing, lower layers may identify edges, while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digits, letters, or faces.{{Sfnp|Deng|Yu|2014|pp=199–200}}
Deep learning has profoundly improved the performance of programs in many important subfields of artificial intelligence, including computer vision, speech recognition, natural language processing, image classification,{{Sfnp|Ciresan|Meier|Schmidhuber|2012}} and others. The reason that deep learning performs so well in so many applications is not known as of 2021.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=750}} The sudden success of deep learning in 2012–2015 did not occur because of some new discovery or theoretical breakthrough (deep neural networks and backpropagation had been described by many people, as far back as the 1950s){{Efn|
Some form of deep neural networks (without a specific learning algorithm) were described by:
Warren S. McCulloch and Walter Pitts (1943){{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=17}}
Alan Turing (1948);{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=785}}
Karl Steinbuch and Roger David Joseph (1961).{{Sfnp|Schmidhuber|2022|loc=sect. 5}}
Deep or recurrent networks that learned (or used gradient descent) were developed by:
Frank Rosenblatt(1957);{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=785}}
Oliver Selfridge (1959);{{Sfnp|Schmidhuber|2022|loc=sect. 5}}
Alexey Ivakhnenko and Valentin Lapa (1965);{{Sfnp|Schmidhuber|2022|loc=sect. 6}}
Kaoru Nakano (1971);{{Sfnp|Schmidhuber|2022|loc=sect. 7}}
Shun-Ichi Amari (1972);{{Sfnp|Schmidhuber|2022|loc=sect. 7}}
John Joseph Hopfield (1982).{{Sfnp|Schmidhuber|2022|loc=sect. 7}}
Precursors to backpropagation were developed by:
Henry J. Kelley (1960);{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=785}}
Arthur E. Bryson (1962);{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=785}}
Stuart Dreyfus (1962);{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=785}}
Arthur E. Bryson and Yu-Chi Ho (1969);{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=785}}
Backpropagation was independently developed by:
Seppo Linnainmaa (1970);{{Sfnp|Schmidhuber|2022|loc=sect. 8}}
Paul Werbos (1974).{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=785}}
}} but because of two factors: the incredible increase in computer power (including the hundred-fold increase in speed by switching to GPUs) and the availability of vast amounts of training data, especially the giant curated datasets used for benchmark testing, such as ImageNet.{{Efn|Geoffrey Hinton said, of his work on neural networks in the 1990s, "our labeled datasets were thousands of times too small. [And] our computers were millions of times too slow."<ref>Quoted in {{Harvtxt|Christian|2020|p22}}</ref>}}GPTGenerative pre-trained transformers (GPT) are large language models (LLMs) that generate text based on the semantic relationships between words in sentences. Text-based GPT models are pretrained on a large corpus of text that can be from the Internet. The pretraining consists of predicting the next token (a token being usually a word, subword, or punctuation). Throughout this pretraining, GPT models accumulate knowledge about the world and can then generate human-like text by repeatedly predicting the next token. Typically, a subsequent training phase makes the model more truthful, useful, and harmless, usually with a technique called reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF). Current GPT models are prone to generating falsehoods called "hallucinations", although this can be reduced with RLHF and quality data. They are used in chatbots, which allow people to ask a question or request a task in simple text.{{Sfnp|Smith|2023}}<ref>{{Cite web |date9 November 2023 |titleExplained: Generative AI |urlhttps://news.mit.edu/2023/explained-generative-ai-1109}}</ref>
Current models and services include Gemini (formerly Bard), ChatGPT, Grok, Claude, Copilot, and LLaMA.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAI Writing and Content Creation Tools |urlhttps://mitsloanedtech.mit.edu/ai/tools/writing |access-date25 December 2023 |publisherMIT Sloan Teaching & Learning Technologies |archive-date25 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231225232503/https://mitsloanedtech.mit.edu/ai/tools/writing/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Multimodal GPT models can process different types of data (modalities) such as images, videos, sound, and text.{{Sfnp|Marmouyet|2023}}Hardware and software
{{Main|Programming languages for artificial intelligence|Hardware for artificial intelligence}}
In the late 2010s, graphics processing units (GPUs) that were increasingly designed with AI-specific enhancements and used with specialized TensorFlow software had replaced previously used central processing unit (CPUs) as the dominant means for large-scale (commercial and academic) machine learning models' training.{{Sfnp|Kobielus|2019}} Specialized programming languages such as Prolog were used in early AI research,<ref>{{Cite web |lastThomason |firstJames |date2024-05-21 |titleMojo Rising: The resurgence of AI-first programming languages |urlhttps://venturebeat.com/ai/mojo-rising-the-resurgence-of-ai-first-programming-languages |access-date2024-05-26 |websiteVentureBeat |archive-date27 June 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240627143853/https://venturebeat.com/ai/mojo-rising-the-resurgence-of-ai-first-programming-languages/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> but general-purpose programming languages like Python have become predominant.<ref>{{Cite news |lastWodecki |firstBen |dateMay 5, 2023 |title7 AI Programming Languages You Need to Know |urlhttps://aibusiness.com/verticals/7-ai-programming-languages-you-need-to-know |workAI Business |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date25 July 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240725164443/https://aibusiness.com/verticals/7-ai-programming-languages-you-need-to-know |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The transistor density in integrated circuits has been observed to roughly double every 18 months—a trend known as Moore's law, named after the Intel co-founder Gordon Moore, who first identified it. Improvements in GPUs have been even faster,<ref>{{Cite web |lastPlumb |firstTaryn |date2024-09-18 |titleWhy Jensen Huang and Marc Benioff see 'gigantic' opportunity for agentic AI |urlhttps://venturebeat.com/ai/why-jensen-huang-and-marc-benioff-see-gigantic-opportunity-for-agentic-ai/ |access-date2024-10-04 |websiteVentureBeat |languageen-US |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005165649/https://venturebeat.com/ai/why-jensen-huang-and-marc-benioff-see-gigantic-opportunity-for-agentic-ai/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> a trend sometimes called Huang's law,<ref>{{Cite news |lastMims |firstChristopher |date2020-09-19 |titleHuang's Law Is the New Moore's Law, and Explains Why Nvidia Wants Arm |urlhttps://www.wsj.com/articles/huangs-law-is-the-new-moores-law-and-explains-why-nvidia-wants-arm-11600488001 |access-date2025-01-19 |workWall Street Journal |languageen-US |issn0099-9660 |archive-date2 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231002080608/https://www.wsj.com/articles/huangs-law-is-the-new-moores-law-and-explains-why-nvidia-wants-arm-11600488001 |url-statuslive }}</ref> named after Nvidia co-founder and CEO Jensen Huang. Applications {{Main|Applications of artificial intelligence}}AI and machine learning technology is used in most of the essential applications of the 2020s, including: search engines (such as Google Search), targeting online advertisements, recommendation systems (offered by Netflix, YouTube or Amazon), driving internet traffic, targeted advertising (AdSense, Facebook), virtual assistants (such as Siri or Alexa), autonomous vehicles (including drones, ADAS and self-driving cars), automatic language translation (Microsoft Translator, Google Translate), facial recognition (Apple's Face ID or Microsoft's DeepFace and Google's FaceNet) and image labeling (used by Facebook, Apple's iPhoto and TikTok). The deployment of AI may be overseen by a Chief automation officer (CAO).Health and medicine
{{Main|Artificial intelligence in healthcare}}
The application of AI in medicine and medical research has the potential to increase patient care and quality of life.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Davenport |first1T |last2Kalakota |first2R |dateJune 2019 |titleThe potential for artificial intelligence in healthcare |journalFuture Healthc J. |volume6 |issue2 |pages94–98 |doi10.7861/futurehosp.6-2-94 |pmc6616181 |pmid31363513}}</ref> Through the lens of the Hippocratic Oath, medical professionals are ethically compelled to use AI, if applications can more accurately diagnose and treat patients.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Lyakhova |first1U.A. |last2Lyakhov |first2P.A. |date2024 |titleSystematic review of approaches to detection and classification of skin cancer using artificial intelligence: Development and prospects |urlhttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010482524008278 |journalComputers in Biology and Medicine |languageen |volume178 |pages108742 |doi10.1016/j.compbiomed.2024.108742 |pmid38875908 |archive-date3 December 2024 |access-date10 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241203172502/https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010482524008278 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Alqudaihi |first1Kawther S. |last2Aslam |first2Nida |last3Khan |first3Irfan Ullah |last4Almuhaideb |first4Abdullah M. |last5Alsunaidi |first5Shikah J. |last6Ibrahim |first6Nehad M. Abdel Rahman |last7Alhaidari |first7Fahd A. |last8Shaikh |first8Fatema S. |last9Alsenbel |first9Yasmine M. |last10Alalharith |first10Dima M. |last11Alharthi |first11Hajar M. |last12Alghamdi |first12Wejdan M. |last13Alshahrani |first13Mohammed S. |date2021 |titleCough Sound Detection and Diagnosis Using Artificial Intelligence Techniques: Challenges and Opportunities |journalIEEE Access |volume9 |pages102327–102344 |doi10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3097559 |issn2169-3536 |pmc8545201 |pmid34786317|bibcode2021IEEEA...9j2327A }}</ref>
For medical research, AI is an important tool for processing and integrating big data. This is particularly important for organoid and tissue engineering development which use microscopy imaging as a key technique in fabrication.<ref name"Bax-2023">{{Cite journal |last1Bax |first1Monique |last2Thorpe |first2Jordan |last3Romanov |first3Valentin |dateDecember 2023 |titleThe future of personalized cardiovascular medicine demands 3D and 4D printing, stem cells, and artificial intelligence |journalFrontiers in Sensors |volume4 |doi10.3389/fsens.2023.1294721 |issn2673-5067 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> It has been suggested that AI can overcome discrepancies in funding allocated to different fields of research.<ref name"Bax-2023"/><ref>{{Cite journal |lastDankwa-Mullan |firstIrene |date2024 |titleHealth Equity and Ethical Considerations in Using Artificial Intelligence in Public Health and Medicine |urlhttps://www.cdc.gov/pcd/issues/2024/24_0245.htm |journalPreventing Chronic Disease |languageen-us |volume21 |pagesE64 |doi10.5888/pcd21.240245 |pmid39173183 |issn1545-1151|pmc11364282 }}</ref> New AI tools can deepen the understanding of biomedically relevant pathways. For example, AlphaFold 2 (2021) demonstrated the ability to approximate, in hours rather than months, the 3D structure of a protein.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Jumper |first1J |last2Evans |first2R |last3Pritzel |first3A |date2021 |titleHighly accurate protein structure prediction with AlphaFold |journalNature |volume596 |issue7873 |pages583–589 |bibcode2021Natur.596..583J |doi10.1038/s41586-021-03819-2 |pmc8371605 |pmid34265844}}</ref> In 2023, it was reported that AI-guided drug discovery helped find a class of antibiotics capable of killing two different types of drug-resistant bacteria.<ref>{{Cite web |date2023-12-20 |titleAI discovers new class of antibiotics to kill drug-resistant bacteria |urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/2409706-ai-discovers-new-class-of-antibiotics-to-kill-drug-resistant-bacteria/ |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date16 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240916014421/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2409706-ai-discovers-new-class-of-antibiotics-to-kill-drug-resistant-bacteria/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2024, researchers used machine learning to accelerate the search for Parkinson's disease drug treatments. Their aim was to identify compounds that block the clumping, or aggregation, of alpha-synuclein (the protein that characterises Parkinson's disease). They were able to speed up the initial screening process ten-fold and reduce the cost by a thousand-fold.<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-04-17 |titleAI speeds up drug design for Parkinson's ten-fold |urlhttps://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/ai-speeds-up-drug-design-for-parkinsons-ten-fold |publisherCambridge University |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005165755/https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/ai-speeds-up-drug-design-for-parkinsons-ten-fold |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Horne |first1Robert I. |last2Andrzejewska |first2Ewa A. |last3Alam |first3Parvez |last4Brotzakis |first4Z. Faidon |last5Srivastava |first5Ankit |last6Aubert |first6Alice |last7Nowinska |first7Magdalena |last8Gregory |first8Rebecca C. |last9Staats |first9Roxine |last10Possenti |first10Andrea |last11Chia |first11Sean |last12Sormanni |first12Pietro |last13Ghetti |first13Bernardino |last14Caughey |first14Byron |last15Knowles |first15Tuomas P. J. |last16Vendruscolo |first16Michele |date2024-04-17 |titleDiscovery of potent inhibitors of α-synuclein aggregation using structure-based iterative learning |journalNature Chemical Biology |publisherNature |volume20 |issue5 |pages634–645 |doi10.1038/s41589-024-01580-x |pmc11062903 |pmid38632492}}</ref> Games
{{Main|Game artificial intelligence}}
Game playing programs have been used since the 1950s to demonstrate and test AI's most advanced techniques.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last1Grant |first1Eugene F. |last2Lardner |first2Rex |date1952-07-25 |titleThe Talk of the Town – It |urlhttps://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1952/08/02/it |access-date2024-01-28 |magazineThe New Yorker |issn0028-792X |archive-date16 February 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200216034025/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1952/08/02/it |url-statuslive }}</ref> Deep Blue became the first computer chess-playing system to beat a reigning world chess champion, Garry Kasparov, on 11 May 1997.<ref>{{Cite web |lastAnderson |firstMark Robert |date2017-05-11 |titleTwenty years on from Deep Blue vs Kasparov: how a chess match started the big data revolution |urlhttp://theconversation.com/twenty-years-on-from-deep-blue-vs-kasparov-how-a-chess-match-started-the-big-data-revolution-76882 |access-date2024-01-28 |websiteThe Conversation |archive-date17 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240917000827/https://theconversation.com/twenty-years-on-from-deep-blue-vs-kasparov-how-a-chess-match-started-the-big-data-revolution-76882 |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2011, in a Jeopardy! quiz show exhibition match, IBM's question answering system, Watson, defeated the two greatest Jeopardy! champions, Brad Rutter and Ken Jennings, by a significant margin.<ref>{{Cite news |lastMarkoff |firstJohn |date2011-02-16 |titleComputer Wins on 'Jeopardy!': Trivial, It's Not |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/science/17jeopardy-watson.html |url-accesssubscription |access-date2024-01-28 |workThe New York Times |issn0362-4331 |archive-date22 October 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141022023202/http://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/science/17jeopardy-watson.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> In March 2016, AlphaGo won 4 out of 5 games of Go in a match with Go champion Lee Sedol, becoming the first computer Go-playing system to beat a professional Go player without handicaps. Then, in 2017, it defeated Ke Jie, who was the best Go player in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |lastByford |firstSam |date2017-05-27 |titleAlphaGo retires from competitive Go after defeating world number one 3–0 |urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2017/5/27/15704088/alphago-ke-jie-game-3-result-retires-future |access-date2024-01-28 |websiteThe Verge |archive-date7 June 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170607184301/https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/27/15704088/alphago-ke-jie-game-3-result-retires-future |url-statuslive }}</ref> Other programs handle imperfect-information games, such as the poker-playing program Pluribus.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Brown |first1Noam |last2Sandholm |first2Tuomas |date2019-08-30 |titleSuperhuman AI for multiplayer poker |urlhttps://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aay2400 |journalScience |volume365 |issue6456 |pages885–890 |bibcode2019Sci...365..885B |doi10.1126/science.aay2400 |issn0036-8075 |pmid31296650}}</ref> DeepMind developed increasingly generalistic reinforcement learning models, such as with MuZero, which could be trained to play chess, Go, or Atari games.<ref>{{Cite web |date2020-12-23 |titleMuZero: Mastering Go, chess, shogi and Atari without rules |urlhttps://deepmind.google/discover/blog/muzero-mastering-go-chess-shogi-and-atari-without-rules |access-date2024-01-28 |websiteGoogle DeepMind}}</ref> In 2019, DeepMind's AlphaStar achieved grandmaster level in StarCraft II, a particularly challenging real-time strategy game that involves incomplete knowledge of what happens on the map.<ref>{{Cite news |lastSample |firstIan |date2019-10-30 |titleAI becomes grandmaster in 'fiendishly complex' StarCraft II |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/oct/30/ai-becomes-grandmaster-in-fiendishly-complex-starcraft-ii |access-date2024-01-28 |workThe Guardian |issn0261-3077 |archive-date29 December 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201229185547/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/oct/30/ai-becomes-grandmaster-in-fiendishly-complex-starcraft-ii |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2021, an AI agent competed in a PlayStation Gran Turismo competition, winning against four of the world's best Gran Turismo drivers using deep reinforcement learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Wurman |first1P. R. |last2Barrett |first2S. |last3Kawamoto |first3K. |date2022 |titleOutracing champion Gran Turismo drivers with deep reinforcement learning |journalNature |volume602 |issue7896 |pages223–228 |bibcode2022Natur.602..223W |doi10.1038/s41586-021-04357-7 |pmid35140384|urlhttps://www.researchsquare.com/article/rs-795954/latest.pdf }}</ref> In 2024, Google DeepMind introduced SIMA, a type of AI capable of autonomously playing nine previously unseen open-world video games by observing screen output, as well as executing short, specific tasks in response to natural language instructions.<ref>{{Cite web |lastWilkins |firstAlex |date13 March 2024 |titleGoogle AI learns to play open-world video games by watching them |urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/2422101-google-ai-learns-to-play-open-world-video-games-by-watching-them |access-date2024-07-21 |websiteNew Scientist |archive-date26 July 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240726182946/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2422101-google-ai-learns-to-play-open-world-video-games-by-watching-them/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Mathematics
Large language models, such as GPT-4, Gemini, Claude, LLaMa or Mistral, are increasingly used in mathematics. These probabilistic models are versatile, but can also produce wrong answers in the form of hallucinations. They sometimes need a large database of mathematical problems to learn from, but also methods such as supervised fine-tuning<ref>{{Cite journal |date2024 |titleReFT: Representation Finetuning for Language Models |journalNeurIPS |arxiv2404.03592 |last1Wu |first1Zhengxuan |last2Arora |first2Aryaman |last3Wang |first3Zheng |last4Geiger |first4Atticus |last5Jurafsky |first5Dan |last6Manning |first6Christopher D. |last7Potts |first7Christopher }}</ref> or trained classifiers with human-annotated data to improve answers for new problems and learn from corrections.<ref>{{Cite web |date2023-05-31 |titleImproving mathematical reasoning with process supervision |urlhttps://openai.com/index/improving-mathematical-reasoning-with-process-supervision/ |access-date2025-01-26 |websiteOpenAI |languageen-US}}</ref> A February 2024 study showed that the performance of some language models for reasoning capabilities in solving math problems not included in their training data was low, even for problems with only minor deviations from trained data.<ref>{{Cite arXiv |eprint2402.19450 |classcs.AI |firstSaurabh |lastSrivastava |titleFunctional Benchmarks for Robust Evaluation of Reasoning Performance, and the Reasoning Gap |date2024-02-29}}</ref> One technique to improve their performance involves training the models to produce correct reasoning steps, rather than just the correct result.<ref>{{cite arXiv |eprint2305.20050v1 |classcs.LG |first1Hunter |last1Lightman |first2Vineet |last2Kosaraju |titleLet's Verify Step by Step |date2023 |last3Burda |first3Yura |last4Edwards |first4Harri |last5Baker |first5Bowen |last6Lee |first6Teddy |last7Leike |first7Jan |last8Schulman |first8John |last9Sutskever |first9Ilya |last10Cobbe |first10Karl}}</ref> The Alibaba Group developed a version of its Qwen models called Qwen2-Math, that achieved state-of-the-art performance on several mathematical benchmarks, including 84% accuracy on the MATH dataset of competition mathematics problems.<ref name"VentureBeat 8 August 2024">{{cite web |last1Franzen |first1Carl |titleAlibaba claims no. 1 spot in AI math models with Qwen2-Math |urlhttps://venturebeat.com/ai/alibaba-claims-no-1-spot-in-ai-math-models-with-qwen2-math/ |websiteVentureBeat |date2024-08-08|access-date2025-02-16}}</ref> In January 2025, Microsoft proposed the technique rStar-Math that leverages Monte Carlo tree search and step-by-step reasoning, enabling a relatively small language model like Qwen-7B to solve 53% of the AIME 2024 and 90% of the MATH benchmark problems.<ref>{{Cite web |lastFranzen |firstCarl |date2025-01-09 |titleMicrosoft's new rStar-Math technique upgrades small models to outperform OpenAI's o1-preview at math problems |urlhttps://venturebeat.com/ai/microsofts-new-rstar-math-technique-upgrades-small-models-to-outperform-openais-o1-preview-at-math-problems/ |access-date2025-01-26 |websiteVentureBeat |languageen-US}}</ref>
Alternatively, dedicated models for mathematical problem solving with higher precision for the outcome including proof of theorems have been developed such as AlphaTensor, AlphaGeometry and AlphaProof all from Google DeepMind,<ref>{{Cite web |lastRoberts |firstSiobhan |dateJuly 25, 2024 |titleAI achieves silver-medal standard solving International Mathematical Olympiad problems |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/25/science/ai-math-alphaproof-deepmind.html |access-date2024-08-07 |websiteThe New York Times |archive-date26 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240926131402/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/25/science/ai-math-alphaproof-deepmind.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> Llemma from EleutherAI<ref>{{Cite web |last1Azerbayev |first1Zhangir |last2Schoelkopf |first2Hailey |last3Paster |first3Keiran |last4Santos |first4Marco Dos |last5McAleer' |first5Stephen |last6Jiang |first6Albert Q. |last7Deng |first7Jia |last8Biderman |first8Stella |last9Welleck |first9Sean |date2023-10-16 |titleLlemma: An Open Language Model For Mathematics |urlhttps://blog.eleuther.ai/llemma/ |access-date2025-01-26 |websiteEleutherAI Blog |languageen}}</ref> or Julius.<ref>{{Cite web |titleJulius AI |urlhttps://julius.ai/home/ai-math |access-date|websitejulius.ai |language=en}}</ref>
When natural language is used to describe mathematical problems, converters can transform such prompts into a formal language such as Lean to define mathematical tasks.
Some models have been developed to solve challenging problems and reach good results in benchmark tests, others to serve as educational tools in mathematics.<ref>{{Cite web |lastMcFarland |firstAlex |date2024-07-12 |title8 Best AI for Math Tools (January 2025) |urlhttps://www.unite.ai/best-ai-for-math-tools/ |access-date2025-01-26 |websiteUnite.AI |languageen-US}}</ref>
Topological deep learning integrates various topological approaches.
Finance
Finance is one of the fastest growing sectors where applied AI tools are being deployed: from retail online banking to investment advice and insurance, where automated "robot advisers" have been in use for some years.<ref>Matthew Finio & Amanda Downie: IBM Think 2024 Primer, "What is Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Finance?" 8 Dec. 2023</ref>
According to Nicolas Firzli, director of the World Pensions & Investments Forum, it may be too early to see the emergence of highly innovative AI-informed financial products and services. He argues that "the deployment of AI tools will simply further automatise things: destroying tens of thousands of jobs in banking, financial planning, and pension advice in the process, but I'm not sure it will unleash a new wave of [e.g., sophisticated] pension innovation."<ref>M. Nicolas, J. Firzli: Pensions Age / European Pensions magazine, "Artificial Intelligence: Ask the Industry", May–June 2024. https://videovoice.org/ai-in-finance-innovation-entrepreneurship-vs-over-regulation-with-the-eus-artificial-intelligence-act-wont-work-as-intended/ {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240911125502/https://videovoice.org/ai-in-finance-innovation-entrepreneurship-vs-over-regulation-with-the-eus-artificial-intelligence-act-wont-work-as-intended/ |date11 September 2024}}.</ref>
Military
{{main|Military applications of artificial intelligence}}
Various countries are deploying AI military applications.<ref name"CRS-2019">{{Cite book|lastCongressional Research Service|urlhttps://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R45178.pdf|titleArtificial Intelligence and National Security|publisherCongressional Research Service|year2019|locationWashington, DC|archive-date8 May 2020|access-date25 February 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200508062631/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R45178.pdf|url-statuslive}}PD-notice</ref> The main applications enhance command and control, communications, sensors, integration and interoperability.<ref name"Slyusar-2019">{{cite report |typePreprint |last1Slyusar |first1Vadym |titleArtificial intelligence as the basis of future control networks |date2019 |doi10.13140/RG.2.2.30247.50087 }}</ref> Research is targeting intelligence collection and analysis, logistics, cyber operations, information operations, and semiautonomous and autonomous vehicles.<ref name"CRS-2019" /> AI technologies enable coordination of sensors and effectors, threat detection and identification, marking of enemy positions, target acquisition, coordination and deconfliction of distributed Joint Fires between networked combat vehicles, both human operated and autonomous.<ref name"Slyusar-2019" />
AI has been used in military operations in Iraq, Syria, Israel and Ukraine.<ref name"CRS-2019" /><ref>{{Cite web |lastIraqi |firstAmjad |date2024-04-03 |title'Lavender': The AI machine directing Israel's bombing spree in Gaza |urlhttps://www.972mag.com/lavender-ai-israeli-army-gaza/ |access-date2024-04-06 |website+972 Magazine |languageen-US |archive-date10 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241010022042/https://www.972mag.com/lavender-ai-israeli-army-gaza/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Davies-2023">{{Cite news |last1Davies |first1Harry |last2McKernan |first2Bethan |last3Sabbagh |first3Dan |date2023-12-01 |title'The Gospel': how Israel uses AI to select bombing targets in Gaza |languageen-GB |workThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/dec/01/the-gospel-how-israel-uses-ai-to-select-bombing-targets |access-date2023-12-04 |archive-date6 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231206213901/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/dec/01/the-gospel-how-israel-uses-ai-to-select-bombing-targets |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|lastMarti|firstJ Werner|titleDrohnen haben den Krieg in der Ukraine revolutioniert, doch sie sind empfindlich auf Störsender – deshalb sollen sie jetzt autonom operieren|urlhttps://www.nzz.ch/international/die-ukraine-setzt-auf-drohnen-die-autonom-navigieren-und-toeten-koennen-ld.1838731|date10 August 2024|access-date10 August 2024|newspaperNeue Zürcher Zeitung|languageGerman|archive-date10 August 2024|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240810054043/https://www.nzz.ch/international/die-ukraine-setzt-auf-drohnen-die-autonom-navigieren-und-toeten-koennen-ld.1838731|url-statuslive}}</ref> Generative AI in watercolour created by generative AI software]]{{Excerpt|Generative artificial intelligence|onlyparagraphs|paragraphs1-3}}AgentsArtificial intelligent (AI) agents are software entities designed to perceive their environment, make decisions, and take actions autonomously to achieve specific goals. These agents can interact with users, their environment, or other agents. AI agents are used in various applications, including virtual assistants, chatbots, autonomous vehicles, game-playing systems, and industrial robotics. AI agents operate within the constraints of their programming, available computational resources, and hardware limitations. This means they are restricted to performing tasks within their defined scope and have finite memory and processing capabilities. In real-world applications, AI agents often face time constraints for decision-making and action execution. Many AI agents incorporate learning algorithms, enabling them to improve their performance over time through experience or training. Using machine learning, AI agents can adapt to new situations and optimise their behaviour for their designated tasks.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Poole |first1David |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1017/9781009258227 |titleArtificial Intelligence, Foundations of Computational Agents |last2Mackworth |first2Alan |date2023 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-1-0092-5819-7 |edition3rd |doi10.1017/9781009258227 |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005165650/https://www.cambridge.org/highereducation/books/artificial-intelligence/C113F6CE284AB00F5489EBA5A59B93B7#overview |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1Russell |first1Stuart |titleArtificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach |last2Norvig |first2Peter |publisherPearson |date2020 |isbn978-0-1346-1099-3 |edition4th}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date2024-07-24 |titleWhy agents are the next frontier of generative AI |urlhttps://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/mckinsey-digital/our-insights/why-agents-are-the-next-frontier-of-generative-ai |access-date2024-08-10 |websiteMcKinsey Digital |archive-date3 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241003212335/https://www.mckinsey.com/capabilities/mckinsey-digital/our-insights/why-agents-are-the-next-frontier-of-generative-ai |url-statuslive }}</ref> Sexuality Applications of AI in this domain include AI-enabled menstruation and fertility trackers that analyze user data to offer prediction,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Figueiredo |first1Mayara Costa |last2Ankrah |first2Elizabeth |last3Powell |first3Jacquelyn E. |last4Epstein |first4Daniel A. |last5Chen |first5Yunan |date2024-01-12 |titlePowered by AI: Examining How AI Descriptions Influence Perceptions of Fertility Tracking Applications |urlhttps://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3631414 |journalProc. ACM Interact. Mob. Wearable Ubiquitous Technol. |volume7 |issue4 |pages154:1–154:24 |doi10.1145/3631414}}</ref> AI-integrated sex toys (e.g., teledildonics),<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Power |first1Jennifer |last2Pym |first2Tinonee |last3James |first3Alexandra |last4Waling |first4Andrea |date2024-07-05 |titleSmart Sex Toys: A Narrative Review of Recent Research on Cultural, Health and Safety Considerations |journalCurrent Sexual Health Reports |languageen |volume16 |issue3 |pages199–215 |doi10.1007/s11930-024-00392-3 |issn1548-3592 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> AI-generated sexual education content,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Marcantonio |first1Tiffany L. |last2Avery |first2Gracie |last3Thrash |first3Anna |last4Leone |first4Ruschelle M. |date2024-09-10 |titleLarge Language Models in an App: Conducting a Qualitative Synthetic Data Analysis of How Snapchat's "My AI" Responds to Questions About Sexual Consent, Sexual Refusals, Sexual Assault, and Sexting |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00224499.2024.2396457 |url-statuslive |journalThe Journal of Sex Research |languageen |pages1–15 |doi10.1080/00224499.2024.2396457 |pmid39254628 |issn0022-4499 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241209185843/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00224499.2024.2396457 |archive-date9 December 2024 |access-date9 December 2024}}</ref> and AI agents that simulate sexual and romantic partners (e.g., Replika).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Hanson |first1Kenneth R. |last2Bolthouse |first2Hannah |date2024 |title"Replika Removing Erotic Role-Play Is Like Grand Theft Auto Removing Guns or Cars": Reddit Discourse on Artificial Intelligence Chatbots and Sexual Technologies |journalSocius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World |languageen |volume10 |doi10.1177/23780231241259627 |issn2378-0231 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> AI is also used for the production of non-consensual deepfake pornography, raising significant ethical and legal concerns.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastMania |firstKarolina |date2024-01-01 |titleLegal Protection of Revenge and Deepfake Porn Victims in the European Union: Findings From a Comparative Legal Study |urlhttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/15248380221143772?journalCodetvaa |journalTrauma, Violence, & Abuse |languageen |volume25 |issue1 |pages117–129 |doi10.1177/15248380221143772 |pmid36565267 |issn1524-8380}}</ref>
AI technologies have also been used to attempt to identify online gender-based violence and online sexual grooming of minors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Singh |first1Suyesha |last2Nambiar |first2Vaishnavi |date2024 |titleRole of Artificial Intelligence in the Prevention of Online Child Sexual Abuse: A Systematic Review of Literature |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19361610.2024.2331885 |url-statuslive |journalJournal of Applied Security Research |languageen |volume19 |issue4 |pages586–627 |doi10.1080/19361610.2024.2331885 |issn1936-1610 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241209171923/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19361610.2024.2331885 |archive-date9 December 2024 |access-date9 December 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Razi |first1Afsaneh |last2Kim |first2Seunghyun |last3Alsoubai |first3Ashwaq |last4Stringhini |first4Gianluca |last5Solorio |first5Thamar |last6De Choudhury |first6Munmun |last7Wisniewski |first7Pamela J. |date2021-10-13 |titleA Human-Centered Systematic Literature Review of the Computational Approaches for Online Sexual Risk Detection |urlhttps://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3479609 |url-statuslive |journalProceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction |languageen |volume5 |issueCSCW2 |pages1–38 |doi10.1145/3479609 |issn2573-0142 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241209171735/https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/3479609 |archive-date9 December 2024 |access-date9 December 2024}}</ref>
Other industry-specific tasks
There are also thousands of successful AI applications used to solve specific problems for specific industries or institutions. In a 2017 survey, one in five companies reported having incorporated "AI" in some offerings or processes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Ransbotham |first1Sam |last2Kiron |first2David |last3Gerbert |first3Philipp |last4Reeves |first4Martin |date2017-09-06 |titleReshaping Business With Artificial Intelligence |urlhttps://sloanreview.mit.edu/projects/reshaping-business-with-artificial-intelligence |url-statuslive |journalMIT Sloan Management Review |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240213070751/https://sloanreview.mit.edu/projects/reshaping-business-with-artificial-intelligence |archive-date=Feb 13, 2024}}</ref> A few examples are energy storage, medical diagnosis, military logistics, applications that predict the result of judicial decisions, foreign policy, or supply chain management.
AI applications for evacuation and disaster management are growing. AI has been used to investigate if and how people evacuated in large scale and small scale evacuations using historical data from GPS, videos or social media. Further, AI can provide real time information on the real time evacuation conditions.<ref>{{Citation |last1Sun |first1Yuran |title8 – AI for large-scale evacuation modeling: promises and challenges |date2024-01-01 |workInterpretable Machine Learning for the Analysis, Design, Assessment, and Informed Decision Making for Civil Infrastructure |pages185–204 |editor-lastNaser |editor-firstM. Z. |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128240731000149 |access-date2024-06-28 |seriesWoodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering |publisherWoodhead Publishing |isbn978-0-1282-4073-1 |last2Zhao |first2Xilei |last3Lovreglio |first3Ruggiero |last4Kuligowski |first4Erica |archive-date19 May 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240519121547/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B9780128240731000149 |url-statuslive }}.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Gomaa |first1Islam |last2Adelzadeh |first2Masoud |last3Gwynne |first3Steven |last4Spencer |first4Bruce |last5Ko |first5Yoon |last6Bénichou |first6Noureddine |last7Ma |first7Chunyun |last8Elsagan |first8Nour |last9Duong |first9Dana |last10Zalok |first10Ehab |last11Kinateder |first11Max |date2021-11-01 |titleA Framework for Intelligent Fire Detection and Evacuation System |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-021-01157-3 |journalFire Technology |volume57 |issue6 |pages3179–3185 |doi10.1007/s10694-021-01157-3 |issn1572-8099 |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005165650/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10694-021-01157-3 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1Zhao |first1Xilei |last2Lovreglio |first2Ruggiero |last3Nilsson |first3Daniel |date2020-05-01 |titleModelling and interpreting pre-evacuation decision-making using machine learning |urlhttps://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0926580519313184 |journalAutomation in Construction |volume113 |pages103140 |doi10.1016/j.autcon.2020.103140 |issn0926-5805 |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date19 May 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240519121548/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0926580519313184 |url-statuslive |hdl10179/17315 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>
In agriculture, AI has helped farmers identify areas that need irrigation, fertilization, pesticide treatments or increasing yield. Agronomists use AI to conduct research and development. AI has been used to predict the ripening time for crops such as tomatoes, monitor soil moisture, operate agricultural robots, conduct predictive analytics, classify livestock pig call emotions, automate greenhouses, detect diseases and pests, and save water.
Artificial intelligence is used in astronomy to analyze increasing amounts of available data and applications, mainly for "classification, regression, clustering, forecasting, generation, discovery, and the development of new scientific insights." For example, it is used for discovering exoplanets, forecasting solar activity, and distinguishing between signals and instrumental effects in gravitational wave astronomy. Additionally, it could be used for activities in space, such as space exploration, including the analysis of data from space missions, real-time science decisions of spacecraft, space debris avoidance, and more autonomous operation.
During the 2024 Indian elections, US$50 million was spent on authorized AI-generated content, notably by creating deepfakes of allied (including sometimes deceased) politicians to better engage with voters, and by translating speeches to various local languages.<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-06-12 |titleIndia's latest election embraced AI technology. Here are some ways it was used constructively |urlhttps://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/indias-latest-election-embraced-ai-technology-here-are-some-ways-it-was-used-constructively |access-date2024-10-28 |websitePBS News |languageen-us |archive-date17 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240917194950/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/indias-latest-election-embraced-ai-technology-here-are-some-ways-it-was-used-constructively |url-statuslive }}</ref>Ethics
{{Main|Ethics of artificial intelligence}}
AI has potential benefits and potential risks.<ref>{{Cite web |titleEthics of Artificial Intelligence and Robotics |urlhttps://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/ethics-ai/ |websiteStanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy Archive |date30 April 2020 |last1Müller |first1Vincent C. |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005165650/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/ethics-ai/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> AI may be able to advance science and find solutions for serious problems: Demis Hassabis of DeepMind hopes to "solve intelligence, and then use that to solve everything else".{{Sfnp|Simonite|2016}} However, as the use of AI has become widespread, several unintended consequences and risks have been identified.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p987}} In-production systems can sometimes not factor ethics and bias into their AI training processes, especially when the AI algorithms are inherently unexplainable in deep learning.{{Sfnp|Laskowski|2023}} Risks and harm Privacy and copyright
{{Further|Information privacy|Artificial intelligence and copyright}}
Machine learning algorithms require large amounts of data. The techniques used to acquire this data have raised concerns about privacy, surveillance and copyright.
<!-- PRIVACY PROBLEM -->
AI-powered devices and services, such as virtual assistants and IoT products, continuously collect personal information, raising concerns about intrusive data gathering and unauthorized access by third parties. The loss of privacy is further exacerbated by AI's ability to process and combine vast amounts of data, potentially leading to a surveillance society where individual activities are constantly monitored and analyzed without adequate safeguards or transparency.
Sensitive user data collected may include online activity records, geolocation data, video, or audio.{{Sfnp|GAO|2022}} For example, in order to build speech recognition algorithms, Amazon has recorded millions of private conversations and allowed temporary workers to listen to and transcribe some of them.{{Sfnp|Valinsky|2019}} Opinions about this widespread surveillance range from those who see it as a necessary evil to those for whom it is clearly unethical and a violation of the right to privacy.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=991}}
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AI developers argue that this is the only way to deliver valuable applications and have developed several techniques that attempt to preserve privacy while still obtaining the data, such as data aggregation, de-identification and differential privacy.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp991–992}} Since 2016, some privacy experts, such as Cynthia Dwork, have begun to view privacy in terms of fairness. Brian Christian wrote that experts have pivoted "from the question of 'what they know' to the question of 'what they're doing with it'."{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|p63}}
<!-- COPYRIGHT AND GENERATIVE AI -->
Generative AI is often trained on unlicensed copyrighted works, including in domains such as images or computer code; the output is then used under the rationale of "fair use". Experts disagree about how well and under what circumstances this rationale will hold up in courts of law; relevant factors may include "the purpose and character of the use of the copyrighted work" and "the effect upon the potential market for the copyrighted work".{{Sfnp|Vincent|2022}}<ref>{{Cite web |lastKopel |firstMatthew |titleCopyright Services: Fair Use |urlhttps://guides.library.cornell.edu/copyright/fair-use |access-date2024-04-26 |websiteCornell University Library |archive-date26 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240926194057/https://guides.library.cornell.edu/copyright/fair-use |url-statuslive }}</ref> Website owners who do not wish to have their content scraped can indicate it in a "robots.txt" file.<ref>{{Cite magazine |lastBurgess |firstMatt |titleHow to Stop Your Data From Being Used to Train AI |urlhttps://www.wired.com/story/how-to-stop-your-data-from-being-used-to-train-ai |access-date2024-04-26 |magazineWired |issn1059-1028 |archive-date3 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241003180100/https://www.wired.com/story/how-to-stop-your-data-from-being-used-to-train-ai/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2023, leading authors (including John Grisham and Jonathan Franzen) sued AI companies for using their work to train generative AI.{{Sfnp|Reisner|2023}}{{Sfnp|Alter|Harris|2023}} Another discussed approach is to envision a separate sui generis system of protection for creations generated by AI to ensure fair attribution and compensation for human authors.<ref>{{Cite web |titleGetting the Innovation Ecosystem Ready for AI. An IP policy toolkit |urlhttps://www.wipo.int/edocs/pubdocs/en/wipo-pub-2003-en-getting-the-innovation-ecosystem-ready-for-ai.pdf |websiteWIPO}}</ref>
Dominance by tech giants
The commercial AI scene is dominated by Big Tech companies such as Alphabet Inc., Amazon, Apple Inc., Meta Platforms, and Microsoft.<ref>{{Cite web |lastHammond |firstGeorge |date27 December 2023 |titleBig Tech is spending more than VC firms on AI startups |urlhttps://arstechnica.com/ai/2023/12/big-tech-is-spending-more-than-vc-firms-on-ai-startups |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240110195706/https://arstechnica.com/ai/2023/12/big-tech-is-spending-more-than-vc-firms-on-ai-startups |archive-dateJan 10, 2024 |websiteArs Technica}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastWong |firstMatteo |date24 October 2023 |titleThe Future of AI Is GOMA |urlhttps://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2023/10/big-ai-silicon-valley-dominance/675752 |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240105020744/https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2023/10/big-ai-silicon-valley-dominance/675752 |archive-dateJan 5, 2024 |websiteThe Atlantic |refnone}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |dateMar 26, 2023 |titleBig tech and the pursuit of AI dominance |urlhttps://www.economist.com/business/2023/03/26/big-tech-and-the-pursuit-of-ai-dominance |url-accesssubscription |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231229021351/https://www.economist.com/business/2023/03/26/big-tech-and-the-pursuit-of-ai-dominance |archive-dateDec 29, 2023 |newspaperThe Economist}}</ref> Some of these players already own the vast majority of existing cloud infrastructure and computing power from data centers, allowing them to entrench further in the marketplace.<ref>{{Cite news |lastFung |firstBrian |date19 December 2023 |titleWhere the battle to dominate AI may be won |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2023/12/19/tech/cloud-competition-and-ai/index.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240113053332/https://www.cnn.com/2023/12/19/tech/cloud-competition-and-ai/index.html |archive-dateJan 13, 2024 |workCNN Business}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastMetz |firstCade |date5 July 2023 |titleIn the Age of A.I., Tech's Little Guys Need Big Friends |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/05/business/artificial-intelligence-power-data-centers.html |workThe New York Times |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date8 July 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240708214644/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/05/business/artificial-intelligence-power-data-centers.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>Power needs and environmental impacts
{{See also|Environmental impacts of artificial intelligence}}
In January 2024, the International Energy Agency (IEA) released Electricity 2024, Analysis and Forecast to 2026, forecasting electric power use.<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-01-24 |titleElectricity 2024 – Analysis |urlhttps://www.iea.org/reports/electricity-2024 |access-date2024-07-13 |websiteIEA}}</ref> This is the first IEA report to make projections for data centers and power consumption for artificial intelligence and cryptocurrency. The report states that power demand for these uses might double by 2026, with additional electric power usage equal to electricity used by the whole Japanese nation.<ref>{{Cite web |lastCalvert |firstBrian |date28 March 2024 |titleAI already uses as much energy as a small country. It's only the beginning. |urlhttps://www.vox.com/climate/2024/3/28/24111721/ai-uses-a-lot-of-energy-experts-expect-it-to-double-in-just-a-few-years |websiteVox |locationNew York, New York |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date3 July 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240703080555/https://www.vox.com/climate/2024/3/28/24111721/ai-uses-a-lot-of-energy-experts-expect-it-to-double-in-just-a-few-years |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Prodigious power consumption by AI is responsible for the growth of fossil fuels use, and might delay closings of obsolete, carbon-emitting coal energy facilities. There is a feverish rise in the construction of data centers throughout the US, making large technology firms (e.g., Microsoft, Meta, Google, Amazon) into voracious consumers of electric power. Projected electric consumption is so immense that there is concern that it will be fulfilled no matter the source. A ChatGPT search involves the use of 10 times the electrical energy as a Google search. The large firms are in haste to find power sources – from nuclear energy to geothermal to fusion. The tech firms argue that – in the long view – AI will be eventually kinder to the environment, but they need the energy now. AI makes the power grid more efficient and "intelligent", will assist in the growth of nuclear power, and track overall carbon emissions, according to technology firms.<ref>{{Cite news |last1Halper |first1Evan |last2O'Donovan |first2Caroline |date21 June 2024 |titleAI is exhausting the power grid. Tech firms are seeking a miracle solution. |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2024/06/21/artificial-intelligence-nuclear-fusion-climate/?utm_campaignwp_post_most&utm_mediumemail&utm_sourcenewsletter&wpisrcnl_most&carta-urlhttps%3A%2F%2Fs2.washingtonpost.com%2Fcar-ln-tr%2F3e0d678%2F6675a2d2c2c05472dd9ec0f4%2F596c09009bbc0f20865036e7%2F12%2F52%2F6675a2d2c2c05472dd9ec0f4 |newspaper=Washington Post}}</ref>
A 2024 Goldman Sachs Research Paper, AI Data Centers and the Coming US Power Demand Surge, found "US power demand (is) likely to experience growth not seen in a generation...." and forecasts that, by 2030, US data centers will consume 8% of US power, as opposed to 3% in 2022, presaging growth for the electrical power generation industry by a variety of means.<ref>{{Cite web |lastDavenport |firstCarly |titleAI Data Centers and the Coming YS Power Demand Surge |urlhttps://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/pages/gs-research/generational-growth-ai-data-centers-and-the-coming-us-power-surge/report.pdf |websiteGoldman Sachs |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date26 July 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240726080428/https://www.goldmansachs.com/intelligence/pages/gs-research/generational-growth-ai-data-centers-and-the-coming-us-power-surge/report.pdf |url-statusdead }}</ref> Data centers' need for more and more electrical power is such that they might max out the electrical grid. The Big Tech companies counter that AI can be used to maximize the utilization of the grid by all.<ref>{{Cite news |lastRyan |firstCarol |date12 April 2024 |titleEnergy-Guzzling AI Is Also the Future of Energy Savings |urlhttps://www.wsj.com/business/energy-oil/ai-data-centers-energy-savings-d602296e |workWall Street Journal |publisherDow Jones}}</ref>
In 2024, the Wall Street Journal reported that big AI companies have begun negotiations with the US nuclear power providers to provide electricity to the data centers. In March 2024 Amazon purchased a Pennsylvania nuclear-powered data center for $650 Million (US).<ref>{{Cite news |lastHiller |firstJennifer |date1 July 2024 |titleTech Industry Wants to Lock Up Nuclear Power for AI |urlhttps://www.wsj.com/business/energy-oil/tech-industry-wants-to-lock-up-nuclear-power-for-ai-6cb75316?moddjem10point |workWall Street Journal |publisherDow Jones |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005165650/https://www.wsj.com/business/energy-oil/tech-industry-wants-to-lock-up-nuclear-power-for-ai-6cb75316?moddjem10point |url-statuslive }}</ref> Nvidia CEO Jen-Hsun Huang said nuclear power is a good option for the data centers.<ref>{{Cite news |last1Kendall |first1Tyler |date28 September 2024 |titleNvidia's Huang Says Nuclear Power an Option to Feed Data Centers |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-09-27/nvidia-s-huang-says-nuclear-power-an-option-to-feed-data-centers |newspaper=Bloomberg}}</ref>
In September 2024, Microsoft announced an agreement with Constellation Energy to re-open the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant to provide Microsoft with 100% of all electric power produced by the plant for 20 years. Reopening the plant, which suffered a partial nuclear meltdown of its Unit 2 reactor in 1979, will require Constellation to get through strict regulatory processes which will include extensive safety scrutiny from the US Nuclear Regulatory Commission. If approved (this will be the first ever US re-commissioning of a nuclear plant), over 835 megawatts of power – enough for 800,000 homes – of energy will be produced. The cost for re-opening and upgrading is estimated at $1.6 billion (US) and is dependent on tax breaks for nuclear power contained in the 2022 US Inflation Reduction Act.<ref>{{Cite news |lastHalper |firstEvan |date20 September 2024 |titleMicrosoft deal would reopen Three Mile Island nuclear plant to power AI |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2024/09/20/microsoft-three-mile-island-nuclear-constellation |newspaperWashington Post}}</ref> The US government and the state of Michigan are investing almost $2 billion (US) to reopen the Palisades Nuclear reactor on Lake Michigan. Closed since 2022, the plant is planned to be reopened in October 2025. The Three Mile Island facility will be renamed the Crane Clean Energy Center after Chris Crane, a nuclear proponent and former CEO of Exelon who was responsible for Exelon spinoff of Constellation.<ref>{{Cite news |lastHiller |firstJennifer |date20 September 2024 |titleThree Mile Island's Nuclear Plant to Reopen, Help Power Microsoft's AI Centers |urlhttps://www.wsj.com/business/energy-oil/three-mile-islands-nuclear-plant-to-reopen-help-power-microsofts-ai-centers-aebfb3c8?modSearchresults_pos1&page1 |workWall Street Journal |publisherDow Jones |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170152/https://www.wsj.com/business/energy-oil/three-mile-islands-nuclear-plant-to-reopen-help-power-microsofts-ai-centers-aebfb3c8?modSearchresults_pos1&page1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
After the last approval in September 2023, Taiwan suspended the approval of data centers north of Taoyuan with a capacity of more than 5 MW in 2024, due to power supply shortages.<ref name"DatacenterDynamics">{{Cite news |authorNiva Yadav |date19 August 2024 |titleTaiwan to stop large data centers in the North, cites insufficient power |urlhttps://www.datacenterdynamics.com/en/news/taiwan-to-stop-large-data-centers-in-the-north-cites-insufficient-power/ |publisherDatacenterDynamics |archive-date8 November 2024 |access-date7 November 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241108213650/https://www.datacenterdynamics.com/en/news/taiwan-to-stop-large-data-centers-in-the-north-cites-insufficient-power/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Taiwan aims to phase out nuclear power by 2025.<ref name"DatacenterDynamics" /> On the other hand, Singapore imposed a ban on the opening of data centers in 2019 due to electric power, but in 2022, lifted this ban.<ref name"DatacenterDynamics" />
Although most nuclear plants in Japan have been shut down after the 2011 Fukushima nuclear accident, according to an October 2024 Bloomberg article in Japanese, cloud gaming services company Ubitus, in which Nvidia has a stake, is looking for land in Japan near nuclear power plant for a new data center for generative AI.<ref namebloombergjp>{{Cite news |last1Mochizuki |first1Takashi |last2Oda |first2Shoko |date18 October 2024 |titleエヌビディア出資の日本企業、原発近くでＡＩデータセンター新設検討 |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.co.jp/news/articles/2024-10-18/SLHGKKT0AFB400 |newspaperBloomberg |languageJapanese |archive-date8 November 2024 |access-date7 November 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241108213843/https://www.bloomberg.co.jp/news/articles/2024-10-18/SLHGKKT0AFB400 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Ubitus CEO Wesley Kuo said nuclear power plants are the most efficient, cheap and stable power for AI.<ref name=bloombergjp />
On 1 November 2024, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) rejected an application submitted by Talen Energy for approval to supply some electricity from the nuclear power station Susquehanna to Amazon's data center.<ref name"Bloomberg20241104">{{Cite news |authorNaureen S Malik and Will Wade |date5 November 2024 |titleNuclear-Hungry AI Campuses Need New Plan to Find Power Fast |urlhttps://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-11-04/nuclear-hungry-ai-campuses-need-new-strategy-to-find-power-fast |publisherBloomberg}}</ref>
According to the Commission Chairman Willie L. Phillips, it is a burden on the electricity grid as well as a significant cost shifting concern to households and other business sectors.<ref name"Bloomberg20241104" /> Misinformation
{{See also|YouTube#Moderation and offensive content}}
YouTube, Facebook and others use recommender systems to guide users to more content. These AI programs were given the goal of maximizing user engagement (that is, the only goal was to keep people watching). The AI learned that users tended to choose misinformation, conspiracy theories, and extreme partisan content, and, to keep them watching, the AI recommended more of it. Users also tended to watch more content on the same subject, so the AI led people into filter bubbles where they received multiple versions of the same misinformation.{{Sfnp|Nicas|2018}} This convinced many users that the misinformation was true, and ultimately undermined trust in institutions, the media and the government.<ref>{{Cite web |last1Rainie |first1Lee |last2Keeter |first2Scott |last3Perrin |first3Andrew |dateJuly 22, 2019 |titleTrust and Distrust in America |urlhttps://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/07/22/trust-and-distrust-in-america |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240222000601/https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2019/07/22/trust-and-distrust-in-america |archive-dateFeb 22, 2024 |websitePew Research Center}}</ref> The AI program had correctly learned to maximize its goal, but the result was harmful to society. After the U.S. election in 2016, major technology companies took steps to mitigate the problem {{Citation needed|reasonThis assertion is not obviously supported by other information on this page|date=June 2024}}.
In 2022, generative AI began to create images, audio, video and text that are indistinguishable from real photographs, recordings, films, or human writing. It is possible for bad actors to use this technology to create massive amounts of misinformation or propaganda.{{Sfnp|Williams|2023}} AI pioneer Geoffrey Hinton expressed concern about AI enabling "authoritarian leaders to manipulate their electorates" on a large scale, among other risks.{{Sfnp|Taylor|Hern|2023}}
Algorithmic bias and fairness
{{Main|Algorithmic bias|Fairness (machine learning)}}
Machine learning applications will be biased{{Efn|In statistics, a bias is a systematic error or deviation from the correct value. But in the context of fairness, it refers to a tendency in favor or against a certain group or individual characteristic, usually in a way that is considered unfair or harmful. A statistically unbiased AI system that produces disparate outcomes for different demographic groups may thus be viewed as biased in the ethical sense.<ref name"Samuel-2022"/>}} if they learn from biased data.{{Sfnp|Rose|2023}} The developers may not be aware that the bias exists.{{Sfnp|CNA|2019}} Bias can be introduced by the way training data is selected and by the way a model is deployed.{{Sfnp|Goffrey|2008|p17}}{{Sfnp|Rose|2023}} If a biased algorithm is used to make decisions that can seriously harm people (as it can in medicine, finance, recruitment, housing or policing) then the algorithm may cause discrimination.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Berdahl|Baker|Mann|Osoba|2023}}; {{Harvtxt|Goffrey|2008|p17}}; {{Harvtxt|Rose|2023}}; {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p995}}</ref> The field of fairness studies how to prevent harms from algorithmic biases.
On June 28, 2015, Google Photos's new image labeling feature mistakenly identified Jacky Alcine and a friend as "gorillas" because they were black. The system was trained on a dataset that contained very few images of black people,{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|p25}} a problem called "sample size disparity".{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p995}} Google "fixed" this problem by preventing the system from labelling anything as a "gorilla". Eight years later, in 2023, Google Photos still could not identify a gorilla, and neither could similar products from Apple, Facebook, Microsoft and Amazon.{{Sfnp|Grant|Hill|2023}}
COMPAS is a commercial program widely used by U.S. courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant becoming a recidivist. In 2016, Julia Angwin at ProPublica discovered that COMPAS exhibited racial bias, despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants. Although the error rate for both whites and blacks was calibrated equal at exactly 61%, the errors for each race were different—the system consistently overestimated the chance that a black person would re-offend and would underestimate the chance that a white person would not re-offend.{{Sfnp|Larson|Angwin|2016}} In 2017, several researchers{{Efn|Including Jon Kleinberg (Cornell University), Sendhil Mullainathan (University of Chicago), Cynthia Chouldechova (Carnegie Mellon) and Sam Corbett-Davis (Stanford){{Sfnp|Christian|2020|p67–70}}}} showed that it was mathematically impossible for COMPAS to accommodate all possible measures of fairness when the base rates of re-offense were different for whites and blacks in the data.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Christian|2020|pp67–70}}; {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=993–994}}</ref>
A program can make biased decisions even if the data does not explicitly mention a problematic feature (such as "race" or "gender"). The feature will correlate with other features (like "address", "shopping history" or "first name"), and the program will make the same decisions based on these features as it would on "race" or "gender".<ref>{{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p995}}; {{Harvtxt|Lipartito|2011|p36}}; {{Harvtxt|Goodman|Flaxman|2017|p6}}; {{Harvtxt|Christian|2020|pp39–40, 65}}</ref> Moritz Hardt said "the most robust fact in this research area is that fairness through blindness doesn't work."<ref>Quoted in {{Harvtxt|Christian|2020|p=65}}.</ref>
Criticism of COMPAS highlighted that machine learning models are designed to make "predictions" that are only valid if we assume that the future will resemble the past. If they are trained on data that includes the results of racist decisions in the past, machine learning models must predict that racist decisions will be made in the future. If an application then uses these predictions as recommendations, some of these "recommendations" will likely be racist.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p994}}; {{Harvtxt|Christian|2020|pp40, 80–81}}</ref> Thus, machine learning is not well suited to help make decisions in areas where there is hope that the future will be better than the past. It is descriptive rather than prescriptive.{{Efn|Moritz Hardt (a director at the Max Planck Institute for Intelligent Systems) argues that machine learning "is fundamentally the wrong tool for a lot of domains, where you're trying to design interventions and mechanisms that change the world."<ref>Quoted in {{Harvtxt|Christian|2020|p=80}}</ref>}}
Bias and unfairness may go undetected because the developers are overwhelmingly white and male: among AI engineers, about 4% are black and 20% are women.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=995}}
There are various conflicting definitions and mathematical models of fairness. These notions depend on ethical assumptions, and are influenced by beliefs about society. One broad category is distributive fairness, which focuses on the outcomes, often identifying groups and seeking to compensate for statistical disparities. Representational fairness tries to ensure that AI systems do not reinforce negative stereotypes or render certain groups invisible. Procedural fairness focuses on the decision process rather than the outcome. The most relevant notions of fairness may depend on the context, notably the type of AI application and the stakeholders. The subjectivity in the notions of bias and fairness makes it difficult for companies to operationalize them. Having access to sensitive attributes such as race or gender is also considered by many AI ethicists to be necessary in order to compensate for biases, but it may conflict with anti-discrimination laws.<ref name"Samuel-2022">{{Cite web |lastSamuel |firstSigal |date2022-04-19 |titleWhy it's so damn hard to make AI fair and unbiased |urlhttps://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22916602/ai-bias-fairness-tradeoffs-artificial-intelligence |access-date2024-07-24 |websiteVox |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170153/https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/22916602/ai-bias-fairness-tradeoffs-artificial-intelligence |url-status=live }}</ref>
At its 2022 Conference on Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency (ACM FAccT 2022), the Association for Computing Machinery, in Seoul, South Korea, presented and published findings that recommend that until AI and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes, they are unsafe, and the use of self-learning neural networks trained on vast, unregulated sources of flawed internet data should be curtailed.{{Dubious|dateJuly 2024|reasonDepending on what is meant by "free of bias", it may be impossible in practice to demonstrate it. Additionally, the study evaluates the priors (initial assumptions) of the robots, rather than their decision-making in scenarios where there is a correct choice. For example, it may not be sexist to have the prior that most doctors are males (it's actually an accurate statistical prior in the world we currently live in, so the bias may arguably be to not have this prior). If forced to choose which one is the doctor based solely on gender, a rational person seeking to maximize the number of correct answers would choose the man 100% of the time. The real issue arises when such priors lead to significant discrimination.}}{{Sfnp|Dockrill|2022}}
Lack of transparency
{{See also|Explainable AI|Algorithmic transparency|Right to explanation}}
Many AI systems are so complex that their designers cannot explain how they reach their decisions.{{Sfnp|Sample|2017}} Particularly with deep neural networks, in which there are a large amount of non-linear relationships between inputs and outputs. But some popular explainability techniques exist.<ref>{{Cite web |date16 June 2023 |titleBlack Box AI |urlhttps://www.techopedia.com/definition/34940/black-box-ai |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date15 June 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240615100800/https://www.techopedia.com/definition/34940/black-box-ai |url-status=live }}</ref>
It is impossible to be certain that a program is operating correctly if no one knows how exactly it works. There have been many cases where a machine learning program passed rigorous tests, but nevertheless learned something different than what the programmers intended. For example, a system that could identify skin diseases better than medical professionals was found to actually have a strong tendency to classify images with a ruler as "cancerous", because pictures of malignancies typically include a ruler to show the scale.{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|p110}} Another machine learning system designed to help effectively allocate medical resources was found to classify patients with asthma as being at "low risk" of dying from pneumonia. Having asthma is actually a severe risk factor, but since the patients having asthma would usually get much more medical care, they were relatively unlikely to die according to the training data. The correlation between asthma and low risk of dying from pneumonia was real, but misleading.{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|pp88–91}}
People who have been harmed by an algorithm's decision have a right to an explanation.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Christian|2020|p83}}; {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p997}}</ref> Doctors, for example, are expected to clearly and completely explain to their colleagues the reasoning behind any decision they make. Early drafts of the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation in 2016 included an explicit statement that this right exists.{{Efn|When the law was passed in 2018, it still contained a form of this provision.}} Industry experts noted that this is an unsolved problem with no solution in sight. Regulators argued that nevertheless the harm is real: if the problem has no solution, the tools should not be used.{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|p=91}}
DARPA established the XAI ("Explainable Artificial Intelligence") program in 2014 to try to solve these problems.{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|p=83}}
Several approaches aim to address the transparency problem. SHAP enables to visualise the contribution of each feature to the output.{{Sfnp|Verma|2021}} LIME can locally approximate a model's outputs with a simpler, interpretable model.{{Sfnp|Rothman|2020}} Multitask learning provides a large number of outputs in addition to the target classification. These other outputs can help developers deduce what the network has learned.{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|pp105–108}} Deconvolution, DeepDream and other generative methods can allow developers to see what different layers of a deep network for computer vision have learned, and produce output that can suggest what the network is learning.{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|pp108–112}} For generative pre-trained transformers, Anthropic developed a technique based on dictionary learning that associates patterns of neuron activations with human-understandable concepts.<ref>{{Cite web |lastRopek |firstLucas |date2024-05-21 |titleNew Anthropic Research Sheds Light on AI's 'Black Box' |urlhttps://gizmodo.com/new-anthropic-research-sheds-light-on-ais-black-box-1851491333 |access-date2024-05-23 |websiteGizmodo |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170309/https://gizmodo.com/new-anthropic-research-sheds-light-on-ais-black-box-1851491333 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Bad actors and weaponized AI
{{Main|Lethal autonomous weapon|Artificial intelligence arms race|AI safety}}
Artificial intelligence provides a number of tools that are useful to bad actors, such as authoritarian governments, terrorists, criminals or rogue states.
A lethal autonomous weapon is a machine that locates, selects and engages human targets without human supervision.{{Efn|This is the United Nations' definition, and includes things like land mines as well.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p989}}}} Widely available AI tools can be used by bad actors to develop inexpensive autonomous weapons and, if produced at scale, they are potentially weapons of mass destruction.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp987–990}} Even when used in conventional warfare, they currently cannot reliably choose targets and could potentially kill an innocent person.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp987–990}} In 2014, 30 nations (including China) supported a ban on autonomous weapons under the United Nations' Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons, however the United States and others disagreed.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p988}} By 2015, over fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Robitzski|2018}}; {{Harvtxt|Sainato|2015}}</ref>
AI tools make it easier for authoritarian governments to efficiently control their citizens in several ways. Face and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance. Machine learning, operating this data, can classify potential enemies of the state and prevent them from hiding. Recommendation systems can precisely target propaganda and misinformation for maximum effect. Deepfakes and generative AI aid in producing misinformation. Advanced AI can make authoritarian centralized decision making more competitive than liberal and decentralized systems such as markets. It lowers the cost and difficulty of digital warfare and advanced spyware.{{Sfnp|Harari|2018}} All these technologies have been available since 2020 or earlier—AI facial recognition systems are already being used for mass surveillance in China.<ref>{{Cite news |last1Buckley |first1Chris |last2Mozur |first2Paul |date22 May 2019 |titleHow China Uses High-Tech Surveillance to Subdue Minorities |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/22/world/asia/china-surveillance-xinjiang.html |workThe New York Times |access-date2 July 2019 |archive-date25 November 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191125180459/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/22/world/asia/china-surveillance-xinjiang.html |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date3 May 2019 |titleSecurity lapse exposed a Chinese smart city surveillance system |urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2019/05/03/china-smart-city-exposed |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210307203740/https://consent.yahoo.com/v2/collectConsent?sessionId3_cc-session_c8562b93-9863-4915-8523-6c7b930a3efc |archive-date7 March 2021 |access-date14 September 2020}}</ref>
There many other ways that AI is expected to help bad actors, some of which can not be foreseen. For example, machine-learning AI is able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of hours.{{Sfnp|Urbina|Lentzos|Invernizzi|Ekins|2022}}
Technological unemployment
{{Main|Workplace impact of artificial intelligence|Technological unemployment}}
Economists have frequently highlighted the risks of redundancies from AI, and speculated about unemployment if there is no adequate social policy for full employment.<ref name"E">E. McGaughey, 'Will Robots Automate Your Job Away? Full Employment, Basic Income, and Economic Democracy' (2022), [https://academic.oup.com/ilj/article/51/3/511/6321008 51(3) Industrial Law Journal 511–559]. {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230527163045/https://academic.oup.com/ilj/article/51/3/511/6321008|date=27 May 2023}}.</ref>
<!-- TOPIC: ESTIMATES OF THE AMOUNT OF UNEMPLOYMENT -->
In the past, technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment, but economists acknowledge that "we're in uncharted territory" with AI.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Ford|Colvin|2015}};{{Harvtxt|McGaughey|2022}}</ref> A survey of economists showed disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and AI will cause a substantial increase in long-term unemployment, but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if productivity gains are redistributed.{{Sfnp|IGM Chicago|2017}} Risk estimates vary; for example, in the 2010s, Michael Osborne and Carl Benedikt Frey estimated 47% of U.S. jobs are at "high risk" of potential automation, while an OECD report classified only 9% of U.S. jobs as "high risk".{{Efn|See table 4; 9% is both the OECD average and the U.S. average.{{Sfnp|Arntz|Gregory|Zierahn|2016|p33}}}}<ref>{{Harvtxt|Lohr|2017}}; {{Harvtxt|Frey|Osborne|2017}}; {{Harvtxt|Arntz|Gregory|Zierahn|2016|p33}}</ref> The methodology of speculating about future employment levels has been criticised as lacking evidential foundation, and for implying that technology, rather than social policy, creates unemployment, as opposed to redundancies.<ref name"E"/> In April 2023, it was reported that 70% of the jobs for Chinese video game illustrators had been eliminated by generative artificial intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web |lastZhou |firstViola |date2023-04-11 |titleAI is already taking video game illustrators' jobs in China |urlhttps://restofworld.org/2023/ai-image-china-video-game-layoffs |access-date2023-08-17 |websiteRest of World |archive-date21 February 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240221131748/https://restofworld.org/2023/ai-image-china-video-game-layoffs/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastCarter |firstJustin |date2023-04-11 |titleChina's game art industry reportedly decimated by growing AI use |urlhttps://www.gamedeveloper.com/art/china-s-game-art-industry-reportedly-decimated-ai-art-use |access-date2023-08-17 |websiteGame Developer |archive-date17 August 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230817010519/https://www.gamedeveloper.com/art/china-s-game-art-industry-reportedly-decimated-ai-art-use |url-status=live }}</ref>
<!-- TOPIC: WHICH JOBS ARE AT RISK? -->
Unlike previous waves of automation, many middle-class jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence; The Economist stated in 2015 that "the worry that AI could do to white-collar jobs what steam power did to blue-collar ones during the Industrial Revolution" is "worth taking seriously".{{Sfnp|Morgenstern|2015}} Jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks, while job demand is likely to increase for care-related professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Mahdawi|2017}}; {{Harvtxt|Thompson|2014}}</ref>
From the early days of the development of artificial intelligence, there have been arguments, for example, those put forward by Joseph Weizenbaum, about whether tasks that can be done by computers actually should be done by them, given the difference between computers and humans, and between quantitative calculation and qualitative, value-based judgement.<ref>{{Cite news |lastTarnoff |firstBen |date4 August 2023 |titleLessons from Eliza |workThe Guardian Weekly |pages34–39}}</ref>
Existential risk
{{Main|Existential risk from artificial intelligence}}
It has been argued AI will become so powerful that humanity may irreversibly lose control of it. This could, as physicist Stephen Hawking stated, "spell the end of the human race".{{Sfnp|Cellan-Jones|2014}} This scenario has been common in science fiction, when a computer or robot suddenly develops a human-like "self-awareness" (or "sentience" or "consciousness") and becomes a malevolent character.{{Efn|Sometimes called a "robopocalypse"{{Sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=1001}}}} These sci-fi scenarios are misleading in several ways.
First, AI does not require human-like sentience to be an existential risk. Modern AI programs are given specific goals and use learning and intelligence to achieve them. Philosopher Nick Bostrom argued that if one gives almost any goal to a sufficiently powerful AI, it may choose to destroy humanity to achieve it (he used the example of a paperclip factory manager).{{Sfnp|Bostrom|2014}} Stuart Russell gives the example of household robot that tries to find a way to kill its owner to prevent it from being unplugged, reasoning that "you can't fetch the coffee if you're dead."{{Sfnp|Russell|2019}} In order to be safe for humanity, a superintelligence would have to be genuinely aligned with humanity's morality and values so that it is "fundamentally on our side".<ref>{{Harvtxt|Bostrom|2014}}; {{Harvtxt|Müller|Bostrom|2014}}; {{Harvtxt|Bostrom|2015}}.</ref>
Second, Yuval Noah Harari argues that AI does not require a robot body or physical control to pose an existential risk. The essential parts of civilization are not physical. Things like ideologies, law, government, money and the economy are built on language; they exist because there are stories that billions of people believe. The current prevalence of misinformation suggests that an AI could use language to convince people to believe anything, even to take actions that are destructive.{{Sfnp|Harari|2023}}
<!-- Warnings of existential risk -->
The opinions amongst experts and industry insiders are mixed, with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent AI.{{Sfnp|Müller|Bostrom|2014}} Personalities such as Stephen Hawking, Bill Gates, and Elon Musk,<ref>Leaders' concerns about the existential risks of AI around 2015: {{Harvtxt|Rawlinson|2015}}, {{Harvtxt|Holley|2015}}, {{Harvtxt|Gibbs|2014}}, {{Harvtxt|Sainato|2015}}</ref> as well as AI pioneers such as Yoshua Bengio, Stuart Russell, Demis Hassabis, and Sam Altman, have expressed concerns about existential risk from AI.
In May 2023, Geoffrey Hinton announced his resignation from Google in order to be able to "freely speak out about the risks of AI" without "considering how this impacts Google".<ref>{{Cite news |date25 March 2023 |title"Godfather of artificial intelligence" talks impact and potential of new AI |urlhttps://www.cbsnews.com/video/godfather-of-artificial-intelligence-talks-impact-and-potential-of-new-ai |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230328225221/https://www.cbsnews.com/video/godfather-of-artificial-intelligence-talks-impact-and-potential-of-new-ai |archive-date28 March 2023 |access-date2023-03-28 |workCBS News}}</ref> He notably mentioned risks of an AI takeover,<ref>{{Cite news |lastPittis |firstDon |dateMay 4, 2023 |titleCanadian artificial intelligence leader Geoffrey Hinton piles on fears of computer takeover |urlhttps://www.cbc.ca/news/business/ai-doom-column-don-pittis-1.6829302 |workCBC |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date7 July 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240707032135/https://www.cbc.ca/news/business/ai-doom-column-don-pittis-1.6829302 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and stressed that in order to avoid the worst outcomes, establishing safety guidelines will require cooperation among those competing in use of AI.<ref>{{Cite web |date2024-06-14 |title'50–50 chance' that AI outsmarts humanity, Geoffrey Hinton says |urlhttps://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/50-50-chance-that-ai-outsmarts-humanity-geoffrey-hinton-says-1.2085394 |access-date2024-07-06 |websiteBloomberg BNN |archive-date14 June 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240614144506/https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/50-50-chance-that-ai-outsmarts-humanity-geoffrey-hinton-says-1.2085394 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
In 2023, many leading AI experts endorsed the joint statement that "Mitigating the risk of extinction from AI should be a global priority alongside other societal-scale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war".{{Sfnp|Valance|2023}}
<!-- Arguments against existential risk -->
Some other researchers were more optimistic. AI pioneer Jürgen Schmidhuber did not sign the joint statement, emphasising that in 95% of all cases, AI research is about making "human lives longer and healthier and easier."<ref>{{Cite news |lastTaylor |firstJosh |date7 May 2023 |titleRise of artificial intelligence is inevitable but should not be feared, 'father of AI' says |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/may/07/rise-of-artificial-intelligence-is-inevitable-but-should-not-be-feared-father-of-ai-says |access-date26 May 2023 |workThe Guardian |archive-date23 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231023061228/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/may/07/rise-of-artificial-intelligence-is-inevitable-but-should-not-be-feared-father-of-ai-says |url-statuslive }}</ref> While the tools that are now being used to improve lives can also be used by bad actors, "they can also be used against the bad actors."<ref>{{Cite news |lastColton |firstEmma |date7 May 2023 |title'Father of AI' says tech fears misplaced: 'You cannot stop it' |urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/tech/father-ai-jurgen-schmidhuber-says-tech-fears-misplaced-cannot-stop |access-date26 May 2023 |workFox News |archive-date26 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230526162642/https://www.foxnews.com/tech/father-ai-jurgen-schmidhuber-says-tech-fears-misplaced-cannot-stop |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |lastJones |firstHessie |date23 May 2023 |titleJuergen Schmidhuber, Renowned 'Father Of Modern AI,' Says His Life's Work Won't Lead To Dystopia |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/hessiejones/2023/05/23/juergen-schmidhuber-renowned-father-of-modern-ai-says-his-lifes-work-wont-lead-to-dystopia |access-date26 May 2023 |workForbes |archive-date26 May 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230526163102/https://www.forbes.com/sites/hessiejones/2023/05/23/juergen-schmidhuber-renowned-father-of-modern-ai-says-his-lifes-work-wont-lead-to-dystopia/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Andrew Ng also argued that "it's a mistake to fall for the doomsday hype on AI—and that regulators who do will only benefit vested interests."<ref>{{Cite news |lastMcMorrow |firstRyan |date19 Dec 2023 |titleAndrew Ng: 'Do we think the world is better off with more or less intelligence?' |urlhttps://www.ft.com/content/2dc07f9e-d2a9-4d98-b746-b051f9352be3 |access-date30 Dec 2023 |workFinancial Times |archive-date25 January 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240125014121/https://www.ft.com/content/2dc07f9e-d2a9-4d98-b746-b051f9352be3 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Yann LeCun "scoffs at his peers' dystopian scenarios of supercharged misinformation and even, eventually, human extinction."<ref>{{Cite magazine |lastLevy |firstSteven |date22 Dec 2023 |titleHow Not to Be Stupid About AI, With Yann LeCun |urlhttps://www.wired.com/story/artificial-intelligence-meta-yann-lecun-interview |access-date30 Dec 2023 |magazineWired |archive-date28 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231228152443/https://www.wired.com/story/artificial-intelligence-meta-yann-lecun-interview/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> In the early 2010s, experts argued that the risks are too distant in the future to warrant research or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent machine.<ref>Arguments that AI is not an imminent risk: {{Harvtxt|Brooks|2014}}, {{Harvtxt|Geist|2015}}, {{Harvtxt|Madrigal|2015}}, {{Harvtxt|Lee|2014}}</ref> However, after 2016, the study of current and future risks and possible solutions became a serious area of research.{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|pp67, 73}} Ethical machines and alignment
{{Main|Machine ethics|AI safety|Friendly artificial intelligence|Artificial moral agents|Human Compatible}}
Friendly AI are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make choices that benefit humans. Eliezer Yudkowsky, who coined the term, argues that developing friendly AI should be a higher research priority: it may require a large investment and it must be completed before AI becomes an existential risk.{{Sfnp|Yudkowsky|2008}}
Machines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions. The field of machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical dilemmas.{{Sfnp|Anderson|Anderson|2011}}
The field of machine ethics is also called computational morality,{{Sfnp|Anderson|Anderson|2011}}
and was founded at an AAAI symposium in 2005.{{Sfnp|AAAI|2014}}
Other approaches include Wendell Wallach's "artificial moral agents"{{Sfnp|Wallach|2010}} and Stuart J. Russell's three principles for developing provably beneficial machines.{{Sfnp|Russell|2019|p173}} Open source Active organizations in the AI open-source community include Hugging Face,<ref>{{Cite web |last1Stewart |first1Ashley |last2Melton |first2Monica |titleHugging Face CEO says he's focused on building a 'sustainable model' for the $4.5 billion open-source-AI startup |urlhttps://www.businessinsider.com/hugging-face-open-source-ai-approach-2023-12 |access-date2024-04-14 |websiteBusiness Insider |archive-date25 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240925013220/https://www.businessinsider.com/hugging-face-open-source-ai-approach-2023-12 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Google,<ref>{{Cite web |lastWiggers |firstKyle |date2024-04-09 |titleGoogle open sources tools to support AI model development |urlhttps://techcrunch.com/2024/04/09/google-open-sources-tools-to-support-ai-model-development |access-date2024-04-14 |websiteTechCrunch |archive-date10 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240910112401/https://techcrunch.com/2024/04/09/google-open-sources-tools-to-support-ai-model-development/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> EleutherAI and Meta.<ref>{{Cite web |lastHeaven |firstWill Douglas |dateMay 12, 2023 |titleThe open-source AI boom is built on Big Tech's handouts. How long will it last? |urlhttps://www.technologyreview.com/2023/05/12/1072950/open-source-ai-google-openai-eleuther-meta |access-date2024-04-14 |websiteMIT Technology Review}}</ref> Various AI models, such as Llama 2, Mistral or Stable Diffusion, have been made open-weight,<ref>{{Cite news |lastBrodsky |firstSascha |dateDecember 19, 2023 |titleMistral AI's New Language Model Aims for Open Source Supremacy |urlhttps://aibusiness.com/nlp/mistral-ai-s-new-language-model-aims-for-open-source-supremacy |workAI Business |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240905212607/https://aibusiness.com/nlp/mistral-ai-s-new-language-model-aims-for-open-source-supremacy |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastEdwards |firstBenj |date2024-02-22 |titleStability announces Stable Diffusion 3, a next-gen AI image generator |urlhttps://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2024/02/stability-announces-stable-diffusion-3-a-next-gen-ai-image-generator |access-date2024-04-14 |websiteArs Technica |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170201/https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2024/02/stability-announces-stable-diffusion-3-a-next-gen-ai-image-generator/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> meaning that their architecture and trained parameters (the "weights") are publicly available. Open-weight models can be freely fine-tuned, which allows companies to specialize them with their own data and for their own use-case.<ref>{{Cite news |lastMarshall |firstMatt |dateJanuary 29, 2024 |titleHow enterprises are using open source LLMs: 16 examples |urlhttps://venturebeat.com/ai/how-enterprises-are-using-open-source-llms-16-examples |workVentureBeat |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date26 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240926171131/https://venturebeat.com/ai/how-enterprises-are-using-open-source-llms-16-examples/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Open-weight models are useful for research and innovation but can also be misused. Since they can be fine-tuned, any built-in security measure, such as objecting to harmful requests, can be trained away until it becomes ineffective. Some researchers warn that future AI models may develop dangerous capabilities (such as the potential to drastically facilitate bioterrorism) and that once released on the Internet, they cannot be deleted everywhere if needed. They recommend pre-release audits and cost-benefit analyses.<ref>{{Cite web |lastPiper |firstKelsey |date2024-02-02 |titleShould we make our most powerful AI models open source to all? |urlhttps://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2024/2/2/24058484/open-source-artificial-intelligence-ai-risk-meta-llama-2-chatgpt-openai-deepfake |access-date2024-04-14 |websiteVox |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170204/https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/2024/2/2/24058484/open-source-artificial-intelligence-ai-risk-meta-llama-2-chatgpt-openai-deepfake |url-statuslive }}</ref> Frameworks Artificial Intelligence projects can be guided by ethical considerations during the design, development, and implementation of an AI system. An AI framework such as the Care and Act Framework, developed by the Alan Turing Institute and based on the SUM values, outlines four main ethical dimensions, defined as follows:<ref>{{Cite web |authorAlan Turing Institute |date2019 |titleUnderstanding artificial intelligence ethics and safety |urlhttps://www.turing.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2019-06/understanding_artificial_intelligence_ethics_and_safety.pdf |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date11 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240911131935/https://www.turing.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2019-06/understanding_artificial_intelligence_ethics_and_safety.pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |authorAlan Turing Institute |date2023 |titleAI Ethics and Governance in Practice |urlhttps://www.turing.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2023-12/aieg-ati-ai-ethics-an-intro_1.pdf |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date11 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240911125504/https://www.turing.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2023-12/aieg-ati-ai-ethics-an-intro_1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
* Respect the dignity of individual people
* Connect with other people sincerely, openly, and inclusively
* Care for the wellbeing of everyone
* Protect social values, justice, and the public interest
Other developments in ethical frameworks include those decided upon during the Asilomar Conference, the Montreal Declaration for Responsible AI, and the IEEE's Ethics of Autonomous Systems initiative, among others;<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Floridi |first1Luciano |last2Cowls |first2Josh |date2019-06-23 |titleA Unified Framework of Five Principles for AI in Society |urlhttps://hdsr.mitpress.mit.edu/pub/l0jsh9d1 |journalHarvard Data Science Review |volume1 |issue1 |doi10.1162/99608f92.8cd550d1 |s2cid198775713 |doi-accessfree |archive-date7 August 2019 |access-date5 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://archive.today/20190807202909/https://hdsr.mitpress.mit.edu/pub/l0jsh9d1 |url-statuslive }}</ref> however, these principles are not without criticism, especially regards to the people chosen to contribute to these frameworks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Buruk |first1Banu |last2Ekmekci |first2Perihan Elif |last3Arda |first3Berna |date2020-09-01 |titleA critical perspective on guidelines for responsible and trustworthy artificial intelligence |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11019-020-09948-1 |journalMedicine, Health Care and Philosophy |volume23 |issue3 |pages387–399 |doi10.1007/s11019-020-09948-1 |issn1572-8633 |pmid32236794 |s2cid214766800 |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170206/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11019-020-09948-1 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Promotion of the wellbeing of the people and communities that these technologies affect requires consideration of the social and ethical implications at all stages of AI system design, development and implementation, and collaboration between job roles such as data scientists, product managers, data engineers, domain experts, and delivery managers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1Kamila |first1Manoj Kumar |last2Jasrotia |first2Sahil Singh |date2023-01-01 |titleEthical issues in the development of artificial intelligence: recognizing the risks |urlhttps://doi.org/10.1108/IJOES-05-2023-0107 |journalInternational Journal of Ethics and Systems |pages45–63 |volume41 |issueahead-of-print |doi10.1108/IJOES-05-2023-0107 |issn2514-9369 |s2cid259614124 |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170207/https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/IJOES-05-2023-0107/full/html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
The UK AI Safety Institute released in 2024 a testing toolset called 'Inspect' for AI safety evaluations available under a MIT open-source licence which is freely available on GitHub and can be improved with third-party packages. It can be used to evaluate AI models in a range of areas including core knowledge, ability to reason, and autonomous capabilities.<ref>{{Cite web |date10 May 2024 |titleAI Safety Institute releases new AI safety evaluations platform |urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/news/ai-safety-institute-releases-new-ai-safety-evaluations-platform |access-date14 May 2024 |publisherUK Government |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170207/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/ai-safety-institute-releases-new-ai-safety-evaluations-platform |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Regulation
{{Main|Regulation of artificial intelligence|Regulation of algorithms|AI safety}}
was held in the United Kingdom in November 2023 with a declaration calling for international cooperation.]]
The regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating AI; it is therefore related to the broader regulation of algorithms.<ref>Regulation of AI to mitigate risks: {{Harvtxt|Berryhill|Heang|Clogher|McBride|2019}}, {{Harvtxt|Barfield|Pagallo|2018}}, {{Harvtxt|Iphofen|Kritikos|2019}}, {{Harvtxt|Wirtz|Weyerer|Geyer|2018}}, {{Harvtxt|Buiten|2019}}</ref> The regulatory and policy landscape for AI is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally.{{Sfnp|Law Library of Congress (U.S.). Global Legal Research Directorate|2019}} According to AI Index at Stanford, the annual number of AI-related laws passed in the 127 survey countries jumped from one passed in 2016 to 37 passed in 2022 alone.{{Sfnp|Vincent|2023}}{{Sfnp|Stanford University|2023}} Between 2016 and 2020, more than 30 countries adopted dedicated strategies for AI.{{Sfnp|UNESCO|2021}} Most EU member states had released national AI strategies, as had Canada, China, India, Japan, Mauritius, the Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, U.S., and Vietnam. Others were in the process of elaborating their own AI strategy, including Bangladesh, Malaysia and Tunisia.{{Sfnp|UNESCO|2021}} The Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence was launched in June 2020, stating a need for AI to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic values, to ensure public confidence and trust in the technology.{{Sfnp|UNESCO|2021}} Henry Kissinger, Eric Schmidt, and Daniel Huttenlocher published a joint statement in November 2021 calling for a government commission to regulate AI.{{Sfnp|Kissinger|2021}} In 2023, OpenAI leaders published recommendations for the governance of superintelligence, which they believe may happen in less than 10 years.{{Sfnp|Altman|Brockman|Sutskever |2023}} In 2023, the United Nations also launched an advisory body to provide recommendations on AI governance; the body comprises technology company executives, governments officials and academics.<ref>{{Cite web |lastVOA News |dateOctober 25, 2023 |titleUN Announces Advisory Body on Artificial Intelligence |urlhttps://www.voanews.com/a/un-announces-advisory-body-on-artificial-intelligence-/7328732.html |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date18 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240918071530/https://www.voanews.com/a/un-announces-advisory-body-on-artificial-intelligence-/7328732.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> In 2024, the Council of Europe created the first international legally binding treaty on AI, called the "Framework Convention on Artificial Intelligence and Human Rights, Democracy and the Rule of Law". It was adopted by the European Union, the United States, the United Kingdom, and other signatories.<ref>{{Cite web |date5 September 2024 |titleCouncil of Europe opens first ever global treaty on AI for signature |urlhttps://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/council-of-europe-opens-first-ever-global-treaty-on-ai-for-signature |access-date2024-09-17 |websiteCouncil of Europe |archive-date17 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240917001330/https://www.coe.int/en/web/portal/-/council-of-europe-opens-first-ever-global-treaty-on-ai-for-signature |url-statuslive }}</ref>
In a 2022 Ipsos survey, attitudes towards AI varied greatly by country; 78% of Chinese citizens, but only 35% of Americans, agreed that "products and services using AI have more benefits than drawbacks".{{Sfnp|Vincent|2023}} A 2023 Reuters/Ipsos poll found that 61% of Americans agree, and 22% disagree, that AI poses risks to humanity.{{Sfnp|Edwards|2023}} In a 2023 Fox News poll, 35% of Americans thought it "very important", and an additional 41% thought it "somewhat important", for the federal government to regulate AI, versus 13% responding "not very important" and 8% responding "not at all important".{{Sfnp|Kasperowicz|2023}}{{Sfnp|Fox News|2023}}
In November 2023, the first global AI Safety Summit was held in Bletchley Park in the UK to discuss the near and far term risks of AI and the possibility of mandatory and voluntary regulatory frameworks.<ref>{{Cite news |lastMilmo |firstDan |date3 November 2023 |titleHope or Horror? The great AI debate dividing its pioneers |workThe Guardian Weekly |pages10–12}}</ref> 28 countries including the United States, China, and the European Union issued a declaration at the start of the summit, calling for international co-operation to manage the challenges and risks of artificial intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web |date1 November 2023 |titleThe Bletchley Declaration by Countries Attending the AI Safety Summit, 1–2 November 2023 |urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ai-safety-summit-2023-the-bletchley-declaration/the-bletchley-declaration-by-countries-attending-the-ai-safety-summit-1-2-november-2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231101123904/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ai-safety-summit-2023-the-bletchley-declaration/the-bletchley-declaration-by-countries-attending-the-ai-safety-summit-1-2-november-2023 |archive-date1 November 2023 |access-date2 November 2023 |websiteGOV.UK}}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release |titleCountries agree to safe and responsible development of frontier AI in landmark Bletchley Declaration |urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/news/countries-agree-to-safe-and-responsible-development-of-frontier-ai-in-landmark-bletchley-declaration |access-date1 November 2023 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231101115016/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/countries-agree-to-safe-and-responsible-development-of-frontier-ai-in-landmark-bletchley-declaration |archive-date1 November 2023 |websiteGOV.UK}}</ref> In May 2024 at the AI Seoul Summit, 16 global AI tech companies agreed to safety commitments on the development of AI.<ref>{{Cite web |date21 May 2024 |titleSecond global AI summit secures safety commitments from companies |urlhttps://www.reuters.com/technology/global-ai-summit-seoul-aims-forge-new-regulatory-agreements-2024-05-21 |access-date23 May 2024 |publisherReuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date21 May 2024 |titleFrontier AI Safety Commitments, AI Seoul Summit 2024 |urlhttps://www.gov.uk/government/publications/frontier-ai-safety-commitments-ai-seoul-summit-2024/frontier-ai-safety-commitments-ai-seoul-summit-2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240523201611/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/frontier-ai-safety-commitments-ai-seoul-summit-2024/frontier-ai-safety-commitments-ai-seoul-summit-2024 |archive-date23 May 2024 |access-date23 May 2024 |publishergov.uk}}</ref>
History
{{Main|History of artificial intelligence}}
{{For timeline}}
<!-- DON'T INCLUDE HISTORICAL PRECURSORS (THEY BELONG TO THE SEPARATE 'HISTORY OF AI' ARTICLE) -->
<!-- MAJOR INTELLECTUAL PRECURSORS: LOGIC, THEORY OF COMPUTATION, CYBERNETICS, INFORMATION THEORY, NEUROBIOLOGY, SPECULATION: Antiquity - 1955 -->
The study of mechanical or "formal" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity. The study of logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as "0" and "1", could simulate any conceivable form of mathematical reasoning.{{Sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p9}}<ref name"Clarendon Press-2004"/> This, along with concurrent discoveries in cybernetics, information theory and neurobiology, led researchers to consider the possibility of building an "electronic brain".{{Efn|"Electronic brain" was the term used by the press around this time.{{Sfn|Russell|Norvig|2021|p9}}<ref>{{Cite web |titleGoogle books ngram |urlhttps://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?contentelectronic+brain&year_start1930&year_end2019&corpusen-2019&smoothing3 |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170209/https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?contentelectronic+brain&year_start1930&year_end2019&corpusen-2019&smoothing3 |url-statuslive }}</ref>}} They developed several areas of research that would become part of AI,<ref>AI's immediate precursors: {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp51–107}}, {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp27–32}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp8–17}}, {{Harvtxt|Moravec|1988|p3}}</ref> such as McCullouch and Pitts design for "artificial neurons" in 1943,{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p17}} and Turing's influential 1950 paper 'Computing Machinery and Intelligence', which introduced the Turing test and showed that "machine intelligence" was plausible.<ref name"Turing"/><ref name"Clarendon Press-2004">{{Cite book |titleThe Essential Turing: the ideas that gave birth to the computer age |date2004 |publisherClarendon Press |isbn0-1982-5079-7 |editor-lastCopeland |editor-firstJ. |location=Oxford, England}}</ref>
<!-- 1956-1974 -->
The field of AI research was founded at a workshop at Dartmouth College in 1956.{{Efn|
Daniel Crevier wrote, "the conference is generally recognized as the official birthdate of the new science."{{Sfnp|Crevier|1993|pp47–49}} Russell and Norvig called the conference "the inception of artificial intelligence."{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p17}}}}<ref name"Dartmouth workshop">Dartmouth workshop: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p18}}, {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp111–136}}, {{Harvtxt|NRC|1999|pp200–201}}<br />The proposal: {{Harvtxt|McCarthy|Minsky|Rochester|Shannon|1955}}</ref> The attendees became the leaders of AI research in the 1960s.{{Efn|
Russell and Norvig wrote "for the next 20 years the field would be dominated by these people and their students."{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=17}}
}} They and their students produced programs that the press described as "astonishing":{{Efn|
Russell and Norvig wrote, "it was astonishing whenever a computer did anything kind of smartish".{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2003|p=18}}
}} computers were learning checkers strategies, solving word problems in algebra, proving logical theorems and speaking English.{{Efn|
The programs described are Arthur Samuel's checkers program for the IBM 701, Daniel Bobrow's STUDENT, Newell and Simon's Logic Theorist and Terry Winograd's SHRDLU.
}}<ref name"Succ1">Successful programs of the 1960s: {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp243–252}}, {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp52–107}}, {{Harvtxt|Moravec|1988|p9}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp19–21}}</ref> Artificial intelligence laboratories were set up at a number of British and U.S. universities in the latter 1950s and early 1960s.<ref name"Clarendon Press-2004"/>
<!-- Optimism of the 60s and first AI "winter": 1974 -->
Researchers in the 1960s and the 1970s were convinced that their methods would eventually succeed in creating a machine with general intelligence and considered this the goal of their field.{{Sfnp|Newquist|1994|pp86–86}} In 1965 Herbert Simon predicted, "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do".<ref>{{Harvtxt|Simon|1965|p96}} quoted in {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|p109}}</ref> In 1967 Marvin Minsky agreed, writing that "within a generation&nbsp;... the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved".<ref>{{Harvtxt|Minsky|1967|p2}} quoted in {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|p109}}</ref> They had, however, underestimated the difficulty of the problem.{{Efn|Russell and Norvig write: "in almost all cases, these early systems failed on more difficult problems"{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p21}}}} In 1974, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in response to the criticism of Sir James Lighthill{{Sfnp|Lighthill|1973}} and ongoing pressure from the U.S. Congress to fund more productive projects.{{Sfn|NRC|1999|pp212–213}} Minsky's and Papert's book Perceptrons was understood as proving that artificial neural networks would never be useful for solving real-world tasks, thus discrediting the approach altogether.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p22}} The "AI winter", a period when obtaining funding for AI projects was difficult, followed.<ref name"First AI Winter">First AI Winter, Lighthill report, Mansfield Amendment: {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp115–117}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp21–22}}, {{Harvtxt|NRC|1999|pp212–213}}, {{Harvtxt|Howe|1994}}, {{Harvtxt|Newquist|1994|pp=189–201}}</ref>
<!-- 1980s and second AI winter -->
In the early 1980s, AI research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems,<ref>Expert systems: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp23, 292}}, {{Harvtxt|Luger|Stubblefield|2004|pp227–331}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1998|locchpt. 17.4}}, {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp327–335, 434–435}}, {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp145–162, 197–203}}, {{Harvtxt|Newquist|1994|pp155–183}}</ref> a form of AI program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts. By 1985, the market for AI had reached over a billion dollars. At the same time, Japan's fifth generation computer project inspired the U.S. and British governments to restore funding for academic research.<ref name"Fund01">Funding initiatives in the early 1980s: Fifth Generation Project (Japan), Alvey (UK), Microelectronics and Computer Technology Corporation (US), Strategic Computing Initiative (US): {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp426–441}}, {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp161–162, 197–203, 211, 240}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p23}}, {{Harvtxt|NRC|1999|pp210–211}}, {{Harvtxt|Newquist|1994|pp235–248}}</ref> However, beginning with the collapse of the Lisp Machine market in 1987, AI once again fell into disrepute, and a second, longer-lasting winter began.<ref name"Second AI Winter">Second AI Winter: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p24}}, {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp430–435}}, {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp209–210}}, {{Harvtxt|NRC|1999|pp214–216}}, {{Harvtxt|Newquist|1994|pp301–318}}</ref>
<!-- Embodied robotics, uncertain reasoning, and connectionism in the 1980s -->
Up to this point, most of AI's funding had gone to projects that used high-level symbols to represent mental objects like plans, goals, beliefs, and known facts. In the 1980s, some researchers began to doubt that this approach would be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition, especially perception, robotics, learning and pattern recognition,{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p24}} and began to look into "sub-symbolic" approaches.{{Sfnp|Nilsson|1998|p7}} Rodney Brooks rejected "representation" in general and focussed directly on engineering machines that move and survive.{{Efn|
Embodied approaches to AI{{Sfnp|McCorduck|2004|pp=454–462}} were championed by Hans Moravec{{Sfnp|Moravec|1988}} and Rodney Brooks{{Sfnp|Brooks|1990}} and went by many names: Nouvelle AI.{{Sfnp|Brooks|1990}} Developmental robotics.<ref>Developmental robotics: {{Harvtxt|Weng|McClelland|Pentland|Sporns|2001}}, {{Harvtxt|Lungarella|Metta|Pfeifer|Sandini|2003}}, {{Harvtxt|Asada|Hosoda|Kuniyoshi|Ishiguro|2009}}, {{Harvtxt|Oudeyer|2010}}</ref>
}} Judea Pearl, Lofti Zadeh, and others developed methods that handled incomplete and uncertain information by making reasonable guesses rather than precise logic.<ref name"Stoch"/>{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p25}} But the most important development was the revival of "connectionism", including neural network research, by Geoffrey Hinton and others.<ref>{{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp214–215}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp24, 26}}</ref> In 1990, Yann LeCun successfully showed that convolutional neural networks can recognize handwritten digits, the first of many successful applications of neural networks.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=26}}
<!-- 1990s: narrow, formal AI and its detractors -->
AI gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by exploiting formal mathematical methods and by finding specific solutions to specific problems. This "narrow" and "formal" focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results and collaborate with other fields (such as statistics, economics and mathematics).<ref name"Formal and narrow methods adopted in the 1990s">Formal and narrow methods adopted in the 1990s: {{Harvtxt |Russell|Norvig|2021|pp24–26}}, {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp486–487}}</ref> By 2000, solutions developed by AI researchers were being widely used, although in the 1990s they were rarely described as "artificial intelligence" (a tendency known as the AI effect).<ref>AI widely used in the late 1990s: {{Harvtxt|Kurzweil|2005|p265}}, {{Harvtxt|NRC|1999|pp216–222}}, {{Harvtxt|Newquist|1994|pp189–201}}</ref>
However, several academic researchers became concerned that AI was no longer pursuing its original goal of creating versatile, fully intelligent machines. Beginning around 2002, they founded the subfield of artificial general intelligence (or "AGI"), which had several well-funded institutions by the 2010s.<ref name="Artificial general intelligence"/>
<!--DEEP LEARNING BOOM 2012–present-->
Deep learning began to dominate industry benchmarks in 2012 and was adopted throughout the field.<ref name"Deep learning revolution">Deep learning revolution, AlexNet: {{Harvtxt|Goldman|2022}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p26}}, {{Harvtxt|McKinsey|2018}}</ref>
For many specific tasks, other methods were abandoned.{{Efn|Matteo Wong wrote in The Atlantic: "Whereas for decades, computer-science fields such as natural-language processing, computer vision, and robotics used extremely different methods, now they all use a programming method called "deep learning". As a result, their code and approaches have become more similar, and their models are easier to integrate into one another."{{Sfnp|Wong|2023}}}}
Deep learning's success was based on both hardware improvements (faster computers,<ref>Moore's Law and AI: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp14, 27}}</ref> graphics processing units, cloud computing{{Sfnp|Clark|2015b}}) and access to large amounts of data<ref>Big data: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p26}}</ref> (including curated datasets,{{Sfnp|Clark|2015b}} such as ImageNet). Deep learning's success led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in AI.{{Efn|Jack Clark wrote in Bloomberg: "After a half-decade of quiet breakthroughs in artificial intelligence, 2015 has been a landmark year. Computers are smarter and learning faster than ever", and noted that the number of software projects that use machine learning at Google increased from a "sporadic usage" in 2012 to more than 2,700 projects in 2015.{{Sfnp|Clark|2015b}}}} The amount of machine learning research (measured by total publications) increased by 50% in the years 2015–2019.{{Sfnp|UNESCO|2021}}
<!-- ALIGNMENT PROBLEM -->
In 2016, issues of fairness and the misuse of technology were catapulted into center stage at machine learning conferences, publications vastly increased, funding became available, and many researchers re-focussed their careers on these issues. The alignment problem became a serious field of academic study.{{Sfnp|Christian|2020|pp=67, 73}}
<!-- AI Boom 2020-present -->
In the late 2010s and early 2020s, AGI companies began to deliver programs that created enormous interest. In 2015, AlphaGo, developed by DeepMind, beat the world champion Go player. The program taught only the game's rules and developed a strategy by itself. GPT-3 is a large language model that was released in 2020 by OpenAI and is capable of generating high-quality human-like text.<ref>{{Cite web |lastSagar |firstRam |date2020-06-03 |titleOpenAI Releases GPT-3, The Largest Model So Far |urlhttps://analyticsindiamag.com/open-ai-gpt-3-language-model |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200804173452/https://analyticsindiamag.com/open-ai-gpt-3-language-model |archive-date2020-08-04 |access-date2023-03-15 |websiteAnalytics India Magazine}}</ref> ChatGPT, launched on November 30, 2022, became the fastest-growing consumer software application in history, gaining over 100 million users in two months.<ref>{{Cite news |lastMilmo |firstDan |date2023-02-02 |titleChatGPT reaches 100 million users two months after launch |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/feb/02/chatgpt-100-million-users-open-ai-fastest-growing-app |access-date2024-12-31 |workThe Guardian |languageen-GB |issn0261-3077 |archive-date3 February 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230203051356/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2023/feb/02/chatgpt-100-million-users-open-ai-fastest-growing-app |url-statuslive }}</ref> It marked what is widely regarded as AI's breakout year, bringing it into the public consciousness.<ref>{{Cite web |lastGorichanaz |firstTim |date2023-11-29 |titleChatGPT turns 1: AI chatbot's success says as much about humans as technology |urlhttps://theconversation.com/chatgpt-turns-1-ai-chatbots-success-says-as-much-about-humans-as-technology-218704 |access-date2024-12-31 |websiteThe Conversation |languageen-US |archive-date31 December 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241231073513/https://theconversation.com/chatgpt-turns-1-ai-chatbots-success-says-as-much-about-humans-as-technology-218704 |url-statuslive }}</ref> These programs, and others, inspired an aggressive AI boom, where large companies began investing billions of dollars in AI research. According to AI Impacts, about $50 billion annually was invested in "AI" around 2022 in the U.S. alone and about 20% of the new U.S. Computer Science PhD graduates have specialized in "AI".{{Sfnp|DiFeliciantonio|2023}} About 800,000 "AI"-related U.S. job openings existed in 2022.{{Sfnp|Goswami|2023}} According to PitchBook research, 22% of newly funded startups in 2024 claimed to be AI companies.<ref>{{cite web | titleNearly 1 in 4 new startups is an AI company | websitePitchBook | date2024-12-24 | urlhttps://pitchbook.com/news/articles/nearly-1-in-4-new-startups-is-an-ai-company | access-date2025-01-03}}</ref>
Philosophy
{{Main|Philosophy of artificial intelligence}}
Philosophical debates have historically sought to determine the nature of intelligence and how to make intelligent machines.<ref>{{Cite web |last1Grayling |first1Anthony |last2Ball |first2Brian |date2024-08-01 |titlePhilosophy is crucial in the age of AI |urlhttps://theconversation.com/philosophy-is-crucial-in-the-age-of-ai-235907 |access-date2024-10-04 |websiteThe Conversation |languageen-US |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005170243/https://theconversation.com/philosophy-is-crucial-in-the-age-of-ai-235907 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Another major focus has been whether machines can be conscious, and the associated ethical implications.<ref name"Jarow-2024">{{Cite web |lastJarow |firstOshan |date2024-06-15 |titleWill AI ever become conscious? It depends on how you think about biology. |urlhttps://www.vox.com/future-perfect/351893/consciousness-ai-machines-neuroscience-mind |access-date2024-10-04 |websiteVox |languageen-US |archive-date21 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240921035218/https://www.vox.com/future-perfect/351893/consciousness-ai-machines-neuroscience-mind |url-statuslive }}</ref> Many other topics in philosophy are relevant to AI, such as epistemology and free will.<ref>{{Cite web |lastMcCarthy |firstJohn |titleThe Philosophy of AI and the AI of Philosophy |urlhttp://jmc.stanford.edu/articles/aiphil2.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20181023181725/http://jmc.stanford.edu/articles/aiphil2.html |archive-date2018-10-23 |access-date2024-10-03 |websitejmc.stanford.edu}}</ref> Rapid advancements have intensified public discussions on the philosophy and ethics of AI.<ref name"Jarow-2024" />
Defining artificial intelligence
{{See also|Turing test|Intelligent agent|Dartmouth workshop|Synthetic intelligence}}
Alan Turing wrote in 1950 "I propose to consider the question 'can machines think'?"{{Sfnp|Turing|1950|p1}} He advised changing the question from whether a machine "thinks", to "whether or not it is possible for machinery to show intelligent behaviour".{{Sfnp|Turing|1950|p1}} He devised the Turing test, which measures the ability of a machine to simulate human conversation.<ref name="Turing">Turing's original publication of the Turing test in "Computing machinery and intelligence": {{Harvtxt|Turing|1950}}
Historical influence and philosophical implications: {{Harvtxt|Haugeland|1985|pp6–9}}, {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|p24}}, {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp70–71}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp2, 984}}</ref> Since we can only observe the behavior of the machine, it does not matter if it is "actually" thinking or literally has a "mind". Turing notes that we can not determine these things about other people but "it is usual to have a polite convention that everyone thinks."{{Sfnp|Turing|1950|loc=Under "The Argument from Consciousness"}}
Russell and Norvig agree with Turing that intelligence must be defined in terms of external behavior, not internal structure.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp1–4}} However, they are critical that the test requires the machine to imitate humans. "Aeronautical engineering texts", they wrote, "do not define the goal of their field as making 'machines that fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons.{{' "}}{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p3}} AI founder John McCarthy agreed, writing that "Artificial intelligence is not, by definition, simulation of human intelligence".{{Sfnp|Maker|2006}}
McCarthy defines intelligence as "the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world".{{Sfnp|McCarthy|1999}} Another AI founder, Marvin Minsky, similarly describes it as "the ability to solve hard problems".{{Sfnp|Minsky|1986}} The leading AI textbook defines it as the study of agents that perceive their environment and take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=1–4}} These definitions view intelligence in terms of well-defined problems with well-defined solutions, where both the difficulty of the problem and the performance of the program are direct measures of the "intelligence" of the machine—and no other philosophical discussion is required, or may not even be possible.
Another definition has been adopted by Google,<ref>{{Cite web |titleWhat Is Artificial Intelligence (AI)? |urlhttps://cloud.google.com/learn/what-is-artificial-intelligence |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230731114802/https://cloud.google.com/learn/what-is-artificial-intelligence |archive-date31 July 2023 |access-date16 October 2023 |website=Google Cloud Platform}}</ref> a major practitioner in the field of AI. This definition stipulates the ability of systems to synthesize information as the manifestation of intelligence, similar to the way it is defined in biological intelligence.
Some authors have suggested in practice, that the definition of AI is vague and difficult to define, with contention as to whether classical algorithms should be categorised as AI,<ref>{{Cite web |titleOne of the Biggest Problems in Regulating AI Is Agreeing on a Definition |urlhttps://carnegieendowment.org/posts/2022/10/one-of-the-biggest-problems-in-regulating-ai-is-agreeing-on-a-definition?langen |access-date2024-07-31 |websiteCarnegie Endowment for International Peace}}</ref> with many companies during the early 2020s AI boom using the term as a marketing buzzword, often even if they did "not actually use AI in a material way".<ref>{{Cite web |titleAI or BS? How to tell if a marketing tool really uses artificial intelligence |urlhttps://www.thedrum.com/opinion/2023/03/30/ai-or-bs-how-tell-if-marketing-tool-really-uses-artificial-intelligence |access-date2024-07-31 |websiteThe Drum}}</ref> Evaluating approaches to AI
No established unifying theory or paradigm has guided AI research for most of its history.{{Efn
|Nils Nilsson wrote in 1983: "Simply put, there is wide disagreement in the field about what AI is all about."{{Sfnp|Nilsson|1983|p10}}}} The unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches (so much so that some sources, especially in the business world, use the term "artificial intelligence" to mean "machine learning with neural networks"). This approach is mostly sub-symbolic, soft and narrow. Critics argue that these questions may have to be revisited by future generations of AI researchers.Symbolic AI and its limitsSymbolic AI (or "GOFAI"){{Sfnp|Haugeland|1985|pp112–117}} simulated the high-level conscious reasoning that people use when they solve puzzles, express legal reasoning and do mathematics. They were highly successful at "intelligent" tasks such as algebra or IQ tests. In the 1960s, Newell and Simon proposed the physical symbol systems hypothesis: "A physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action."<ref>Physical symbol system hypothesis: {{Harvtxt|Newell|Simon|1976|p=116}}
Historical significance: {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|p153}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p19}}</ref>
However, the symbolic approach failed on many tasks that humans solve easily, such as learning, recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning. Moravec's paradox is the discovery that high-level "intelligent" tasks were easy for AI, but low level "instinctive" tasks were extremely difficult.<ref>Moravec's paradox: {{Harvtxt|Moravec|1988|pp15–16}}, {{Harvtxt|Minsky|1986|p29}}, {{Harvtxt|Pinker|2007|pp=190–191}}</ref> Philosopher Hubert Dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation, and on having a "feel" for the situation, rather than explicit symbolic knowledge.<ref>Dreyfus' critique of AI: {{Harvtxt|Dreyfus|1972}}, {{Harvtxt|Dreyfus|Dreyfus|1986}}
Historical significance and philosophical implications: {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp120–132}}, {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp211–239}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp981–982}}, {{Harvtxt|Fearn|2007|locchpt. 3}}</ref> Although his arguments had been ridiculed and ignored when they were first presented, eventually, AI research came to agree with him.{{Efn|
Daniel Crevier wrote that "time has proven the accuracy and perceptiveness of some of Dreyfus's comments. Had he formulated them less aggressively, constructive actions they suggested might have been taken much earlier."{{Sfnp|Crevier|1993|p=125}}
}}<ref name="Psychological evidence of the prevalence of sub"/>
The issue is not resolved: sub-symbolic reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes that human intuition does, such as algorithmic bias. Critics such as Noam Chomsky argue continuing research into symbolic AI will still be necessary to attain general intelligence,{{Sfnp|Langley|2011}}{{Sfnp|Katz|2012}} in part because sub-symbolic AI is a move away from explainable AI: it can be difficult or impossible to understand why a modern statistical AI program made a particular decision. The emerging field of neuro-symbolic artificial intelligence attempts to bridge the two approaches.
Neat vs. scruffy
{{Main|Neats and scruffies}}
"Neats" hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple, elegant principles (such as logic, optimization, or neural networks). "Scruffies" expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of unrelated problems. Neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor, scruffies rely mainly on incremental testing to see if they work. This issue was actively discussed in the 1970s and 1980s,<ref>Neats vs. scruffies, the historic debate: {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp421–424, 486–489}}, {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|p168}}, {{Harvtxt|Nilsson|1983|pp10–11}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p24}}
A classic example of the "scruffy" approach to intelligence: {{Harvtxt|Minsky|1986}}
A modern example of neat AI and its aspirations in the 21st century: {{Harvtxt|Domingos|2015}}</ref> but eventually was seen as irrelevant. Modern AI has elements of both.
Soft vs. hard computing
{{Main|Soft computing}}
Finding a provably correct or optimal solution is intractable for many important problems.<ref name"Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion"/> Soft computing is a set of techniques, including genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic and neural networks, that are tolerant of imprecision, uncertainty, partial truth and approximation. Soft computing was introduced in the late 1980s and most successful AI programs in the 21st century are examples of soft computing with neural networks. Narrow vs. general AI
{{Main|Weak artificial intelligence|Artificial general intelligence}}
AI researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and superintelligence directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible (narrow AI) in hopes these solutions will lead indirectly to the field's long-term goals.{{Sfnp|Pennachin|Goertzel|2007}}{{Sfnp|Roberts|2016}} General intelligence is difficult to define and difficult to measure, and modern AI has had more verifiable successes by focusing on specific problems with specific solutions. The sub-field of artificial general intelligence studies this area exclusively.
Machine consciousness, sentience, and mind
{{Main|Philosophy of artificial intelligence|Artificial consciousness}}
The philosophy of mind does not know whether a machine can have a mind, consciousness and mental states, in the same sense that human beings do. This issue considers the internal experiences of the machine, rather than its external behavior. Mainstream AI research considers this issue irrelevant because it does not affect the goals of the field: to build machines that can solve problems using intelligence. Russell and Norvig add that "[t]he additional project of making a machine conscious in exactly the way humans are is not one that we are equipped to take on."{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p986}} However, the question has become central to the philosophy of mind. It is also typically the central question at issue in artificial intelligence in fiction. Consciousness
{{Main|Hard problem of consciousness|Theory of mind}}
David Chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind, which he named the "hard" and "easy" problems of consciousness.{{Sfnp|Chalmers|1995}} The easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals, makes plans and controls behavior. The hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it should feel like anything at all, assuming we are right in thinking that it truly does feel like something (Dennett's consciousness illusionism says this is an illusion). While human information processing is easy to explain, human subjective experience is difficult to explain. For example, it is easy to imagine a color-blind person who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red, but it is not clear what would be required for the person to know what red looks like.{{Sfnp|Dennett|1991}}
Computationalism and functionalism
{{Main|Computational theory of mind|Functionalism (philosophy of mind)}}
Computationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing. Computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the mind–body problem. This philosophical position was inspired by the work of AI researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers Jerry Fodor and Hilary Putnam.{{Sfnp|Horst|2005}}
Philosopher John Searle characterized this position as "strong AI": "The appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds."{{Efn|name="Searle's strong AI"|
Searle presented this definition of "Strong AI" in 1999.{{Sfnp|Searle|1999}} Searle's original formulation was "The appropriately programmed computer really is a mind, in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states."{{Sfnp|Searle|1980|p1}} Strong AI is defined similarly by Russell and Norvig: "Stong AI – the assertion that machines that do so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulating thinking)."{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p9817}}
}} Searle challenges this claim with his Chinese room argument, which attempts to show that even a computer capable of perfectly simulating human behavior would not have a mind.<ref>Searle's Chinese room argument: {{Harvtxt|Searle|1980}}. Searle's original presentation of the thought experiment., {{Harvtxt|Searle|1999}}.
Discussion: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp985}}, {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp443–445}}, {{Harvtxt|Crevier|1993|pp269–271}}</ref> AI welfare and rights It is difficult or impossible to reliably evaluate whether an advanced AI is sentient (has the ability to feel), and if so, to what degree.<ref>{{Cite web |lastLeith |firstSam |date2022-07-07 |titleNick Bostrom: How can we be certain a machine isn't conscious? |urlhttps://www.spectator.co.uk/article/nick-bostrom-how-can-we-be-certain-a-machine-isnt-conscious |access-date2024-02-23 |websiteThe Spectator |archive-date26 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240926155639/https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/nick-bostrom-how-can-we-be-certain-a-machine-isnt-conscious/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> But if there is a significant chance that a given machine can feel and suffer, then it may be entitled to certain rights or welfare protection measures, similarly to animals.<ref name"Thomson-2022">{{Cite web |lastThomson |firstJonny |date2022-10-31 |titleWhy don't robots have rights? |urlhttps://bigthink.com/thinking/why-dont-robots-have-rights |access-date2024-02-23 |websiteBig Think |archive-date13 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240913055336/https://bigthink.com/thinking/why-dont-robots-have-rights/ |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref name"Kateman-2023">{{Cite magazine |lastKateman |firstBrian |date2023-07-24 |titleAI Should Be Terrified of Humans |urlhttps://time.com/6296234/ai-should-be-terrified-of-humans |access-date2024-02-23 |magazineTime |archive-date25 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240925041601/https://time.com/6296234/ai-should-be-terrified-of-humans/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> Sapience (a set of capacities related to high intelligence, such as discernment or self-awareness) may provide another moral basis for AI rights.<ref name"Thomson-2022"/> Robot rights are also sometimes proposed as a practical way to integrate autonomous agents into society.<ref>{{Cite news |lastWong |firstJeff |dateJuly 10, 2023 |titleWhat leaders need to know about robot rights |urlhttps://www.fastcompany.com/90920769/what-leaders-need-to-know-about-robot-rights |workFast Company |ref=none}}</ref>
In 2017, the European Union considered granting "electronic personhood" to some of the most capable AI systems. Similarly to the legal status of companies, it would have conferred rights but also responsibilities.<ref>{{Cite news |lastHern |firstAlex |date2017-01-12 |titleGive robots 'personhood' status, EU committee argues |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jan/12/give-robots-personhood-status-eu-committee-argues |access-date2024-02-23 |workThe Guardian |issn0261-3077 |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005171222/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2017/jan/12/give-robots-personhood-status-eu-committee-argues |url-statuslive }}</ref> Critics argued in 2018 that granting rights to AI systems would downplay the importance of human rights, and that legislation should focus on user needs rather than speculative futuristic scenarios. They also noted that robots lacked the autonomy to take part to society on their own.<ref>{{Cite web |lastDovey |firstDana |date2018-04-14 |titleExperts Don't Think Robots Should Have Rights |urlhttps://www.newsweek.com/robots-human-rights-electronic-persons-humans-versus-machines-886075 |access-date2024-02-23 |websiteNewsweek |archive-date5 October 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20241005171333/https://www.newsweek.com/robots-human-rights-electronic-persons-humans-versus-machines-886075 |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastCuddy |firstAlice |date2018-04-13 |titleRobot rights violate human rights, experts warn EU |urlhttps://www.euronews.com/2018/04/13/robot-rights-violate-human-rights-experts-warn-eu |access-date2024-02-23 |websiteeuronews |archive-date19 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240919022327/https://www.euronews.com/2018/04/13/robot-rights-violate-human-rights-experts-warn-eu |url-status=live }}</ref>
Progress in AI increased interest in the topic. Proponents of AI welfare and rights often argue that AI sentience, if it emerges, would be particularly easy to deny. They warn that this may be a moral blind spot analogous to slavery or factory farming, which could lead to large-scale suffering if sentient AI is created and carelessly exploited.<ref name"Kateman-2023"/><ref name"Thomson-2022"/>
Future
Superintelligence and the singularity<!--SUPERINTELLIGENCE-->
A superintelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind.{{Sfnp|Roberts|2016}}<!--SINGULARITY--> If research into artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software, it might be able to reprogram and improve itself. The improved software would be even better at improving itself, leading to what I. J. Good called an "intelligence explosion" and Vernor Vinge called a "singularity".<ref>The Intelligence explosion and technological singularity: {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|pp=1004–1005}}, {{Harvtxt|Omohundro|2008}}, {{Harvtxt|Kurzweil|2005}}
I. J. Good's "intelligence explosion": {{Harvtxt|Good|1965}}
Vernor Vinge's "singularity": {{Harvtxt|Vinge|1993}}</ref><!--ANTI-SINGULARITIANISM-->
However, technologies cannot improve exponentially indefinitely, and typically follow an S-shaped curve, slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the technology can do.{{Sfnp|Russell|Norvig|2021|p1005}} Transhumanism
{{Main|Transhumanism}}
<!-- TRANSHUMANISM -->
Robot designer Hans Moravec, cyberneticist Kevin Warwick and inventor Ray Kurzweil have predicted that humans and machines may merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either. This idea, called transhumanism, has roots in the writings of Aldous Huxley and Robert Ettinger.<ref>Transhumanism: {{Harvtxt|Moravec|1988}}, {{Harvtxt|Kurzweil|2005}}, {{Harvtxt|Russell|Norvig|2021|p=1005}}</ref>
<!-- EVOLUTION / HUMAN REPLACEMENT -->
Edward Fredkin argues that "artificial intelligence is the next step in evolution", an idea first proposed by Samuel Butler's "Darwin among the Machines" as far back as 1863, and expanded upon by George Dyson in his 1998 book Darwin Among the Machines: The Evolution of Global Intelligence.<ref>AI as evolution: Edward Fredkin is quoted in {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|p401}}, {{Harvtxt|Butler|1863}}, {{Harvtxt|Dyson|1998}}</ref>DecomputingArguments for decomputing have been raised by Dan McQuillan (Resisting AI: An Anti-fascist Approach to Artificial Intelligence, 2022), meaning an opposition to the sweeping application and expansion of artificial intelligence. Similar to degrowth, the approach criticizes AI as an outgrowth of the systemic issues and capitalist world we live in. It argues that a different future is possible, in which distance between people is reduced rather than increased through AI intermediaries.<ref name"v935">{{cite web | lastMcQuillan | firstDan | titlea gift to the far right | websiteComputerWeekly.com | date2025-01-14 | urlhttps://www.computerweekly.com/opinion/Labours-AI-Action-Plan-a-gift-to-the-far-right | access-date2025-01-22}}</ref> In fiction
{{Main|Artificial intelligence in fiction}}
in his 1921 play R.U.R., the title standing for "Rossum's Universal Robots".]]
Thought-capable artificial beings have appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity,<ref name"AI in myth">AI in myth: {{Harvtxt|McCorduck|2004|pp4–5}}</ref> and have been a persistent theme in science fiction.{{Sfnp|McCorduck|2004|pp=340–400}}
A common trope in these works began with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein, where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters. This includes such works as Arthur C. Clarke's and Stanley Kubrick's 2001: A Space Odyssey (both 1968), with HAL 9000, the murderous computer in charge of the Discovery One spaceship, as well as The Terminator (1984) and The Matrix (1999). In contrast, the rare loyal robots such as Gort from The Day the Earth Stood Still (1951) and Bishop from Aliens (1986) are less prominent in popular culture.{{Sfnp|Buttazzo|2001}}
Isaac Asimov introduced the Three Laws of Robotics in many stories, most notably with the "Multivac" super-intelligent computer. Asimov's laws are often brought up during lay discussions of machine ethics;{{Sfnp|Anderson|2008}} while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with Asimov's laws through popular culture, they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons, one of which is their ambiguity.{{Sfnp|McCauley|2007}}
Several works use AI to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human, showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel, and thus to suffer. This appears in Karel Čapek's R.U.R., the films A.I. Artificial Intelligence and Ex Machina, as well as the novel Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?, by Philip K. Dick. Dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence.{{Sfnp|Galvan|1997}}
See also
* {{Annotated link |Artificial consciousness}}
* {{Annotated link |Artificial intelligence and elections}}
* {{Annotated link |Artificial intelligence content detection}}
* {{Annotated link |Behavior selection algorithm}}
* {{Annotated link |Business process automation}}
* {{Annotated link |Case-based reasoning}}
* {{Annotated link|Computational intelligence}}
* {{Annotated link|Digital immortality}}
* {{Annotated link |Emergent algorithm}}
* {{Annotated link |Female gendering of AI technologies}}
* {{Annotated link |Glossary of artificial intelligence}}
* {{Annotated link|Intelligence amplification}}
* {{Annotated link|Intelligent agent}}
* {{Annotated link|Mind uploading}}
* Organoid intelligence – Use of brain cells and brain organoids for intelligent computing
* {{Annotated link |Robotic process automation}}
* {{Annotated link |The Last Day (novel)}} - Welsh science novel by Owain Owain
* {{Annotated link|Wetware computer}}
Explanatory notes
{{Notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
AI textbooks
The two most widely used textbooks in 2023 (see the [https://explorer.opensyllabus.org/result/field?id=Computer+Science Open Syllabus]):
* {{Cite book |last1Russell |first1Stuart J. |author-linkStuart J. Russell |titleArtificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach |last2Norvig |first2Peter |author-link2Peter Norvig |publisherPearson |date2021 |isbn978-0-1346-1099-3 |edition4th |locationHoboken |lccn=20190474}}
* {{Cite book |last1Rich |first1Elaine |author-linkElaine Rich |titleArtificial Intelligence |last2Knight |first2Kevin |last3Nair |first3Shivashankar B |date2010 |publisherTata McGraw Hill India |isbn978-0-0700-8770-5 |edition3rd |locationNew Delhi |refnone}}
The four most widely used AI textbooks in 2008:
{{Refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{Cite book |last1Luger |first1George |author-linkGeorge Luger |urlhttps://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge |titleArtificial Intelligence: Structures and Strategies for Complex Problem Solving |last2Stubblefield |first2William |author-link2William Stubblefield |date2004 |publisherBenjamin/Cummings |isbn978-0-8053-4780-7 |edition5th |access-date17 December 2019 |url-accessregistration |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726220613/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000luge |archive-date26 July 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |lastNilsson |firstNils |author-linkNils Nilsson (researcher) |urlhttps://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils |titleArtificial Intelligence: A New Synthesis |date1998 |publisherMorgan Kaufmann |isbn978-1-5586-0467-4 |access-date18 November 2019 |url-accessregistration |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726131654/https://archive.org/details/artificialintell0000nils |archive-date26 July 2020 |url-status=live}}
* {{Russell Norvig 2003}}.
* {{Cite book |last1Poole |first1David |author-linkDavid Poole (researcher) |urlhttps://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool |titleComputational Intelligence: A Logical Approach |last2Mackworth |first2Alan |author-link2Alan Mackworth |last3Goebel |first3Randy |author-link3Randy Goebel |date1998 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-1951-0270-3 |locationNew York |access-date22 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726131436/https://archive.org/details/computationalint00pool |archive-date26 July 2020 |url-statuslive}} Later edition: {{Cite book |last1Poole |first1David |urlhttp://artint.info/index.html |titleArtificial Intelligence: Foundations of Computational Agents |last2Mackworth |first2Alan |author-link2Alan Mackworth |date2017 |publisherCambridge University Press |isbn978-1-1071-9539-4 |edition2nd |access-date6 December 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171207013855/http://artint.info/index.html |archive-date7 December 2017 |url-statuslive}}
{{Refend}}
Other textbooks:
* {{Cite book |lastErtel |firstWolfgang |titleIntroduction to Artificial Intelligence |date2017 |publisherSpringer |isbn978-3-3195-8486-7 |edition2nd |refnone}}
* {{Cite book |last1Ciaramella |first1Alberto |author-linkAlberto Ciaramella |titleIntroduction to Artificial Intelligence: from data analysis to generative AI |last2Ciaramella |first2Marco |date2024 |publisherIntellisemantic Editions |isbn978-8-8947-8760-3 |edition1st |refnone}} History of AI {{Refbegin|indentyes|30em}}
* {{Crevier 1993}}
* {{McCorduck 2004}}
* {{Cite book |lastNewquist |firstH. P. |author-linkHP Newquist |titleThe Brain Makers: Genius, Ego, And Greed In The Quest For Machines That Think |date1994 |publisherMacmillan/SAMS |isbn978-0-6723-0412-5 |locationNew York}}
* {{Cite book |last1Harmon |first1Paul |last2Sawyer |first2Brian |titleCreating Expert Systems for Business and Industry |date1990 |publisherJohn Wiley & Sons |isbn0471614963 |location=New York}}
{{Refend}}
Other sources
<!-- TO BE ALPHABETIZED -->
{{Refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* [https://suli.pppl.gov/2023/course/Rea-PPPL-SULI2023.pdf AI & ML in Fusion]
* [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1npCTrJ8XJn20ZGDA_DfMpANuQZFMzKPh/view?uspdrive_link AI & ML in Fusion, video lecture] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230702164332/https://drive.google.com/file/d/1npCTrJ8XJn20ZGDA_DfMpANuQZFMzKPh/view?uspdrive_link |date2 July 2023 }}
* {{Citation |last1Alter |first1Alexandra |titleFranzen, Grisham and Other Prominent Authors Sue OpenAI |dateSeptember 20, 2023 |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/20/books/authors-openai-lawsuit-chatgpt-copyright.html?campaign_id2&emcedit_th_20230921&instance_id103259&nltodaysheadlines&regi_id62816440&segment_id145288&user_idad24f3545dae0ec44284a38bb4a88f1d |last2Harris |first2Elizabeth A. |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date14 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240914155020/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/20/books/authors-openai-lawsuit-chatgpt-copyright.html?campaign_id2&emcedit_th_20230921&instance_id103259&nltodaysheadlines&regi_id62816440&segment_id145288&user_idad24f3545dae0ec44284a38bb4a88f1d |url-statuslive }}
* {{Cite web |last1Altman |first1Sam |author-linkSam Altman |last2Brockman |first2Greg |author-link2Greg Brockman |last3Sutskever |first3Ilya |author-link3Ilya Sutskever |date22 May 2023 |titleGovernance of Superintelligence |urlhttps://openai.com/blog/governance-of-superintelligence |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230527061619/https://openai.com/blog/governance-of-superintelligence |archive-date27 May 2023 |access-date27 May 2023 |website=openai.com }}
* {{Cite journal |lastAnderson |firstSusan Leigh |date2008 |titleAsimov's "three laws of robotics" and machine metaethics. |journalAI & Society |volume22 |issue4 |pages477–493 |doi10.1007/s00146-007-0094-5 |s2cid1809459}}
* {{Cite book |last1Anderson |first1Michael |titleMachine Ethics |last2Anderson |first2Susan Leigh |publisherCambridge University Press. |date=2011}}
* {{Citation |last1Arntz |first1Melanie |titleThe risk of automation for jobs in OECD countries: A comparative analysis |workOECD Social, Employment, and Migration Working Papers 189 |date2016 |last2Gregory |first2Terry |last3Zierahn |first3=Ulrich}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Asada |first1M. |last2Hosoda |first2K. |last3Kuniyoshi |first3Y. |last4Ishiguro |first4H. |last5Inui |first5T. |last6Yoshikawa |first6Y. |last7Ogino |first7M. |last8Yoshida |first8C. |date2009 |titleCognitive developmental robotics: a survey |journalIEEE Transactions on Autonomous Mental Development |volume1 |issue1 |pages12–34 |doi10.1109/tamd.2009.2021702 |s2cid10168773}}
* {{Cite web |titleAsk the AI experts: What's driving today's progress in AI? |urlhttps://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-analytics/our-insights/ask-the-ai-experts-whats-driving-todays-progress-in-ai |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180413190018/https://www.mckinsey.com/business-functions/mckinsey-analytics/our-insights/ask-the-ai-experts-whats-driving-todays-progress-in-ai |archive-date13 April 2018 |access-date13 April 2018 |websiteMcKinsey & Company |ref{{Harvid|McKinsey|2018}} }}
* {{Cite book |last1Barfield |first1Woodrow |titleResearch handbook on the law of artificial intelligence |last2Pagallo |first2Ugo |publisherEdward Elgar Publishing |date2018 |isbn978-1-7864-3904-8 |locationCheltenham, UK |oclc1039480085}}
* {{Citation |last1Beal |first1J. |titleThe New Frontier of Human-Level Artificial Intelligence |workIEEE Intelligent Systems |volume24 |pages21–24 |date2009 |doi10.1109/MIS.2009.75 |hdl1721.1/52357 |s2cid32437713 |last2Winston |first2Patrick |author-link2Patrick Winston |hdl-accessfree}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Berdahl |first1Carl Thomas |last2Baker |first2Lawrence |last3Mann |first3Sean |last4Osoba |first4Osonde |last5Girosi |first5Federico |date7 February 2023 |titleStrategies to Improve the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Health Equity: Scoping Review |journalJMIR AI |volume2 |pagese42936 |doi10.2196/42936 |issn2817-1705 |pmc11041459 |pmid38875587 |s2cid256681439 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last1Berryhill |first1Jamie |urlhttps://oecd-opsi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/AI-Report-Online.pdf |titleHello, World: Artificial Intelligence and its Use in the Public Sector |last2Heang |first2Kévin Kok |last3Clogher |first3Rob |last4McBride |first4Keegan |date2019 |publisherOECD Observatory of Public Sector Innovation |locationParis |access-date9 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191220021331/https://oecd-opsi.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/11/AI-Report-Online.pdf |archive-date20 December 2019 |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite news |lastToews |firstRob |date3 September 2023 |titleTransformers Revolutionized AI. What Will Replace Them? |urlhttps://www.forbes.com/sites/robtoews/2023/09/03/transformers-revolutionized-ai-what-will-replace-them |access-date8 December 2023 |workForbes |archive-date8 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231208232145/https://www.forbes.com/sites/robtoews/2023/09/03/transformers-revolutionized-ai-what-will-replace-them/ |url-statuslive }}
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* {{Cite journal |last1Urbina |first1Fabio |last2Lentzos |first2Filippa |last3Invernizzi |first3Cédric |last4Ekins |first4Sean |date7 March 2022 |titleDual use of artificial-intelligence-powered drug discovery |journalNature Machine Intelligence |volume4 |issue3 |pages189–191 |doi10.1038/s42256-022-00465-9 |pmc9544280 |pmid36211133 |s2cid247302391}}
* {{Cite news |lastValance |firstChrist |date30 May 2023 |titleArtificial intelligence could lead to extinction, experts warn |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/uk-65746524 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230617200355/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-65746524 |archive-date17 June 2023 |access-date18 June 2023 |workBBC News }}
* {{Citation |lastValinsky |firstJordan |titleAmazon reportedly employs thousands of people to listen to your Alexa conversations |dateApril 11, 2019 |workCNN.com |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2019/04/11/tech/amazon-alexa-listening/index.html |access-date5 October 2024 |archive-date26 January 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240126033535/https://www.cnn.com/2019/04/11/tech/amazon-alexa-listening/index.html |url-statuslive }}
* {{Cite news |lastVerma |firstYugesh |date25 December 2021 |titleA Complete Guide to SHAP – SHAPley Additive exPlanations for Practitioners |urlhttps://analyticsindiamag.com/a-complete-guide-to-shap-shapley-additive-explanations-for-practitioners |access-date25 November 2023 |workAnalytics India Magazine |archive-date25 November 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231125045938/https://analyticsindiamag.com/a-complete-guide-to-shap-shapley-additive-explanations-for-practitioners/ |url-statuslive }}
* {{Cite news |lastVincent |firstJames |date7 November 2019 |titleOpenAI has published the text-generating AI it said was too dangerous to share |urlhttps://www.theverge.com/2019/11/7/20953040/openai-text-generation-ai-gpt-2-full-model-release-1-5b-parameters |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200611054114/https://www.theverge.com/2019/11/7/20953040/openai-text-generation-ai-gpt-2-full-model-release-1-5b-parameters |archive-date11 June 2020 |access-date11 June 2020 |workThe Verge }}
* {{Cite news |lastVincent |firstJames |date15 November 2022 |titleThe scary truth about AI copyright is nobody knows what will happen next |urlhttps://www.theverge.com/23444685/generative-ai-copyright-infringement-legal-fair-use-training-data |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230619055201/https://www.theverge.com/23444685/generative-ai-copyright-infringement-legal-fair-use-training-data |archive-date19 June 2023 |access-date19 June 2023 |workThe Verge }}
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{{Refend}}
Further reading
{{Refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* Autor, David H., "Why Are There Still So Many Jobs? The History and Future of Workplace Automation" (2015) 29(3) Journal of Economic Perspectives 3.
* {{Cite book |lastBerlinski |firstDavid |author-linkDavid Berlinski |urlhttps://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl |titleThe Advent of the Algorithm |publisherHarcourt Books |date2000 |isbn978-0-1560-1391-8 |oclc46890682 |access-date22 August 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200726215744/https://archive.org/details/adventofalgorith0000berl |archive-date26 July 2020 |url-status=live }}
* Boyle, James, [https://direct.mit.edu/books/book/5859/The-LineAI-and-the-Future-of-Personhood The Line: AI and the Future of Personhood], MIT Press, 2024.
* Cukier, Kenneth, "Ready for Robots? How to Think about the Future of AI", Foreign Affairs, vol. 98, no. 4 (July/August 2019), pp.&nbsp;192–198. George Dyson, historian of computing, writes (in what might be called "Dyson's Law") that "Any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently, while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand." (p.&nbsp;197.) Computer scientist Alex Pentland writes: "Current AI machine-learning algorithms are, at their core, dead simple stupid. They work, but they work by brute force." (p.&nbsp;198.)
* {{Cite journal |lastEvans |firstWoody |author-linkWoody Evans |date2015 |titlePosthuman Rights: Dimensions of Transhuman Worlds |journalTeknokultura |volume12 |issue2 |doi10.5209/rev_TK.2015.v12.n2.49072 |doi-accessfree|s2cid=147612763 }}
* {{Cite web |lastFrank |firstMichael |dateSeptember 22, 2023 |titleUS Leadership in Artificial Intelligence Can Shape the 21st Century Global Order |urlhttps://thediplomat.com/2023/09/us-leadership-in-artificial-intelligence-can-shape-the-21st-century-global-order |access-date2023-12-08 |websiteThe Diplomat |quoteInstead, the United States has developed a new area of dominance that the rest of the world views with a mixture of awe, envy, and resentment: artificial intelligence... From AI models and research to cloud computing and venture capital, U.S. companies, universities, and research labs – and their affiliates in allied countries – appear to have an enormous lead in both developing cutting-edge AI and commercializing it. The value of U.S. venture capital investments in AI start-ups exceeds that of the rest of the world combined. |archive-date16 September 2024 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20240916014433/https://thediplomat.com/2023/09/us-leadership-in-artificial-intelligence-can-shape-the-21st-century-global-order/ |url-status=live }}
* Gertner, Jon. (2023) "Wikipedia's Moment of Truth: Can the online encyclopedia help teach A.I. chatbots to get their facts right — without destroying itself in the process?" New York Times Magazine (July 18, 2023) [https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/18/magazine/wikipedia-ai-chatgpt.html online] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230720125400/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/18/magazine/wikipedia-ai-chatgpt.html |date20 July 2023 }}
* Gleick, James, "The Fate of Free Will" (review of Kevin J. Mitchell, Free Agents: How Evolution Gave Us Free Will, Princeton University Press, 2023, 333 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXXI, no. 1 (18 January 2024), pp.&nbsp;27–28, 30. "Agency is what distinguishes us from machines. For biological creatures, reason and purpose come from acting in the world and experiencing the consequences. Artificial intelligences – disembodied, strangers to blood, sweat, and tears – have no occasion for that." (p.&nbsp;30.)
* Halpern, Sue, "The Coming Tech Autocracy" (review of Verity Harding, ''AI Needs You: How We Can Change AI's Future and Save Our Own, Princeton University Press, 274 pp.; Gary Marcus, Taming Silicon Valley: How We Can Ensure That AI Works for Us, MIT Press, 235 pp.; Daniela Rus and Gregory Mone, The Mind's Mirror: Risk and Reward in the Age of AI, Norton, 280 pp.; Madhumita Murgia, Code Dependent: Living in the Shadow of AI, Henry Holt, 311 pp.), The New York Review of Books'', vol. LXXI, no. 17 (7 November 2024), pp.&nbsp;44–46. "'We can't realistically expect that those who hope to get rich from AI are going to have the interests of the rest of us close at heart,' ... writes [Gary Marcus]. 'We can't count on governments driven by campaign finance contributions [from tech companies] to push back.'... Marcus details the demands that citizens should make of their governments and the tech companies. They include transparency on how AI systems work; compensation for individuals if their data [are] used to train LLMs (large language model)s and the right to consent to this use; and the ability to hold tech companies liable for the harms they cause by eliminating Section 230, imposing cash penalties, and passing stricter product liability laws... Marcus also suggests... that a new, AI-specific federal agency, akin to the FDA, the FCC, or the FTC, might provide the most robust oversight.... [T]he Fordham law professor Chinmayi Sharma... suggests... establish[ing] a professional licensing regime for engineers that would function in a similar way to medical licenses, malpractice suits, and the Hippocratic oath in medicine. 'What if, like doctors,' she asks..., 'AI engineers also vowed to do no harm?'" (p.&nbsp;46.)
* {{Cite news |lastHenderson |firstMark |date24 April 2007 |titleHuman rights for robots? We're getting carried away |urlhttps://www.thetimes.com/uk/science/article/human-rights-for-robots-were-getting-carried-away-xfbdkpgwn0v |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140531104850/http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/technology/article1966391.ece |archive-date31 May 2014 |access-date31 May 2014 |workThe Times Online |location=London }}
* Hughes-Castleberry, Kenna, "A Murder Mystery Puzzle: The literary puzzle ''Cain's Jawbone, which has stumped humans for decades, reveals the limitations of natural-language-processing algorithms", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 4 (November 2023), pp.&nbsp;81–82. "This murder mystery competition has revealed that although NLP (natural-language processing) models are capable of incredible feats, their abilities are very much limited by the amount of context they receive. This [...] could cause [difficulties] for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze ancient languages. In some cases, there are few historical records on long-gone civilizations to serve as training data for such a purpose." (p.&nbsp;82.)
* Immerwahr, Daniel, "Your Lying Eyes: People now use A.I. to generate fake videos indistinguishable from real ones. How much does it matter?", The New Yorker'', 20 November 2023, pp.&nbsp;54–59. "If by 'deepfakes' we mean realistic videos produced using artificial intelligence that actually deceive people, then they barely exist. The fakes aren't deep, and the deeps aren't fake. [...] A.I.-generated videos are not, in general, operating in our media as counterfeited evidence. Their role better resembles that of cartoons, especially smutty ones." (p.&nbsp;59.)
* Johnston, John (2008) The Allure of Machinic Life: Cybernetics, Artificial Life, and the New AI, MIT Press.
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* {{Cite journal |last1LeCun |first1Yann |last2Bengio |first2Yoshua |last3Hinton |first3Geoffrey |date28 May 2015 |titleDeep learning |urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/nature14539 |url-statuslive |journalNature |volume521 |issue7553 |pages436–444 |bibcode2015Natur.521..436L |doi10.1038/nature14539 |pmid26017442 |s2cid3074096 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230605235832/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14539 |archive-date5 June 2023 |access-date=19 June 2023 }}
* Leffer, Lauren, "The Risks of Trusting AI: We must avoid humanizing machine-learning models used in scientific research", Scientific American, vol. 330, no. 6 (June 2024), pp.&nbsp;80–81.
* Lepore, Jill, "The Chit-Chatbot: Is talking with a machine a conversation?", The New Yorker, 7 October 2024, pp.&nbsp;12–16.
* {{Cite web |lastMaschafilm |date2010 |titleContent: Plug & Pray Film – Artificial Intelligence – Robots |urlhttp://www.plugandpray-film.de/en/content.html |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160212040134/http://www.plugandpray-film.de/en/content.html |archive-date12 February 2016 |websiteplugandpray-film.de }}
* Marcus, Gary, "Artificial Confidence: Even the newest, buzziest systems of artificial general intelligence are stymmied by the same old problems", Scientific American, vol. 327, no. 4 (October 2022), pp.&nbsp;42–45.
* {{Cite book |lastMitchell |firstMelanie |titleArtificial intelligence: a guide for thinking humans |date2019 |publisherFarrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn978-0-3742-5783-5 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite journal |last1Mnih |first1Volodymyr |last2Kavukcuoglu |first2Koray |last3Silver |first3David |last4Rusu |first4Andrei A. |last5Veness |first5Joel |last6Bellemare |first6Marc G. |last7Graves |first7Alex |last8Riedmiller |first8Martin |last9Fidjeland |first9Andreas K. |last10Ostrovski |first10Georg |last11Petersen |first11Stig |last12Beattie |first12Charles |last13Sadik |first13Amir |last14Antonoglou |first14Ioannis |last15King |first15Helen |last16Kumaran |first16Dharshan |last17Wierstra |first17Daan |last18Legg |first18Shane |last19Hassabis |first19Demis |display-authors3 |date26 February 2015 |titleHuman-level control through deep reinforcement learning |urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/nature14236 |url-statuslive |journalNature |volume518 |issue7540 |pages529–533 |bibcode2015Natur.518..529M |doi10.1038/nature14236 |pmid25719670 |s2cid205242740 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230619055525/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature14236 |archive-date19 June 2023 |access-date19 June 2023 }} Introduced DQN, which produced human-level performance on some Atari games.
* Press, Eyal, "In Front of Their Faces: Does facial-recognition technology lead police to ignore contradictory evidence?", The New Yorker, 20 November 2023, pp.&nbsp;20–26.
* {{Cite news |date21 December 2006 |titleRobots could demand legal rights |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6200005.stm |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191015042628/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6200005.stm |archive-date15 October 2019 |access-date3 February 2011 |workBBC News }}
* Roivainen, Eka, "AI's IQ: ChatGPT aced a [standard intelligence] test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by IQ alone", Scientific American, vol. 329, no. 1 (July/August 2023), p.&nbsp;7. "Despite its high IQ, ChatGPT fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world.... ChatGPT seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of... facts derived from online texts."
* Scharre, Paul, "Killer Apps: The Real Dangers of an AI Arms Race", Foreign Affairs, vol. 98, no. 3 (May/June 2019), pp.&nbsp;135–144. "Today's AI technologies are powerful but unreliable. Rules-based systems cannot deal with circumstances their programmers did not anticipate. Learning systems are limited by the data on which they were trained. AI failures have already led to tragedy. Advanced autopilot features in cars, although they perform well in some circumstances, have driven cars without warning into trucks, concrete barriers, and parked cars. In the wrong situation, AI systems go from supersmart to superdumb in an instant. When an enemy is trying to manipulate and hack an AI system, the risks are even greater." (p.&nbsp;140.)
* {{Cite journal |last1Schulz |first1Hannes |last2Behnke |first2Sven |date1 November 2012 |titleDeep Learning |urlhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/230690795 |journalKI – Künstliche Intelligenz |volume26 |issue4 |pages357–363 |doi10.1007/s13218-012-0198-z |issn1610-1987 |s2cid220523562 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1Serenko |first1Alexander |last2Michael Dohan |date2011 |titleComparing the expert survey and citation impact journal ranking methods: Example from the field of Artificial Intelligence |urlhttp://www.aserenko.com/papers/JOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf |url-statuslive |journalJournal of Informetrics |volume5 |issue4 |pages629–649 |doi10.1016/j.joi.2011.06.002 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20131004212839/http://www.aserenko.com/papers/JOI_AI_Journal_Ranking_Serenko.pdf |archive-date4 October 2013 |access-date=12 September 2013 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1Silver |first1David |last2Huang |first2Aja |last3Maddison |first3Chris J. |last4Guez |first4Arthur |last5Sifre |first5Laurent |last6van den Driessche |first6George |last7Schrittwieser |first7Julian |last8Antonoglou |first8Ioannis |last9Panneershelvam |first9Veda |last10Lanctot |first10Marc |last11Dieleman |first11Sander |last12Grewe |first12Dominik |last13Nham |first13John |last14Kalchbrenner |first14Nal |last15Sutskever |first15Ilya |last16Lillicrap |first16Timothy |last17Leach |first17Madeleine |last18Kavukcuoglu |first18Koray |last19Graepel |first19Thore |last20Hassabis |first20Demis |display-authors3 |date28 January 2016 |titleMastering the game of Go with deep neural networks and tree search |urlhttps://www.nature.com/articles/nature16961 |url-statuslive |journalNature |volume529 |issue7587 |pages484–489 |bibcode2016Natur.529..484S |doi10.1038/nature16961 |pmid26819042 |s2cid515925 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230618213059/https://www.nature.com/articles/nature16961 |archive-date18 June 2023 |access-date19 June 2023 }}
* Tarnoff, Ben, "The Labor Theory of AI" (review of Matteo Pasquinelli, The Eye of the Master: A Social History of Artificial Intelligence, Verso, 2024, 264 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXXII, no. 5 (27 March 2025), pp. 30–32. The reviewer, Ben Tarnoff, writes: "The strangeness at the heart of the generative AI boom is that nobody really knows how the technology works. We know how the large language models within ChatGPT and its counterparts are trained, even if we don't always know which data they're being trained on: they are asked to predict the next string of characters in a sequence. But exactly how they arrive at any given prediction is a mystery. The computations that occur inside the model are simply too intricate for any human to comprehend." (p. 32.)
* Vaswani, Ashish, Noam Shazeer, Niki Parmar et al. "Attention is all you need." Advances in neural information processing systems 30 (2017). Seminal paper on transformers.
* Vincent, James, "Horny Robot Baby Voice: James Vincent on AI chatbots", London Review of Books, vol. 46, no. 19 (10 October 2024), pp.&nbsp;29–32. "[AI chatbot] programs are made possible by new technologies but rely on the timelelss human tendency to anthropomorphise." (p.&nbsp;29.)
* {{Cite book |urlhttps://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf |titleWhite Paper: On Artificial Intelligence – A European approach to excellence and trust |publisherEuropean Commission |date2020 |locationBrussels |ref{{Harvid|European Commission|2020}} |access-date20 February 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200220173419/https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/info/files/commission-white-paper-artificial-intelligence-feb2020_en.pdf |archive-date20 February 2020 |url-statuslive }}
{{Refend}}
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1166 | Afro Celt Sound System | {{short description|British world music band}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2022}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Afro Celt Sound System
| image = Afro Celt Soundsystem TFF.JPG
| caption = Afro Celt Soundsystem at TFF.Rudolstadt 2010. L.t.R: Johnny Kalsi, Simon Emmerson, Iarla Ó Lionáird, Ian Markin, N´Faly Kouyate, Emer Mayock, James McNally, Moussa Sissokho.
| image_size = <!-- Only for images smaller than 220px! -->
| landscape = Yes
| alias = ACSS, Afrocelts
| origin = London, United Kingdom
| genre = Ethnic electronica, worldbeat, Celtic fusion, Afrobeat
| years_active = 1995–Present
| label = Real World Records, EEC Records, Six Degrees Records
| website = {{URL|https://afroceltsoundsystem.com/}}
| current_members = *N'Faly Kouyate
*[https://www.instagram.com/endagallery/ Enda Gallery]
*[https://www.instagram.com/tarahowleymusic/ Tara Howley]
*Binta Suso
*Kalifa Koné
*[https://www.instagram.com/mulu%20ceol/ Mùlù] (Miadhachlughain O'Donnell)
| past_members = *Johnny Kalsi
*Simon Emmerson (†&nbsp;2023)<ref name"Obituary-PG">{{cite web|urlhttps://realworldrecords.com/news/simon-emmerson-1956-2023/ |authorPeter Gabriel, Real World Records |titleSimon Emmerson (1956–2023) |websiterealworldrecords.com |date17 March 2023 |access-date27 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.folkradio.co.uk/2023/03/simon-emmerson-tribute/ |titleSimon Emmerson (12 March 1956 – 13 March 2023) |author |websitefolkradio.co.uk |date15 March 2023 |access-date=26 March 2023}}</ref>
*James McNally
*Martin Russell
*Iarla Ó Lionáird
*Ronan Browne
*[https://www.instagram.com/jamesmahonmusic/ James Mahon]
*Moussa Sissokho
*Griogair Labhruidh
*Rioghnach Connelly
*Emer Mayock
*Demba Barry
*Myrdhin
*Simon Massey
*Jo Bruce (†&nbsp;1997)
}}
Afro Celt Sound System are a European and African group who fuse electronic music with traditional Gaelic and West African music. Afro Celt Sound System was formed in 1995 by producer-guitarist Simon Emmerson, and feature a wide range of guest artists.<ref name"allmusic">{{cite web|url{{AllMusic|classartist|idafro-celt-sound-system-p200387/biography|pure_urlyes}}|titleAfro Celt Sound System Biography|lastHarris|firstGraid|publisherAllMusic|access-date18 November 2010}}</ref> In 2003, they temporarily changed their name to Afrocelts before reverting to their original name.
Their albums have been released through Peter Gabriel's Real World Records,<ref>{{cite web|work Real World Records |title Afro Celt Sound System |url https://realworldrecords.com/artist/340/afro-celt-sound-system/}}</ref> and they have frequently performed at WOMAD festivals worldwide. Their sales on the label are exceeded only by Gabriel himself.{{Citation needed|dateJuly 2016}} Their recording contract with Real World was for five albums, of which Volume 5: Anatomic was the last.<ref name"jazzmann">{{cite web|urlhttp://www.thejazzmann.com/reviews/review/afro-celt-sound-system-capture/|titleReview of Capture|lastMann|firstIan|publisherTheJazzMann.com|access-date=18 November 2010}}</ref>
After a number of festival dates in 2007, the band went on hiatus. In 2010, they regrouped to play a number of shows (including a return to WOMAD),<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.realworldrecords.com/news/afro-celt-sound-system-return-to-the-home-where-they-were-launched-in-1995-the-womad-festival |titleNews » Real World Records – World music label |publisherReal World Records |date19 September 2013 |access-date15 July 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110622010706/http://www.realworldrecords.com/news/afro-celt-sound-system-return-to-the-home-where-they-were-launched-in-1995-the-womad-festival |archive-date22 June 2011 |url-statusdead}}</ref> and released a remastered retrospective titled Capture.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.realworldrecords.com/catalogue/capture |titleWorld music label |publisherReal World Records |date2013-09-19 |access-date15 July 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110210214245/http://realworldrecords.com/catalogue/capture/ |archive-date10 February 2011 |url-statusdead}}</ref>
On 20 May 2014, Afro Celt Sound System announced the release of the album Born.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://afroceltsoundsystem.com/ |titleAfro Celt Sound System |publisherAfro Celt Sound System |access-date2014-07-15}}</ref> In January 2016, a posting on their website revealed that due to a dispute with Emmerson, who announced his departure from the band in 2015, there were two active versions of the band, one led by Emmerson and another with a separate line-up headed by James McNally and Martin Russell. Emmerson's version of the band released the album The Source in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |titleAfro Celt Sound System – Review |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/may/01/afro-celt-sound-system-the-source-review-daring-triumphant |workThe Guardian |dateMay 2016}}</ref> The dispute ended on 21 December 2016, with an announcement on social media.
The band released their seventh studio album, Flight, on 23 November 2018.<ref>{{cite web |titleTake Flight with Afro Celt Sound System |urlhttps://folking.com/take-flight-with-afro-celt-sound-system/ |websiteFolking.com |access-date17 January 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200117134232/https://folking.com/take-flight-with-afro-celt-sound-system/ |archive-date17 January 2020 |date12 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1McFadyen |first1Neil |titleAfro Celt Sound System: Flight (Album Review) {{!}} Folk Radio UK |urlhttps://www.folkradio.co.uk/2018/11/afro-celt-sound-system-flight/ |websiteFolk Radio UK – Folk Music Magazine |access-date17 January 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200117134405/https://www.folkradio.co.uk/2018/11/afro-celt-sound-system-flight/ |archive-date17 January 2020 |date24 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |lastSpencer |firstNeil |titleAfro Celt Sound System: Flight review – unflagging spirit and invention |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/25/afro-celt-sound-system-flight-review |access-date17 January 2020 |workThe Observer |date25 November 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190709003619/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/25/afro-celt-sound-system-flight-review |archive-date9 July 2019}}</ref>Formation
The inspiration behind the project dates back to 1991, when Simon Emmerson, a Grammy Award-nominated British producer and guitarist, collaborated with Afro-pop star Baaba Maal. While making an album with Maal in Senegal, Emmerson was struck by the similarity between one African melody and a traditional Irish air. Back in London, Irish musician Davy Spillane told Emmerson about a belief that nomadic Celts lived in Africa or India before they migrated to Western Europe. Whether or not the theory was true, Emmerson was intrigued by the two regions' musical affinities.
In an experiment that would prove successful, Emmerson brought two members of Baaba Maal's band together with traditional Irish musicians to see what kind of music the two groups would create. Adding a dash of modern sound, Emmerson also brought in English dance mixers for an electronic beat. "People thought I was mad when I touted the idea," Emmerson told Jim Carroll of The Irish Times. "At the time, I was out of favour with the London club scene. I was broke and on income support but the success was extraordinary".<ref name"Jim Carroll">{{cite news |lastCarroll |firstJim |titleCelts get Afro beat |urlhttp://www.irishtimes.com/news/celts-get-afro-beat-1.317903 |newspaperThe Irish Times |date14 July 2001 |access-date15 February 2016}}</ref>
Career
Jamming in the studios at Real World, musician Peter Gabriel's recording facilities in Wiltshire, England, the group of musicians recorded the basis of their first album in one week. This album, Volume 1: Sound Magic, was released by Real World Records in 1996, and marked the debut of the Afro Celt Sound System.<ref name"LarkinDM">{{cite book|titleThe Virgin Encyclopedia of Dance Music|editorColin Larkin|editor-linkColin Larkin (writer)|publisherVirgin Books|date1998|editionFirst|isbn0-7535-0252-6|page=9}}</ref>
"Prior to that first album being made, none of us knew if it would work," musician James McNally told Larry Katz of the Boston Herald. "We were strangers who didn't even speak the same language. But we were bowled over by this communication that took place beyond language."{{full citation needed|date=November 2012}} McNally, who grew up second-generation Irish in London, played whistles, keyboards, piano, bodhran, and bamboo flute.
Sound Magic has now sold over 300,000 copies. The band performed at festivals, raves, and dance clubs and regularly included two African musicians, Moussa Sissokho on talking drum and djembe and N'Faly Kouyate on vocals, kora and balafon.
Just as the second album was getting off the ground, one of the group's core musicians, 27-year-old keyboardist Jo Bruce, (son of Cream bass player Jack Bruce), died suddenly of an asthma attack.<ref name"LarkinDM"/> The band was devastated, and the album was put on hold. Sinéad O'Connor then collaborated with the band and helped them cope with their loss. "[O'Connor] blew into the studio on a windy November night and blew away again leaving us something incredibly emotional and powerful," McNally told Katz. "We had this track we didn't know what to do with. Sinéad scribbled a few lyrics and bang! She left us completely choked up."{{full citation needed|dateNovember 2012}} The band used the name of O'Connor's song, "Release", for the title of their album. Volume 2: Release was released in 1999, and by the spring of 2000 it had sold more than half a million copies worldwide. Release is also used as one of the GCSE music set works in the UK that students are required to study for their exam.<ref>{{Cite web|titleRelease – Afro Celt Sound System: Release – Edexcel – GCSE Music Revision – Edexcel|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zvw8jty/revision/1|access-date2020-09-28|publisherBBC Bitesize|language=en-GB}}</ref>
In 2000, the group was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best World Music category. The band, composed at the time of eight members from six countries (the UK, Senegal, Guinea, Ireland, France and Kenya), took pride in its ability to bring people together through music. "We can communicate anywhere at any corner of the planet and feel that we're at home," McNally told Patrick MacDonald of The Seattle Times. "We're breaking down categories of world music and rock music and black music. We leave a door open to communicate with each other's traditions. And it's changed our lives".{{full citation needed|date=November 2012}}
In 2001, the group released Volume 3: Further in Time, which climbed to number one on Billboard{{'}}s Top World Music Albums chart. Featuring guest spots by Peter Gabriel and Robert Plant, the album also incorporated a heightened African sound. "On the first two records, the pendulum swung more toward the Celtic, London club side of the equation," Emmerson told The Irish Times{{'}} Carroll. "For this one, we wanted to have more African vocals and input than we'd done before."<ref name"Jim Carroll"/> Again the Afro Celt Sound System met with success. Chuck Taylor of Billboard praised the album as "a cultural phenomenon that bursts past the traditional boundaries of contemporary music."{{full citation needed|dateNovember 2012}} The single "When You're Falling", with vocals by Gabriel, became a radio hit in the United States.
In 2003, for the Seed album, they changed their name to Afrocelts. They reverted to the longer band name for their subsequent albums, Pod, a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums, Volume 5: Anatomic (their fifth studio album), and Capture (1995–2010).
They played a number of shows to promote Volume 5: Anatomic in 2006 and summer 2007, ending with a gig in Korea,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.afrocelts.org/wst_page9.html |titleAfro Celt Sound System Fan Website – ACSS News |publisherAfrocelts.org |access-date2014-07-15 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100620120502/http://www.afrocelts.org/wst_page9.html |archive-date20 June 2010 |url-statusdead }}</ref> before taking an extended break to work on side projects, amongst them The Imagined Village featuring Simon Emmerson and Johnny Kalsi. Starting in the summer of 2010, the band performed a series of live shows to promote Capture (1995–2010), released on 6 September 2010 on Real World Records. Further performances continue to the present day, and a new album-in-progress titled Born was announced on their website in 2014. Following the split (see below), Emmerson's version of the band released the album The Source in 2016. Split During 2015, the band had split into two formations, one of them including Simon Emmerson, N'Faly Kouyate and Johnny Kalsi, the other one James McNally and Martin Russell. The split was announced on the band's website in January 2016.<ref>{{cite web|titleAn open letter about what has been happening to Afro Celt Sound System|urlhttp://afroceltsoundsystem.com/Afro-Celt-Sound-System-open-letter|dateJanuary 2016|access-date15 February 2016|archive-date5 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160305073107/http://afroceltsoundsystem.com/Afro-Celt-Sound-System-open-letter/|url-statusdead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleThe controversial new Afro Celt Sound System album 'The Source' released today. |urlhttps://tradconnect.com/profiles/blogs/the-controversial-new-afro-celt-sound-system-album-the-source-rel |websiteTradConnect |access-date15 November 2020 |date29 April 2016}}</ref> The dispute officially ended with an announcement on social media on 21 December 2016. {{Blockquote |textSimon Emmerson, James McNally and Martin Russell are pleased to announce that they have been able to set aside their differences and come to an amicable agreement to bring their dispute to an end. Going forward, McNally, Russell and Emmerson have agreed that Emmerson will continue to perform as Afro Celt Sound System and McNally and Russell will work under a new name to be announced in due course. While McNally, Russell and Emmerson will no longer be performing or working together they recognise, and are grateful for each other's contribution to Afro Celt Sound System over the past two decades and will be working with the extensive community of musicians that make up the long standing Afro Celt Sound System family.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.facebook.com/officialafroceltsoundsystem/posts/1384670074878165|titleAfro Celt Sound System|viaFacebook|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200117134949/https://www.facebook.com/officialafroceltsoundsystem/posts/1384670074878165|archive-date17 January 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleStatement about ACSS |urlhttps://www.afroceltsoundsystem.org.uk/news/statement-about-acss/ |websiteAfro Celt Sound System |access-date15 November 2020 |date21 December 2016}}</ref>}}
Members
When Afro Celt Sound System formed in the mid-1990s during the Real World Recording Week, the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non-existent. However, over time, a combination of people became most often associated with the name Afro Celt Sound System (while Volume 5: Anatomic only lists Emmerson, McNally, Ó Lionáird and Russell as regulars). The divided grouping of the band into two versions, both operating under the name Afro Celt Sound System, began in January 2016 and was resolved in December 2016 after McNally and Russell agreed to work under a different name from Emmerson.
*Simon Emmerson who died on 13 March 2023 after falling ill.<ref name="Obituary-PG" />
*N'Faly Kouyate
*Johnny Kalsi
*Moussa Sissokho
*Griogair Labhruidh
*Ronan Browne
*Emer Mayock
*Davy Spillane
Russell/McNally version
*Martin Russell
*James McNally
*Ian Markin
*Tim Bradshaw
*Babara Bangoura
*Dorothee Munyaneza
*Kadially Kouyaté
*Dav Daheley
Other musicians who have performed or recorded with Afro Celt Sound System include: Jimmy Mahon, Demba Barry, Babara Bangoura, Iarla Ó Lionáird, Peter Gabriel, Robert Plant, Pete Lockett, Sinéad O'Connor, Pina Kollar, Dorothee Munyaneza, Sevara Nazarkhan, Simon Massey, Jesse Cook, Martin Hayes, Eileen Ivers, Mundy, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Ciarán Tourish of Altan, Ronan Browne, Michael McGoldrick, Steáfán Hannigan, Myrdhin, Shooglenifty, Mairead Nesbitt, Nigel Eaton, Davy Spillane, Jonas Bruce, Heather Nova, Julie Murphy, Ayub Ogada, Caroline Lavelle, and Ross Ainslie. <ref>{{cite web |work The Barbican |title Afro Celt Sound System |url http://www.barbican.org.uk/music/event-detail.asp?ID19669 |access-date 7 July 2016 |archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160820224427/http://www.barbican.org.uk/music/event-detail.asp?ID19669 |archive-date 20 August 2016 |url-status dead }}</ref> Discography Studio albums{| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
|+ List of studio albums, with selected chart positions
! scope"col" rowspan"2"| Title
! scope"col" rowspan"2"| Year
! scope"col" colspan"7"| Peak chart positions
|-
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| UK<br /><ref name="UK">Peaks in the UK:
* All except noted: {{cite web|urlhttps://www.officialcharts.com/artist/1622/afro-celt-sound-system/|titleAfro Celt Sound System {{!}} full Official Chart history|publisherOfficial Charts|access-date5 December 2020}}
* "When You're Falling": {{cite web|urlhttp://www.zobbel.de/cluk/CLUK_A.HTM|titleChart Log UK 1994–2010: A – Azzido Da Bass|websitezobbel.de|access-date5 December 2020}}</ref>
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| AUS<br /><ref name"AUS">{{cite book|lastRyan|firstGavin|titleAustralia's Music Charts 1988–2010|year2011|publisherMoonlight Publishing|locationMt. Martha, VIC, Australia|editionPDF|page=9}}</ref>
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| FRA<br /><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://lescharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpretAfro+Celt+Sound+System|titleDiscographie Afro Celt Sound System|websitelescharts.com|access-date=5 December 2020}}</ref>
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| IRE<br /><ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://irish-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpretAfro+Celt+Sound+System|titleDiscography Afro Celt Sound System|websiteirish-charts.com|access-date=5 December 2020}}</ref>
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| NZ<br /><ref name"NZ">{{cite web|urlhttps://charts.nz/showinterpret.asp?interpretAfro+Celt+Sound+System|titleDiscography Afro Celt Sound System|websitecharts.nz|access-date5 December 2020}}</ref>
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| US<br /><ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/artist/afrocelts/chart-history/tlp/|titleAfro Celt Sound System Chart History: Billboard 200|magazineBillboard|access-date5 December 2020}}</ref>
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| US<br />World<br /><ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/artist/afrocelts/chart-history/wlp/|titleAfro Celt Sound System Chart History: World Albums|magazineBillboard|access-date5 December 2020}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| Volume 1: Sound Magic
| 1996
| 59 || 53 || — || — || 32 || — || 15
|-
! scope="row"| Volume 2: Release
| 1999
| 38 || 93 || 63 || — || 42 || — || 6
|-
! scope="row"| Volume 3: Further in Time
| 2001
| 77 || — || — || 33 || — || 176 || 1
|-
! scope="row"| Seed
| 2003
| — || — || — || — || — || — || 5
|-
! scope="row"| Volume 5: Anatomic
| 2005
| — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| The Source
| 2016
| 86 || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| Flight
| 2018
| — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|-
! scope="row"| OVA
| 2024
| — || — || — || — || — || — || —
|}
Other albums
* Pod (remix album) (2004)
* Capture (1995–2010) (2010) (compilation) No. 14 NZ<ref name="NZ" />
They also recorded the soundtrack for the PC game Magic and Mayhem, released in 1998.
Charted singles
{| class"wikitable plainrowheaders" style"text-align:center"
|+ List of charted singles, with selected chart positions
! scope"col" rowspan"2"| Title
! scope"col" rowspan"2"| Year
! scope"col" colspan"3"| Peak chart positions
! scope"col" rowspan"2"| Album
|-
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| UK<br /><ref name="UK"/>
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| NLD<br /><ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://dutchcharts.nl/showinterpret.asp?interpretAfro+Celt+Sound+System|titleDiscografie Afro Celt Sound System|websitedutchcharts.nl|access-date=5 December 2020}}</ref>
! scope"col" style"width:2.5em;font-size:90%;"| US<br />Dance<br /><ref>{{cite magazine|urlhttps://www.billboard.com/artist/afrocelts/chart-history/dsi/|titleAfro Celt Sound System Chart History: Dance Club Songs|magazineBillboard|access-date5 December 2020}}</ref>
|-
! scope="row"| "Whirl-Y-Reel"
| 1997
| 91 || — || —
| Volume 1: Sound Magic
|-
! scope="row"| "Release"
| 2000
| 71 || — || 3
| Volume 2: Release
|-
! scope="row"| "When You're Falling"<br />{{small|(featuring Peter Gabriel)}}
| 2001
| 139 || 86 || —
| Volume 3: Further in Time
|}
References
{{Reflist}}
External links
{{commons category|Afro Celt Soundsystem}}
{{Afro Celt Sound System}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Afro Celt Sound System}}
Category:Celtic fusion groups
Category:Worldbeat groups
Category:Real World Records artists
Category:British world music groups
Category:Musical groups established in 1995 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro_Celt_Sound_System | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.711928 |
1167 | Ancient philosophy | This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, namely philosophical thought extending as far as early post-classical history ().
Overview
Genuine philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. Karl Jaspers termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century BCE and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an Axial Age in human thought.
In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of medieval philosophy, whereas in the Middle East, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire marked the end of Old Iranian philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of early Islamic philosophy.
Ancient Greek and Roman philosophy
thumb|250px|right|Graphical relationship among the various pre-Socratic philosophers and thinkers; red arrows indicate a relationship of opposition.
thumb|250px|right|Raphael's School of Athens, depicting an array of ancient Greek philosophers engaged in discussion.
Philosophers
Pre-Socratic philosophers
Milesian School
Thales (624 – c 546 BCE)
Anaximander (610 – 546 BCE)
Anaximenes of Miletus (c. 585 – c. 525 BCE)
Pythagoreans
Pythagoras (582 – 496 BCE)
Philolaus (470 – 380 BCE)
Alcmaeon of Croton
Archytas (428 – 347 BCE)
Heraclitus (535 – 475 BCE)
Eleatic School
Xenophanes (570 – 470 BCE)
Parmenides (510 – 440 BCE)
Zeno of Elea (490 – 430 BCE)
Melissus of Samos (c. 470 BCE – ?)
Pluralists
Empedocles (490 – 430 BCE)
Anaxagoras (500 – 428 BCE)
Atomists
Leucippus (first half of 5th century BCE)
Democritus (460 – 370 BCE)
Metrodorus of Chios (4th century BCE)
Pherecydes of Syros (6th century BCE)
Sophists
Protagoras (490 – 420 BCE)
Gorgias (487 – 376 BCE)
Antiphon (480 – 411 BCE)
Prodicus (465/450 – after 399 BCE)
Hippias (middle of the 5th century BCE)
Thrasymachus (459 – 400 BCE)
Callicles
Critias
Lycophron
Diogenes of Apollonia ( – ?)
Classical Greek philosophers
Socrates (469 – 399 BCE)
Euclid of Megara (450 – 380 BCE)
Antisthenes (445 – 360 BCE)
Aristippus (435 – 356 BCE)
Plato (428 – 347 BCE)
Speusippus (407 – 339 BCE)
Diogenes of Sinope (400 – 325 BCE)
Xenocrates (396 – 314 BCE)
Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE)
Stilpo (380 – 300 BCE)
Theophrastus (370 – 288 BCE)
Hellenistic philosophy
Pyrrho (365 – 275 BCE)
Epicurus (341 – 270 BCE)
Metrodorus of Lampsacus (the younger) (331 – 278 BCE)
Zeno of Citium (333 – 263 BCE)
Cleanthes ( – )
Timon (320 – 230 BCE)
Arcesilaus (316 – 232 BCE)
Menippus (3rd century BCE)
Archimedes ( – 212 BCE)
Chrysippus (280 – 207 BCE)
Carneades (214 – 129 BCE)
Clitomachus (187 – 109 BCE)
Metrodorus of Stratonicea (late 2nd century BCE)
Philo of Larissa (160 – 80 BCE)
Posidonius (135 – 51 BCE)
Antiochus of Ascalon (130 – 68 BCE)
Aenesidemus (1st century BCE)
Agrippa (1st century CE)
Hellenistic schools of thought
Academic skepticism
Cynicism
Cyrenaicism
Eclecticism
Epicureanism
Middle Platonism
Neo-Platonism
Neopythagoreanism
Peripatetic School
Pyrrhonism
Stoicism
Sophism
Early Roman and Christian philosophy
Neoplatonism in Christianity
School of the Sextii
Philosophers during Roman times
thumb|150px|right|Plotinus
Cicero (106 – 43 BCE)
Lucretius (94 – 55 BCE)
Seneca (4 BCE – 65 CE)
Musonius Rufus (30 – 100 CE)
Plutarch (45 – 120 CE)
Epictetus (55 – 135 CE)
Favorinus ( – )
Marcus Aurelius (121 – 180 CE)
Clement of Alexandria (150 – 215 CE)
Alcinous (philosopher) (2nd century CE)
Sextus Empiricus (3rd century CE)
Alexander of Aphrodisias (3rd century CE)
Ammonius Saccas (3rd century CE)
Plotinus (205 – 270 CE)
Porphyry (232 – 304 CE)
Iamblichus (242 – 327 CE)
Themistius (317 – 388 CE)
Ambrose (340 – 397 CE)
Hypatia of Alexandria (350 – 415 CE)
Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430 CE)
Proclus (411 – 485 CE)
Damascius (462 – 540 CE)
Boethius (472 – 524 CE)
Simplicius of Cilicia (490 – 560 CE)
John Philoponus (490 – 570 CE)
Ancient Iranian philosophy
right|250px|thumb|Zarathustra as depicted in Raphael's The School of Athens beside Raphael who appears as the ancient painter Apelles of Kos.
See also: Dualism, Dualism (philosophy of mind)
While there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe. The first charter of human rights by Cyrus the Great as understood in the Cyrus cylinder is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zarathustra and developed in Zoroastrian schools of thought of the Achaemenid Era of Iranian history.
Schools of thought
Ideas and tenets of Zoroastrian schools of Early Persian philosophy are part of many works written in Middle Persian and of the extant scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion in Avestan language. Among these are treatises such as the Shikand-gumanic Vichar by Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan, selections of Denkard, Wizidagīhā-ī Zātspram ("Selections of Zātspram") as well as older passages of the book Avesta, the Gathas which are attributed to Zarathustra himself and regarded as his "direct teachings".
Zoroastrianism
Zarathustra
Jamasp
Ostanes
Mardan-Farrux Ohrmazddadan
Adurfarnbag Farroxzadan
Adurbad Emedan
Manichaeism
Mani ( – 276 CE)
Ammo
Mazdakism
Mazdak the Elder
Mazdak (died c. 524 or 528 CE)
Zurvanism
Aesthetic Zurvanism
Materialist Zurvanism
Fatalistic Zurvanism
Philosophy and the Empire
Political philosophy
Tansar
University of Gundishapur
Borzouye
Bakhtshooa Gondishapuri
Emperor Khosrau's philosophical discourses
Paul the Persian
Literature
Pahlavi literature
Ancient Jewish philosophy
Qohelet ()
Pseudo-Aristeas ()
Ben Sira (fl. 180–175 BCE)
Aristobulus of Alexandria (181–124 BCE)
Philo of Alexandria (30 BCE – 45 CE)
Wisdom of Solomon ()
4 Maccabees ()
Rabbi Akiva ( – )
Ancient Indian philosophy
The ancient Indian philosophy is a fusion of two ancient traditions: the Vedic tradition and the śramaṇa tradition.
Vedic philosophy
Indian philosophy begins with the Vedas wherein questions pertaining to laws of nature, the origin of the universe, and the place of man in it are asked. In the famous Rigvedic Hymn of Creation (Nasadiya Sukta) the poet asks:
"Whence all creation had its origin,
he, whether he fashioned it or whether he did not,
he, who surveys it all from highest heaven,
he knows—or maybe even he does not know."
In the Vedic view, creation is ascribed to the self-consciousness of the primeval being (Purusha). This leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things. Cosmic order is termed rta and causal law by karma. Nature (prakriti) is taken to have three qualities (sattva, rajas, and tamas).
Vedas
Upanishads
Hindu philosophy
Sramana philosophy
Jainism and Buddhism are a continuation of the Sramana school of thought. The Sramanas cultivated a pessimistic worldview of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated renunciation and austerities. They laid stress on philosophical concepts like Ahimsa, Karma, Jnana, Samsara and Moksa. Cārvāka (Sanskrit: चार्वाक) (atheist) philosophy, also known as Lokāyata, it is a system of Hindu philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference. It is named after its founder, Cārvāka, author of the Bārhaspatya-sūtras.
Classical Indian philosophy
In classical times, these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy. Some of the questions asked were:
What is the ontological nature of consciousness?
How is cognition itself experienced?
Is mind (chit) intentional or not?
Does cognition have its own structure?
The six schools of Indian philosophy are:
Nyaya
Vaisheshika
Samkhya
Yoga
Mimamsa (Purva Mimamsa)
Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa)
Ancient Indian philosophers
1st millennium BCE
Parashara – writer of Viṣṇu Purāṇa.
Philosophers of Vedic Age (c. 1500 – c. 600 BCE)
Rishi Narayana – seer of the Purusha Sukta of the Rig Veda.
Seven Rishis – Atri, Bharadwaja, Gautama, Jamadagni, Kasyapa, Vasishtha, Viswamitra.
Other Vedic Rishis – Gritsamada, Sandilya, Kanva etc.
Rishaba – Rishi mentioned in Rig Veda and later in several Puranas, and believed by Jains to be the first official religious guru of Jainism, as accredited by later followers.
Yajnavalkya – one of the Vedic sages, greatly influenced Buddhistic thought.
Lopamudra
Gargi Vachaknavi
Maitreyi
Parshvanatha
Ghosha
Angiras – one of the seers of the Atharva Veda and author of Mundaka Upanishad.
Uddalaka Aruni – an Upanishadic sage who authored major portions of Chāndogya Upaniṣad.
Ashvapati – a King in the Later Vedic age who authored Vaishvanara Vidya of Chāndogya Upaniṣad.
Ashtavakra – an Upanishadic Sage mentioned in the Mahabharata, who authored Ashtavakra Gita.
Philosophers of Axial Age (600–185 BCE)
Gotama (), logician, author of Nyaya Sutra
Kanada (), founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika, gave theory of atomism
Mahavira (599–527 BCE) – heavily influenced Jainism, the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism.
Purana Kassapa
Ajita Kesakambali
Payasi
Makkhali Gośāla
Sañjaya Belaṭṭhiputta
Mahavira
Dandamis
Nagasena
Lakulisha
150px|thumb|right|Buddha.
Pakudha Kaccayana
Pāṇini (520–460 BCE), grammarian, author of Ashtadhyayi
Kapila (), proponent of the Samkhya system of philosophy.
Badarayana (lived between 500 BCE and 400 BCE) – Author of Brahma Sutras.
Jaimini (), author of Purva Mimamsa Sutras.
Pingala (), author of the Chandas shastra
Gautama Buddha ( – ), founder of Buddhist school of thought
Śāriputra
Chanakya ( – ), author of Arthashastra, professor (acharya) of political science at the Takshashila University
Patañjali (), developed the philosophy of Raja Yoga in his Yoga Sutras.
Shvetashvatara – Author of earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.
Philosophers of Golden Age (184 BCE – 600 CE)
Aśvaghoṣa, believed to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist, and is considered the greatest Indian poet before Kālidāsa
Vatsyana, known for "Kama Sutra"
Samantabhadra, a proponent of the Jaina doctrine of Anekantavada
Isvarakrsna
Aryadeva, a student of Nagarjuna and contributed significantly to the Madhyamaka
Dharmakirti
Haribhadra
Pujyapada
Buddhaghosa
Kamandaka
Maticandra
Prashastapada
Bhāviveka
Dharmapala
Udyotakara
Gaudapada
Valluvar (), wrote the Kural text, a Tamil-language treatise on morality and secular ethics
Dignāga (), one of the founders of Buddhist school of Indian logic
Asanga (), exponent of the Yogacara
Bhartrihari (–510 CE), early figure in Indic linguistic theory
Bodhidharma (–528 CE), founder of the Zen school of Buddhism
Siddhasenadivākarasuri (5th century CE), Jain logician and author of important works in Sanskrit and Prakrit, such as Nyāyāvatāra (on logic) and Sanmatisūtra (dealing with the seven Jaina standpoints, knowledge and the objects of knowledge)
Vasubandhu (), one of the main founders of the Indian Yogacara school
Kundakunda (2nd century CE), exponent of Jain mysticism and Jain nayas dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter, author of Pañcāstikāyasāra (Essence of the Five Existents), the Pravacanasāra (Essence of the Scripture) and the Samayasāra (Essence of the Doctrine)
Nagarjuna ( – 250 CE), the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Path) school of Mahāyāna Buddhism
Umāsvāti or Umasvami (2nd century CE), author of first Jain work in Sanskrit, Tattvārthasūtra, expounding the Jain philosophy in a most systematized form acceptable to all sects of Jainism
Adi Shankara – philosopher and theologian, most renowned exponent of the Advaita Vedanta school of philosophy
Ancient Chinese philosophy
Chinese philosophy is the dominant philosophical thought in China and other countries within the East Asian cultural sphere that share a common language, including Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
Schools of thought
Hundred Schools of Thought
The Hundred Schools of Thought were philosophers and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 BCE, an era of significant cultural and intellectual expansion in China. Even though this period – known in its earlier part as the Spring and Autumn period and the Warring States period – in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles, it is also known as the Golden Age of Chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely. The thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in East Asian countries. The intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars, who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government, war, and diplomacy. This period ended with the rise of the Qin dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent. The Book of Han lists ten major schools, they are:
Confucianism, which teaches that human beings are teachable, improvable, and perfectible through personal and communal endeavors, especially including self-cultivation and self-creation. The main idea of Confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection. Confucianism holds that one should give up one's life, if necessary, either passively or actively, for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi.
Legalism. Often compared with Machiavelli, and foundational for the traditional Chinese bureaucratic empire, the Legalists examined administrative methods, emphasizing a realistic consolidation of the wealth and power of autocrat and state.
Taoism (also called Daoism), a philosophy which emphasizes the Three Jewels of the Tao: compassion, moderation, and humility, while Taoist thought generally focuses on nature, the relationship between humanity and the cosmos; health and longevity; and wu wei (action through inaction). Harmony with the Universe, or the source thereof (Tao), is the intended result of many Taoist rules and practices.
Mohism, which advocated the idea of universal love: Mozi believed that "everyone is equal before heaven" and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love. His epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist empiricism; he believed that human cognition ought to be based on one's perceptions – one's sensory experiences, such as sight and hearing – instead of imagination or internal logic, elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction. Mozi advocated frugality, condemning the Confucian emphasis on ritual and music, which he denounced as extravagant.
Naturalism, the School of Naturalists or the Yin-yang school, which synthesized the concepts of yin and yang and the Five Elements; Zou Yan is considered the founder of this school.
Agrarianism, or the School of Agrarianism, which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. The Agrarians believed that Chinese society should be modeled around that of the early sage king Shen Nong, a folk hero which was portrayed in Chinese literature as "working in the fields, along with everyone else, and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be reached."
The Logicians or the School of Names, which focused on definition and logic. It is said to have parallels with that of the Ancient Greek sophists or dialecticians. The most notable Logician was Gongsun Longzi.
The School of Diplomacy or School of Vertical and Horizontal [Alliances], which focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle, stressed political and diplomatic tactics, debate, and lobbying skills. Scholars from this school were good orators, debaters, and tacticians.
The Miscellaneous School, which integrated teachings from different schools; for instance, Lü Buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called Lüshi Chunqiu cooperatively. This school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws.
The School of "Minor-talks" was not a unique school of thought but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts discussed by and originated from ordinary people on the street.
Another group is the School of the Military that studied strategy and the philosophy of war; Sunzi and Sun Bin were influential leaders. However, this school was not one of the "Ten Schools" defined by Hanshu.
Early Imperial China
The founder of the Qin dynasty, who implemented Legalism as the official philosophy, quashed Mohist and Confucianist schools. Legalism remained influential until the emperors of the Han dynasty adopted Daoism and later Confucianism as official doctrine. These latter two became the determining forces of Chinese thought until the introduction of Buddhism.
Confucianism was particularly strong during the Han dynasty, whose greatest thinker was Dong Zhongshu, who integrated Confucianism with the thoughts of the Zhongshu School and the theory of the Five Elements. He also was a promoter of the New Text school, which considered Confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of China, who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the Universal Peace. In contrast, there was an Old Text school that advocated the use of Confucian works written in ancient language (from this comes the denomination Old Text) that were so much more reliable. In particular, they refuted the assumption of Confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage, but simply a human and mortal.
The 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the Xuanxue (mysterious learning), also called Neo-Taoism. The most influential philosophers of this movement were Wang Bi, Xiang Xiu and Guo Xiang. The main question of this school was whether Being came before Not-Being (in Chinese, ming and wuming). A peculiar feature of these Taoist thinkers, like the Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove, was the concept of feng liu (lit. wind and flow), a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse.
Buddhism arrived in China around the 1st century AD, but it was not until the Northern and Southern, Sui and Tang dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement. In the beginning, it was considered a sort of Taoist sect, and there was even a theory about Laozi, founder of Taoism, who went to India and taught his philosophy to Buddha. Mahayana Buddhism was far more successful in China than its rival Hinayana, and both Indian schools and local Chinese sects arose from the 5th century. Two chiefly important monk philosophers were Sengzhao and Daosheng. But probably the most influential and original of these schools was the Chan sect, which had an even stronger impact in Japan as the Zen sect.
Philosophers
Taoism
Laozi (5th–4th century BCE)
Zhuangzi (4th century BCE)
Zhang Daoling
Zhang Jue (died 184 CE)
Ge Hong (283 – 343 CE)
Confucianism
Confucius
Mencius
Xun Zi ( – 230 BCE)
Legalism
Li Si
Li Kui
Han Fei
Mi Su Yu
Shang Yang
Shen Buhai
Shen Dao
Mohism
Mozi
Song Xing
Logicians
Deng Xi
Hui Shi (380–305 BCE)
Gongsun Long ( – )
Agrarianism
Xu Xing
Naturalism
Zou Yan (305 – 240 BCE)
Neotaoism
Wang Bi
Guo Xiang
Xiang Xiu
School of Diplomacy
Guiguzi
Su Qin (380 – 284 BCE)
Zhang Yi (bef. 329 – 309 BCE)
Yue Yi
Li Yiji (268 – 204 BCE)
Military strategy
Sunzi ()
Sun Bin (died 316 BCE)
See also
Index of ancient philosophy articles
Wisdom literature
References
Further reading
Luchte, James, Early Greek Thought: Before the Dawn, in series Bloomsbury Studies in Ancient Philosophy, Bloomsbury Publishing, London, 2011.
External links | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_philosophy | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.766024 |
1168 | Anaximander | {{Short description|Ancient Greek philosopher (c. 610 – c. 546 BC)}}
{{About|the pre-Socratic philosopher}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = Western philosophy
| era = Pre-Socratic philosophy
| image = File:Pietro Bellotti (attr) Anaximander.jpg
| caption = Anaximander in a 17th century portrait by Pietro Bellotti
|name = Anaximander
|birth_date {{circa|610|lkno}} BC
|birth_place = Miletus, Ionian League
|death_date {{circa|546|lkno}} BC (aged {{circa}} 64)
|school_tradition {{hlist|classnowrap |Ionian{{\}}Milesian |Naturalism}}
|main_interests = Metaphysics, astronomy, geometry, geography
|notable_ideas = {{nowrap|The apeiron is the arche<br/>Evolutionary view of life<ref>DK fragments A 11 and A 30</ref><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/23149/Anaximander "Anaximander"]. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.</ref><br/>Earth floats unsupported<br/>Mechanical model of the sky<br/>Rain is from evaporation<br/>World map}}
}}
Anaximander ({{IPAc-en|æ|ˌ|n|æ|k|s|ɪ|ˈ|m|æ|n|d|ər}} {{respell|an|AK|sih|MAN|dər}}; {{langx|grc|Ἀναξίμανδρος}} Anaximandros; {{nowrap|{{circa|610|546}} BC}})<ref>{{Cite web |lastCouprie |firstDirk L. |titleAnaximander |urlhttps://iep.utm.edu/anaximan/ |websiteInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref> was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus,<ref nameChambers>"Anaximander" in ''Chambers's Encyclopædia. London: George Newnes, 1961, Vol. 1, p. 403.</ref> a city of Ionia (in modern-day Turkey). He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded Thales and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and, arguably, Pythagoras amongst his pupils.<ref>{{cite book |authorPorphyry |titleLife of Pythagoras}}<!--gosh this could be made a bit more useful--></ref>
Little of his life and work is known today. According to available historical documents, he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies,<ref>Themistius, Oratio 26, §317</ref> although only one fragment of his work remains. Fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of the man.
Anaximander was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long.<ref>Park, David (2005) The Grand Contraption'', Princeton University Press {{ISBN|0-691-12133-8}}</ref> Like many thinkers of his time, Anaximander's philosophy included contributions to many disciplines. In astronomy, he attempted to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. In physics, his postulation that the indefinite (or apeiron) was the source of all things, led Greek philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction. His knowledge of geometry allowed him to introduce the gnomon in Greece. He created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the advancement of geography. Anaximander was involved in the politics of Miletus and was sent as a leader to one of its colonies.
Biography
{{further|Arche#Ionian school}}
, dating to the early third century AD, showing Anaximander holding a sundial<ref>{{cite web|last1Zühmer|first1T. H.|titleRoman Mosaic Depicting Anaximander with Sundial|urlhttp://isaw.nyu.edu/exhibitions/time-cosmos/objects/roman-mosaic-anaximander|departmentInstitute for the Study of the Ancient World|date19 October 2016|publisher=New York University}}</ref>]]
Anaximander, son of Praxiades, was born in the third year of the 42nd Olympiad (610 BC).<ref name="Refutation">Hippolytus (?), Refutation of All Heresies (I, 5)</ref> According to Apollodorus of Athens, Greek grammarian of the 2nd century BC, he was sixty-four years old during the second year of the 58th Olympiad (547–546&nbsp;BC) and died shortly afterwards.<ref>In his Chronicles, as reported by Diogenes Laërtius, Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers (II, 2).</ref>
Establishing a timeline of his work is impossible, since no document provides chronological references. Themistius, a 4th-century Byzantine rhetorician, mentions that he was the "first of the known Greeks to publish a written document on nature." Therefore, his texts would be amongst the earliest written in prose, at least in the Western world. By the time of Plato, his philosophy was almost forgotten, and Aristotle, his successor Theophrastus, and a few doxographers provide us with the little information that remains. However, we know from Aristotle that Thales, also from Miletus, precedes Anaximander. It is debatable whether Thales actually was the teacher of Anaximander, but there is no doubt that Anaximander was influenced by Thales' theory that everything is derived from water. One thing that is not debatable is that even the ancient Greeks considered Anaximander to be from the Monist school which began in Miletus, with Thales followed by Anaximander and which ended with Anaximenes.<ref>{{cite book |lastMcKirahan |firstRichard D. |titlePhilosophy before Socrates |chapterAnaximander of Miletus |pages32–34 |isbn978-1603841832}}</ref> 3rd-century Roman rhetorician Aelian depicts Anaximander as leader of the Milesian colony to Apollonia on the Black Sea coast, and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen.<ref name"Chisholm1911">{{EB1911|inline1|wstitleAnaximander|volume1|page=944}}</ref> Indeed, Various History (III, 17) explains that philosophers sometimes also dealt with political matters. It is very likely that leaders of Miletus sent him there as a legislator to create a constitution or simply to maintain the colony's allegiance.
Anaximander lived the final few years of his life as a subject of the Persian Achaemenid Empire.<ref>{{cite book |last1Dandamaev |first1M. A. |author-link1Muhammad Dandamayev |titleA Political History of the Achaemenid Empire |date1989 |publisherBrill |isbn978-9004091726 |page153 |quoteDuring the period of Achaemenid rule in Miletus, which was the most important city of Ionia, there lived the eminent philosopher Anaximander and the geographer and historian Hecataeus.}}</ref> Theories 's painting The School of Athens, 1510–1511. This could be a representation of Anaximander leaning towards Pythagoras on his left.<ref>This character is traditionally associated with Boethius, however his face offering similarities with the relief of Anaximander (image in the box above), it could be a representation of the philosopher. See {{cite web |urlhttp://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/SchoolAthens2.htm |titleRaphael's School of Athens (2/2) |access-date2007-02-14 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070214002240/http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/SchoolAthens2.htm |archive-date=2007-02-14 }} for a description of the characters in this painting.</ref>]]
Anaximander's theories were influenced by the Greek mythical tradition, and by some ideas of Thales&nbsp;– the father of Western philosophy&nbsp;– as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the Near East, especially Babylon.<ref>C. Mosse (1984) ''La Grèce archaïque d'Homère à Eschyle. Édition du Seuil. p236</ref><ref name=":0" /> All these were developed rationally. In his desire to find some universal principle, he assumed, like traditional religion, the existence of a cosmic order; and his ideas on this used the old language of myths which ascribed divine control to various spheres of reality. This was a common practice for the Greek philosophers in a society which saw gods everywhere, and therefore could fit their ideas into a tolerably elastic system.<ref>C. M. Bowra (1957) The Greek experience. World publishing Company. Cleveland and New York. p168,169.</ref>
Some scholars{{who|date=May 2022}} see a gap between the existing mythical and the new rational way of thought which is the main characteristic of the archaic period (8th to 6th century BC) in the Greek city-states.<ref>Herbert Ernest Cushman claims Anaximander has "the first European philosophical conception of god", A beginner's history of philosophy, Volume 1 pg. 24</ref> This has given rise to the phrase "Greek miracle". But there may not have been such an abrupt break as initially appears. The basic elements of nature (water, air, fire, earth) which the first Greek philosophers believed made up the universe in fact represent the primordial forces imagined in earlier ways of thinking. Their collision produced what the mythical tradition had called cosmic harmony. In the old cosmogonies&nbsp;– Hesiod (8th&nbsp;– 7th century&nbsp;BC) and Pherecydes (6th century BC)&nbsp;– Zeus establishes his order in the world by destroying the powers which were threatening this harmony (the Titans). Anaximander claimed that the cosmic order is not monarchic but geometric, and that this causes the equilibrium of the Earth, which is lying in the centre of the universe. This is the projection on nature of a new political order and a new space organized around a centre which is the static point of the system in the society as in nature.<ref>C. Mosse (1984) La Grece archaique d'Homere a Eschyle. Edition du Seuil. p 235</ref> In this space there is isonomy (equal rights) and all the forces are symmetrical and transferable. The decisions are now taken by the assembly of demos in the agora which is lying in the middle of the city.<ref>J. P. Vernart (1982) Les origins de la pensee grecque. PUF Pariw. p 128, J. P. Vernart (1982) The origins of the Greek thought. Cornell University Press.</ref>
The same rational way of thought led him to introduce the abstract apeiron (indefinite, infinite, boundless, unlimited<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29pei%2Frwn2 ἀπείρων], Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, on Perseus</ref>) as an origin of the universe, a concept that is probably influenced by the original Chaos (gaping void, abyss, formless state) from which everything else appeared in the mythical Greek cosmogony.<ref>The Theogony of Hesiod, Transl. H. G. Evelyn White, 736–740</ref> It also takes notice of the mutual changes between the four elements. Origin, then, must be something else unlimited in its source, that could create without experiencing decay, so that genesis would never stop.<ref>Aetios, I 3,3 [ Pseudo-Plutarch; DK 12 A 14.]; Aristotle, Phys. Γ5,204b 23sq. [DK 12 A 16.]</ref> Apeiron
{{main|Apeiron|Matter#Classical antiquity (c. 600 BCE–c. 322 BCE)}}{{See also|Classical element#Hellenistic philosophy}}
The Refutation attributed to Hippolytus of Rome (I, 5), and the later 6th century Byzantine philosopher Simplicius of Cilicia, attribute to Anaximander the earliest use of the word apeiron ({{lang|grc|ἄπειρον}} "infinite" or "limitless") to designate the original principle. He was the first philosopher to employ, in a philosophical context, the term archē ({{lang|grc|ἀρχή}}), which until then had meant beginning or origin.
"That Anaximander called this something by the name of {{lang|grc|Φύσις}} is the natural interpretation of what Theophrastos says; the current statement that the term {{lang|grc|ἀρχή}} was introduced by him appears to be due to a misunderstanding."<ref name"Burnet 1930 54">{{Cite book|titleEarly Greek Philosophy|urlhttps://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn|url-accessregistration|lastBurnet|firstJohn|publisherA. & C. Black, Ltd.|year1930|locationGreat Britain|pages[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn/page/54 54]}}</ref>
And "Hippolytos, however, is not an independent authority, and the only question is what Theophrastos wrote."<ref>{{Cite book|titleEarly Greek Philosophy|urlhttps://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn_e8u1|url-accessregistration|lastBurnet|firstJohn|publisherA. & C. Black, Ltd.|year1930|locationGreat Britain|pages[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn_e8u1/page/54 54] footnote 2|isbn9780713603378}}</ref>
For him, it became no longer a mere point in time, but a source that could perpetually give birth to whatever will be. The indefiniteness is spatial in early usages as in Homer (indefinite sea) and as in Xenophanes (6th century BC) who said that the Earth went down indefinitely (to apeiron) i.e. beyond the imagination or concept of men.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Kirk |first1G. S. |last2Raven |first2J. E. |last3Schofield |first3M. |titleThe Presocratic Philosophers|name-list-styleamp| date2003| publisherCambridge University Press| urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idkFpd86J8PLsC| isbn978-0-521-27455-5| page110}}</ref>
Burnet (1930) in Early Greek Philosophy'' says:
<blockquote>"Nearly all we know of Anaximander's system is derived in the last resort from Theophrastos, who certainly knew his book. He seems once at least to have quoted Anaximander's own words, and he criticised his style. Here are the remains of what he said of him in the First Book:</blockquote>
<blockquote><nowiki/>"Anaximander of Miletos, son of Praxiades, a fellow-citizen and associate of Thales, said that the material cause and first element of things was the Infinite, he being the first to introduce this name of the material cause. He says it is neither water nor any other of the so-called elements, but a substance different from them which is infinite" [apeiron, or {{lang|grc|ἄπειρον}}] "from which arise all the heavens and the worlds within them.—Phys, Op. fr. 2 (Dox. p. 476; R. P. 16)."<ref>{{Cite book|titleEarly Greek Philosophy|urlhttps://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn|url-accessregistration|lastBurnet|firstJohn|publisherA. & C. Black, Ltd.|year1930|locationGreat Britain|pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn/page/52 52]}}</ref></blockquote>
Burnet's quote from the "First Book" is his translation of Theophrastos' Physic Opinion fragment 2 as it appears in p.&nbsp;476 of Historia Philosophiae Graecae (1898) by Ritter and Preller and section 16 of Doxographi Graeci (1879) by Diels.
By ascribing the "Infinite" with a "material cause", Theophrastos is following the Aristotelian tradition of "nearly always discussing the facts from the point of view of his own system".<ref>{{Cite book|titleEarly Greek Philosophy|urlhttps://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn_e8u1|url-accessregistration|lastBurnet|firstJohn|publisherA. & C. Black, Ltd.|year1930|locationGreat Britain|pages[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn_e8u1/page/31 31]–32|isbn9780713603378}}</ref>
Aristotle writes (Metaphysics, I.III 3–4) that the Pre-Socratics were searching for the element that constitutes all things. While each pre-Socratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element (water for Thales and air for Anaximenes), Anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless, unlimited primordial mass (apeiron), subject to neither old age nor decay, that perpetually yielded fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived.<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch, The Doctrines of the Philosophers (I, 3).</ref> He proposed the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher, Thales, who had claimed that the primary substance was water. The notion of temporal infinity was familiar to the Greek mind from remote antiquity in the religious concept of immortality, and Anaximander's description was in terms appropriate to this conception. This archē is called "eternal and ageless". (Hippolytus (?), Refutation, I,6,I;DK B2)<ref>{{Cite book |lastGuthrie |firstWilliam Keith Chambers |titleA History of Greek Philosophy| date2000| publisherCambridge University Press| url https://books.google.com/books?idogUR3V9wbbIC| isbn978-0-521-29420-1 |page=83}}</ref>
<blockquote>"''Aristotle puts things in his own way regardless of historical considerations, and it is difficult to see that it is more of an anachronism to call the Boundless " intermediate between the elements " than to say that it is " distinct from the elements." Indeed, if once we introduce the elements at all, the former description is the more adequate of the two. At any rate, if we refuse to understand these passages as referring to Anaximander, we shall have to say that Aristotle paid a great deal of attention to some one whose very name has been lost, and who not only agreed with some of Anaximander's views, but also used some of his most characteristic expressions. We may add that in one or two places Aristotle certainly seems to identify the " intermediate " with the something " distinct from " the elements''."<ref>{{Cite book|titleEarly Greek Philosophy|urlhttps://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn_e8u1|url-accessregistration|lastBurnet|firstJohn|publisherA. & C. Black, Ltd.|year1930|locationGreat Britain|pages[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn_e8u1/page/57 57]|isbn9780713603378}}</ref></blockquote>
<blockquote>"It is certain that he [Anaximander] cannot have said anything about elements, which no one thought of before Empedokles, and no one could think of before Parmenides. The question has only been mentioned because it has given rise to a lengthy controversy, and because it throws light on the historical value of Aristotle's statements. From the point of view of his own system, these may be justified; but we shall have to remember in other cases that, when he seems to attribute an idea to some earlier thinker, we are not bound to take what he says in an historical sense."<ref>{{Cite book|titleEarly Greek Philosophy|urlhttps://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn|url-accessregistration|lastBurnet|firstJohn|publisherA. & C. Black, Ltd.|year1930|locationGreat Britain|pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn/page/56 56]–57}}</ref></blockquote>
For Anaximander, the principle of things, the constituent of all substances, is nothing determined and not an element such as water in Thales' view. Neither is it something halfway between air and water, or between air and fire, thicker than air and fire, or more subtle than water and earth.<ref>Aristotle, On Generation and Corruption (II, 5)</ref> Anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature – for example, water can only be wet, never dry – and therefore cannot be the one primary substance; nor could any of the other candidates. He postulated the apeiron as a substance that, although not directly perceptible to us, could explain the opposites he saw around him.
<blockquote>"If Thales had been right in saying that water was the fundamental reality, it would not be easy to see how anything else could ever have existed. One side of the opposition, the cold and moist, would have had its way unchecked, and the warm and dry would have been driven from the field long ago. We must, then, have something not itself one of the warring opposites, something more primitive, out of which they arise, and into which they once more pass away."<ref name="Burnet 1930 54"/></blockquote>
Anaximander explains how the four elements of ancient physics (air, earth, water and fire) are formed, and how Earth and terrestrial beings are formed through their interactions. Unlike other Pre-Socratics, he never defines this principle precisely, and it has generally been understood (e.g., by Aristotle and by Saint Augustine) as a sort of primal chaos. According to him, the Universe originates in the separation of opposites in the primordial matter. It embraces the opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry, and directs the movement of things; an entire host of shapes and differences then grow that are found in "all the worlds" (for he believed there were many).<ref name="Chisholm1911"/>
<blockquote>"Anaximander taught, then, that there was an eternal. The indestructible something out of which everything arises, and into which everything returns; a boundless stock from which the waste of existence is continually made good, "elements.". That is only the natural development of the thought we have ascribed to Thales, and there can be no doubt that Anaximander at least formulated it distinctly. Indeed, we can still follow to some extent the reasoning which led him to do so. Thales had regarded water as the most likely thing to be that of which all others are forms; Anaximander appears to have asked how the primary substance could be one of these particular things. His argument seems to be preserved by Aristotle, who has the following passage in his discussion of the Infinite: ''"Further, there cannot be a single, simple body which is infinite, either, as some hold, one distinct from the elements, which they then derive from it, or without this qualification. For there are some who make this. (i.e. a body distinct from the elements). the infinite, and not air or water, in order that the other things may not be destroyed by their infinity. They are in opposition one to another. air is cold, water moist, and fire hot. and therefore, if any one of them were infinite, the rest would have ceased to be by this time. Accordingly they say that what is infinite is something other than the elements, and from it the elements arise.'—Aristotle Physics. F, 5 204 b 22 (Ritter and Preller (1898) Historia Philosophiae Graecae, section 16 b)."<ref>{{Cite book |titleEarly Greek Philosophy |urlhttps://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn |url-accessregistration |lastBurnet |firstJohn |publisherA. & C. Black |year1930 |locationGreat Britain |pages=[https://archive.org/details/earlygreekphilos0000burn/page/53 53]}}</ref></blockquote>
Anaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (apeiron''). The one surviving fragment of Anaximander's writing deals with this matter. Simplicius transmitted it as a quotation, which describes the balanced and mutual changes of the elements:<ref>Simplicius, ''Comments on Aristotle's Physics'' (24, 13):
: "{{lang|grc|Ἀναξίμανδρος [...] λέγει δ' αὐτὴν μήτε ὕδωρ μήτε ἄλλο τι τῶν καλουμένων εἶναι στοιχείων, ἀλλ' ἑτέραν τινὰ φύσιν ἄπειρον, ἐξ ἧς ἅπαντας γίνεσθαι τοὺς οὐρανοὺς καὶ τοὺς ἐν αὐτοῖς κόσμους· ἐξ ὧν δὲ ἡ γένεσίς ἐστι τοῖς οὖσι, καὶ τὴν φθορὰν εἰς ταῦτα γίνεσθαι κατὰ τὸ χρεών· διδόναι γὰρ αὐτὰ δίκην καὶ τίσιν ἀλλήλοις τῆς ἀδικίας κατὰ τὴν τοῦ χρόνου τάξιν, ποιητικωτέροις οὕτως ὀνόμασιν αὐτὰ λέγων. δῆλον δὲ ὅτι τὴν εἰς ἄλληλα μεταβολὴν τῶν τεττάρων στοιχείων οὗτος θεασάμενος οὐκ ἠξίωσεν ἕν τι τούτων ὑποκείμενον ποιῆσαι, ἀλλά τι ἄλλο παρὰ ταῦτα· οὗτος δὲ οὐκ ἀλλοιουμένου τοῦ στοιχείου τὴν γένεσιν ποιεῖ, ἀλλ' ἀποκρινομένων τῶν ἐναντίων διὰ τῆς αἰδίου κινήσεως.}}"
In Ancient Greek quotes usually blend with surrounding text. Consequently, it is uncertain how much is Anaximander's text and what is by Simplicius.</ref><ref>{{cite book |lastCurd |firstPatricia |titleA Presocratics Reader: Selected Fragments and Testimonia |publisherHackett Publishing |year1996 |page12}}</ref>
<blockquote>
Whence things have their origin,<br/>
Thence also their destruction happens,<br/>
According to necessity;<br/>
For they give to each other justice and recompense<br/>
For their injustice<br/>
In conformity with the ordinance of Time.
</blockquote>
Simplicius mentions that Anaximander said all these "in poetic terms", meaning that he used the old mythical language. The goddess Justice (Dike) keeps the cosmic order. This concept of returning to the element of origin was often revisited afterwards, notably by Aristotle,<ref>Aristotle, Metaphysics, I, 3, 983 b 8–11; Physics, III, 5, 204 b 33–34</ref> and by the Greek tragedian Euripides: "what comes from earth must return to earth."<ref>EuripidesSupplices, v. 532</ref> Friedrich Nietzsche, in his Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, stated that Anaximander viewed "... all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance."<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche, Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (1873) § 4.</ref> Physicist Max Born, in commenting upon Werner Heisenberg's arriving at the idea that the elementary particles of quantum mechanics are to be seen as different manifestations, different quantum states, of one and the same "primordial substance,"' proposed that this primordial substance be called apeiron.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBmcpsgp-Ml4C&pgPA546 | page 546 |titleA Cultural History of Physics |lastKároly |firstSimonyi |author-link Simonyi Károly |dateApril 7, 2012 |chapter 5.5.10 Back to the Apeiron? |publisherCRC Press |isbn9781568813295 <!-- print source, but for the fans: |access-dateJuly 9, 2013 -->}}</ref> A free-floating Earth
Anaximander was the first to conceive a mechanical model of the world. In his model, the Earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite, not supported by anything. It remains "in the same place because of its indifference", a point of view that Aristotle considered ingenious, in On the Heavens.<ref>Aristotle, On the Heavens, ii, 13</ref> Its curious shape is that of a cylinder<ref>"A column of stone", Aetius reports in De Fide (III, 7, 1), or "similar to a pillar-shaped stone", pseudo-Plutarch (III, 10).</ref> with a height one-third of its diameter. The flat top forms the inhabited world.
Carlo Rovelli suggests that Anaximander took the idea of the Earth's shape as a floating disk from Thales, who had imagined the Earth floating in water, the "immense ocean from which everything is born and upon which the Earth floats."{{sfn|Rovelli|2023|p48}} Anaximander was then able to envisage the Earth at the centre of an infinite space, in which case it required no support as there was nowhere "down" to fall. In Rovelli's view, the shape – a cylinder or a sphere – is unimportant compared to the appreciation of a "finite body that floats free in space."{{sfn|Rovelli|2023|p48}}
thought the Earth floated in the great Ocean, Anaximander saw the Earth as floating in the infinite. Where Thales conceived of things falling down to Earth, and Earth being above the Ocean, Anaximander saw the Earth as the centre, and that things could fall from any direction. This has been thought a large conceptual advance in cosmology.{{sfn|Rovelli|2023|pp=48–52}}]]
Anaximander's realization that the Earth floats free without falling and does not need to be resting on something has been indicated by many as the first cosmological revolution and the starting point of scientific thinking.{{sfn|Rovelli|2023|pp49–50}} Karl Popper calls this idea "one of the boldest, most revolutionary, and most portentous ideas in the whole history of human thinking."<ref>Karl Popper, "Conjectures and Refutations: The Growth of Scientific Knowledge" (New York: Routledge, 1998), p. 186.</ref> Such a model allowed the concept that celestial bodies could pass under the Earth, opening the way to Greek astronomy. Rovelli suggests that seeing the stars circling the Pole star, and both vanishing below the horizon on one side and reappearing above it on the other, would suggest to the astronomer that there was a void both above and below the Earth.{{sfn|Rovelli|2023|pp50–52}}
and vanishing and reappearing at the horizon could have suggested to Anaximander that the Earth was surrounded above and below by a void.{{sfn|Rovelli|2023|pp50–52}}]] Cosmology Anaximander's bold use of non-mythological explanatory hypotheses considerably distinguishes him from previous cosmology writers such as Hesiod.{{sfn|Rovelli|2023|pp42–43}} It indicates a pre-Socratic effort to demystify physical processes. His major contribution to history was writing the oldest prose document about the Universe and the origins of life; for this he is often called the "Father of Cosmology" and founder of astronomy. However, pseudo-Plutarch states that he still viewed celestial bodies as deities.<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch, Doctrines of the Philosophers, i. 7</ref> He placed the celestial bodies in the wrong order. He thought that the stars were nearest to the Earth, then the Moon, and the Sun farthest away. His scheme is compatible with the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions contained in the Iranian Avesta and the Indian Upanishads.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Marcovich |first1Miroslav |dateJune 1975 |titleReviewed Work: Early Greek Philosophy and the Orient by M. L. West |journalGnomon |volume47 |issue4 |pages321–328}}</ref>
At the origin, after the separation of hot and cold, a ball of flame appeared that surrounded Earth like bark on a tree. This ball broke apart to form the rest of the Universe. It resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels, filled with fire, with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute. Consequently, the Sun was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the Earth on the farthest wheel, and an eclipse corresponded with the occlusion of that hole. The diameter of the solar wheel was twenty-seven times that of the Earth (or twenty-eight, depending on the sources)<ref>In Refutation, it is reported that the circle of the Sun is twenty-seven times bigger than the Moon.</ref> and the lunar wheel, whose fire was less intense, eighteen (or nineteen) times. Its hole could change shape, thus explaining lunar phases. The stars and the planets, located closer,<ref>Aetius, De Fide (II, 15, 6)</ref> followed the same model.<ref>Most of Anaximander's model of the Universe comes from pseudo-Plutarch (II, 20–28):
: "[The Sun] is a circle twenty-eight times as big as the Earth, with the outline similar to that of a fire-filled chariot wheel, on which appears a mouth in certain places and through which it exposes its fire, as through the hole on a flute. [...] the Sun is equal to the Earth, but the circle on which it breathes and on which it's borne is twenty-seven times as big as the whole earth. [...] [The eclipse] is when the mouth from which comes the fire heat is closed. [...] [The Moon] is a circle nineteen times as big as the whole earth, all filled with fire, like that of the Sun".</ref>
Anaximander was the first astronomer to consider the Sun as a huge mass, and consequently, to realize how far from Earth it might be, and the first to present a system where the celestial bodies turned at different distances. Furthermore, according to Diogenes Laertius (II, 2), he built a celestial sphere.{{failed verification|dateOctober 2023}} This invention undoubtedly made him the first to realize the obliquity of the Zodiac as the Roman philosopher Pliny the Elder reports in Natural History (II, 8). It is a little early to use the term ecliptic, but his knowledge and work on astronomy confirm that he must have observed the inclination of the celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the Earth to explain the seasons. The doxographer and theologian Aetius attributes to Pythagoras the exact measurement of the obliquity. Multiple worlds
According to Simplicius, Anaximander already speculated on the plurality of worlds, similar to atomists Leucippus and Democritus, and later philosopher Epicurus. These thinkers supposed that worlds appeared and disappeared for a while, and that some were born when others perished. They claimed that this movement was eternal, "for without movement, there can be no generation, no destruction".<ref>Simplicius, ''Commentary on Aristotle's Physics, 1121, 5–9</ref>
In addition to Simplicius, Hippolytus<ref>Hippolytus (?), Refutation'' I, 6</ref> reports Anaximander's claim that from the infinite comes the principle of beings, which themselves come from the heavens and the worlds (several doxographers use the plural when this philosopher is referring to the worlds within,<ref>Notably pseudo-Plutarch (III, 2) and Aetius, (I, 3, 3; I, 7, 12; II, 1, 3; II, 1, 8).</ref> which are often infinite in quantity). Cicero writes that he attributes different gods to the countless worlds.<ref>On the Nature of the Gods (I, 10, 25):
: "Anaximandri autem opinio est nativos esse deos longis intervallis orientis occidentisque, eosque innumerabiles esse mundos."
: "For Anaximander, gods were born, but the time is long between their birth and their death; and the worlds are countless."</ref>
This theory places Anaximander close to the Atomists and the Epicureans who, more than a century later, also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared. In the timeline of the Greek history of thought, some thinkers conceptualized a single world (Plato, Aristotle, Anaxagoras and Archelaus), while others instead speculated on the existence of a series of worlds, continuous or non-continuous (Anaximenes, Heraclitus, Empedocles and Diogenes).
Meteorological phenomena
Anaximander attributed some phenomena, such as thunder and lightning, to the intervention of elements, rather than to divine causes.<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch (III, 3):
: "Anaximander claims that all this is done by the wind, for when it happens to be enclosed in a thick cloud, then by its subtlety and lightness, the rupture produces the sound; and the scattering, because of the darkness of the cloud, creates the light."</ref> In his system, thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other; the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock. Thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame, but strong enough to produce a sound. A flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls, allowing a less active fire to break free. Thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow.<ref>According to Seneca, Naturales quaestiones (II, 18).</ref>
He saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded Earth.<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch (III, 16)</ref> A part of that mass evaporated under the Sun's action, thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies, which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant.<ref>It is then very likely that by observing the Moon and the tides, Anaximander thought the latter were the cause, and not the effect of the satellite's movement.</ref> He explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from Earth by the sun.<ref name"Refutation" /> For him, the Earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions, which someday would go dry as well. According to Aristotle's Meteorology (II, 3), Democritus also shared this opinion. Origin of mankind Anaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life, and that humans came from other animals in waters.<ref name":0">{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.iep.utm.edu/presocra/#SH2b |titlePresocratics |lastGraham |firstJacob |website=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref><ref>Anaximander, frag. A30</ref> According to his evolutionary theory, animals sprang out of the sea long ago, born trapped in a spiny bark, but as they got older, the bark would dry up and animals would be able to break it.<ref>Aetius, Opinions, V, XIX, 4.</ref> The 3rd century Roman writer Censorinus reports:
{{blockquote|textAnaximander of Miletus considered that from warmed up water and earth emerged either fish or entirely fishlike animals. Inside these animals, men took form and embryos were held prisoners until puberty; only then, after these animals burst open, could men and women come out, now able to feed themselves.<ref>Censorinus, De Die Natali, IV, 7</ref>|sign|source=}}
Anaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the Earth's climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales.<ref>Plutarch also mentions Anaximander's theory that humans were born inside fish, feeding like sharks, and that when they could defend themselves, they were thrown ashore to live on dry land.</ref> He thought that, considering humans' extended infancy, we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently.
Other accomplishments
Cartography
Both Strabo and Agathemerus (later Greek geographers) claim that, according to the geographer Eratosthenes, Anaximander was the first to publish a map of the world. The map probably inspired the Greek historian Hecataeus of Miletus to draw a more accurate version. Strabo viewed both as the first geographers after Homer.
Maps were produced in ancient times, also notably in Egypt, Lydia, the Middle East, and Babylon. Only some small examples survived until today. The unique example of a world map comes from the late Babylonian Map of the World later than 9th century BC but is based probably on a much older map. These maps indicated directions, roads, towns, borders, and geological features. Anaximander's innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient Greeks.
Such an accomplishment is more significant than it at first appears. Anaximander most likely drew this map for three reasons.<ref>As established by Marcel Conche, Anaximandre. Fragments et témoignages, introduction (p.&nbsp;43–47).</ref> First, it could be used to improve navigation and trade between Miletus's colonies and other colonies around the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Second, Thales would probably have found it easier to convince the Ionian city-states to join in a federation in order to push the Median threat away if he possessed such a tool. Finally, the philosophical idea of a global representation of the world simply for the sake of knowledge was reason enough to design one.
Surely aware of the sea's convexity, he may have designed his map on a slightly rounded metal surface. The centre or "navel" of the world ({{lang|grc|ὀμφαλός γῆς}} omphalós gẽs) could have been Delphi, but is more likely in Anaximander's time to have been located near Miletus. The Aegean Sea was near the map's centre and enclosed by three continents, themselves located in the middle of the ocean and isolated like islands by sea and rivers. Europe was bordered on the south by the Mediterranean Sea and was separated from Asia by the Black Sea, the Lake Maeotis, and, further east, either by the Phasis River (now called the Rioni in Georgia) or the Tanais. The Nile flowed south into the ocean, separating Libya (which was the name for the part of the then-known African continent) from Asia.
Gnomon
The Suda relates that Anaximander explained some basic notions of geometry. It also mentions his interest in the measurement of time and associates him with the introduction in Greece of the gnomon. In Lacedaemon, he participated in the construction, or at least in the adjustment, of sundials to indicate solstices and equinoxes.<ref>These accomplishments are often attributed to him, notably by Diogenes Laertius (II, 1) and by the Roman historian Eusebius of Caesarea, Preparation for the Gospel (X, 14, 11).</ref> Indeed, a gnomon required adjustments from a place to another because of the difference in latitude.
In his time, the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane. The position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day. As it moves through its apparent course, the Sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow, which is shortest at noon, when pointing due south. The variation in the tip's position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons; the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice.
The invention of the gnomon itself cannot be attributed to Anaximander because its use, as well as the division of days into twelve parts, came from the Babylonians. It is they, according to Herodotus' Histories (II, 109), who gave the Greeks the art of time measurement. It is likely that he was not the first to determine the solstices, because no calculation is necessary. On the other hand, equinoxes do not correspond to the middle point between the positions during solstices, as the Babylonians thought. As the Suda seems to suggest, it is very likely that with his knowledge of geometry, he became the first Greek to determine accurately the equinoxes.
Prediction of an earthquake
In his philosophical work De Divinatione (I, 50, 112), Cicero states that Anaximander convinced the inhabitants of Lacedaemon to abandon their city and spend the night in the country with their weapons because an earthquake was near.<ref>[http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/divinatione1.shtml Da Divinatione (in Latin)]</ref> The city collapsed when the top of the Taygetus split like the stern of a ship. Pliny the Elder also mentions this anecdote (II, 81), suggesting that it came from an "admirable inspiration", as opposed to Cicero, who did not associate the prediction with divination.
Scientific method
Rovelli credits Anaximander with pioneering the "first great scientific revolution in history" by introducing the naturalistic approach to understanding the universe, according to which the universe operates by inviolable laws, without recourse to supernatural explanations. According to Rovelli, Anaximander not only paved the way for modern science, but revolutionized the process for how we form our worldview, by constantly questioning and rejecting certainty. Rovelli further states that Anaximander has not been given his due credit, largely because his naturalistic approach was strongly opposed in antiquity (among others by Aristotle) and had yet to yield the tangible benefits it has today.{{sfn|Rovelli|2023|pp=xii–xiii, 38–39, 120, 130}}
{| class"wikitable" style"margin: 1em auto;"
|+ Anaximander's transformation of method{{sfn|Rovelli|2023|pp=77, 80–81}}
|-
! Situation || Practice
|-
| Earlier method<br/>Different school || Unqualified criticism
|-
| Earlier method<br/>Same school || Unqualified acceptance
|-
| Anaximander's method || Detailed appreciation of teaching<br/>Then, teaching is questioned and improved
|-
| Example || Thales: "World is made of water"<br/> &nbsp; &nbsp;– Anaximander: "Not so"<br/>Thales: "Earth floats on water"<br/> &nbsp; &nbsp;– Anaximander: "Earth floats in the infinite"<br/>Thales: "Earthquakes due to wobbles in Ocean"<br/> &nbsp; &nbsp;– Anaximander: "No, due to Earth splitting open"
|}
Legacy
Bertrand Russell in the History of Western Philosophy interprets Anaximander's theories as <!-- the above quote as | CLARIFY: probably due to editing, the quote referenced here is unclear. --> an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth, fire, and water, all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others. Anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance among these elements, that where there was fire, ashes (earth) now exist.<ref>Bertrand Russell, A History of Western Philosophy and Its Connection with Political and Social Circumstances from the Earliest Times to the Present Day (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1946).</ref> His Greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief in natural boundaries beyond which not even the gods could operate.
Friedrich Nietzsche, in Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, claimed that Anaximander was a pessimist who asserted that the primal being of the world was a state of indefiniteness. In accordance with this, anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness. In other words, Anaximander viewed "...all coming-to-be as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being, a wrong for which destruction is the only penance". (Ibid., § 4) The world of individual objects, in this way of thinking, has no worth and should perish.<ref>Friedrich Nietzsche, Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks (Washington, D.C.: Regnery Gateway, 1962).</ref>
Martin Heidegger lectured extensively on Anaximander, and delivered a lecture entitled "Anaximander's Saying" which was subsequently included in Off the Beaten Track. The lecture examines the ontological difference and the oblivion of Being or Dasein in the context of the Anaximander fragment.<ref>Martin Heidegger, Off the Beaten Track (Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002).</ref> Heidegger's lecture is, in turn, an important influence on the French philosopher Jacques Derrida.<ref>Cf. Jacques Derrida, Margins of Philosophy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), pp. 66–7; Derrida, "Geschlecht II: Heidegger's Hand," in John Sallis (ed.), Deconstruction and Philosophy (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1987), pp. 181–2; Derrida, Given Time: I. Counterfeit Money (Chicago & London: University of Chicago Press, 1992), p. 159, n. 28.</ref>
In the 2017 essay collection Anaximander in Context: New Studies on the Origins of Greek Philosophy, Dirk Couprie, Robert Hahn and Gerald Naddaf describe Anaximander as "one of the greatest minds in history", but one that has not been given his due. Couprie goes to state that he considers him on par with Newton.<ref name"CouprieHahnNaddaf2012">{{cite book |author1Dirk L. Couprie |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idUu0wNrdNmW0C |titleAnaximander in Context: New Studies in the Origins of Greek Philosophy |author2Robert Hahn |author3Gerard Naddaf |date1 February 2012 |publisherState University of New York Press |isbn978-0-7914-8778-5 |pages1, 167 |oclc1018071798}}</ref> Similar sentiments are expressed in Carlo Rovelli's 2011 book The First Scientist: Anaximander and His Legacy.
The Anaximander (31st) High School of Thessaloniki, Greece is named after Anaximander.<ref>{{Cite web |titleΑΡΧΙΚΗ |urlhttp://31lyk-thess.thess.sch.gr/autosch/joomla15/ |access-date2023-09-17 |website31lyk-thess.thess.sch.gr}}</ref>
Works
According to the Suda:<ref>Themistius and Simplicius also mention some work "on nature". The list could refer to book titles or simply their topics. Again, no one can tell because there is no punctuation sign in Ancient Greek. Furthermore, this list is incomplete since the Suda ends it with {{lang|grc|ἄλλα τινά}}, thus implying "other works".</ref>
* On Nature ({{lang|grc|Περὶ φύσεως}} / Perì phúseôs)
* Rotation of the Earth ({{lang|grc|Γῆς περίοδος}} / Gễs períodos)
* On Fixed stars ({{lang|grc|Περὶ τῶν ἀπλανῶν}} / Perì tỗn aplanỗn)
* The [Celestial] Sphere ({{lang|grc|Σφαῖρα}} / Sphaĩra)
See also
* Indefinite monism
References
{{Reflist}}
Sources
Primary
* Aelian: Various History (III, 17)
* Aëtius: De Fide (I-III; V)
* Agathemerus: A Sketch of Geography in Epitome (I, 1)
* Aristotle: Meteorology (II, 3) Translated by [https://web.archive.org/web/20070217110549/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/meteorology/ E. W. Webster]
* Aristotle: On Generation and Corruption (II, 5) Translated by [https://web.archive.org/web/20061216164725/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/corruption/ H. H. Joachim]
* Aristotle: On the Heavens (II, 13) Translated by [https://web.archive.org/web/20070430004826/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/heavens/ J. L. Stocks]
* {{cite wikisource |authorAristotle |wslinkPhysics (Aristotle) |title=Physics}} (III, 5, 204 b 33–34)
* Censorinus: De Die Natali (IV, 7) See original text at [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Censorinus/text*.html LacusCurtius]
* {{cite wikisource |authorCicero |titleOn divination |author-linkCicero |year1853 |orig-yearoriginal: 44 BC |translatorCharles Duke Yonge}} (I, 50, 112)
* Cicero: On the Nature of the Gods (I, 10, 25)
* {{Cite LotEP|chapter=Anaximander}}
* Euripides: The Suppliants (532) Translated by [https://web.archive.org/web/20070428010456/http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/e/euripides/suppliants/ E. P. Coleridge]
* Eusebius of Caesarea: Preparation for the Gospel (X, 14, 11) Translated by [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/index.htm#Praeparatio_Evangelica_(The_Preparation_of_the_Gospel) E.H. Gifford]
* Heidel, W.A. ''Anaximander's Book: PAAAS, vol. 56, n.7, 1921, pp.&nbsp;239–288.
* Herodotus: Histories (II, 109) See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0125 Perseus project]
* Hippolytus (?): Refutation of All Heresies (I, 5) Translated by [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-05/anf05-06.htm#TopOfPage Roberts and Donaldson]
* Pliny the Elder: Natural History (II, 8) See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.02.0138:toc Perseus project]
* Pseudo-Plutarch: The Doctrines of the Philosophers (I, 3; I, 7; II, 20–28; III, 2–16; V, 19)
* Seneca the Younger: Natural Questions (II, 18)
* Simplicius: Comments on Aristotle's Physics (24, 13–25; 1121, 5–9)
* Strabo: Geography (I, 1) Books 1‑7, 15‑17 translated by [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Strabo/home.html H. L. Jones]
* Themistius: Oratio (36, 317)
* The Suda ([http://www.stoa.org/sol/ Suda On Line])
Secondary
* {{cite book |lastBrumbaugh |firstRobert S. |titleThe Philosophers of Greece |locationNew York |publisherThomas Y. Crowell |date1964}}
* {{cite book |author-linkJohn Burnet (classicist) |lastBurnet |firstJohn |titleEarly Greek Philosophy |urlhttp://classicpersuasion.org/pw/burnet/index.htm |edition3rd |locationLondon |publisherBlack |date1920 |access-date2011-02-24 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110111171732/http://www.classicpersuasion.org/pw/burnet/index.htm |archive-date2011-01-11 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |lastConche |firstMarcel |titleAnaximandre: Fragments et témoignages |date1991 |publisherPresses universitaires de France |locationParis |languagefr |isbn2-13-043785-0}} The default source<!--for this article-->; anything not otherwise attributed should be in Conche.
* {{cite book |lastCouprie |firstDirk L. |author2Robert Hahn |author3Gerard Naddaf |titleAnaximander in Context: New Studies in the Origins of Greek Philosophy |date2003 |publisherState University of New York Press |locationAlbany
|isbn=0-7914-5538-6}}
* {{cite book |lastFurley |firstDavid J. |author2Reginald E. Allen |titleStudies in Presocratic Philosophy |volume1 |date1970 |publisherRoutledge |locationLondon |oclc=79496039}}
* {{cite book |lastGuthrie |firstW. K. C. |author-linkW. K. C. Guthrie |seriesA History of Greek Philosophy |volume1 |titleThe Earlier Presocratics and the Pythagoreans |locationCambridge |publisherCambridge University Press |date=1962}}
* {{cite book |lastHahn |firstRobert |titleAnaximander and the Architects. The Contribution of Egyptian and Greek Architectural Technologies to the Origins of Greek Philosophy |publisherState University of New York Press |locationAlbany |isbn978-0-7914-4794-9 |date=2001}}
* {{cite book |lastHeidegger |firstMartin |titleOff the Beaten Track |date2002 |publisherCambridge University Press |locationCambridge |isbn=0-521-80114-1}}
* {{cite book |lastKahn |firstCharles H. |author-linkCharles H. Kahn |titleAnaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology |url=https://archive.org/details/anaximanderorigi00kahn
|date1960 |publisherColumbia University Press |location=New York}}
*{{cite book |last1Kirk |first1Geoffrey S. |first2John E. |last2Raven |author2-linkJohn Raven |titleThe Presocratic Philosophers |edition2nd |location Cambridge |publisherCambridge University Press |date1983|isbn=978-0521274555}}
*{{cite book |lastLuchte |firstJames |titleEarly Greek Thought: Before the Dawn |date2011 |publisherBloomsbury Publishing |locationLondon |isbn=978-0567353313}}
* {{cite book |lastNietzsche |firstFriedrich |titlePhilosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks |date1962 |publisherRegnery |locationChicago |isbn=0-89526-944-9}}
* {{cite book |lastRobinson |firstJohn Mansley |titleAn Introduction to Early Greek Philosophy |date1968 |publisherHoughton and Mifflin |isbn0-395-05316-1}}
* {{cite book |lastRoss |firstStephen David |title=Injustice and Restitution: The Ordinance of Time
|date1993 |publisherState University of New York Press |locationAlbany |isbn0-7914-1670-4 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/injusticeand_ross_1993_000_3709663 }}
* {{cite book |lastRovelli |firstCarlo |titleThe First Scientist, Anaximander and his Legacy |date2011 |publisherWestholme |locationYardley |isbn=978-1-59416-131-5}}
* {{cite book |lastRovelli |firstCarlo |titleAnaximander and the Nature of Science |date2023 |publisherAllen Lane |isbn978-0-241-63504-9 }}
*{{cite book |lastSandywell |firstBarry |titlePresocratic Reflexivity: The Construction of Philosophical Discourse, c. 600–450 BC |volume3 |locationLondon |publisherRoutledge |date2014 |orig-year1996 |isbn=978-1138879966}}
*{{cite book |lastSeligman |firstPaul |titleThe "Apeiron" of Anaximander |urlhttps://archive.org/details/apeironofanaxima0000seli |url-accessregistration |locationLondon |publisherAthlone Press |date1962}}
* {{cite book |lastVernant |firstJean-Pierre |titleThe Origins of Greek Thought |date1982 |publisherCornell University Press |locationIthaca |isbn=0-8014-9293-9}}
* {{cite book |editor-lastWheelwright |editor-firstPhilip |titleThe Presocratics |locationNew York |publisherMacmillan |date1966}}
* {{cite book |lastWright |firstM. R. |titleCosmology in Antiquity |locationLondon |publisherRoutledge |date1995|isbn978-0415083720}} External links
{{commons category|Anaximander}}
{{wikiquote}}
* {{wikisourcelang-inline|el|Αναξίμανδρος|Anaximander}}
* {{MacTutor Biography|id = Anaximander}}
* [http://philoctetes.free.fr/unianaximandre.htm Philoctete – Anaximandre: Fragments] ((Grk icon)) {{in lang|fr|en}}
* [https://iep.utm.edu/anaximander/ The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' – Anaximander]
* [http://www.dirkcouprie.nl/Anaximander-bibliography.htm Extensive bibliography by Dirk Couprie]
* {{ScienceWorldBiography | urlnameAnaximander | titleAnaximander of Miletus (610-ca. 546 BC)}}
* [https://philosophy.gr/presocratics/anaximander.htm Anaximander of Miletus] Life and Work – Fragments and Testimonies by Giannis Stamatellos
{{Greek schools of philosophy}}
{{Greek astronomy}}
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Category:6th-century BC astronomers | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximander | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.792037 |
1169 | APL | APL is an abbreviation, acronym, or initialism that may refer to:
Science and technology
132524 APL, an asteroid
Abductor pollicis longus muscle, in the human hand
Acute promyelocytic leukemia, a subtype of acute myelogenous leukemia
Applied Physics Letters, a physics journal
Nampula Airport (IATA airport code: APL), in Mozambique
Computers
.apl, the file extension of the Monkey's Audio metadata file
AMD Performance Library, renamed Framewave, a computer compiler library
APL (programming language), an array-based programming language
APL (codepage), the character set for programming in APL
Address Prefix List, a DNS record type
Address (programming language), an early high-level programming language developed in the Soviet Union
Advanced Physical Layer, an extension of Ethernet 10BASE-T1L for field devices
Alexa Presentation Language, a language for developing Amazon Alexa skills
Associative Programming Language, a database query language
Software licences
Adaptive Public License, an Open Source license from the University of Victoria, Canada
AROS Public License, a license of AROS Research Operating System
Arphic Public License, a free font license
Organizations
APL (shipping company), a Singapore-based container and shipping company
Aden Protectorate Levies, a militia force for local defense of the Aden Protectorate
Advanced Production and Loading, a Norwegian marine engineering company formed in 1993
American President Lines, a container transportation and shipping company
American Protective League, a World War I-era pro-war organization
Applied Physics Laboratory, at Johns Hopkins University
Applied Physics Laboratory at the University of Washington
Association of Pension Lawyers, UK
Aurora Public Library (disambiguation)
Irish Anti-Partition League, a Northern Ireland political organisation
Sport
Abkhazian Premier League, the top-level association football league of Abkhazia
Afghanistan Premier League, an Afghan Twenty20 cricket league
Afghan Premier League, a men's football league in Afghanistan
American Patriot League, a proposed American football spring league
American Premiere League, a Twenty20 cricket league in the US
Armenian Premier League, the top-level association football league of Armenia
Australian Professional Leagues, an Australian soccer governing body
Azerbaijan Premier League, the top-level association football league of Azerbaijan
Other uses
apl.de.ap (born 1974), pseudonym of Allan Pineda Lindo, Filipino–American musician
A US Navy hull classification symbol: Barracks craft (APL) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.794606 |
1170 | Architect | {{Short description|Person who designs buildings and oversees construction}}
{{Other uses}}
{{More citations needed| date = October 2014}}
{{Infobox Occupation
| name| image
| caption= An architect, 1893.
| official_names= Architect
| type= Profession
| activity_sector= Architecture<br />Civil engineering<br />Structural engineering<br />Construction<br />Project management<br />Urban planning<br />Interior design<br />Visual arts
| competencies= Engineering, technical knowledge, building design, planning and management skills
| formation= See professional requirements
| related_occupation=
}}
An architect is a person who plans, designs, and oversees the construction of buildings.<ref>{{Cite web|titleWhat's the difference between an architect and a building designer?|urlhttps://build.com.au/whats-difference-between-architect-and-building-designer|access-date2021-03-03|websiteBUILD|languageen|archive-date2021-03-02|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210302161740/https://build.com.au/whats-difference-between-architect-and-building-designer|url-statuslive}}</ref> To practice architecture means to provide services in connection with the design of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings that have human occupancy or use as their principal purpose.<ref namens.ca>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/bills/60th_1st/3rd_read/b115.htm |titleThe Nova Scotia Legislature|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110721200353/http://www.gov.ns.ca/legislature/legc/bills/60th_1st/3rd_read/b115.htm|archive-dateJuly 21, 2011|year2006|access-date8 March 2019|workOffice of the Legislative Counsel|publisherNova Scotia House of Assembly}}</ref> Etymologically, the term architect derives from the Latin {{Lang|la|architectus}},<ref>{{Cite web|date2018-07-30|titleEtymology in Architecture: Tracing the Language of Design to its Roots|urlhttps://www.archdaily.com/898648/etymology-in-architecture-tracing-the-language-of-design-to-its-roots|access-date2021-03-03|websiteArchDaily|languageen-US|archive-date2021-05-26|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210526084007/https://www.archdaily.com/898648/etymology-in-architecture-tracing-the-language-of-design-to-its-roots|url-statuslive}}</ref> which derives from the Greek<ref>{{Cite web|date2019-10-24|titleThe Meaning of the Word Architect {{!}} The History of Design-Build|urlhttps://www.nedesignbuild.com/meaning-of-architect/|access-date2021-03-03|websiteNew England Design & Construction|languageen-US|archive-date2021-05-26|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210526084004/https://www.nedesignbuild.com/meaning-of-architect/|url-statuslive}}</ref> ({{Lang|grc-latn|arkhi}}-, chief + {{Lang|grc-latn|tekton}}, builder), i.e., chief builder.<ref name"Harper" />
The professional requirements for architects vary from location to location. An architect's decisions affect public safety, and thus the architect must undergo specialised training consisting of advanced education<ref>{{Cite book|lastCzcibor-Piotrowski|firstAndrzej|jstor10.5749/j.cttttqm2.18|titleDiscipline of Architecture|publisherUniversity of Minnesota Press|year2000|isbn978-0-8166-3665-5|page293|chapterThe Profession and Discipline of Architecture: Practice and Education}}</ref> and a practicum (or internship) for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture. Practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction though the formal study of architecture in academic institutions has played a pivotal role in the development of the profession.Origins
{{Main article|History of architecture}}
Throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters—who rose to the role of master builders. Until modern times, there was no clear distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the titles architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person, often used interchangeably.<ref>{{cite book |lastMurray |firstPeter |urlhttps://archive.org/details/architectureofit00pete |titleThe Architecture of the Italian Renaissance |publisherKnopf Doubleday Publishing Group |year1986 |isbn0-8052-1082-2 |editor-lastBurckhardt |editor-firstJacob |editor-linkJacob Burckhardt |page242 |author-linkPeter Murray (art historian) |url-accessregistration}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleCivil Engineering Defined - Civil Engineering Definitions and History |urlhttp://www.smweng.com/civil-engineering-definitions-and-history/civil-engineering-defined |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120425135327/http://www.smweng.com/civil-engineering-definitions-and-history/civil-engineering-defined |archive-date25 April 2012 |access-date8 March 2019 |workSMW Engineering Group, Inc}}</ref>
"Architect" derives from Greek {{lang|grc|ἀρχιτέκτων}} ({{transliteration|grc|arkhitéktōn}}, "master builder," "chief {{transliteration|grc|tektōn}}).<ref name"Harper">{{cite web |last1Harper |first1Douglas |titlearchitect |urlhttps://www.etymonline.com/search?qarchitect |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221205121027/https://www.etymonline.com/search?qarchitect |archive-date5 December 2022 |access-date5 December 2022 |websiteOnline Etymology Dictionary |language=en}}</ref>
is revered as one of the most inventive and gifted architects in history.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://totallyhistory.com/filippo-brunelleschi|titleFilippo Brunelleschi|workTotally History|date11 October 2012|access-date8 March 2019|archive-date4 July 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170704211829/http://totallyhistory.com/filippo-brunelleschi/|url-statuslive}}</ref>]] It is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the professional 'gentleman' architect, separate from the hands-on craftsman. Paper was not used in Europe for drawing until the 15th century but became increasingly available after 1500. Pencils were used for drawing by 1600. The availability of both paper and pencils allowed pre-construction drawings to be made by professionals.<ref name"MAD 225">{{cite book|lastPacey|firstArnold|titleMedieval Architectural Drawing: English Craftsmen's Methods and Their Later Persistence (c.1200–1700)|year2007|publisherTempus Publishing|locationStroud|isbn978-0-7524-4404-8|pages225–227|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGZhiGQAACAAJ|access-date2019-08-20|archive-date2023-12-10|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231210155424/https://books.google.com/books?idGZhiGQAACAAJ|url-statuslive}}</ref> Concurrently, the introduction of linear perspective and innovations such as the use of different projections to describe a three-dimensional building in two dimensions, together with an increased understanding of dimensional accuracy, helped building designers communicate their ideas.<ref name"MAD 225"/> However, development was gradual and slow-going. Until the 18th century, buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen, with the exception of high-status projects.<ref name"MAD 225"/><ref name"ab project">{{cite web |lastVardhan |firstHarsh |titleDifferent types of work by architects |urlhttp://archibuddy.com/app/user/storyboard/5a919eafec9a1606f9f16f07 |url-status |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180317232022/http://archibuddy.com/app/user/storyboard/5a919eafec9a1606f9f16f07 |archive-date17 March 2018 |access-date17 March 2018 |workArchibuddy}}</ref>
Architecture
{{main|Architecture}}
In most developed countries only those qualified with an appropriate license, certification, or registration with a relevant body (often a government) may legally practice architecture. Such licensure usually requires a university degree, successful completion of exams, and a training period.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.ncarb.org/become-architect/basics|titleThe Basics|date2017-01-23|websiteNCARB – National Council of Architectural Registration Boards|languageen|access-date2020-04-29|archive-date2020-05-01|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200501101358/https://www.ncarb.org/become-architect/basics|url-status=live}}</ref> Representation of oneself as an architect through the use of terms and titles were restricted to licensed individuals by law, although in general, derivatives such as architectural designer were not legally protected.
To practice architecture implies the ability to practice independently of supervision. The term building design professional (or design professional), by contrast, is a much broader term that includes professionals who practice independently under an alternate profession, such as engineering professionals, or those who assist in the practice of architecture under the supervision of a licensed architect, such as intern architects. In many places, independent, non-licensed individuals may perform design services outside of professional restrictions, such as the design of houses or other smaller structures.
Practice
In the architectural profession, technical and environmental knowledge, design, and construction management require an understanding of business as well as design. However, design is the driving force throughout the project and beyond. An architect accepts a commission from a client. The commission might involve preparing feasibility reports, building audits, and designing a building or several buildings, structures, and the spaces among them. The architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building. Throughout the project (planning to occupancy), the architect coordinates a design team. Structural, mechanical, and electrical engineers are hired by the client or architect, who must ensure that the work is coordinated to construct the design.
Design role
The architect, once hired by a client, is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use. The architect must meet with and ask questions to the client, to ascertain all the requirements (and nuances) of the planned project.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://studentscholarships.org/salary/556/architects.php|titleArchitects – What do Architects do?|websiteStudentScholarships.org|languageen|access-date2020-04-29|archive-date2020-05-13|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200513161920/https://studentscholarships.org/salary/556/architects.php|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Often, the full brief is not clear in the beginning. It involves a degree of risk in the design undertaking. The architect may make early proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief. The "program" (or brief) is essential to producing a project that meets all the needs of the owner. This becomes a guide for the architect in creating the design concept.
Design proposal(s) are generally expected to be both imaginative and pragmatic. Much depends upon the time, place, finance, culture, and available crafts and technology in which the design takes place. The extent and nature of these expectations will vary. Foresight is a prerequisite when designing buildings as it is a very complex and demanding undertaking.
Any design concept during the early stage of its generation must take into account a great number of issues and variables, including the qualities of the space(s), the end-use and life-cycle of these proposed spaces, connections, relations, and aspects between spaces, including how they are put together, and the impact of proposals on the immediate and wider locality. The selection of appropriate materials and technology must be considered, tested, and reviewed at an early stage in the design to ensure there are no setbacks (such as higher-than-expected costs) which could occur later in the project.
The site and its surrounding environment, as well as the culture and history of the place, will also influence the design. The design must also balance increasing concerns with environmental sustainability. The architect may introduce (intentionally or not), aspects of mathematics and architecture, new or current architectural theory, or references to architectural history.
A key part of the design is that the architect often must consult with engineers, surveyors, and other specialists throughout the design, ensuring that aspects such as structural supports and air conditioning elements are coordinated. The control and planning of construction costs are also part of these consultations. Coordination of the different aspects involves a high degree of specialized communication, including advanced computer technology such as building information modeling (BIM), computer-aided design (CAD), and cloud-based technologies. Finally, at all times, the architect must report back to the client, who may have reservations or recommendations which might introduce further variables into the design.
Architects also deal with local and federal jurisdictions regarding regulations and building codes. The architect might need to comply with local planning and zoning laws such as required setbacks, height limitations, parking requirements, transparency requirements (windows), and land use. Some jurisdictions require adherence to design and historic preservation guidelines. Health and safety risks form a vital part of the current design, and in some jurisdictions, design reports and records are required to include ongoing considerations of materials and contaminants, waste management and recycling, traffic control, and fire safety.
Means of design
Previously, architects employed drawings<ref name"MAD 225"/> to illustrate and generate design proposals. While conceptual sketches are still widely used by architects,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.archdaily.com/639533/17-napkin-sketches-by-famous-architects |title17 Napkin Sketches by Famous Architects |date5 June 2015 |access-date8 March 2019 |firstKarissa |lastRosenfield |workArchDaily |issn0719-8884 |archive-date5 March 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190305230926/https://www.archdaily.com/639533/17-napkin-sketches-by-famous-architects/ |url-statuslive }}</ref> computer technology has now become the industry standard.<ref>{{cite journal |urlhttp://www.slate.com/articles/arts/architecture/2011/03/think_before_you_build.html |titleThink Before You Build |firstWitold |lastRybczynski |date30 March 2011 |journalSlate |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180614053149/http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/architecture/2011/03/think_before_you_build.html |archive-date14 June 2018 |publisherThe Slate Group |viaGraham Holdings Company |access-date8 December 2015 |url-statuslive }}</ref> Furthermore, design may include the use of photos, collages, prints, linocuts, 3D scanning technology, and other media in design production.
Increasingly, computer software is shaping how architects work. BIM technology allows for the creation of a virtual building that serves as an information database for the sharing of design and building information throughout the life-cycle of the building's design, construction, and maintenance.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nationalbimstandard.org/faq.php#faq1 |titleFrequently Asked Questions About the National BIM Standard-United States |workNational BIM Standard |access-date17 October 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141016190503/http://www.nationalbimstandard.org/faq.php#faq1 |archive-date16 October 2014 |publisherNational Institute of Building Sciences}}</ref> Virtual reality (VR) presentations are becoming more common for visualizing structural designs and interior spaces from the point-of-view perspective.Environmental roleSince modern buildings are known to release carbon into the atmosphere, increasing controls are being placed on buildings and associated technology to reduce emissions, increase energy efficiency, and make use of renewable energy sources. Renewable energy sources may be designed into the proposed building by local or national renewable energy providers. As a result, the architect is required to remain abreast of current regulations that are continually being updated. Some new developments exhibit extremely low energy use or passive solar building design.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://passipedia.org/basics/what_is_a_passive_house|titleWhat is a Passive House?|websitepassipedia.org|access-date2015-12-08|archive-date2015-12-08|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151208235915/http://passipedia.org/basics/what_is_a_passive_house|url-statuslive}}</ref>
However, the architect is also increasingly being required to provide initiatives in a wider environmental sense. Examples of this include making provisions for low-energy transport, natural daylighting instead of artificial lighting, natural ventilation instead of air conditioning, pollution, and waste management, use of recycled materials, and employment of materials which can be easily recycled.
Construction role
As the design becomes more advanced and detailed, specifications and detail designs are made of all the elements and components of the building. Techniques in the production of a building are continually advancing which places a demand on the architect to ensure that he or she remains up to date with these advances.
Depending on the client's needs and the jurisdiction's requirements, the spectrum of the architect's services during each construction stage may be extensive (detailed document preparation and construction review) or less involved (such as allowing a contractor to exercise considerable design-build functions).
Architects typically put projects to tender on behalf of their clients, advise them on the award of the project to a general contractor, facilitate and administer a contract of agreement, which is often between the client and the contractor. This contract is legally binding and covers a wide range of aspects, including the insurance and commitments of all stakeholders, the status of the design documents, provisions for the architect's access, and procedures for the control of the works as they proceed. Depending on the type of contract used, provisions for further sub-contract tenders may be required. The architect may require that some elements be covered by a warranty which specifies the expected life and other aspects of the material, product, or work.
In most jurisdictions prior notification to the relevant authority must be given before commencement of the project, giving the local authority notice to carry out independent inspections. The architect will then review and inspect the progress of the work in coordination with the local authority.
The architect will typically review contractor shop drawings and other submittals, prepare and issue site instructions, and provide Certificates for Payment to the contractor (see also Design-bid-build) which is based on the work done as well as any materials and other goods purchased or hired in the future. In the United Kingdom and other countries, a quantity surveyor is often part of the team to provide cost consulting. With large, complex projects, an independent construction manager is sometimes hired to assist in the design and management of the construction.
In many jurisdictions mandatory certification or assurance of the completed work or part of the work is required. This demand for certification entails a high degree of risk; therefore, regular inspections of the work as it progresses on site is required to ensure that the design is in compliance itself as well as following all relevant statutes and permissions.
Alternate practice and specialisations
Recent decades have seen the rise of specialisations within the profession. Many architects and architectural firms focus on certain project types (e.g. healthcare, retail, public housing, and event management), technological expertise, or project delivery methods. Some architects specialise in building code, building envelope, sustainable design, technical writing, historic preservation(US) or conservation (UK), and accessibility.
Many architects elect to move into real-estate (property) development, corporate facilities planning, project management, construction management, chief sustainability officers interior design, city planning, user experience design, and design research.
Professional requirements
{{Main article|Professional requirements for architects}}
{{See also|Architectural engineering#Architect}}
Although there are variations in each location, most of the world's architects are required to register with the appropriate jurisdiction. Architects are typically required to meet three common requirements: education, experience, and examination.
Basic educational requirement generally consist of a university in architecture. The experience requirement for degree candidates is usually satisfied by a practicum or internship (usually two to three years). Finally, a Registration Examination or a series of exams is required prior to licensure.
Professionals who engaged in the design and supervision of construction projects before the late 19th century were not necessarily trained in a separate architecture program in an academic setting. Instead, they often trained under established architects. Prior to modern times, there was no distinction between architects and engineers and the title used varied depending on geographical location. They often carried the title of master builder<ref>{{Cite book |lastRoutman |firstMarcus |titleMaster Builders of Byzantium}}{{full citation needed|dateMay 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|lastBoero |first Dina |titleWho Built Qal'at Sim'ān? |urlhttps://www.proquest.com/docview/2813607353|id{{ProQuest|2813607353}}|journal Journal of Late Antiquity|volume 15|issue 1|dateSpring 2022|pages 231–276|doi10.1353/jla.2022.0007 }}</ref> or surveyor after serving a number of years as an apprentice (such as Sir Christopher Wren). The formal study of architecture in academic institutions played a pivotal role in the development of the profession as a whole, serving as a focal point for advances in architectural technology and theory. The use of "Architect" or abbreviations such as "Ar." as a title attached to a person's name was regulated by law in some countries.FeesArchitects' fee structure was typically based on a percentage of construction value, as a rate per unit area of the proposed construction, hourly rates, or a fixed lump sum fee. Combination of these structures were also common. Fixed fees were usually based on a project's allocated construction cost and could range between 4 and 12% of new construction cost for commercial and institutional projects, depending on the project's size and complexity. Residential projects ranged from 12 to 20%. Renovation projects typically commanded higher percentages such as 15–20%.<ref>{{cite web |titleRIBA |urlhttps://www.architecture.com/working-with-an-architect/how-do-i-calculate-an-architects-fees |access-date2023-08-09 |archive-date2023-08-10 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230810230305/https://www.architecture.com/working-with-an-architect/how-do-i-calculate-an-architects-fees |url-status=live }}</ref>
Overall billings for architectural firms range widely, depending on their location and economic climate. Billings have traditionally been dependent on local economic conditions, but with rapid globalization, this is becoming less of a factor for large international firms. Salaries could also vary depending on experience, position within the firm (i.e. staff architect, partner, or shareholder, etc.), and the size and location of the firm.
Professional organizations
{{main article|List of professional architecture organizations}}
A number of national professional organizations exist to promote career and business development in architecture.
* The International Union of Architects (UIA)
* The American Institute of Architects (AIA) US
* Royal Institute of British Architects (RIBA) UK
* Architects Registration Board (ARB) UK
* The Australian Institute of Architects (AIA) Australia
* The South African Institute of Architects (SAIA) South Africa
* Association of Consultant Architects (ACA) UK<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttp://acarchitects.co.uk/ |titleAssociation of Consultant Architects |access-date2020-04-11 |archive-date2020-04-11 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200411010309/http://acarchitects.co.uk/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
* Association of Licensed Architects (ALA) US
* The Consejo Profesional de Arquitectura y Urbanismo (CPAU) Argentina
* Indian Institute of Architects (IIA) & Council of Architecture (COA) India
* The Jamaican Institute of Architects (JIA)
* The National Organization of Minority Architects (NOMA) US<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.noma.net/ |titleNational Organization of Minority Architects |access-date2021-10-20 |archive-date2021-10-20 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211020153227/https://www.noma.net/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Prizes and awards
{{main article|List of architecture prizes}}
, presenting the award for the Arcadia Education Centre]]
A wide variety of prizes is awarded by national professional associations and other bodies, recognizing accomplished architects, their buildings, structures, and professional careers.
The most lucrative award an architect can receive is the Pritzker Prize, sometimes termed the "Nobel Prize for architecture". The inaugural Pritzker Prize winner was Philip Johnson who was cited as having "50 years of imagination and vitality embodied in a myriad of museums, theatres libraries, houses gardens and corporate structures". The Pritzker Prize has been awarded for forty-two straight editions without interruption, and there are now 22 countries with at least one winning architect. Other prestigious architectural awards are the Royal Gold Medal, the AIA Gold Medal (US), AIA Gold Medal (Australia), and the Praemium Imperiale.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.arch2o.com/5-architectural-awards/|title5 Highly Prestigious Awards in Architecture That You Should Know|date2016-11-07|websiteArch2O.com|languageen-US|access-date2020-04-30|archive-date2019-12-10|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191210204317/https://www.arch2o.com/5-architectural-awards/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Architects in the UK who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education or have in some other way advanced the profession might, until 1971, be elected Fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects and can write FRIBA after their name if they feel so inclined. Those elected to chartered membership of the RIBA after 1971 may use the initials RIBA but cannot use the old ARIBA and FRIBA. An honorary fellow may use the initials Hon. FRIBA, and an international fellow may use the initials Int. FRIBA. Architects in the US who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education or have in some other way advanced the profession are elected Fellows of the American Institute of Architects and can write FAIA after their name. Architects in Canada who have made outstanding contributions to the profession through contributions to research, scholarship, public service, or professional standing to the good of architecture in Canada or elsewhere may be recognized as Fellows of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada and can write FRAIC after their name. In Hong Kong, those elected to chartered membership may use the initial HKIA, and those who have made a special contribution after nomination and election by the Hong Kong Institute of Architects (HKIA), may be elected as fellow members of HKIA and may use FHKIA after their name.
See also
{{Portal|Architecture}}
<!-- New links in alphabetical order please -->
{{Columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*Architectural designer
*Architectural drawing
*Architectural engineering
*Architectural technologist
*Building officials
*Chartered architect
*Civil engineer
*Construction engineering
*Construction manager
*Drafter
*Expression (architecture)
*Industrial architecture
*Landscape architect
*List of architects
*Starchitect
*State architect
*Structural engineering
*Urban designer
*Urban planner
*Women in architecture
}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Wikiquote|Architects}}
{{Wikidata property|P84}}
{{commons}}
{{Construction overview}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Architecture occupations
Category:Professional certification in architecture | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architect | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.804582 |
1171 | Abbreviation | {{short description|Shortened form of a word or phrase}}
{{other uses}}
{{More citations needed|date=May 2008}}
manuscript text with scribal abbreviations]]
An abbreviation ({{etymology|la|{{wikt-lang|la|brevis}}|short}})<ref>{{cite web |titlebrevis/breve, brevis M |urlhttps://www.latin-is-simple.com/en/vocabulary/adjective/91/ |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180329120905/https://www.latin-is-simple.com/en/vocabulary/adjective/91/ |archive-date29 March 2018 |access-date29 March 2018 |websiteLatin is Simple Online Dictionary |languageen}}</ref> is a shortened form of a word or phrase, by any method including shortening, contraction, initialism (which includes acronym), or crasis. An abbreviation may be a shortened form of a word, usually ended with a trailing period. For example, the term etc. is the usual abbreviation for the Latin phrase {{lang|la|et cetera}}.
Types
A contraction is an abbreviation formed by replacing letters with an apostrophe. Examples include ''I'm for I am and li'l for little.
An initialism or acronym is an abbreviation consisting of the initial letter of a sequence of words without other punctuation. For example, FBI ({{IPA|/ˌɛf.biːˈaɪ/|catno}}), USA ({{IPA|/ˌjuː.ɛsˈeɪ/|catno}}), IBM ({{IPA|/ˌaɪ.biːˈɛm/|catno}}), BBC ({{IPA|/ˌbiː.biːˈsiː/|catno}}). When initialism is used as the preferred term, acronym refers more specifically to when the abbreviation is pronounced as a word rather than as separate letters; examples include SWAT and NASA.
Initialisms, contractions and crasis share some semantic and phonetic functions, and are connected by the term abbreviation'' in loose parlance.<ref nameharts>{{cite book |titleNew Hart's Rules: The handbook of style for writers and editors |firstR M |lastRitter |publisherOxford University Press |date 2005 |isbn9780198610410 |oclc 225098030 }}</ref>{{rp|p167}}
History
{{See also|Scribal abbreviation}}
In early times, abbreviations may have been common due to the effort involved in writing (many inscriptions were carved in stone) or to provide secrecy via obfuscation.
Reduction of a word to a single letter was common in both Greek and Roman writing.<ref>{{cite book |firstCharles Frederick |lastPartington |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHA9kAAAAMAAJ&pgPA5 |titleThe British Cyclopaedia of the Arts, Sciences, History, Geography, Literature, Natural History, and Biography |publisherWm. S. Orr and Company |date1838 |page5 |oclc 551503698}}</ref> In Roman inscriptions, "Words were commonly abbreviated by using the initial letter or letters of words, and most inscriptions have at least one abbreviation".<!-- cited next sentence --> However, "some could have more than one meaning, depending on their context. (For example, {{angbr|A}} can be an abbreviation for many words, such as {{lang|la|ager}}, {{lang|la|amicus}}, {{lang|la|annus}}, {{lang|la|as}}, {{lang|la|Aulus}}, {{lang|la|Aurelius}}, {{lang|la|aurum}}, and {{lang|la|avus}}.)"<ref>{{cite book |last1Adkins |first1Lesley |last2Adkins |first2Roy |titleHandbook to Life in Ancient Rome |seriesFacts on file |isbn9780816074822 |oclc 882540013 | publisherInfobase Publishing |date2004 |page=261}}</ref> Many frequent abbreviations consisted of more than one letter: for example COS for consul and COSS for its nominative etc. plural consules.
Abbreviations were frequently used in early English. Manuscripts of copies of the Old English poem Beowulf used many abbreviations, for example the Tironian et ({{char|⁊}}) or {{char|&}} for and, and {{char|y}} for since, so that "not much space is wasted".<ref>{{cite book |lastGelderen |firstElly van |titleA History of the English Language |publisherJohn Benjamins Publishing Company |date2014 |chapter4 1. |isbn9789027270436 |oclc1097127034}}</ref> The standardisation of English in the 15th through 17th centuries included a growth in the use of such abbreviations.<ref namespell>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j7/shortcuts.php |titleThe End of Short Cuts: The use of abbreviated English by the fellows of Merton College, Oxford 1483-1660. |first1John M. |last1Fletcher |first2Christopher A. |last2Upton |url-statusdead |archive-dateOctober 15, 2007 |websiteThe Simplified Spelling Society |date=1 February 2004
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015214606/http://www.spellingsociety.org/journals/j7/shortcuts.php }}</ref> At first, abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs, not only periods. For example, sequences like {{angbr|er}} were replaced with {{angbr|ɔ}}, as in {{char|mastɔ}} for master and {{char|exacɔbate}} for exacerbate. While this may seem trivial, it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce the copy time.
{{blockquote|Mastɔ subwardenɔ y ɔmēde me to you. And wherɔ y wrot to you the last wyke that y trouyde itt good to differrɔ thelectionɔ ovɔ to quīdenaɔ tinitatis y have be thougħt me synɔ that itt woll be thenɔ a bowte mydsomɔ.|sourceWarden of Merton College, University of Oxford in {{lang|la|Registrum Annalium Collegii Mertonensis}}, 1503.<ref namespell />}}
In the Early Modern English period, between the 15th and 17th centuries, the thorn {{char|Þ}} was used for th, as in {{char|Þ<sup>e</sup>}} ('the'). In modern times, {{angbr|Þ}} was often used (in the form {{angbr|y}}) for promotional reasons, as in {{char|Y<sup>e</sup> Olde Tea Shoppe}}.<ref>Lass, R., The Cambridge History of the English Language, Cambridge University Press, 2006, Vol. 2, p. 36.</ref>
During the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic Britain, abbreviating became very fashionable. Likewise, a century earlier in Boston, a fad of abbreviation started that swept the United States, with the globally popular term OK generally credited as a remnant of its influence.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.illinoisprairie.info/chocokeh.htm |titleThe Choctaw Expression 'Okeh' and the Americanism 'Okay' |publisherJim Fay |date2007-09-13 |access-date2008-05-12 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101224185657/http://www.illinoisprairie.info/chocokeh.htm |archive-date2010-12-24 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_250.html |titleWhat does "OK" stand for? |workThe Straight Dope |access-date2008-05-12| archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080512085453/http://www.straightdope.com/classics/a2_250.html| archive-date 12 May 2008 | url-status= live}}</ref>
Over the years, however, the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which two-word abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not. This question is considered below.
Widespread use of electronic communication through mobile phones and the Internet during the 1990s led to a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation. This was due largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as instant and text messaging. The original SMS supported message lengths of 160 characters at most (using the GSM 03.38 character set), for instance.{{efn|Modern text messaging is not affected by this issue although, behind the scenes, longer messages are carried in multiple 160-byte short messages in a chain. Characters not in GSM 03.38 require two bytes.}} This brevity gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called Textese, with which 10% or more of the words in a typical SMS message are abbreviated.<ref>Crystal, David. Txtng: the Gr8 Db8. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-19-954490-5}}</ref> More recently Twitter, a popular social networking service, began driving abbreviation use with 140 character message limits.
In HTML, abbreviations can be annotated using <syntaxhighlight langhtml inlinetrue><abbr title"Meaning of the abbreviation.">abbreviation</abbr></syntaxhighlight> to reveal its meaning by hovering the cursor. Style conventions in English
In modern English, there are multiple conventions for abbreviation, and there is controversy as to which should be used. One generally accepted rule is to be consistent in a body of work. To this end, publishers may express their preferences in a style guide.
Some controversies that arise are described below.
Capitalization
If the original word was capitalized then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital, for example Lev. for Leviticus. When a word is abbreviated to more than a single letter and was originally spelled with lower case letters then there is no need for capitalization. However, when abbreviating a phrase where only the first letter of each word is taken, then all letters should be capitalized, as in YTD for year-to-date, PCB for printed circuit board and FYI for for your information. However, see the following section regarding abbreviations that have become common vocabulary: these are no longer written with capital letters.
Periods
A period (a.k.a. full stop) is sometimes used to signify abbreviation, but opinion is divided as to when and if this convention is best practice.
According to Hart's Rules, a word shortened by dropping letters from the end terminates with a period, whereas a word shorted by dropping letters from the middle does not.<ref nameharts/>{{rp|p167–170}} Fowler's Modern English Usage says a period is used for both of these shortened forms, but recommends against this practice: advising it only for end-shortened words and lower-case initialisms; not for middle-shortened words and upper-case initialisms.<ref>{{cite book|titlePocket Fowler's Modern English Usage|edition2nd|editor-firstRobert|editor-lastAllen|publisherOxford University Press|date2008|isbn9780191727078|contribution=Full stop}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Full form
!Shortening
!Short form
!Source
|-
|Doctor
|mid
|Dr
|D——r
|-
|Professor
|end
|Prof.
|Prof...
|-
|The Reverend
|end
|Rev.
|Rev...
|-
|The Reverend
|mid
|Revd
|Rev——d
|-
|The Right Honourable
|mid and end
|Rt Hon.
|R——t Hon...
|}
Some British style guides, such as for The Guardian and The Economist, disallow periods for all abbreviations.<ref>{{Cite news |date2021-04-30 |titleGuardian and Observer style guide: A |languageen-GB |workThe Guardian |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/guardian-observer-style-guide-a |access-date2023-04-22 |issn0261-3077 |quote"Do not use full points in abbreviations, or spaces between initials, including those in proper names: IMF, mph, eg, 4am, M&S, No 10, AN Wilson, WH Smith, etc." }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |authorThe Economist |titleStyle guide |date2005 |publisherProfile Books |edition9th |isbn978-1-84765-030-6 |locationLondon |oclc236346040 |page117 |quoteDo not use full stops in abbreviations... }}</ref>
In American English, the period is usually included regardless of whether or not it is a contraction, e.g. Dr. or Mrs. In some cases, periods are optional, as in either US or U.S. for United States, EU or E.U. for European Union, and UN or U.N. for United Nations. There are some house styles, however—American ones included—that remove the periods from almost all abbreviations. For example:
* The U.S. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs, except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name. (For example, "Northwest Blvd", "W. Jefferson", and "PED XING" all follow this recommendation.)
* AMA style, used in many medical journals, uses no periods in abbreviations or acronyms, with almost no exceptions. Thus eg, ie, vs, et al., Dr, Mr, MRI, ICU, and hundreds of others contain no periods. The only exceptions are {{char|No.}} (an abbreviation of Numero, Number), to avoid confusion with the word "No"; initials within persons' names (such as "George R. Smith"); and "St." within persons' names when the person prefers it (such as "Emily R. St. Clair") (but not in city names such as St Louis or St Paul).
Acronyms that were originally capitalized (with or without periods) but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer written with capital letters nor with any periods. Examples are sonar, radar, lidar, laser, snafu, and scuba.
When an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence, only one period is used: The capital of the United States is Washington, D.C.
In the past, some initialisms were styled with a period after each letter and a space between each pair. For example, U.&nbsp;S., but today this is typically US.
Plural
There are multiple ways to pluralize an abbreviation. Sometimes this accomplished by adding an apostrophe and an s ({{char|'s}}), as in "two PC's have broken screens". But, some find this confusing since the notation can indicate possessive case. And, this style is deprecated by many style guides. For instance, Kate Turabian, writing about style in academic writings,<ref name"Chicago">{{cite book|lastTurabian |first Kate L.|titleA Manual for Writers of Research Papers, Theses, and Dissertations | edition 7th | atsubsection 20.1.2| publisher University of Chicago Press | author-linkKate L. Turabian}}</ref> allows for an apostrophe to form plural acronyms "only when an abbreviation contains internal periods or both capital and lowercase letters". For example, "DVDs" and "URLs" and "Ph.D.'s", while the Modern Language Association<ref name"MLA">Modern Language Association (MLA) Handbook for Writers of Research Papers, 7th Edition 2009, subsection 3.2.7.g</ref> explicitly says, "do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation". Also, the American Psychological Association specifically says,<ref name"APA">Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA), 5th Edition 2001, subsection 3.28</ref><ref name=autogenerated1>Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 6th Edition 2010, subsection 4.29</ref> "without an apostrophe".
However, the 1999 style guide for The New York Times states that the addition of an apostrophe is necessary when pluralizing all abbreviations, preferring "PC's, TV's and VCR's".<ref>Siegal, AM., Connolly, WG., [https://books.google.com/books?idRT5w0s7_op8C&qplurals+abbreviations The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage], Three Rivers Press, 1999, p. 24.</ref>
Forming a plural of an initialization without an apostrophe can also be used for a number, or a letter. Examples:<ref>{{cite book|lastGarner|firstBryan|titleGarner's Modern American Usage|year2009|publisherOxford University Press|locationOxford; New York|isbn978-0-19-538275-4|page638}}</ref>
* Runs batted in, RBIs
* The roaring 20s
* Mind your Ps and Qs
For units of measure, the same form is used for both singular and plural. Examples:
* 1&nbsp;lb or 20&nbsp;lb
* 1&nbsp;ft or 16&nbsp;ft
* 1&nbsp;min or 45&nbsp;min
When an abbreviation contains more than one period, ''Hart's Rules recommends putting the s after the final one. Examples:
* Ph.D.s
* M.Phil.s
* The d.t.s
However, the same plurals may be rendered less formally as:
* PhDs
* MPhils
* The DTs (This is the recommended form in the New Oxford Dictionary for Writers and Editors.)
According to Hart's Rules'', an apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it, for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects.
* The x's of the equation
* Dot the i's and cross the t's
However, the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes:
* The xs of the equation
* Dot the 'i's and cross the 't's
In Latin, and continuing to the derivative forms in European languages as well as English, single-letter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for note-taking. Most of these deal with writing and publishing. A few longer abbreviations use this as well.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Singular abbreviation
!Word/phrase
!Plural abbreviation
!Discipline
|-
|d.
| didot
|dd.
| typography
|-
|f.
| following line or page
|ff.
|notes
|-
|F.
| folio
|Ff.
|literature
|-
|h.
| hand
|hh.
| horse height
|-
|J.
| Justice
|JJ.
|law (job title)
|-
|l.
| line
|ll.
|notes
|-
|MS
| manuscript
|MSS
|notes
|-
|op.
| opus (plural: opera)
|opp.
|notes
|-
|p.
|page
|pp.
|notes
|-
|Q.
| quarto
|Qq.
|literature
|-
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Conventions followed by publications and newspapers
United States
Publications based in the U.S. tend to follow the style guides of The Chicago Manual of Style and the Associated Press.<ref>{{Cite web |titleThe Chicago Manual of Style, explained {{!}} University of Chicago News |urlhttps://news.uchicago.edu/explainer/chicago-manual-style-explained |access-date2024-06-23 |websitenews.uchicago.edu |languageen}}</ref> The U.S. government follows a style guide published by the U.S. Government Printing Office. The National Institute of Standards and Technology sets the style for abbreviations of units. United Kingdom
Many British publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation:
* For the sake of convenience, many British publications, including the BBC and The Guardian, have completely done away with the use of periods in all abbreviations. These include:
** Social titles, e.g. Ms or Mr (though these would usually have not had periods—see above) Capt, Prof, etc.;
** Two-letter abbreviations for countries ("US", not "U.S.");
** Abbreviations beyond three letters (full caps for all except initialisms{{clarify|date=November 2015}});
** Words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters ("PR", instead of "p.r.", or "pr")
** Names ("FW de Klerk", "GB Whiteley", "Park JS"). A notable exception is The Economist which writes "Mr F. W. de Klerk".
** Scientific units (see Measurements below).
* Acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalized. For instance, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization can be abbreviated as "Nato" or "NATO", and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome as "Sars" or "SARS" (compare with "laser" which has made the full transition to an English word and is rarely capitalised at all).
* Initialisms are always written in capitals; for example the "British Broadcasting Corporation" is abbreviated to "BBC", never "Bbc". An initialism is also an acronym but is not pronounced as a word.
* When abbreviating scientific units, no space is added between the number and unit (<nowiki>100mph, 100m, 10cm, 10°C</nowiki>). (This is contrary to the SI standard; see below.)
Miscellaneous and general rules
* A doubled letter appears in abbreviations of some Welsh names, as in Welsh the double "l" is a separate sound: "Ll. George" for (British prime minister) David Lloyd George.
* Some titles, such as "Reverend" and "Honourable", are spelt out when preceded by "the", rather than as "Rev." or "Hon." respectively. This is true for most British publications, and some in the United States.
* A repeatedly used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage.<ref>Gary Blake and Robert W. Bly, The Elements of Technical Writing, pg. 53. New York City: Macmillan Publishers, 1993. {{ISBN|0020130856}}</ref> Abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided.
Measurements: abbreviations or symbols
Writers often use shorthand to denote units of measure. Such shorthand can be an abbreviation, such as "in" for "inch" or can be a symbol such as "km" for "kilometre".
In the International System of Units (SI) manual<ref>{{SIbrochure8th}}</ref> the word "symbol" is used consistently to define the shorthand used to represent the various SI units of measure. The manual also defines the way in which units should be written, the principal rules being:
*The conventions for upper and lower case letters must be observed—for example 1&nbsp;MW (megawatts) is equal to 1,000,000&nbsp;watts and 1,000,000,000&nbsp;mW (milliwatts).
*No periods should be inserted between letters—for example "m.s" (which is an approximation of "m·s", which correctly uses middle dot) is the symbol for "metres multiplied by seconds", but "ms" is the symbol for milliseconds.
*No periods should follow the symbol unless the syntax of the sentence demands otherwise (for example a full stop at the end of a sentence).
*The singular and plural versions of the symbol are identical—not all languages use the letter "s" to denote a plural.
Syllabic abbreviation
<!--irony is this is linked from the MOS on how not to do it like this! - see MOS:CAPSACRS-->
A syllabic abbreviation is usually formed from the initial syllables of several words, such as Interpol International + police. It is a variant of the acronym. Syllabic abbreviations are usually written using lower case, sometimes starting with a capital letter, and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter. Syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from portmanteaus, which combine two words without necessarily taking whole syllables from each. English
Syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in English. Some UK government agencies such as Ofcom (Office of Communications) and the former Oftel (Office of Telecommunications) use this style.
New York City has various neighborhoods named by syllabic abbreviation, such as Tribeca (Triangle below Canal Street) and SoHo (South of Houston Street). This usage has spread into other American cities, giving SoMa, San Francisco (South of Market) and LoDo, Denver (Lower Downtown), amongst others.
Chicago-based electric service provider ComEd is a syllabic abbreviation of Commonwealth and (Thomas) Edison.
Sections of California are also often colloquially syllabically abbreviated, as in NorCal (Northern California), CenCal (Central California), and SoCal (Southern California). Additionally, in the context of Los Angeles, the syllabic abbreviation SoHo (Southern Hollywood) refers to the southern portion of the Hollywood neighborhood.
Partially syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the US Navy, as they increase readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms. Hence DESRON 6 is used (in the full capital form) to mean "Destroyer Squadron 6", while COMNAVAIRLANT would be "Commander, Naval Air Force (in the) Atlantic".
Syllabic abbreviations are a prominent feature of Newspeak, the fictional language of George Orwell's dystopian novel Nineteen Eighty-Four. The political contractions of Newspeak—Ingsoc (English Socialism), Minitrue (Ministry of Truth), Miniplenty (Ministry of Plenty)—are described by Orwell as similar to real examples of German (see below) and Russian (see below) contractions in the 20th century. The contractions in Newspeak are supposed to have a political function by virtue of their abbreviated structure itself: nice sounding and easily pronounceable, their purpose is to mask all ideological content from the speaker.<ref>{{Cite book |lastOrwell |firstGeorge |titleNineteen Eighty-Four |publisherSecker and Warburg |year1949 |isbn978-0-452-28423-4 |url-accessregistration |urlhttps://archive.org/details/nineteeneightyfo00orwe_1 }}</ref>{{rp|310–8}}
A more recent syllabic abbreviation has emerged with the disease COVID-19 (Corona Virus Disease 2019) caused by the Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (itself frequently abbreviated to SARS-CoV-2, partly an initialism).
Albanian
In Albanian, syllabic acronyms are sometimes used for composing a person's name, such as Migjeni—an abbreviation from his original name (Millosh Gjergj Nikolla) a famous Albanian poet and writer—or ASDRENI (Aleksander Stavre Drenova), another famous Albanian poet.
Other such names which are used commonly in recent decades are GETOAR, composed from Gegeria + Tosks (representing the two main dialects of the Albanian language, Gegë and Toskë), and Arbanon—which is an alternative way used to describe all Albanian lands.
German
Syllabic abbreviations were and are common in German; much like acronyms in English, they have a distinctly modern connotation, although contrary to popular belief, many date back to before 1933, if not the end of the Great War. {{lang|de|Kriminalpolizei}}, literally criminal police but idiomatically the Criminal Investigation Department of any German police force, begat {{lang|de|KriPo}} (variously capitalised), and likewise {{lang|de|Schutzpolizei}} (protection police or uniform department) begat {{lang|de|SchuPo}}. Along the same lines, the Swiss Federal Railways' Transit Police—the {{lang|de|Transportpolizei}}—are abbreviated as the {{lang|de|TraPo}}.
With the National Socialist German Workers' Party gaining power came a frenzy of government reorganisation, and with it a series of entirely new syllabic abbreviations. The single national police force amalgamated from the {{lang|de|Schutzpolizeien}} of the various states became the OrPo ({{lang|de|Ordnungspolizei}}, "order police"); the state KriPos together formed the "SiPo" ({{lang|de|Sicherheitspolizei}}, "security police"); and there was also the Gestapo ({{lang|de|Geheime Staatspolizei}}, "secret state police"). The new order of the German Democratic Republic in the east brought about a conscious denazification, but also a repudiation of earlier turns of phrase in favour of neologisms such as {{lang|de|Stasi}} for {{lang|de|Staatssicherheit}} ("state security", the secret police) and {{lang|de|VoPo}} for {{lang|de|Volkspolizei}}. The phrase {{lang|de|politisches Büro}}, which may be rendered literally as "office of politics" or idiomatically as "political party steering committee", became {{lang|de|Politbüro}}.
Syllabic abbreviations are not only used in politics, however. Many business names, trademarks, and service marks from across Germany are created on the same pattern: for a few examples, there is Aldi, from Theo Albrecht, the name of its founder, followed by discount; Haribo, from Hans Riegel, the name of its founder, followed by Bonn, the town of its head office; and Adidas, from Adolf "Adi" Dassler, the nickname of its founder followed by his surname.
Russian
Syllabic abbreviations are very common in Russian, Belarusian and Ukrainian languages. They are often used as names of organizations. Historically, popularization of abbreviations was a way to simplify mass-education in 1920s (see Likbez). The word kolkhoz (kollektívnoye khozyáystvo, collective farm) is another example.
Leninist organisations such as the Comintern (Communist International) and Komsomol (Kommunisticheskii Soyuz Molodyozhi, or "Communist youth union") used Russian language syllabic abbreviations. In the modern Russian language, words like Rosselkhozbank (from Rossiysky selskokhozyaystvenny bank — Russian Agricultural Bank, RusAg) and Minobrnauki (from Ministerstvo obrazovaniya i nauki — Ministry of Education and Science) are still commonly used. In nearby Belarus, there are Beltelecom (Belarus Telecommunication) and Belsat (Belarus Satellite).
Spanish
Syllabic abbreviations are common in Spanish; examples abound in organization names such as Pemex for Petróleos Mexicanos ("Mexican Petroleums") or Fonafifo for Fondo Nacional de Financimiento Forestal (National Forestry Financing Fund).
Malay and Indonesian
In Southeast Asian languages, especially in Malay languages, abbreviations are common; examples include Petronas (for Petroliam Nasional, "National Petroleum"), its Indonesian equivalent Pertamina (from its original name Perusahaan Pertambangan Minyak dan Gas Bumi Negara, "State Oil and Natural Gas Mining Company"), and Kemenhub (from Kementerian Perhubungan, "Ministry of Transportation").
Malaysian abbreviation often uses letters from each word, while Indonesia usually uses syllables; although some cases do not follow the style. For example, general elections in Malaysian Malay often shortened into PRU (pilihan raya umum) while Indonesian often shortened into pemilu (pemilihan umum). Another example is Ministry of Health in which Malaysian Malay uses KKM (Kementerian Kesihatan Malaysia), compared to Indonesian Kemenkes (Kementerian Kesehatan).
Chinese and Japanese kanji
East Asian languages whose writing systems use Chinese characters form abbreviations similarly by using key Chinese characters from a term or phrase. For example, in Japanese the term for the United Nations, kokusai rengō (国際連合) is often abbreviated to kokuren (国連). (Such abbreviations are called ryakugo (略語) in Japanese; see also Japanese abbreviated and contracted words). The syllabic abbreviation of kanji words is frequently used for universities: for instance, Tōdai (東大) for Tōkyō daigaku (東京大学, University of Tokyo) and is used similarly in Chinese: Běidà (北大) for Běijīng Dàxué (北京大学, Peking University). Korean universities often follow the same conventions, such as Hongdae (홍대) as short for Hongik Daehakgyo, or Hongik University. The English phrase "Gung ho" originated as a Chinese abbreviation.
See also
* {{Annotated link |Abbreviation (music)}}
* {{Annotated link |Blend word}}
** {{Annotated link |List of portmanteaus}}
* {{Annotated link |Clipping (morphology)}}
* {{Annotated link |Gramogram}}
* {{Annotated link |List of abbreviations used in medical prescriptions}}
* {{Annotated link |List of abbreviations in photography}}
* {{Annotated link |Acronym}}
** {{Annotated link |List of acronyms}}
* {{Annotated link |List of business and finance abbreviations}}
* {{Annotated link |List of classical abbreviations}}
* {{Annotated link |List of medieval abbreviations}}
* {{Annotated link |Neologism}}
* {{Annotated link |Numeronym}}
* {{Annotated link |RAS syndrome}}
* {{Annotated link |SMS language}}
* {{Annotated link |Three-letter acronym}}
* The abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of Webster's dictionary
* {{Annotated link |Unicode alias names and abbreviations}}
Notes
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist}}
{{Wiktionary|abbreviation}}
{{EB1911 poster|Abbreviation}}
*{{Commons category-inline}}
{{Authority control}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbreviation | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.824318 |
1174 | Aphrodite | {{Short description|Ancient Greek goddess of love}}
{{Redirect|Cypris||Aphrodite (disambiguation)|and|Cypris (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2024}}
{{Infobox deity
| type = Greek
| name = Aphrodite
| image = Cnidus Aphrodite Altemps Inv8619.jpg
| alt | caption The Ludovisi Cnidian Aphrodite, Roman marble copy (torso and thighs) with restored head, arms, legs and drapery support
| god_of = Goddess of love, lust, passion, pleasure, beauty, and sexuality
| member_of = the Twelve Olympians
| abode = Mount Olympus
| animals = dolphin, sparrow, dove, swan, hare, goose, bee, fish, butterfly
| symbol = rose, seashell, pearl, mirror, girdle, anemone, lettuce, narcissus
| tree = myrrh, myrtle, apple, pomegranate
| consort = {{Plain list|
* Hephaestus {{small|(divorced)}}
* Ares<br> Several lovers
}}
| parents Zeus and Dione {{small|(Homer)}}<ref>Homer, Iliad [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D5%3Acard%3D363 5.370].</ref><br />Uranus {{small|(Hesiod)}}<ref>Hesiod, Theogony, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D173 188–90].</ref>
| children = Eros, Phobos, Deimos, Harmonia, Pothos, Anteros, Himeros, Hermaphroditus, Rhodos, Eryx, Peitho, The Graces, Beroe, Golgos, Priapus, Aeneas
| planet = Venus
| Roman_equivalent = Venus
| equivalent4 = Hathor, Isis
| equivalent4_type = Egyptian
}}
Aphrodite ({{IPAc-en|audioEn-us-Aphrodite.ogg|,|æ|f|r|ə|ˈ|d|aɪ|t|iː}}, {{respell|AF|rə|DY|tee}}){{efn|{{langx|grc|Ἀφροδίτη|Aphrodítē}}; {{IPA|grc-x-attic|a.pʰro.dǐː.tɛː|linkyes}}, {{IPA|grc-x-koine|a.ɸroˈdi.te̝|lang|linkyes}}, {{IPA|el|a.froˈði.ti|labelModern Greek:}}}} is an ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, procreation, and as her syncretized Roman counterpart {{lang|la|Venus|italics=no}}, desire, sex, fertility, prosperity, and victory. Aphrodite's major symbols include seashells, myrtles, roses, doves, sparrows, and swans. The cult of Aphrodite was largely derived from that of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, a cognate of the East Semitic goddess Ishtar, whose cult was based on the Sumerian cult of Inanna. Aphrodite's main cult centers were Cythera, Cyprus, Corinth, and Athens. Her main festival was the Aphrodisia, which was celebrated annually in midsummer. In Laconia, Aphrodite was worshipped as a warrior goddess. She was also the patron goddess of prostitutes, an association which led early scholars to propose the concept of sacred prostitution in Greco-Roman culture, an idea which is now generally seen as erroneous.
A major goddess in the Greek pantheon, Aphrodite featured prominently in ancient Greek literature. In Hesiod's Theogony, Aphrodite is born off the coast of Cythera from the foam ({{Lang|grc|ἀφρός}}, {{lang|grc-latn|aphrós}}) produced by Uranus's genitals, which his son Cronus had severed and thrown into the sea. In Homer's Iliad, however, she is the daughter of Zeus and Dione. In his Symposium, Plato asserts that these two origins actually belong to separate entities; Aphrodite Urania (a transcendent "Heavenly" Aphrodite) and Aphrodite Pandemos (Aphrodite common to "all the people").<ref>This claim is made at Symposium 180e. It is hard to interpret the role of the various speeches in the dialogue and their relationship to what Plato actually thought; therefore, it is controversial whether Plato, in fact, believed this claim about Aphrodite. See Frisbee Sheffield, "The Role of the Earlier Speeches in the "Symposium": Plato's Endoxic Method?" in J. H. Lesher, Debra Nails & Frisbee C. C. Sheffield (eds.), ''Plato's Symposium: Issues in Interpretation and Reception. Harvard University Press (2006).</ref> The epithet Aphrodite Areia (the "Warlike") reveals her contrasting nature in ancient Greek religion. Aphrodite had many other epithets, each emphasizing a different aspect of the same goddess or used by a different local cult. Thus she was also known as Cytherea (Lady of Cythera) and Cypris (Lady of Cyprus''), because both locations claimed to be the place of her birth. Sappho's Ode to Aphrodite is one of the earliest poems dedicated to the goddess and survives from the Archaic period nearly complete.
In Greek mythology, Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus, the god of fire, blacksmiths and metalworking. Aphrodite was frequently unfaithful to him and had many lovers; in the Odyssey, she is caught in the act of adultery with Ares, the god of war. In the First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, she seduces the mortal shepherd Anchises. Aphrodite was also the surrogate mother and lover of the mortal shepherd Adonis, who was killed by a wild boar. Along with Athena and Hera, Aphrodite was one of the three goddesses whose feud resulted in the beginning of the Trojan War and plays a major role throughout the Iliad. Aphrodite has been featured in Western art as a symbol of female beauty and has appeared in numerous works of Western literature. She is a major deity in modern Neopagan religions, including the Church of Aphrodite, Wicca, and Hellenism.
Etymology
Hesiod derives the name Aphrodite from {{Lang|grc-latn|aphrós}} ({{Lang|grc|ἀφρός}}) "sea-foam",{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page14}} interpreting the name as "risen from the foam",<ref>Hesiod, Theogony, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHes.+Th.+173 190–97].</ref>{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page14}} but most modern scholars regard this as a spurious folk etymology.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page14}}{{sfn|West|2000|pages134–38}} Early-modern scholars of classical mythology attempted to argue that Aphrodite's name was of Greek or Indo-European origin, but these efforts have mostly been abandoned.{{sfn|West|2000|pages134–38}} Aphrodite's name is generally accepted to be of non-Greek (probably Semitic) origin, but its exact derivation cannot be determined with confidence.{{sfn|West|2000|pages134–38}}{{sfn|Beekes|2009|page179}}
Scholars in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, accepting Hesiod's "foam" etymology as genuine, analyzed the second part of Aphrodite's name as *-odítē "wanderer"<ref>Paul Kretschmer, "Zum pamphylischen Dialekt", Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiet der Indogermanischen Sprachen 33 (1895): 267.</ref> or as *-dítē "bright".<ref>Ernst Maaß, "Aphrodite und die hl. Pelagia", Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum 27 (1911): 457–68.</ref><ref>Vittore Pisani, "Akmon e Dieus", Archivio glottologico italiano 24 (1930): 65–73.</ref> More recently, Michael Janda, also accepting Hesiod's etymology, has argued in favor of the latter of these interpretations and claims the story of a birth from the foam as an Indo-European mytheme.{{sfn|Janda|2005|pages349–60}}{{sfn|Janda|2010|page65}} Similarly, Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak proposes an Indo-European compound {{lang|ine-x-proto|*abʰor-}} "very" and {{lang|ine-x-proto|*dʰei-}} "to shine", also referring to Eos,{{sfn|Witczak|1993|pages115–23}} and Daniel Kölligan has interpreted Aphrodite's name as "shining up from the mist/foam".<ref>{{cite journal |lastKölligan |firstDaniel |year2007 |titleAphrodite of the Dawn: Indo-European Heritage in Greek Divine Epithets and Theonyms |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/8880560 |journalLetras Clássicas |volume11 |issue11 |pages105–34 |doi10.11606/issn.2358-3150.v0i11p105-134 |doi-accessfree}}</ref> Other scholars have argued that these hypotheses are unlikely, since Aphrodite's attributes are entirely different from those of both Eos and the Vedic deity Ushas.{{sfn|Penglase|1994|page164}}{{sfn|Boedeker|1974|pages15–16}}
Modern scholars, due to the believed Near Eastern origins of Aphrodite's worship, have since proposed Semitic origins for the name.{{sfn|Beekes|2009|page179}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages26–27}} Some scholars, such as Fritz Hommel, have suggested that Aphrodite's name is a hellenized pronunciation of the name "Astarte"; other scholars, however, reject this as being linguistically untenable.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page26}}{{sfn|West|2000|pages134–36}} Martin West reconstructs a Cyprian Canaanite form of the name as either {{transl|sem|*ʿAprodît}} or {{transl|sem|*ʿAproḏît}}, and cautiously suggests the latter as being an epithet with the meaning "She of the Villages".{{sfn|West|2000|pages137–38}} Aren Wilson-Wright suggests the Phoenician form {{transl|sem|*ʾAprodīt}} as an elative epithet meaning "unique, excellent, sublime".<ref>{{cite conference |urlhttps://www.academia.edu/40109930 |titleVenus's Name: The Divine Name Aphrodite as a Phoenician Epithet |last1Wilson-Wright |first1Aren M. |dateAugust 2019 |locationWarsaw |conferenceEuropean Association of Biblical Studies Annual Conference}}</ref>
A number of improbable non-Greek etymologies have also been suggested. One Semitic etymology compares Aphrodite to the Assyrian barīrītu, the name of a female demon that appears in Middle Babylonian and Late Babylonian texts.<ref>Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, vol. 2, p.&nbsp;111.</ref> Hammarström<ref>M. Hammarström, "Griechisch-etruskische Wortgleichungen", Glotta: Zeitschrift für griechische und lateinische Sprache 11 (1921): 215–16.</ref> looks to Etruscan, comparing (e)prθni "lord", an Etruscan honorific loaned into Greek as πρύτανις.{{sfn|Frisk|1960|page196f}}{{sfn|Beekes|2009|page179}}{{sfn|West|2000|page134}} This would make the theonym in origin an honorific, "the lady".{{sfn|Frisk|1960|page196f}}{{sfn|Beekes|2009|page179}} Most scholars reject this etymology as implausible,{{sfn|Frisk|1960|page196f}}{{sfn|Beekes|2009|page179}}{{sfn|West|2000|page134}} especially since Aphrodite's name actually appears in Etruscan in the borrowed form Apru (from Greek {{Lang|grc-Latn|Aphrō}}, clipped form of Aphrodite).{{sfn|Beekes|2009|page=179}} The medieval Etymologicum Magnum ({{circa|1150}}) offers a highly contrived etymology, deriving Aphrodite from the compound habrodíaitos ({{lang|grc|ἁβροδίαιτος}}), "she who lives delicately", from habrós and díaita. The alteration from b to ph is explained as a "familiar" characteristic of Greek "obvious from the Macedonians".<ref>Etymologicum Magnum, Ἀφροδίτη.</ref>
In the Cypriot syllabary, a syllabic script used on the island of Cyprus from the eleventh until the fourth centuries BC, Aphrodite's name is attested in the forms {{Script|Cprt|𐠀𐠡𐠦𐠭𐠃𐠂}} (a-po-ro-ta-o-i, read right-to-left),<ref>{{cite book |page80 |titleA Student's Commentary on Ovid's Metamorphoses Book 10 |firstShawn David |lastO'Bryhim |publisherWiley-Blackwell |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idl5EvEAAAQBAJ&pgPA80 |date22 June 2021 |isbn9781119770503 |locationUnited States}}</ref> {{Script|Cprt|𐠀𐠡𐠦𐠯𐠭𐠂}} (a-po-ro-ti-ta-i, samewise),<ref>{{cite web |titleThe Cypriot Syllabic Script word a-po-ro-ti-ta-i |urlhttps://www.palaeolexicon.com/Word/Show/18235/ |websitewww.palaeolexicon.com |access-date24 April 2023}}</ref> and finally {{Script|Cprt|𐠀𐠡𐠦𐠯𐠪𐠈}} (a-po-ro-ti-si-jo, "{{linktext|Aphrodisian}}", "related to Aphrodite", in the context of a month).<ref>{{cite book |pages135–136 |titleKypriōn Politeia, the Political and Administrative Systems of the Classical Cypriot City-Kingdoms |firstBeatrice |lastPestarino |isbn9789004520332 |date8 August 2022 |publisherBrill Publications |locationLeiden, the Netherlands |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?ida7uAEAAAQBAJ&pgPA135}}</ref>
Origins
Near Eastern love goddess
{{multiple image
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| image1 = Naked woman holding her breasts-Sb 7742-IMG 0880-black.jpg
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| alt1 | caption1 Late second-millennium BC nude figurine of Ishtar from Susa, showing her wearing a crown and clutching her breasts
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| image2 = Neues Museum - Aphrodite - Die große Göttin von Zypern.jpg
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| alt2 | caption2 Early fifth-century BC statue of Aphrodite from Cyprus, showing her wearing a cylinder crown and holding a dove
}}
The cult of Aphrodite in Greece was imported from, or at least influenced by, the cult of Astarte in Phoenicia,{{sfn|Breitenberger|2007|pages8–12}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages49–52}}{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|page27}}{{sfn|Marcovich|1996|pages43–59}} which, in turn, was influenced by the cult of the Mesopotamian goddess known as "Ishtar" to the East Semitic peoples and as "Inanna" to the Sumerians.{{sfn|Burkert|1985|pages152–53}}{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|page27}}{{sfn|Marcovich|1996|pages43–59}} Pausanias states that the first to establish a cult of Aphrodite were the Assyrians, followed by the Paphians of Cyprus and then the Phoenicians at Ascalon. The Phoenicians, in turn, taught her worship to the people of Cythera.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookupPaus.+1.14.7 I. XIV.7]</ref>
Aphrodite took on Inanna-Ishtar's associations with sexuality and procreation.{{sfn|Breitenberger|2007|page8}} Furthermore, she was known as Ourania (Οὐρανία), which means "heavenly",{{sfn|Breitenberger|2007|pages10–11}} a title corresponding to Inanna's role as the Queen of Heaven.{{sfn|Breitenberger|2007|pages10–11}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|page162}} Early artistic and literary portrayals of Aphrodite are extremely similar on Inanna-Ishtar.{{sfn|Breitenberger|2007|page8}} Like Inanna-Ishtar, Aphrodite was also a warrior goddess;{{sfn|Breitenberger|2007|page8}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages49–52}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|page163}} the second-century AD Greek geographer Pausanias records that, in Sparta, Aphrodite was worshipped as Aphrodite Areia, which means "warlike".{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages51–52}}{{sfn|Budin|2010|pages85–86, 96, 100, 102–03, 112, 123, 125}} He also mentions that Aphrodite's most ancient cult statues in Sparta and on Cythera showed her bearing arms.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages51–52}}{{sfn|Budin|2010|pages85–86, 96, 100, 102–03, 112, 123, 125}}{{sfn|Graz|1984|page250}}{{sfn|Breitenberger|2007|page8}} Modern scholars note that Aphrodite's warrior-goddess aspects appear in the oldest strata of her worship{{sfn|Iossif|Lorber|2007|page77}} and see it as an indication of her Near Eastern origins.{{sfn|Iossif|Lorber|2007|page77}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|pages=162–63}}
Nineteenth-century classical scholars had a general aversion to the idea that ancient Greek religion was at all influenced by the cultures of the Near East,{{sfn|Konaris|2016|page169}} but, even Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, who argued that Near Eastern influence on Greek culture was largely confined to material culture,{{sfn|Konaris|2016|page169}} admitted that Aphrodite was clearly of Phoenician origin.{{sfn|Konaris|2016|page169}} The significant influence of Near Eastern culture on early Greek religion in general, and on the cult of Aphrodite in particular,{{sfn|Burkert|1998|pages1–6}} is now widely recognized as dating to a period of orientalization during the eighth century BC,{{sfn|Burkert|1998|pages1–6}} when archaic Greece was on the fringes of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.{{sfn|Burkert|1998|pages1–41}}
Indo-European dawn goddess
Some early comparative mythologists opposed to the idea of a Near Eastern origin argued that Aphrodite originated as an aspect of the Greek dawn goddess Eos{{sfn|Dumézil|1934|page}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page24}} and that she was therefore ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess *H<sub>a</sub>éusōs (properly Greek Eos, Latin Aurora, Sanskrit Ushas).{{sfn|Dumézil|1934|page}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page24}} Most modern scholars have now rejected the notion of a purely Indo-European Aphrodite,{{sfn|West|2000|pages134–38}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|pages162–64}}{{sfn|Boedeker|1974|pages15–16}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages24–25}} but it is possible that Aphrodite, originally a Semitic deity, may have been influenced by the Indo-European dawn goddess.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages24–25}} Both Aphrodite and Eos were known for their erotic beauty and aggressive sexuality{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page24}} and both had relationships with mortal lovers.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page24}} Both goddesses were associated with the colors red, white, and gold.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page24}} Michael Janda etymologizes Aphrodite's name as an epithet of Eos meaning "she who rises from the foam [of the ocean]"{{sfn|Janda|2010|page65}} and points to Hesiod's Theogony account of Aphrodite's birth as an archaic reflex of Indo-European myth.{{sfn|Janda|2010|page65}} Aphrodite rising out of the waters after Cronus defeats Uranus as a mytheme would then be directly cognate to the Rigvedic myth of Indra defeating Vrtra, liberating Ushas.{{sfn|Janda|2005|pages349–60}}{{sfn|Janda|2010|page65}} Another key similarity between Aphrodite and the Indo-European dawn goddess is her close kinship to the Greek sky deity,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages24–25}} since both of the main claimants to her paternity (Zeus and Uranus) are sky deities.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page25}}
Forms and epithets
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| alt2 | caption2 Ancient Greek herma of Aphroditus, a male form of Aphrodite,{{sfn|Bullough|Bullough|1993|page29}}{{sfn|Clark|2015|page381}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page=81}} currently held in the Nationalmuseum in Stockholm
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{{see also|:Category:Epithets of Aphrodite}}
Aphrodite's most common cultic epithet was Ourania, meaning "heavenly",{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page28}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page80}} but this epithet almost never occurs in literary texts, indicating a purely cultic significance.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages28–29}} Another common name for Aphrodite was Pandemos ("For All the Folk").{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page35}} In her role as Aphrodite Pandemos, Aphrodite was associated with Peithō ({{lang|grc|Πείθω}}), meaning "persuasion",{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages35–38}} and could be prayed to for aid in seduction.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages35–38}} The character of Pausanias in Plato's Symposium, takes differing cult-practices associated with different epithets of the goddess to claim that Ourania and Pandemos are, in fact, separate goddesses. He asserts that Aphrodite Ourania is the celestial Aphrodite, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and the older of the two goddesses. According to the Symposium, Aphrodite Ourania is the inspiration of male homosexual desire, specifically the ephebic eros, and pederasty. Aphrodite Pandemos, by contrast, is the younger of the two goddesses: the common Aphrodite, born from the union of Zeus and Dione, and the inspiration of heterosexual desire and sexual promiscuity, the "lesser" of the two loves.<ref>Plato, Symposium 181a-d.</ref><ref>Richard L. Hunter, ''Plato's Symposium, Oxford University Press: 2004, pp. 44–47</ref> Paphian (Παφία), was one of her epithets, after the Paphos in Cyprus where she had emerged from the sea at her birth.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/pi/825| title Suda, π, 825}}</ref>
Among the Neoplatonists and, later, their Christian interpreters, Ourania is associated with spiritual love, and Pandemos with physical love (desire). A representation of Ourania with her foot resting on a tortoise came to be seen as emblematic of discretion in conjugal love; it was the subject of a chryselephantine sculpture by Phidias for Elis, known only from a parenthetical comment by the geographer Pausanias.<ref>Pausanias, Periegesis vi.25.1; Aphrodite Pandemos was represented in the same temple riding on a goat, symbol of purely carnal rut: "The meaning of the tortoise and of the he-goat I leave to those who care to guess," Pausanias remarks. The image was taken up again after the Renaissance: see [http://www.emblems.arts.gla.ac.uk/french/emblem.php?id=FALc195 Andrea Alciato, Emblemata / Les emblemes'' (1584)].</ref>
One of Aphrodite's most common literary epithets is Philommeidḗs ({{lang|grc|φιλομμειδής}}),{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page39}} which means "smile-loving",{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page39}} but is sometimes mistranslated as "laughter-loving".{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page39}} This epithet occurs throughout both of the Homeric epics and the First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page39}} Hesiod references it once in his Theogony in the context of Aphrodite's birth,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages39–40}} but interprets it as "genital-loving" rather than "smile-loving".{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages39–40}} Monica Cyrino notes that the epithet may relate to the fact that, in many artistic depictions of Aphrodite, she is shown smiling.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages39–40}} Other epithets of her include Mechanitis meaning skilled in inventing<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author-linkLeonhard Schmitz| author-lastSchmitz |author-firstLeonhard | editor-linkWilliam Smith (lexicographer) |titleMechaneus |editor-lastSmith |editor-firstWilliam | encyclopediaDictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |title-linkDictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |volume2 |page1003 |year1867 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/DictionaryOfGreekAndRomanBiographyAndMythology/Dictionary%20of%20Greek%20and%20Roman%20Biography%20and%20Mythology%20-%20Vol%202/page/n1007/mode/2up |publisherLittle, Brown and Company |locationBoston}}</ref> and Automata because, according to Servius, she was the source of spontaneous love.<ref>{{cite book| author Lewis Richard Farnell | title The Cults of the Greek States| url https://books.google.com/books?idYGfXAAAAMAAJ| publisher Clarendon Press|date 1896 | page = 666}}</ref>
Common literary epithets of Aphrodite are Cypris and Cythereia,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page27}} which derive from her associations with the islands of Cyprus and Cythera respectively.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page27}} On Cyprus, Aphrodite was sometimes called Eleemon ("the merciful").{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page80}} In Athens, she was known as Aphrodite en kēpois ("Aphrodite of the Gardens").{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page80}} At Cape Colias, a town along the Attic coast, she was venerated as Genetyllis "Mother".{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page80}} The Spartans worshipped her as Potnia "Mistress", Enoplios "Armed", Morpho "Shapely", Ambologera "She who Postpones Old Age".{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page80}} Across the Greek world, she was known under epithets such as Melainis in Corinth "Black or Dark One",<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |author-linkLeonhard Schmitz| author-lastSchmitz |author-firstLeonhard | editor-linkWilliam Smith (lexicographer) |titleMelaenis |editor-lastSmith |editor-firstWilliam | encyclopediaDictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |title-linkDictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |volume2 |page1012 |year1867 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/DictionaryOfGreekAndRomanBiographyAndMythology/Dictionary%20of%20Greek%20and%20Roman%20Biography%20and%20Mythology%20-%20Vol%202/page/n1017/mode/2up |publisherLittle, Brown and Company |locationBoston}}</ref> Skotia "Dark One", Androphonos "Killer of Men", Anosia "Unholy", and Tymborychos "Gravedigger",{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page81}} all of which indicate her darker, more violent nature.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page=81}}
A male version of Aphrodite known as Aphroditus was worshipped in the city of Amathus on Cyprus.{{sfn|Bullough|Bullough|1993|page29}}{{sfn|Clark|2015|page381}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page81}} Aphroditus was depicted with the figure and dress of a woman, but had a beard, and was shown lifting his dress to reveal an erect phallus.{{sfn|Bullough|Bullough|1993|page29}}{{sfn|Clark|2015|page381}} This gesture was believed to be an apotropaic symbol, and was thought to convey good fortune upon the viewer.{{sfn|Koloski-Ostrow|Lyons|2000|pages230–31}} Eventually, the popularity of Aphroditus waned as the mainstream, fully feminine version of Aphrodite became more popular, but traces of his cult are preserved in the later legends of Hermaphroditus.{{sfn|Clark|2015|page381}}List of epithets
<ref> Nlisson, Vol I p.521-526</ref><ref> Cyrino 2010 p.38-40</ref><ref> Kerenyi 1951 p, 80-81</ref>
*Androphagos, eating men.
*Anosia, unholly.
*Aphrogeneia, foam-sprung.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0062%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DA%3Aentry+group%3D19%3Aentry%3Daphrogeneia-harpers Harry Thurston Peck, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities (1898), Aphrogeneia]</ref>
*Areia, related to war. There was an old xoanon of the goddess at Cythera.<ref>Pausanias 3.17.5</ref>
*Cypris. Cyprus is her homeland by Homer and Hesiod.
*Cytheria, of Cythera.
*Eleēmon, merciful
*Enoplios, armed at Sparta.
*Euploia, good sailing, related to ships. She had a temple at Piraeus.<ref>Pausanias 1.1.3 </ref>
*Genetyllis, by Aristophanes,an epithet close to Kolias.<ref>Pausanias 1.1.5</ref>
*Hera .At Sparta there was a temple of Hera-Hypercheiria and a xoanon of Aphrodite-Hera that was oferred to the brides.<ref>Pausanias 3.13.8)</ref>
*En kẽpois, of the gardens.The oldest of the fates was called "Άφροδίτη έν κήποις" (Aphrodite of the Gardens).
*Epistrophia, of the return.
*Kolias, goddess of childbirth in Attica, with a temple on the mountain "Kolias".
*Limenia, of the harbour at Hermione.<ref>Pausanias 2.34.11</ref>
*Melainis, dark one.
*Melaina, black.
*Morpho,at Sparta. She was depicted with a veil and rocks near her feet.<ref>Pausanias 3.15.11</ref>
*Nymphia, of the marriage. She had a temple on the road from Troezen to Hermione.
*Olympia, of Olympia.
*Pandemos, of the whole demos.In Athens a great festival was celebrated on the Acropolis.
*Paphia,of Paphos, with a great festival. The priests performed her mysteries.
*Philomeidēs, smile loving.
*Pontia, of the open sea, at Hermione.<ref>Pausanias 2.34.11</ref>
*Praxis, act.
*Skotia, dark one.
*Ourania, heavenly that indicates her oriental descent.
Worship
Classical period
{{Ancient Greek religion}} at Aphrodisias]]Aphrodite's main festival, the Aphrodisia, was celebrated across Greece, but particularly in Athens and Corinth. In Athens, the Aphrodisia was celebrated on the fourth day of the month of Hekatombaion in honor of Aphrodite's role in the unification of Attica.{{sfn|Rosenzweig|2004|pages15–16}}{{sfn|Simon|1983|pages49–50}} During this festival, the priests of Aphrodite would purify the temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwestern slope of the Acropolis with the blood of a sacrificed dove.{{sfn|Simon|1983|page48}} Next, the altars would be anointed{{sfn|Simon|1983|page48}} and the cult statues of Aphrodite Pandemos and Peitho would be escorted in a majestic procession to a place where they would be ritually bathed.{{sfn|Simon|1983|pages48–49}} Aphrodite was also honored in Athens as part of the Arrhephoria festival.{{sfn|Simon|1983|pages47–48}} The fourth day of every month was sacred to Aphrodite.{{sfn|Simon|1983|page=49}}
Pausanias records that, in Sparta, Aphrodite was worshipped as Aphrodite Areia, which means "warlike".{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages51–52}}{{sfn|Budin|2010|pages85–86, 96, 100, 102–03, 112, 123, 125}} This epithet stresses Aphrodite's connections to Ares, with whom she had extramarital relations.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages51–52}}{{sfn|Budin|2010|pages85–86, 96, 100, 102–03, 112, 123, 125}} Pausanias also records that, in Sparta{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages51–52}}{{sfn|Budin|2010|pages85–86, 96, 100, 102–03, 112, 123, 125}} and on Cythera, a number of extremely ancient cult statues of Aphrodite portrayed her bearing arms.{{sfn|Graz|1984|page250}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page80}} Other cult statues showed her bound in chains.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page=80}}
Aphrodite was the patron goddess of prostitutes of all varieties,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page40}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page80}} ranging from pornai (cheap street prostitutes typically owned as slaves by wealthy pimps) to hetairai (expensive, well-educated hired companions, who were usually self-employed and sometimes provided sex to their customers).{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages40–41}} The city of Corinth was renowned throughout the ancient world for its many hetairai,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages41–42}} who had a widespread reputation for being among the most skilled, but also the most expensive, prostitutes in the Greek world.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages41–42}} Corinth also had a major temple to Aphrodite located on the Acrocorinth{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages41–42}} and was one of the main centers of her cult.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages41–42}} Records of numerous dedications to Aphrodite made by successful courtesans have survived in poems and in pottery inscriptions.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages40–41}} References to Aphrodite in association with prostitution are found in Corinth as well as on the islands of Cyprus, Cythera, and Sicily.{{sfn|Marcovich|1996|page49}} Aphrodite's Mesopotamian precursor Inanna-Ishtar was also closely associated with prostitution.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page109}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page153}}{{sfn|Marcovich|1996|page49}}
Scholars in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries believed that the cult of Aphrodite may have involved ritual prostitution,{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page153}}{{sfn|Marcovich|1996|page49}} an assumption based on ambiguous passages in certain ancient texts, particularly a fragment of a skolion by the Boeotian poet Pindar,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages41–43}} which mentions prostitutes in Corinth in association with Aphrodite.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages41–43}} Modern scholars now dismiss the notion of ritual prostitution in Greece as a "historiographic myth" with no factual basis.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page43}}Hellenistic and Roman periods
stands beside her.]]
During the Hellenistic period, the Greeks identified Aphrodite with the ancient Egyptian goddesses Hathor and Isis.{{sfn|Witt|1997|page125}}{{sfn|Dunand|2007|page258}}<ref nameLar>Larousse Desk Reference Encyclopedia, The Book People, Haydock, 1995, p. 215.</ref> Aphrodite was the patron goddess of the Lagid queens and Queen Arsinoe II was identified as her mortal incarnation.{{sfn|Dunand|2007|page257}} Aphrodite was worshipped in Alexandria and had numerous temples in and around the city.{{sfn|Dunand|2007|page257}} Arsinoe II introduced the cult of Adonis to Alexandria and many of the women there partook in it.{{sfn|Dunand|2007|page257}} The Tessarakonteres, a gigantic catamaran galley designed by Archimedes for Ptolemy IV Philopator, had a circular temple to Aphrodite on it with a marble statue of the goddess herself.{{sfn|Dunand|2007|page257}} In the second century BC, Ptolemy VIII Physcon and his wives Cleopatra II and Cleopatra III dedicated a temple to Aphrodite Hathor at Philae.{{sfn|Dunand|2007|page257}} Statuettes of Aphrodite for personal devotion became common in Egypt starting in the early Ptolemaic times and extending until long after Egypt became a Roman province.{{sfn|Dunand|2007|page=257}}
The ancient Romans identified Aphrodite with their goddess Venus, who was originally a goddess of agricultural fertility, vegetation, and springtime.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages127–28}} According to the Roman historian Livy, Aphrodite and Venus were officially identified in the third century BC{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page128}} when the cult of Venus Erycina was introduced to Rome from the Greek sanctuary of Aphrodite on Mount Eryx in Sicily.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page128}} After this point, Romans adopted Aphrodite's iconography and myths and applied them to Venus.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page128}} Because Aphrodite was the mother of the Trojan hero Aeneas in Greek mythology{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page128}} and the Roman tradition claimed Aeneas as the founder of Rome,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page128}} Venus became venerated as Venus Genetrix, the mother of the entire Roman nation.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page128}} Julius Caesar claimed to be directly descended from Aeneas's son Iulus{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages128–29}} and became a strong proponent of the cult of Venus.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages128–29}} This precedent was later followed by his nephew Augustus and the later emperors claiming succession from him.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages128–29}}
This syncretism greatly impacted Greek worship of Aphrodite.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page130}} During the Roman era, the cults of Aphrodite in many Greek cities began to emphasize her relationship with Troy and Aeneas.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page130}} They also began to adopt distinctively Roman elements,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page130}} portraying Aphrodite as more maternal, more militaristic, and more concerned with administrative bureaucracy.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page130}} She was claimed as a divine guardian by many political magistrates.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page130}} Appearances of Aphrodite in Greek literature also vastly proliferated, usually showing Aphrodite in a characteristically Roman manner.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages130–31}}
Mythology
Birth
({{circa}} 1485) by Sandro Botticelli,{{sfn|Ames-Lewis|2000|page=194}} Uffizi, Florence]]
Aphrodite is usually said to have been born near her chief center of worship, Paphos, on the island of Cyprus, which is why she is sometimes called "Cyprian", especially in the poetic works of Sappho. The Sanctuary of Aphrodite Paphia, marking her birthplace, was a place of pilgrimage in the ancient world for centuries.<ref>[http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/ash/amps/cyprus/AncCyp-Aph-02.html] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060511202815/http://www.ashmol.ox.ac.uk/ash/amps/cyprus/AncCyp-Aph-02.html|date11 May 2006}}</ref> Other versions of her myth have her born near the island of Cythera, hence another of her names, "Cytherea".<ref>Homer, Odyssey viii. 288; Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D105 i. 105]; Pausanias [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D25%3Asection%3D1 iii. 23. § 1]; Anacreon v. 9; Horace, Carmina'' i. 4. 5.</ref> Cythera was a stopping place for trade and culture between Crete and the Peloponesus,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page21}} so these stories may preserve traces of the migration of Aphrodite's cult from the Middle East to mainland Greece.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages20–21}}
pottery vessel in the shape of Aphrodite inside a shell from the Phanagoria cemetery in the Taman Peninsula]]
("The rock of the Greek"), Aphrodite's legendary birthplace in Paphos, Cyprus]]
According to the version of her birth recounted by Hesiod in his Theogony,<ref>Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D173 191–192].</ref>{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page69}} Cronus severed Uranus' genitals and threw them behind him into the sea.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page69}}{{sfn|Graves|1960|page37}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages13–14}} The foam from his genitals gave rise to Aphrodite{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page14}} (hence her name, which Hesiod interprets as "foam-arisen"),{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page14}} while the Giants, the Erinyes (furies), and the Meliae emerged from the drops of his blood.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page69}}{{sfn|Graves|1960|page37}} Hesiod states that the genitals "were carried over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the immortal flesh; with it a girl grew." After Aphrodite was born from the sea-foam, she washed up to shore in the presence of the other gods. Hesiod's account of Aphrodite's birth following Uranus's castration is probably derived from The Song of Kumarbi,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page29}}{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|page25}} an ancient Hittite epic poem in which the god Kumarbi overthrows his father Anu, the god of the sky, and bites off his genitals, causing him to become pregnant and give birth to Anu's children, which include Ishtar and her brother Teshub, the Hittite storm god.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page29}}{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|page=25}}
In the Iliad,<ref>Homer, Iliad [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHom.%20Il.%205.370&langoriginal 5.370] and [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D20%3Acard%3D86 xx. 105]</ref> Aphrodite is described as the daughter of Zeus and Dione.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page14}} Dione's name appears to be a feminine cognate to Dios and Dion,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page14}} which are oblique forms of the name Zeus.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page14}} Zeus and Dione shared a cult at Dodona in northwestern Greece.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page14}} In the Theogony, Hesiod describes Dione as an Oceanid,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages14–15}} but Apollodorus makes her the thirteenth Titan, child of Gaia and Uranus.<ref>Apollodorus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D1%3Asection%3D3 1.1.3]</ref>Marriage
]]
Aphrodite is consistently portrayed as a nubile, infinitely desirable adult, having had no childhood.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages53–61}} She is often depicted nude.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages73–78}} In the Iliad, Aphrodite is the apparently unmarried consort of Ares, the god of war,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages50, 72}} and the wife of Hephaestus is a different goddess named Charis.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page72}} Likewise, in Hesiod's Theogony, Aphrodite is unmarried and the wife of Hephaestus is Aglaea, the youngest of the three Charites.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page=72}}
In Book Eight of the Odyssey,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page279}} however, the blind singer Demodocus describes Aphrodite as the wife of Hephaestus and tells how she committed adultery with Ares during the Trojan War.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page72}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page72}} The sun-god Helios saw Aphrodite and Ares having sex in Hephaestus's bed and warned Hephaestus, who fashioned a fine, near invisible net.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page72}} The next time Ares and Aphrodite had sex together, the net trapped them both.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page72}} Hephaestus brought all the gods into the bedchamber to laugh at the captured adulterers,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages72–73}} but Apollo, Hermes, and Poseidon had sympathy for Ares{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages73–74}} and Poseidon agreed to pay Hephaestus for Ares's release.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page74}} Aphrodite returned to her temple in Cyprus, where she was attended by the Charites.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page74}} This narrative probably originated as a Greek folk tale, originally independent of the Odyssey.{{sfn|Anderson|2000|pages131–32}} In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldier Alectryon by the door to warn of Helios's arrival but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty.<ref>{{Cite book|lastGallagher|firstDavid|urlhttps://brill.com/view/book/9789042027091/B9789042027091-s006.xml|titleAvian and Serpentine|date1 January 2009|publisherBrill Rodopi|isbn978-90-420-2709-1|languageen}}</ref> Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus; Ares in rage turned Alectryon into a rooster, which unfailingly crows to announce the sunrise.<ref>Lucian, Gallus [http://lucianofsamosata.info/wiki/doku.php?idhome:texts_and_library:dialogues:the-rooster 3], see also scholiast on Aristophanes, Birds [https://archive.org/details/scholiaonavesar01whitgoog/page/n272/mode/2up?viewtheater 835]; Eustathius, Ad Odysseam 1.300; Ausonius, 26.2.27; Libanius, Progymnasmata [https://books.google.com/books?idkRi-If9IAOYC&pgPA31 2.26.]</ref>
After exposing them, Hephaestus asks Zeus for his wedding gifts and dowry to be returned to him;<ref>Homer, Odyssey 8.267 ff</ref> by the time of the Trojan War, he is married to Charis/Aglaea, one of the Graces, apparently divorced from Aphrodite.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page72}}<ref>Homer, Iliad 18.382</ref> Afterwards, it was generally Ares who was regarded as the husband or official consort of the goddess; on the François Vase, the two arrive at the wedding of Peleus and Thetis on the same chariot, as do Zeus with Hera and Poseidon with Amphitrite. The poets Pindar and Aeschylus refer to Ares as Aphrodite's husband.<ref>Hard, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id_V-FAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA202 202]</ref>
Later stories were invented to explain Aphrodite's marriage to Hephaestus. In the most famous story, Zeus hastily married Aphrodite to Hephaestus in order to prevent the other gods from fighting over her.{{sfn|Stuttard|2016|page86}} In another version of the myth, Hephaestus gave his mother Hera a golden throne, but when she sat on it, she became trapped and he refused to let her go until she agreed to give him Aphrodite's hand in marriage.{{sfn|Slater|1968|pages199–200}} Hephaestus was overjoyed to be married to the goddess of beauty, and forged her beautiful jewelry, including a strophion ({{Lang|grc|στρόφιον}}) known as the {{Lang|grc-Latn|kestos himas}} ({{Lang|grc|κεστὸς ἱμάς}}),{{sfn|Bonner|1949|page1}} a saltire-shaped undergarment (usually translated as the girdle of Aphrodite),{{sfn|Bonner|1949|pages1–6}} which accentuated her breasts{{sfn|Bonner|1949|pages1–2}} and made her even more irresistible to men.{{sfn|Bonner|1949|pages1–6}} Such strophia were commonly used in depictions of the Near Eastern goddesses Ishtar and Atargatis.{{sfn|Bonner|1949|pages1–6}}Attendants, discovered in Satala, Armenia Minor (present-day Gümüşhane Province, Turkey) in 1873, British Museum<ref name"bm">{{cite web|titleThe Satala Aphrodite|urlhttp://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId460418&partId1&searchTextsatala&page1|publisherBritish Museum |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200411213141/https://research.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId460418&page1&partId1&searchTextsatala |archive-date11 April 2020}}</ref><ref name"Nersessian">{{cite book|author-linkVrej Nersessian|firstVrej|lastNersessian|titleTreasures from the Ark: 1700 Years of Armenian Christian Art|urlhttp://www.getty.edu/publications/virtuallibrary/0892366397.html|publisherJ. Paul Getty Museum|locationLos Angeles|year2001|isbn9780892366392|chapterBronze Head of Aphrodite/Anahit|pages=[https://archive.org/stream/bub_gb_2vxGAgAAQBAJ#page/n115/mode/1up 114–115]}}</ref> ]]
Aphrodite is almost always accompanied by Eros, the god of lust and sexual desire.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page44}} In his Theogony, Hesiod describes Eros as one of the four original primeval forces born at the beginning of time,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page44}} but, after the birth of Aphrodite from the sea foam, he is joined by Himeros and, together, they become Aphrodite's constant companions.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages44–45}} In early Greek art, Eros and Himeros are both shown as idealized handsome youths with wings.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page45}} The Greek lyric poets regarded the power of Eros and Himeros as dangerous, compulsive, and impossible for anyone to resist.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages45–46}} In modern times, Eros is often seen as Aphrodite's son,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page47}} but this is actually a comparatively late innovation.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages47–48}} A scholion on Theocritus's Idylls remarks that the sixth-century BC poet Sappho had described Eros as the son of Aphrodite and Uranus,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page48}} but the first surviving reference to Eros as Aphrodite's son comes from Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica, written in the third century BC, which makes him the son of Aphrodite and Ares.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages48–49}} Later, the Romans, who saw Venus as a mother goddess, seized on this idea of Eros as Aphrodite's son and popularized it,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages48–49}} making it the predominant portrayal in works on mythology until the present day.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages=48–49}}
Aphrodite's main attendants were the three Charites, whom Hesiod identifies as the daughters of Zeus and Eurynome and names as Aglaea ("Splendor"), Euphrosyne ("Good Cheer"), and Thalia ("Abundance").{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages71–72}} The Charites had been worshipped as goddesses in Greece since the beginning of Greek history, long before Aphrodite was introduced to the pantheon.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page72}} Aphrodite's other set of attendants was the three Horae (the "Hours"),{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page72}} whom Hesiod identifies as the daughters of Zeus and Themis and names as Eunomia ("Good Order"), Dike ("Justice"), and Eirene ("Peace").{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages72–73}} Aphrodite was also sometimes accompanied by Harmonia, her daughter by Ares, and Hebe, the daughter of Zeus and Hera.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page=73}}
The fertility god Priapus was usually considered to be Aphrodite's son by Dionysus,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page176}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page214}} but he was sometimes also described as her son by Hermes, Adonis, or even Zeus.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page176}} A scholion on Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page283}} states that, while Aphrodite was pregnant with Priapus, Hera envied her and applied an evil potion to her belly while she was sleeping to ensure that the child would be hideous.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page176}} In another version, Hera cursed Aphrodite's unborn son because he had been fathered by Zeus.<ref name":sud">"Priapus." Suda On Line. Tr. Ross Scaife. 10 August 2014. [http://www.cs.uky.edu/~raphael/sol/sol-entries/pi/2277 Entry].</ref> When Aphrodite gave birth, she was horrified to see that the child had a massive, permanently erect penis, a potbelly, and a huge tongue.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page176}} Aphrodite abandoned the infant to die in the wilderness, but a herdsman found him and raised him, later discovering that Priapus could use his massive penis to aid in the growth of plants.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page176}}
Anchises
]]
{{main|Anchises}}
The First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite ([https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHH%205 Hymn 5]), which was probably composed sometime in the mid-seventh century BC,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page89}} describes how Zeus once became annoyed with Aphrodite for causing deities to fall in love with mortals,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page89}} so he caused her to fall in love with Anchises, a handsome mortal shepherd who lived in the foothills beneath Mount Ida near the city of Troy.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page89}} Aphrodite appears to Anchises in the form of a tall, beautiful, mortal virgin while he is alone in his home.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page90}} Anchises sees her dressed in bright clothing and gleaming jewelry, with her breasts shining with divine radiance.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages90–91}} He asks her if she is Aphrodite and promises to build her an altar on top of the mountain if she will bless him and his family.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page=91}}
Aphrodite lies and tells him that she is not a goddess, but the daughter of one of the noble families of Phrygia.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page91}} She claims to be able to understand the Trojan language because she had a Trojan nurse as a child and says that she found herself on the mountainside after she was snatched up by Hermes while dancing in a celebration in honor of Artemis, the goddess of virginity.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page91}} Aphrodite tells Anchises that she is still a virgin and begs him to take her to his parents.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page91}} Anchises immediately becomes overcome with mad lust for Aphrodite and swears that he will have sex with her.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page91}} Anchises takes Aphrodite, with her eyes cast downwards, to his bed, which is covered in the furs of lions and bears.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page92}} He then strips her naked and makes love to her.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page92}}
After the lovemaking is complete, Aphrodite reveals her true divine form.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages92–93}} Anchises is terrified, but Aphrodite consoles him and promises that she will bear him a son.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages92–93}} She prophesies that their son will be the demigod Aeneas, who will be raised by the nymphs of the wilderness for five years before going to Troy to become a nobleman like his father.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page93}} The story of Aeneas's conception is also mentioned in Hesiod's Theogony and in Book II of Homer's Iliad.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page93}}<ref>Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1003 1008–10]; Homer, Iliad [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D2%3Acard%3D819 2.819–21].</ref>
Adonis
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{{main|Adonis}}
The myth of Aphrodite and Adonis is probably derived from the ancient Sumerian legend of Inanna and Dumuzid.{{sfn|West|1997|page57}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page67}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page97}} The Greek name {{lang|grc|Ἄδωνις}} (Adōnis, {{IPA|el|ádɔːnis}}) is derived from the Canaanite word ʼadōn, meaning "lord".{{sfn|Burkert|1985|pages176–77}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page97}} The earliest known Greek reference to Adonis comes from a fragment of a poem by the Lesbian poet Sappho ({{circa|630}} – {{circa|570 BC}}), in which a chorus of young girls asks Aphrodite what they can do to mourn Adonis's death.{{sfn|West|1997|pages530–31}} Aphrodite replies that they must beat their breasts and tear their tunics.{{sfn|West|1997|pages530–31}} Later references flesh out the story with more details.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page95}} According to the retelling of the story found in the poem Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BC – 17/18 AD), Adonis was the son of Myrrha, who was cursed by Aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus, after Myrrha's mother bragged that her daughter was more beautiful than the goddess.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page75}} Driven out after becoming pregnant, Myrrha was changed into a myrrh tree, but still gave birth to Adonis.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages75–76}}
Aphrodite found the baby and took him to the underworld to be fostered by Persephone.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page76}} She returned for him once he was grown and discovered him to be strikingly handsome.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page76}} Persephone wanted to keep Adonis, resulting in a custody battle between the two goddesses over whom should rightly possess Adonis.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page76}} Zeus settled the dispute by decreeing that Adonis would spend one third of the year with Aphrodite, one third with Persephone, and one third with whomever he chose.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page76}} Adonis chose to spend that time with Aphrodite.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page76}} Then, one day, while Adonis was hunting, he was wounded by a wild boar and bled to death in Aphrodite's arms.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page76}} In a semi-mocking work, the Dialogues of the Gods, the satirical author Lucian comedically relates how a frustrated Aphrodite complains to the moon goddess Selene about her son Eros making Persephone fall in love with Adonis and now she has to share him with her.<ref>Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods [http://lucianofsamosata.info/wiki/doku.php?id=home:texts_and_library:dialogues:dialogues-of-the-gods#section11 Aphrodite and the Moon]</ref>
In different versions of the story, the boar was either sent by Ares, who was jealous that Aphrodite was spending so much time with Adonis, or by Artemis, who wanted revenge against Aphrodite for having killed her devoted follower Hippolytus.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page96}} In another version, Apollo in fury changed himself into a boar and killed Adonis because Aphrodite had blinded his son Erymanthus when he stumbled upon Aphrodite naked as she was bathing after intercourse with Adonis.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2004|page[https://books.google.com/books?idgZk6DwAAQBAJ&pgPA152 152]}}: Some translations erroneously add Apollo as one of the men Aphrodite had sex with before Erymanthus saw her.</ref> The story also provides an etiology for Aphrodite's associations with certain flowers.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page96}} Reportedly, as she mourned Adonis's death, she caused anemones to grow wherever his blood fell and declared a festival on the anniversary of his death.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page76}} In one version of the story, Aphrodite injured herself on a thorn from a rose bush and the rose, which had previously been white, was stained red by her blood.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page96}} According to Lucian's On the Syrian Goddess,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page279}} each year during the festival of Adonis, the Adonis River in Lebanon (now known as the Abraham River) ran red with blood.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page=76}}
The myth of Adonis is associated with the festival of the Adonia, which was celebrated by Greek women every year in midsummer.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page97}} The festival, which was evidently already celebrated in Lesbos by Sappho's time, seems to have first become popular in Athens in the mid-fifth century BC.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page97}} At the start of the festival, the women would plant a "garden of Adonis", a small garden planted inside a small basket or a shallow piece of broken pottery containing a variety of quick-growing plants, such as lettuce and fennel, or even quick-sprouting grains such as wheat and barley.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page97}} The women would then climb ladders to the roofs of their houses, where they would place the gardens out under the heat of the summer sun.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page97}} The plants would sprout in the sunlight but wither quickly in the heat.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages97–98}} Then the women would mourn and lament loudly over the death of Adonis,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page98}} tearing their clothes and beating their breasts in a public display of grief.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page98}}Divine favoritism
'' (1717) by Jean Raoux, showing Aphrodite bringing the statue to life]]
In Hesiod's Works and Days, Zeus orders Aphrodite to make Pandora, the first woman, physically beautiful and sexually attractive,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page81}} so that she may become "an evil men will love to embrace".{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page80}} Aphrodite "spills grace" over Pandora's head{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page81}} and equips her with "painful desire and knee-weakening anguish", thus making her the perfect vessel for evil to enter the world.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages81–82}} Aphrodite's attendants, Peitho, the Charites, and the Horae, adorn Pandora with gold and jewelry.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages=82–83}}
According to one myth, Aphrodite aided Hippomenes, a noble youth who wished to marry Atalanta, a maiden who was renowned throughout the land for her beauty, but who refused to marry any man unless he could outrun her in a footrace.{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|2001|pages64–70}}{{sfn|McKinley|2001|page43}} Atalanta was an exceedingly swift runner and she beheaded all of the men who lost to her.{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|2001|pages64–70}}{{sfn|McKinley|2001|page43}} Aphrodite gave Hippomenes three golden apples from the Garden of the Hesperides and instructed him to toss them in front of Atalanta as he raced her.{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|2001|pages64–70}}{{sfn|Wasson|1968|page128}} Hippomenes obeyed Aphrodite's order{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|2001|pages64–70}} and Atalanta, seeing the beautiful, golden fruits, bent down to pick up each one, allowing Hippomenes to outrun her.{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|2001|pages64–70}}{{sfn|Wasson|1968|page128}} In the version of the story from Ovid's Metamorphoses, Hippomenes forgets to repay Aphrodite for her aid,{{sfn|McKinley|2001|pages43–44}}{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|2001|pages64–70}} so she causes the couple to become inflamed with lust while they are staying at the temple of Cybele.{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|2001|pages64–70}} The couple desecrate the temple by having sex in it, leading Cybele to turn them into lions as punishment.{{sfn|McKinley|2001|pages43–44}}{{sfn|Ruck|Staples|2001|pages64–70}}
The myth of Pygmalion is first mentioned by the third-century BC Greek writer Philostephanus of Cyrene,{{sfn|Clark|2015|pages90–91}}<ref>Clement, Exhortation to the Greeks, 4</ref> but is first recounted in detail in Ovid's Metamorphoses.{{sfn|Clark|2015|pages90–91}} According to Ovid, Pygmalion was an exceedingly handsome sculptor from the island of Cyprus, who was so sickened by the immorality of women that he refused to marry.{{sfn|Clark|2015|page91}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page215}} He fell madly and passionately in love with the ivory cult statue he was carving of Aphrodite and longed to marry it.{{sfn|Clark|2015|page91}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|pages215–17}} Because Pygmalion was extremely pious and devoted to Aphrodite,{{sfn|Clark|2015|page91}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page217}} the goddess brought the statue to life.{{sfn|Clark|2015|page91}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page217}} Pygmalion married the girl the statue became and they had a son named Paphos, after whom the capital of Cyprus received its name.{{sfn|Clark|2015|page91}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page217}} Pseudo-Apollodorus later mentions "Metharme, daughter of Pygmalion, king of Cyprus".<ref>Apollodorus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D14%3Asection%3D3 3.14.3].</ref>Anger mythsspurning the advances of his stepmother Phaedra, whom Aphrodite caused to fall in love with him in order to bring about his tragic death.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages98–103}}]]
Aphrodite generously rewarded those who honored her, but also punished those who disrespected her, often quite brutally.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages98–99}} A myth described in Apollonius of Rhodes's Argonautica and later summarized in the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus tells how, when the women of the island of Lemnos refused to sacrifice to Aphrodite, the goddess cursed them to stink horribly so that their husbands would never have sex with them.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page99}} Instead, their husbands started having sex with their Thracian slave-girls.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page99}} In anger, the women of Lemnos murdered the entire male population of the island, as well as all the Thracian slaves.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page99}} When Jason and his crew of Argonauts arrived on Lemnos, they mated with the sex-starved women under Aphrodite's approval and repopulated the island.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page99}} From then on, the women of Lemnos never disrespected Aphrodite again.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page99}}
, {{circa|2nd century BC}}, Rhodes Archaeological Museum.]]
In Euripides's tragedy Hippolytus, which was first performed at the City Dionysia in 428 BC, Theseus's son Hippolytus worships only Artemis, the goddess of virginity, and refuses to engage in any form of sexual contact.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page99}} Aphrodite is infuriated by his prideful behavior{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page100}} and, in the prologue to the play, she declares that, by honoring only Artemis and refusing to venerate her, Hippolytus has directly challenged her authority.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages100–01}} Aphrodite therefore causes Hippolytus's stepmother, Phaedra, to fall in love with him, knowing Hippolytus will reject her.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page101}} After being rejected, Phaedra commits suicide and leaves a suicide note to Theseus telling him that she killed herself because Hippolytus attempted to rape her.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page101}} Theseus prays to Poseidon to kill Hippolytus for his transgression.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page102}} Poseidon sends a wild bull to scare Hippolytus's horses as he is riding by the sea in his chariot, causing the horses to bolt and smash the chariot against the cliffs, dragging Hippolytus to a bloody death across the rocky shoreline.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page102}} The play concludes with Artemis vowing to kill Aphrodite's own mortal beloved (presumably Adonis) in revenge.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages102–03}}
Glaucus of Corinth angered Aphrodite by refusing to let his horses for chariot racing mate, since doing so would hinder their speed.<ref>Vergil, Georgics 3.266–88, with Servius's note to line 268; Hand, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology, pp. 432, 663.</ref> During the chariot race at the funeral games of King Pelias, Aphrodite drove his horses mad and they tore him apart.<ref>Hyginus, Fabulae 250.3, 273.11; Pausanias, Guide to Greece 6.20.19</ref>
Polyphonte was a young woman who chose a virginal life with Artemis instead of marriage and children, as favoured by Aphrodite. Aphrodite cursed her, causing her to have children by a bear. The resulting bear-like offspring Agrius and Oreius were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of Zeus for attacking traveling strangers. Ultimately, Ares (who was Polyphonte's grandfather) and Hermes (who was originally dispatched by Zeus to kill them) transformed all Polyphonte, Agrius, and Oreius into birds of ill omen while the servant who begged for mercy was transformed into a woodpecker.<ref>Antoninus Liberalis, Metamorphoses, 21</ref>
According to Apollodorus, a jealous Aphrodite cursed Eos, the goddess of dawn, to be perpetually in love and have insatiable sexual desire because Eos once had lain with Aphrodite's sweetheart Ares.<ref>Apollodorus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D4%3Asection%3D4 1.4.4].</ref>
, mid-2nd century AD, Archaeological Museum of Rethymno, Crete.]]
According to Ovid in his Metamorphoses (book 10.238 ff.), Propoetides who are the daughters of Propoetus from the city of Amathus on the island of Cyprus denied Aphrodite's divinity and failed to worship her properly. Therefore, Aphrodite turned them into the world's first prostitutes.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.mythology.us/ovid_metamorphoses_book_10.htm| title Ovid's Metamorphoses, book 10, English Translation| access-date 11 January 2021| archive-date 15 June 2012| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20120615052516/http://www.mythology.us/ovid_metamorphoses_book_10.htm| url-status dead}}</ref> According to Diodorus Siculus, when the Rhodian sea nymphe Halia's six sons by Poseidon arrogantly refused to let Aphrodite land upon their shore, the goddess cursed them with insanity. In their madness, they raped Halia. As punishment, Poseidon buried them in the island's sea-caverns.<ref name=":0">Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca historica 5.55.4–7</ref>
Xanthius, a descendant of Bellerophon, had two children: Leucippus and an unnamed daughter. Through the wrath of Aphrodite (reasons unknown), Leucippus fell in love with his own sister. They started a secret relationship but the girl was already betrothed to another man and he went on to inform her father Xanthius, without telling him the name of the seducer. Xanthius went straight to his daughter's chamber where she was together with Leucippus right at the moment. On hearing him enter, she tried to escape, but Xanthius hit her with a dagger, thinking that he was slaying the seducer, and killed her. Leucippus, failing to recognize his father at first, slew him. When the truth was revealed, he had to leave the country and took part in colonization of Crete and the lands in Asia Minor.<ref>Parthenius, Erotica Pathemata [https://topostext.org/work/550#5 5]</ref>
Queen Cenchreis of Cyprus, wife of King Cinyras, bragged that her daughter Myrrha was more beautiful than Aphrodite. Therefore, Myrrha was cursed by Aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father, King Cinyras of Cyprus and he slept with her unknowingly in the dark. She eventually transformed into the myrrh tree and gave birth to Adonis in this form.<ref name"OvidMyrrhaAdonis">Ovid, Metamorphoses [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D10%3Acard%3D298 10.298–518]</ref>{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page75}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages75–76}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages289–90}} In another version of the same story, King of Assyria Theias was the father of Myrrha and Adonis, and again Aphrodite urged Myrrha, or Smyrna, to commit incest with her father, Theias. Myrrha's nurse helped with the scheme. When Theias discovered this, he flew into a rage, chasing his daughter with a knife. The gods turned her into a myrrh tree and Adonis eventually sprung from this tree. It was also said that Myrrha fled from her father, and Aphrodite transformed her into a tree. Adonis was then born when Theias shot an arrow into the tree or when a boar used its tusks to tear the tree's bark off. <ref>Apollodorus, 3.14.4; Antoninus Liberalis, [https://topostext.org/work/216#34 34]</ref> Cinyras also had three other daughters: Braesia, Laogora, and Orsedice. These girls by the wrath of Aphrodite (reasons unknown) cohabited with foreigners and ended their life in Egypt.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D14%3Asection%3D3 3.14.3]; [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D1 3.9.1] for Laodice.</ref>
The Muse Clio derided the goddess' own love for Adonis. Therefore, Clio fell in love with Pierus, son of Magnes and bore Hyacinth.<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docApollod.%201.3.3&langoriginal Bibliotheca 1.3.3].</ref>
Aegiale was a daughter of Adrastus and Amphithea and was married to Diomedes. Because of anger of Aphrodite, whom Diomedes had wounded in the war against Troy, she had multiple lovers, including a certain Hippolytus.<ref>Scholia on Iliad 5.411</ref><ref name"Tzetzes" /> when Aegiale went so far as to threaten his life, he fled to Italy.<ref name"Tzetzes">Tzetzes on Lycophron 610.</ref><ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0028%3Abook%3D14%3Acard%3D441 14.476]</ref> According to Stesichorus and Hesiod while Tyndareus sacrificing to the gods he forgot Aphrodite, therefore the goddess made his daughters twice and thrice wed and deserters of their husbands. Timandra deserted Echemus and went and came to Phyleus and Clytaemnestra deserted Agamemnon and lay with Aegisthus who was a worse mate for her and eventually killed her husband with her lover and finally, Helen of Troy deserted Menelaus under the influence of Aphrodite for Paris and her unfaitfulness eventually causes the War of Troy.<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.theoi.com/Olympios/AphroditeWrath.html#Tyndareus | title=APHRODITE MYTHS 7 WRATH - Greek Mythology }}</ref> As a result of her actions, Aphrodite caused the War of Troy in order to take Priam's kingdom and pass it down to her descendants.<ref>Pierre Grimal, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, s.v. "Aineias"</ref>
.]]
In one of the versions of the legend, Pasiphae did not make offerings to the goddess Venus [Aphrodite]. Because of this, Venus [Aphrodite] inspired in her an unnatural love for a bull resulting in the birth of the Minotaur<ref>Hyginus, Fabulae [https://topostext.org/work/206#40 40]</ref> or she cursed her because she was Helios's daughter who revealed her adultery to Hephaestus.<ref>Seneca, Phaedra [https://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sen/sen.phaedra.shtml 124]</ref><ref>Scholia on Euripides' Hippolytus [https://books.google.com/books?idquBFAQAAMAAJ&pgPA501 47].</ref> For Helios' own tale-telling, she cursed him with uncontrollable lust over the mortal princess Leucothoe, which led to him abandoning his then-lover Clytie, leaving her heartbroken.<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.192–270; Hard, [https://books.google.com/books?idr1Y3xZWVlnIC&pgPA45 p. 45]</ref>
Lysippe was the mother of Tanais by Berossos. Her son only venerated Ares and was fully devoted to war, neglecting love and marriage. Aphrodite cursed him with falling in love with his own mother. Preferring to die rather than give up his chastity, he threw himself into the river Amazonius, which was subsequently renamed Tanais.<ref>Pseudo-Plutarch, On Rivers, 14</ref>
According to Hyginus, Orpheus's mother Calliope of the Muses at the behest of Zeus, judged the dispute between the goddesses Aphrodite and Persephone over Adonis and decided that both shall possess him half of the year. This enraged Venus [Aphrodite], because she had not been granted what she thought was her right. Therefore, Venus [Aphrodite] inspired love for Orpheus in the women of Thrace, causing them to tear him apart as each of them sought Orpheus for herself.<ref>Hyginus, Astronomica [https://topostext.org/work/207#2.7.4 2.7.4]</ref>
Aphrodite personally witnessed the young huntress Rhodopis swear eternal devotion and chastity to Artemis when she joined her group. Aphrodite then summoned her son Eros, and convinced him that such lifestyle was an insult to them both. So under her command, Eros made Rhodopis and Euthynicus, another young hunter who had shunned love and romance just like her, to fall in love with each other. Despite their chaste life, Rhodopis and Euthynicus withdrew to some cavern where they violated their vows. Artemis was not slow to take notice after seeing Aphrodite laugh, so she changed Rhodopis into a fountain as a punishment instead.<ref>{{cite journal | title Paul, Artemis, and the Jews in Ephesus | volume 80 | first Rick | last Strelan | publisher De Gruyter | date 1996 | location Berlin, New York City | journal Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft | issn 0171-6441 | url https://books.google.com/books?idnw1xdz7fO18C | page [https://books.google.com/books?idnw1xdz7fO18C&pgPA75 75]| isbn 9783110150209 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title Intende, Lector – Echoes of Myth, Religion and Ritual in the Ancient Novel | first1 Marília P. | last1 Futre Pinheiro | first2 Anton | last2 Bierl | first3 Roger | last3 Beck | date 29 October 2013 | publisher De Gruyter | isbn 978-3-11-031181-5 | location Berlin, Boston | url https://books.google.com/books?idL7DpBQAAQBAJ | page [https://books.google.com/books?idL7DpBQAAQBAJ&pgPA18 18]}}</ref>Judgment of Paris and Trojan War
dating to the second century AD, depicting the Judgement of Paris]]
{{Main|Judgement of Paris|Trojan War}}
The myth of the Judgement of Paris is mentioned briefly in the Iliad,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page31}} but is described in depth in an epitome of the Cypria, a lost poem of the Epic Cycle,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages31–32}} which records that all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles).{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page31}} Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages31–32}} She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, "for the fairest"), which she threw among the goddesses.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}} Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}}
The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}} After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated, the goddesses appeared before Paris for his decision.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}} In the extant ancient depictions of the Judgement of Paris, Aphrodite is only occasionally represented nude, and Athena and Hera are always fully clothed.{{sfn|Bull|2005|pages346–47}} Since the Renaissance, however, Western paintings have typically portrayed all three goddesses as completely naked.{{sfn|Bull|2005|pages346–47}}
All three goddesses were ideally beautiful and Paris could not decide between them, so they resorted to bribes.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}} Hera tried to bribe Paris with power over all Asia and Europe,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}} and Athena offered wisdom, fame and glory in battle,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}} but Aphrodite promised Paris that, if he were to choose her as the fairest, she would let him marry the most beautiful woman on earth.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages32–33}} This woman was Helen, who was already married to King Menelaus of Sparta.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages32–33}} Paris selected Aphrodite and awarded her the apple.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages32–33}} The other two goddesses were enraged and, as a direct result, sided with the Greeks in the Trojan War.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages=32–33}}
Aphrodite plays an important and active role throughout the entirety of Homer's Iliad.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page85}} In Book III, she rescues Paris from Menelaus after he foolishly challenges him to a one-on-one duel.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages85–86}} She then appears to Helen in the form of an old woman and attempts to persuade her to have sex with Paris,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages35–36, 86–87}} reminding her of his physical beauty and athletic prowess.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages36, 86–87}} Helen immediately recognizes Aphrodite by her beautiful neck, perfect breasts, and flashing eyes{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page87}} and chides the goddess, addressing her as her equal.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages87–88}} Aphrodite sharply rebukes Helen, reminding her that, if she vexes her, she will punish her just as much as she has favored her already.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page88}} Helen demurely obeys Aphrodite's command.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page88}}
In Book V, Aphrodite charges into battle to rescue her son Aeneas from the Greek hero Diomedes.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page49}} Diomedes recognizes Aphrodite as a "weakling" goddess{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page49}} and, thrusting his spear, nicks her wrist through her "ambrosial robe".{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages49–50}} Aphrodite borrows Ares's chariot to ride back to Mount Olympus.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page50}} Zeus chides her for putting herself in danger,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page50}}{{sfn|Burkert|2005|page300}} reminding her that "her specialty is love, not war."{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page50}} According to Walter Burkert, this scene directly parallels a scene from Tablet VI of the Epic of Gilgamesh in which Ishtar, Aphrodite's Akkadian precursor, cries to her mother Antu after the hero Gilgamesh rejects her sexual advances, but is mildly rebuked by her father Anu.{{sfn|Burkert|2005|pages299–300}} In Book XIV of the Iliad, during the Dios Apate episode, Aphrodite lends her kestos himas to Hera for the purpose of seducing Zeus and distracting him from the combat while Poseidon aids the Greek forces on the beach.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page36}} In the Theomachia in Book XXI, Aphrodite again enters the battlefield to carry Ares away after he is wounded.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page50}}<ref>Homer, Iliad [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D21%3Acard%3D400 21.416–17].</ref>Offspring
in a bikini", depicts her Greek counterpart Aphrodite as she is about to untie her sandal, with a small Eros squatting beneath her left arm, 1st-century AD{{efn|Museo Archeologico Nazionale (Napoli). "[http://cir.campania.beniculturali.it/museoarcheologiconazionale/thematic-views/image-gallery/RA49?set so-called Venus in a bikini]." Cir.campania.beniculturali.it.
{{blockquote|The statuette portrays Aphrodite on the point of untying the laces of the sandal on her left foot, under which a small Eros squats, touching the sole of her shoe with his right hand. The Goddess is leaning with her left arm (the hand is missing) against a figure of Priapus standing, naked and bearded, positioned on a small cylindrical altar while, next to her left thigh, there is a tree trunk over which the garment of the Goddess is folded. Aphrodite, almost completely naked, wears only a sort of costume, consisting of a corset held up by two pairs of straps and two short sleeves on the upper part of her arm, from which a long chain leads to her hips and forms a star-shaped motif at the level of her navel. The 'bikini', for which the statuette is famous, is obtained by the masterly use of the technique of gilding, also employed on her groin, in the pendant necklace and in the armilla on Aphrodite's right wrist, as well as on Priapus' phallus. Traces of the red paint are evident on the tree trunk, on the short curly hair gathered back in a bun and on the lips of the Goddess, as well as on the heads of Priapus and the Eros. Aphrodite's eyes are made of glass paste, while the presence of holes at the level of the ear-lobes suggest the existence of precious metal ear-rings which have since been lost. An interesting insight into the female ornaments of Roman times, the statuette, probably imported from the area of Alexandria, reproduces with a few modifications the statuary type of Aphrodite untying her sandal, known from copies in bronze and terracotta.}}
For extensive research and a bibliography on the subject, see: de Franciscis 1963, p. 78, tav. XCI; Kraus 1973, nn. 270–71, pp. 194–95; Pompei 1973, n. 132; Pompeji 1973, n. 199, pp. 142 e 144; Pompeji 1974, n. 281, pp. 148–49; Pompeii A.D. 79 1976, p. 83 e n. 218; Pompeii A.D. 79 1978, I, n. 208, pp. 64–65, II, n. 208, p. 189; Döhl, Zanker 1979, p. 202, tav. Va; Pompeii A.D. 79 1980, p. 79 e n. 198; Pompeya 1981, n. 198, p. 107; Pompeii lives 1984, fig. 10, p. 46; Collezioni Museo 1989, I, 2, n. 254, pp. 146–47; PPM II, 1990, n. 7, p. 532; Armitt 1993, p. 240; Vésuve 1995, n. 53, pp. 162–63; Vulkan 1995, n. 53, pp. 162–63; LIMC VIII, 1, 1997, p. 210, s.v. Venus, n. 182; LIMC VIII, 2, 1997, p. 144; LIMC VIII, 1, 1997, p. 1031, s.v. Priapos, n. 15; LIMC VIII, 2, 1997, p. 680; Romana Pictura 1998, n. 153, p. 317 e tav. a p. 245; Cantarella 1999, p. 128; De Caro 1999, pp. 100–01; De Caro 2000, p. 46 e tav. a p. 62; Pompeii 2000, n. 1, p. 62.}}]]
Sometimes poets and dramatists recounted ancient traditions, which varied, and sometimes they invented new details; later scholiasts might draw on either or simply guess.<ref>{{cite book|last1Bremmer|first1Jan N.|titleThe Oxford Classical Dictionary|date1996|publisherOxford University Press|isbn019866172X|editor1-lastHornblower & Spawforth|editionThird|locationOxford|pages1018–1020|chaptermythology}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1Reeve|first1Michael D.|titleThe Oxford Classical Dictionary|date1996|publisherOxford University Press|isbn019866172X|editor1-lastHornblower & Spawforth|editionThird|locationOxford|pages1368|chapterscholia}}</ref> Thus while Aeneas and Phobos were regularly described as offspring of Aphrodite, others listed here such as Priapus and Eros were sometimes said to be children of Aphrodite but with varying fathers and sometimes given other mothers or none at all.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" | Offspring
! scope="col" | Father
|-
|Aeneas,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages92&ndash;93}} Lyrus/Lyrnus{{sfn|Smith|1873|loc[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.04.0104:entryanchises-bio-1&highlight=lyrus s.v. Anchises]}}
|Anchises
|-
| Phobos,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page71}} Deimos,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page71}} Harmonia,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page73}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page71}} the Erotes (Eros,<ref name"eros">Eros is usually mentioned as the son of Aphrodite but in other versions he is a parentless primordial.</ref>{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages44–45}} Anteros,{{efn|Anteros was originally born from the sea alongside Aphrodite; only later became her son.}} Himeros,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages44–45}} Pothos){{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page71}}
|Ares{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page72}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page71}}
|-
| Hymenaios, Iacchus, Priapus,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page=176}} the Charites (Graces: Aglaea, Euphrosyne, Thalia)
|Dionysus
|-
|Hermaphroditos,<ref>Diodorus Siculus, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4A*.html#6.5 4.6.5]: "... Hermaphroditus, as he has been called, who was born of Hermes and Aphrodite and received a name which is a combination of those of both his parents."</ref> Priapus{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page=176}}
|Hermes
|-
|Rhodos<ref>Pindar, Olympian [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPind.%20O.%207&langoriginal 7.14] makes her the daughter of Aphrodite, but does not mention any father. Herodorus, fr. 62 Fowler (Fowler 2001, [https://books.google.com/books?idj0nRE4C2WBgC&pgPA253 p. 253]), apud schol. Pindar Olympian 7.24–5; Fowler 2013, [https://books.google.com/books?idscd8AQAAQBAJ&pgPA591 p. 591] make her the daughter of Aphrodite and Poseidon.</ref>
|Poseidon
|-
|Beroe, Golgos,<ref name"Graves70">{{cite book|titleThe Greek Myths|urlhttps://archive.org/details/greekmythsvolume00robe|url-accessregistration|authorGraves, Robert|publisherPenguin Books|year1960|isbn9780140171990|locationLondon|pages[https://archive.org/details/greekmythsvolume00robe/page/70 70]}}</ref> Priapus (rarely){{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page=176}}
|Adonis{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page76}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page96}}
|-
|Eryx,<ref>Diodorus Siculus, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/4B*.html#23.2 4.23.2]</ref> Meligounis and several more unnamed daughters<ref>Hesychius of Alexandria s. v. Μελιγουνίς: "Meligounis: this is what the island Lipara was called. Also one of the daughters of Aphrodite."</ref>
|Butes<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D25 1.9.25].</ref><ref>Servius on Aeneid, 1.574, 5.24</ref>
|-
|Astynous<ref>Apollodorus, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D14%3Asection%3D3 3.14.3].</ref>
|Phaethon<ref>Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D963 986–90]; Pausanias, Description of Greece, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0160%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D1 1.3.1] (using the name "Hemera" for Eos)</ref>
|-
|Priapus<ref name=":sud"/>
|Zeus
|-
|Peitho{{sfn|Gantz|1996|p=104}}
|unknown
|}
Iconography
Symbols
statue on display. Aphrodite holds the apple of Discord in her left hand]]
{{poemquote|Rich-throned immortal Aphrodite,
scheming daughter of Zeus, I pray you,
with pain and sickness, Queen, crush not my heart,
but come, if ever in the past you heard my voice from afar and hearkened,
and left your father's halls and came, with gold
chariot yoked; and pretty sparrows
brought you swiftly across the dark earth
fluttering wings from heaven through the air.|Sappho, "Ode to Aphrodite", lines 1–10, translated by M. L. West{{sfn|West|2008|page=36}}}}
Aphrodite's most prominent avian symbol was the dove,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages121–122}} which was originally an important symbol of her Near Eastern precursor Inanna-Ishtar.{{sfn|Lewis|Llewellyn-Jones|2018|page335}}{{sfn|Botterweck|Ringgren|1990|page35}} (In fact, the ancient Greek word for "dove", peristerá, may be derived from a Semitic phrase peraḥ Ištar, meaning "bird of Ishtar".{{sfn|Lewis|Llewellyn-Jones|2018|page335}}{{sfn|Botterweck|Ringgren|1990|page35}}) Aphrodite frequently appears with doves in ancient Greek pottery{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages121–122}} and the temple of Aphrodite Pandemos on the southwest slope of the Athenian Acropolis was decorated with relief sculptures of doves with knotted fillets in their beaks.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page122}} Votive offerings of small, white, marble doves were also discovered in the temple of Aphrodite at Daphni.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page122}} In addition to her associations with doves, Aphrodite was also closely linked with sparrows{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages121–122}} and she is described riding in a chariot pulled by sparrows in Sappho's "Ode to Aphrodite".{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page122}} According to myth, the dove was originally a nymph named Peristera who helped Aphrodite win in a flower-picking contest over her son Eros; for this Eros turned her into a dove, but Aphrodite took the dove under her wing and made it her sacred bird.<ref>{{cite book | title The Vatican Mythographers | first Ronald E. | last Pepin | publisher Fordham University Press | date 2008 | location New York City | isbn 978-0-8232-2892-8 | url https://books.google.com/books?idsE7WnkLLt2gC | page [https://books.google.com/books?idsE7WnkLLt2gC&pgPA76 76]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title Zoological Mythology: Or, The Legends of Animals | volume 2| first Angelo | last De Gubernatis | publisher Trübner & Company| date 1872 | url https://books.google.com/books?idl1mWysPWjpoC | page [https://books.google.com/books?idl1mWysPWjpoC&pgPA305 305]| isbn 9780598541062}}</ref>
Because of her connections to the sea, Aphrodite was associated with a number of different types of water fowl,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages120–123}} including swans, geese, and ducks.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages120–123}} Aphrodite's other symbols included the sea, conch shells, and roses.{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page81}} The rose and myrtle flowers were both sacred to Aphrodite.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages63, 96}} A myth explaining the origin of Aphrodite's connection to myrtle goes that originally the myrtle was a maiden, Myrina, a dedicated priestess of Aphrodite. When her previous betrothed carried her away from the temple to marry her, Myrina killed him, and Aphrodite turned her into a myrtle, forever under her protection.<ref>{{cite book | title The Vatican Mythographers | first Ronald E. | last Pepin | publisher Fordham University Press | date 2008 | location New York City | isbn 978-0-8232-2892-8 | url https://books.google.com/books?idsE7WnkLLt2gC |page [https://books.google.com/books?idsE7WnkLLt2gC&pgPA117 117]}}</ref> Her most important fruit emblem was the apple,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page64}} and in myth, she turned Melos, childhood friend and kin-in-law to Adonis, into an apple after he killed himself, mourning over Adonis' death. Likewise, Melos's wife Pelia was turned into a dove.<ref>Smith, William (1861), Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, Walton and Maberly, s.v [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DM%3Aentry+group%3D18%3Aentry%3Dmelus-bio-2 Melus].</ref> She was also associated with pomegranates,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page63}} possibly because the red seeds suggested sexuality{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages63–64}} or because Greek women sometimes used pomegranates as a method of birth control.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages63–64}} In Greek art, Aphrodite is often also accompanied by dolphins and Nereids.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages123–124}}
In classical art
{{multiple image
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| alt1 | caption1 Wall painting from Pompeii of Venus rising from the sea on a scallop shell, believed to be a copy of the Aphrodite Anadyomene by Apelles of Kos
<!-- Image 2 -->| image2 = Wall painting - birth of Venus from a shell - Pompeii (VII 6 7) - Napoli MAN.jpg
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| alt2 | caption2 Birth of Venus from a shell, {{circa|50}}–79 AD, fresco from Pompeii
| image3 = Genrich Ippolitovich Semiradsky - Roma, 1889.jpg
| caption3 Phryne at the Poseidonia in Eleusis ({{circa}} 1889) by Henryk Siemiradzki, showing the scene of the courtesan Phryne stripping naked at Eleusis, which allegedly inspired both Apelles's painting and the Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles{{sfn|Havelock|2007|page86}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages=76–77}}
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A scene of Aphrodite rising from the sea appears on the back of the Ludovisi Throne ({{circa}} 460 BC),{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page106}} which was probably originally part of a massive altar that was constructed as part of the Ionic temple to Aphrodite in the Greek polis of Locri Epizephyrii in Magna Graecia in southern Italy.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page106}} The throne shows Aphrodite rising from the sea, clad in a diaphanous garment, which is drenched with seawater and clinging to her body, revealing her upturned breasts and the outline of her navel.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages106–107}} Her hair hangs dripping as she reaches to two attendants standing barefoot on the rocky shore on either side of her, lifting her out of the water.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages106–107}} Scenes with Aphrodite appear in works of classical Greek pottery,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page124}} including a famous white-ground kylix by the Pistoxenos Painter dating the between {{circa}} 470 and 460 BC, showing her riding on a swan or goose.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page124}} Aphrodite was often described as golden-haired and portrayed with this color hair in art.{{sfn|Pitman|2003|pages=9–10}}
In {{circa|364/361}} BC, the Athenian sculptor Praxiteles carved the marble statue Aphrodite of Knidos,{{sfn|Grant|1989|page224}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages76–77}} which Pliny the Elder later praised as the greatest sculpture ever made.{{sfn|Grant|1989|page224}} The statue showed a nude Aphrodite modestly covering her pubic region while resting against a water pot with her robe draped over it for support.{{sfn|Grant|1989|page225}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page77}} The Aphrodite of Knidos was the first full-sized statue to depict Aphrodite completely naked{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page76}} and one of the first sculptures that was intended to be viewed from all sides.{{sfn|Grant|1989|pages224–225}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page76}} The statue was purchased by the people of Knidos in around 350 BC{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page76}} and proved to be tremendously influential on later depictions of Aphrodite.{{sfn|Grant|1989|pages224–225}} The original sculpture has been lost,{{sfn|Grant|1989|page224}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page77}} but written descriptions of it as well several depictions of it on coins are still extant{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page98}}{{sfn|Grant|1989|page224}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page77}} and over sixty copies, small-scale models, and fragments of it have been identified.{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page98}}
The Greek painter Apelles of Kos, a contemporary of Praxiteles, produced the panel painting Aphrodite Anadyomene (Aphrodite Rising from the Sea).{{sfn|Havelock|2007|page86}} According to Athenaeus, Apelles was inspired to paint the painting after watching the courtesan Phryne take off her clothes, untie her hair, and bathe naked in the sea at Eleusis.{{sfn|Havelock|2007|page86}} The painting was displayed in the Asclepeion on the island of Kos.{{sfn|Havelock|2007|page86}} The Aphrodite Anadyomene went unnoticed for centuries,{{sfn|Havelock|2007|page86}} but Pliny the Elder records that, in his own time, it was regarded as Apelles's most famous work.{{sfn|Havelock|2007|page=86}}
During the Hellenistic and Roman periods, statues depicting Aphrodite proliferated;{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages77–78}} many of these statues were modeled at least to some extent on Praxiteles's Aphrodite of Knidos.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages77–78}} Some statues show Aphrodite crouching naked;{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page78}} others show her wringing water out of her hair as she rises from the sea.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page78}} Another common type of statue is known as Aphrodite Kallipygos, the name of which is Greek for "Aphrodite of the Beautiful Buttocks";{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page78}} this type of sculpture shows Aphrodite lifting her peplos to display her buttocks to the viewer while looking back at them from over her shoulder.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page78}} The ancient Romans produced massive numbers of copies of Greek sculptures of Aphrodite{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages77–78}} and more sculptures of Aphrodite have survived from antiquity than of any other deity.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page78}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"150">
File:Ludovisi throne Altemps Inv8570.jpg|The Ludovisi Throne (possibly {{circa|460}} BC) is believed to be a classical Greek bas-relief, although it has also been alleged to be a 19th-century forgery.
File:Aphrodite swan BM D2.jpg|Attic white-ground red-figured kylix of Aphrodite riding a swan ({{circa}} 46-470) found at Kameiros (Rhodes)
File:Kantharos64.10.jpg|Aphrodite and Himeros, detail from a silver kantharos ({{circa}} 420-410 BC), part of the Vassil Bojkov collection, Sofia, Bulgaria
File:Phaon MAR Palermo NI2187.jpg|Red-figure vase painting of Aphrodite and Phaon ({{circa}} 420-400 BC)
File:Getty Villa - Collection (5304590607).jpg|Apuleian vase painting of Zeus plotting with Aphrodite to seduce Leda while Eros sits on her arm ({{circa}} 330 BC)
</gallery>
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Unknown - Statuette of Aphrodite Leaning on a Pillar - 55.AD.7.jpg|Aphrodite Leaning Against a Pillar (third century BC)
File:Venere Callipige Napoli.jpg|Aphrodite Kallipygos ("Aphrodite of the Beautiful Buttocks")
File:Greek Marble Statue of Aphrodite Anadyomene (Hair-Binding).jpg|Aphrodite Binding Her Hair (second century BC)
File:Venere di Milo 02.JPG|Aphrodite of Milos ({{circa}} 100 BC), Louvre
File:Amsterdam - Museum Willet-Holthuysen 18.JPG|Aphrodite statue at the Museum Willet-Holthuysen
File:Aphrodite Heyl (2).jpg|Aphrodite Heyl (second century BC)
File:Group of Aphrodite, Pan and Eros. About 100 BC (3470784387).jpg|Greek sculpture group of Aphrodite, Pan and Eros ({{circa}} 100 BC)
File:Venus pudica Massimo.jpg|Aphrodite of Menophantos (first century BC)
File:NAMA Aphrodite Syracuse.jpg|Aphrodite of Syracuse (Roman copy of 2nd century AD), NAMA.
File:Lely Venus BM 1963.jpg|The Lely Venus ({{circa}} second century AD)
File:Armed Aphrodite (National Archaeological Museum of Athens, 1-31-2023).jpg|Aphrodite Areia Roman copy, NAMA.
</gallery>
Post-classical culture
of Venus, sitting on a rainbow, with her devotees offering her their hearts]]
Middle Ages
Early Christians frequently adapted pagan iconography to suit Christian purposes.{{sfn|Taylor|1993|pages96–97}}{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page80}}{{sfn|Link|1995|pages43–45}} In the Early Middle Ages, Christians adapted elements of Aphrodite/Venus's iconography and applied them to Eve and prostitutes,{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page80}} but also female saints and even the Virgin Mary.{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page80}} Christians in the east reinterpreted the story of Aphrodite's birth as a metaphor for baptism;{{sfn|Taylor|1993|page97}} in a Coptic stele from the sixth century AD, a female orant is shown wearing Aphrodite's conch shell as a sign that she is newly baptized.{{sfn|Taylor|1993|page97}} Throughout the Middle Ages, villages and communities across Europe still maintained folk tales and traditions about Aphrodite/Venus{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|pages80–81}} and travelers reported a wide variety of stories.{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|pages80–81}} Numerous Roman mosaics of Venus survived in Britain, preserving memory of the pagan past.{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page81}} In North Africa in the late fifth century AD, Fulgentius of Ruspe encountered mosaics of Aphrodite{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page81}} and reinterpreted her as a symbol of the sin of Lust,{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page81}} arguing that she was shown naked because "the sin of lust is never cloaked"{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page81}} and that she was often shown "swimming" because "all lust suffers shipwreck of its affairs."{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page81}} He also argued that she was associated with doves and conches because these are symbols of copulation,{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page81}} and that she was associated with roses because "as the rose gives pleasure, but is swept away by the swift movement of the seasons, so lust is pleasant for a moment, but is swept away forever."{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page81}}
While Fulgentius had appropriated Aphrodite as a symbol of Lust,{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page82}} Isidore of Seville ({{circa}} 560–636) interpreted her as a symbol of marital procreative sex{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page82}} and declared that the moral of the story of Aphrodite's birth is that sex can only be holy in the presence of semen, blood, and heat, which he regarded as all being necessary for procreation.{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page82}} Meanwhile, Isidore denigrated Aphrodite/Venus's son Eros/Cupid as a "demon of fornication" (daemon fornicationis).{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page82}} Aphrodite/Venus was best known to Western European scholars through her appearances in Virgil's Aeneid and Ovid's Metamorphoses.{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|pages106–08}} Venus is mentioned in the Latin poem Pervigilium Veneris ("The Eve of Saint Venus"), written in the third or fourth century AD,{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|pages107–08}} and in Giovanni Boccaccio's Genealogia Deorum Gentilium.{{sfn|Tinkle|1996|page=108}}
Since the Late Middle Ages. the myth of the Venusberg (German; French Mont de Vénus, "Mountain of Venus") – a subterranean realm ruled by Venus, hidden underneath Christian Europe – became a motif of European folklore rendered in various legends and epics. In German folklore of the 16th century, the narrative becomes associated with the minnesinger Tannhäuser, and in that form the myth was taken up in later literature and opera.
Art
Aphrodite is the central figure in Sandro Botticelli's painting Primavera, which has been described as "one of the most written about, and most controversial paintings in the world",{{sfn|Fossi|1998|page5}} and "one of the most popular paintings in Western art".{{sfn|Cunningham|Reich|2009|page282}} The story of Aphrodite's birth from the foam was a popular subject matter for painters during the Italian Renaissance,{{sfn|Ames-Lewis|2000|pages193–95}} who were attempting to consciously reconstruct Apelles of Kos's lost masterpiece Aphrodite Anadyomene based on the literary ekphrasis of it preserved by Cicero and Pliny the Elder.{{sfn|Ames-Lewis|2000|page193}} Artists also drew inspiration from Ovid's description of the birth of Venus in his Metamorphoses.{{sfn|Ames-Lewis|2000|page193}} Sandro Botticelli's The Birth of Venus ({{circa}} 1485) was also partially inspired by a description by Poliziano of a relief on the subject.{{sfn|Ames-Lewis|2000|page193}} Later Italian renditions of the same scene include Titian's Venus Anadyomene ({{circa|1525}}){{sfn|Ames-Lewis|2000|page193}} and Raphael's painting in the Stufetta del cardinal Bibbiena (1516).{{sfn|Ames-Lewis|2000|page193}} Titian's biographer Giorgio Vasari identified all of Titian's paintings of naked women as paintings of "Venus",{{sfn|Tinagli|1997|page148}} including an erotic painting from {{circa|1534}}, which he called the Venus of Urbino, even though the painting does not contain any of Aphrodite/Venus's traditional iconography and the woman in it is clearly shown in a contemporary setting, not a classical one.{{sfn|Tinagli|1997|page148}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"140px">
Botticelli-primavera.jpg|Primavera (late 1470s or early 1480s) by Sandro Botticelli
TITIAN - Venus Anadyomene (National Galleries of Scotland, c. 1520. Oil on canvas, 75.8 x 57.6 cm).jpg|Venus Anadyomene ({{circa|1525}}) by Titian
File:Tiziano - Venere di Urbino - Google Art Project.jpg|Venus of Urbino ({{circa|1534}}) by Titian
File:Angelo Bronzino - Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time - National Gallery, London.jpg|Venus, Cupid, Folly and Time ({{circa|1545}}) by Bronzino
File:Venus and Adonis by Titian.jpg|Venus and Adonis (1554) by Titian
File:Titian - Venus with a Mirror - Google Art Project.jpg|Venus with a Mirror ({{circa|1555}}) by Titian
File:Venus, Adonis y Cupido (Carracci).jpg|Venus, Adonis and Cupid ({{circa|1595}}) by Annibale Carracci
File:Peter Paul Rubens - The toilet of Venus.jpg|The Toilet of Venus ({{circa}} 1612–1615) by Peter Paul Rubens
File:Peter_Paul_Rubens,_The_Death_of_Adonis,_ca._1614._The_Israel_Museum,_Jerusalem.jpg|The Death of Adonis ({{circa}} 1614) by Peter Paul Rubens
File:RokebyVenus.jpg|Rokeby Venus ({{circa}} 1647–51) by Diego Velázquez
File:Cornelis Holsteyn - Venus de dood van Adonis bewenend 1638-58.jpg|Venus and Cupid Lamenting the Dead Adonis (1656) by Cornelis Holsteyn
</gallery>
The Birth of Venus (1863) by Alexandre Cabanel Jacques-Louis David's final work was his 1824 magnum opus, Mars Being Disarmed by Venus,{{sfn|Bordes|2005|page189}} which combines elements of classical, Renaissance, traditional French art, and contemporary artistic styles.{{sfn|Bordes|2005|page189}} While he was working on the painting, David described it, saying, "This is the last picture I want to paint, but I want to surpass myself in it. I will put the date of my seventy-five years on it and afterwards I will never again pick up my brush."{{sfn|Hill|2007|page155}} The painting was exhibited first in Brussels and then in Paris, where over 10,000 people came to see it.{{sfn|Hill|2007|page155}} Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres's painting Venus Anadyomene was one of his major works.{{sfn|Tinterow|1999|page358}} Louis Geofroy described it as a "dream of youth realized with the power of maturity, a happiness that few obtain, artists or others."{{sfn|Tinterow|1999|page358}} Théophile Gautier declared: "Nothing remains of the marvelous painting of the Greeks, but surely if anything could give the idea of antique painting as it was conceived following the statues of Phidias and the poems of Homer, it is M. Ingres's painting: the Venus Anadyomene of Apelles has been found."{{sfn|Tinterow|1999|page358}} Other critics dismissed it as a piece of unimaginative, sentimental kitsch,{{sfn|Tinterow|1999|page358}} but Ingres himself considered it to be among his greatest works and used the same figure as the model for his later 1856 painting La Source.{{sfn|Tinterow|1999|page=358}}
({{circa}} 1863) by Alexandre Cabanel]]
Paintings of Venus were favorites of the late nineteenth-century Academic artists in France.{{sfn|McPhee|1986|pages66–67}}{{sfn|Gay|1998|page128}} In 1863, Alexandre Cabanel won widespread critical acclaim at the Paris Salon for his painting The Birth of Venus'', which the French emperor Napoleon III immediately purchased for his own personal art collection.{{sfn|McPhee|1986|page66}} Édouard Manet's 1865 painting Olympia parodied the nude Venuses of the Academic painters, particularly Cabanel's Birth of Venus.{{sfn|Gay|1998|page129}} In 1867, the English Academic painter Frederic Leighton displayed his Venus Disrobing for the Bath at the academy.{{sfn|Smith|1996|pages145–46}} The art critic J. B. Atkinson praised it, declaring that "Mr Leighton, instead of adopting corrupt Roman notions regarding Venus such as Rubens embodied, has wisely reverted to the Greek idea of Aphrodite, a goddess worshipped, and by artists painted, as the perfection of female grace and beauty."{{sfn|Smith|1996|page146}} A year later, the English painter Dante Gabriel Rossetti, a founding member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, painted Venus Verticordia (Latin for "Aphrodite, the Changer of Hearts"), showing Aphrodite as a nude red-headed woman in a garden of roses.{{sfn|Smith|1996|pages145–46}} Though he was reproached for his outré subject matter,{{sfn|Smith|1996|pages145–46}} Rossetti refused to alter the painting and it was soon purchased by J. Mitchell of Bradford.{{sfn|Smith|1996|page146}} In 1879, William Adolphe Bouguereau exhibited at the Paris Salon his own Birth of Venus,{{sfn|McPhee|1986|page66}} which imitated the classical tradition of contrapposto and was met with widespread critical acclaim, rivalling the popularity of Cabanel's version from nearly two decades prior.{{sfn|McPhee|1986|page=66}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"150">
File:Venus and Adonis. Francois Lemoyne.jpg|Venus and Adonis (1729) by François Lemoyne
File:Jacques-Louis David - Mars desarme par Venus.JPG|Mars Being Disarmed by Venus (1824) by Jacques-Louis David
File:Guillemot, Alexandre Charles - Mars and Venus Surprised by Vulcan - Google Art Project.jpg|Mars and Venus Surprised by Vulcan (1827) by Alexandre Charles Guillemot
File:1848 Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres - Venus Anadyomène.jpg|Venus Anadyomene (1848) by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
File:Frederic Leighton - Venus Disrobing for the Bath.jpg|Venus Disrobing for the Bath (1867) by Frederic Leighton
File:Dante Gabriel Rossetti - Venus Verticordia.jpg|Venus Verticordia (1868) by Dante Gabriel Rossetti
File:The Birth of Venus by William-Adolphe Bouguereau (1879).jpg|The Birth of Venus ({{circa}} 1879) by William-Adolphe Bouguereau
File:The Birth of Venus (Gervex).jpg|The Birth of Venus (1907) by Henri Gervex
</gallery>
Literature
's 1896 erotic novel Aphrodite: mœurs antiques]]
William Shakespeare's erotic narrative poem Venus and Adonis (1593), a retelling of the courtship of Aphrodite and Adonis from Ovid's Metamorphoses,{{sfn|Lákta|2017|pages56–58}}{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page131}} was the most popular of all his works published within his own lifetime.{{sfn|Lákta|2017|page58}}{{sfn|Hiscock|2017|pageunpaginated}} Six editions of it were published before Shakespeare's death (more than any of his other works){{sfn|Hiscock|2017|pageunpaginated}} and it enjoyed particularly strong popularity among young adults.{{sfn|Lákta|2017|page58}} In 1605, Richard Barnfield lauded it,{{sfn|Hiscock|2017|pageunpaginated}} declaring that the poem had placed Shakespeare's name "in fames immortall Booke".{{sfn|Hiscock|2017|pageunpaginated}} Despite this, the poem has received mixed reception from modern critics;{{sfn|Lákta|2017|page58}} Samuel Taylor Coleridge defended it,{{sfn|Lákta|2017|page58}} but Samuel Butler complained that it bored him{{sfn|Lákta|2017|page58}} and C. S. Lewis described an attempted reading of it as "suffocating".{{sfn|Lákta|2017|page58}}
Aphrodite appears in Richard Garnett's short story collection The Twilight of the Gods and Other Tales (1888),{{sfn|Clark|2015|pages354–55}} in which the gods' temples have been destroyed by Christians.{{sfn|Clark|2015|page355}} Stories revolving around sculptures of Aphrodite were common in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.{{sfn|Clark|2015|page364}} Examples of such works of literature include the novel The Tinted Venus: A Farcical Romance (1885) by Thomas Anstey Guthrie and the short story The Venus of Ille (1887) by Prosper Mérimée,{{sfn|Clark|2015|pages361–62}} both of which are about statues of Aphrodite that come to life.{{sfn|Clark|2015|pages361–62}} Another noteworthy example is Aphrodite in Aulis by the Anglo-Irish writer George Moore,{{sfn|Clark|2015|page363}} which revolves around an ancient Greek family who moves to Aulis.{{sfn|Clark|2015|pages363–64}} The French writer Pierre Louÿs titled his erotic historical novel Aphrodite: mœurs antiques (1896) after the Greek goddess.{{sfn|Brooks|Alden|1980|pages836–44}} The novel enjoyed widespread commercial success,{{sfn|Brooks|Alden|1980|pages836–44}} but scandalized French audiences due to its sensuality and its decadent portrayal of Greek society.{{sfn|Brooks|Alden|1980|pages836–44}}
In the early twentieth century, stories of Aphrodite were used by feminist poets,{{sfn|Clark|2015|page369}} such as Amy Lowell and Alicia Ostriker.{{sfn|Clark|2015|pages369–71}} Many of these poems dealt with Aphrodite's legendary birth from the foam of the sea.{{sfn|Clark|2015|page369}} Other feminist writers, including Claude Cahun, Thit Jensen, and Anaïs Nin also made use of the myth of Aphrodite in their writings.{{sfn|Clark|2015|pages372–74}} Ever since the publication of Isabel Allende's book Aphrodite: A Memoir of the Senses in 1998, the name "Aphrodite" has been used as a title for dozens of books dealing with all topics even superficially connected to her domain.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages134–35}} Frequently these books do not even mention Aphrodite,{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|pages134–35}} or mention her only briefly, but make use of her name as a selling point.{{sfn|Cyrino|2010|page135}}Modern worshipIn 1938, Gleb Botkin, a Russian immigrant to the United States, founded the Church of Aphrodite, a neopagan religion centered around the worship of a mother goddess, whom its practitioners identified as Aphrodite.{{sfn|Clifton|2006|page139}}{{sfn|Pizza|Lewis|2009|pages[https://books.google.com/books?idrwzttsI9–NwC&pgPA327 327–28]}} The Church of Aphrodite's theology was laid out in the book In Search of Reality, published in 1969, two years before Botkin's death.{{sfn|Clifton|2006|page141}} The book portrayed Aphrodite in a drastically different light than the one in which the Greeks envisioned her,{{sfn|Clifton|2006|page141}} instead casting her as "the sole Goddess of a somewhat Neoplatonic Pagan monotheism".{{sfn|Clifton|2006|page141}} It claimed that the worship of Aphrodite had been brought to Greece by the mystic teacher Orpheus,{{sfn|Clifton|2006|page141}} but that the Greeks had misunderstood Orpheus's teachings and had not realized the importance of worshipping Aphrodite alone.{{sfn|Clifton|2006|page141}}
Aphrodite is a major deity in Wicca,{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|pages109–10}}{{sfn|Sabin|2010|page125}} a contemporary nature-based syncretic Neopagan religion.{{sfn|Sabin|2010|pages3–4}} Wiccans regard Aphrodite as one aspect of the Goddess{{sfn|Sabin|2010|page125}} and she is frequently invoked by name during enchantments dealing with love and romance.{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|page110}}{{sfn|Sabin|2010|page124}} Wiccans regard Aphrodite as the ruler of human emotions, erotic spirituality, creativity, and art.{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|pages109–10}} As one of the twelve Olympians, Aphrodite is a major deity within Hellenismos (Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism),<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-22972610|titleThe Greeks who worship the ancient gods|first1Matthew Brunwasser PRI's The|last1World|first2Mount|last2Olympus|workBBC News|date20 June 2013}}</ref>{{sfn|Alexander|2007|page23}} a Neopagan religion which seeks to authentically revive and recreate the religion of ancient Greece in the modern world.{{sfn|Alexander|2007|page9}}{{Better source needed|dateOctober 2020}} Unlike Wiccans, Hellenists are usually strictly polytheistic or pantheistic.{{sfn|Alexander|2007|pages22–23}}{{Better source needed|dateOctober 2020}} Hellenists venerate Aphrodite primarily as the goddess of romantic love,{{sfn|Alexander|2007|page23}}{{Better source needed|dateOctober 2020}} but also as a goddess of sexuality, the sea, and war.{{sfn|Alexander|2007|page23}}{{Better source needed|dateOctober 2020}} Her many epithets include "Sea Born", "Killer of Men", "She upon the Graves", "Fair Sailing", and "Ally in War".{{sfn|Alexander|2007|page23}}{{Better source needed|dateOctober 2020}}
Genealogy
{{chart top|Aphrodite's family tree&nbsp;<ref>This chart is based upon Hesiod's Theogony, unless otherwise noted.</ref>|collapsed=no}}
{{chart/start}}
{{chart}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | |URA |y|GAI |URAUranus|GAIGaia}}
{{chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.}}
{{chart|URA| |COE |y|PHO | |CRO |y|RHE |COECoeus|PHOPhoebe|URA<small>Uranus'&nbsp;genitals</small>|CROCronus|RHE=Rhea}}
{{chart| |!| |,|-|-|-|'|,|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.}}
{{chart| |!|LET|~|y|ZEU |V|~|~|y|~|HER | |POS | |HAD | |DEM | |HES |LETLeto|HESHestia|DEMDemeter|ZEUZeus|HERHera|HADHades|POS=Poseidon}}
{{chart| |!| | |,|-|^|-|.| |:| |,|^|-|.| |!}}
{{chart| |!| |APO | |ART |:| |!| |AAA |!|APOApollo|ARTArtemis|AAA&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a<ref>According to Homer, Iliad [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.570 1.570&ndash;579], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:14.338 14.338], Odyssey [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.312 8.312], Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.</ref>|border_AAA0}}
{{chart|border0| |!| | | | | | | | |:| |!| | |!|BBB |BBB&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b<ref>According to Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Hes.+Th.+927 927&ndash;929], Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.</ref>}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| |!| | |!| |!}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:|ARE | |HEP |AREAres|HEPHephaestus}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|MET |MET=Metis}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |ATH |ATHAthena<ref>According to Hesiod's Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHes.+Th.+886 886&ndash;890], of Zeus' children by his seven wives, Athena was the first to be conceived, but the last to be born; Zeus impregnated Metis then swallowed her, later Zeus himself gave birth to Athena "from his head", see Gantz, pp. 51&ndash;52, 83&ndash;84.</ref>}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|MAI |MAI=Maia}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |HER |HER=Hermes}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|SEM |SEM=Semele}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |DIO |DIO=Dionysus}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |L|~|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|DIO |DIO=Dione}}
{{chart|border0|AAA | | | | | | | | | | | |BBB|AAA&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a<ref>According to Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHes.+Th.+183 183&ndash;200], Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99&ndash;100.</ref>|BBB&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b<ref>According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.374 3.374], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:20.105 20.105]; Odyssey [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.308 8.308], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.320 320]) and Dione (Iliad [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:5.370 5.370&ndash;71]), see Gantz, pp. 99&ndash;100.</ref>}}
{{chart| |`|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| |!}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |APH |APH=APHRODITE}}
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{{chart bottom}}
See also
{{Portal|Ancient Greece|Religion|Myths}}
* Anchises
* Asherah
* Cupid
* Girdle of Aphrodite
* History of nude art
* Lakshmi, rose from the ocean like Aphrodite and has 8-pointed star like Ishtar
{{clear|right}}
Notes
{{notelist}}
Citations
{{Reflist|20em}}
General and cited references
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, MA., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library].
* Evelyn-White, Hugh, The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White. Homeric Hymns. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914.
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* {{citation|lastTinkle|firstTheresa|date1996|titleMedieval Venuses and Cupids: Sexuality, Hermeneutics, and English Poetry|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idgjhLACGml2cC&qMary&pgPA80|locationStanford, California|publisherStanford University Press|isbn=978-0804725156}}
* {{citation|lastTinterow|firstGary|date1999|chapterParis, 1841–1867|titlePortraits by Ingres: Image of an Epoch|chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idSs99wqlznxAC&qVenus+Anadyomene+Ingres&pgPA358|locationNew York|publisherThe Metropolitan Museum of Art|isbn0-87099-891-9}}
* {{citation|lastWalcot|firstP.|dateApril 1977|titleThe Judgement of Paris|journalGreece & Rome|locationCambridge|publisherCambridge University Press|volume24|issue1|pages31–39|doi10.1017/S0017383500019616|jstor642687|s2cid=162573370 }}
* {{citation|lastWasson|firstR. Gordon|author-linkR. Gordon Wasson|date1968|titleSoma: Divine Mushroom of Immortality|locationSan Diego, California|publisherHarcourt Brace Jovanovich|page128|isbn=0-15-683800-1}}
* {{citation|lastWest|firstM. L.|author-linkMartin Litchfield West|date2008|orig-date1993|titleGreek Lyric Poetry: A New Translation by M. L. West|locationOxford|publisherOxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-954039-6}}
* {{citation|lastWest|firstM. L.|titleThe East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth|date1997|publisherClarendon Press|locationOxford, England|isbn0-19-815221-3|page57|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idfIp0RYIjazQC&q=Adonis}}
* {{citation|lastWest|firstM. L.|date2000|titleThe Name of Aphrodite|journalGlotta|volume76|issue1./2. H|pages134–38|locationGöttingen, Germany|publisherVandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG)|jstor=40267103}}
* {{citation|lastWitczak|firstKrzysztof Tomasz|author-link:pl:Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak|date1993|titleGreek Aphrodite and her Indo-European origins|journalMiscellanea Linguistica Graeco-Latina|editorLambert Isebaert|locationNamur|publisherSociété des études classiques|pages115–23}}{{ISBN?}}
* {{citation|lastWitt|firstReginald Eldred|titleIsis in the Ancient World|locationBaltimore, Maryland|publisherJohns Hopkins University Press|date1997|isbn=0-8018-5642-6}}
* {{citation|lastWunderlich|firstHans Georg|date1987|translator-lastWinston|translator-firstR.|titleThe Secret of Crete|page=134}}{{ISBN?}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{Wiktionary|Ἀφροδίτη}}
{{Commons}}
{{Library resources box |byno |onlinebooksyes |othersyes |aboutyes |labelAphrodite |viaf |lccn|lcheading |wikititle= }}
* [http://www.theoi.com/Olympios/Aphrodite.html APHRODITE from The Theoi Project] information from classical literature, Greek and Roman art
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/19/arts/design/19wome.html The Glory which Was Greece from a Female Perspective]
* [http://afrodite.saffo.googlepages.com/aphrodite-sappho.html Sappho's Hymn to Aphrodite, with a brief explanation]
* [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000062 Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 2450 images of Aphrodite)]
{{Twelve Olympians}}
{{Greek religion}}
{{Greek mythology (deities)}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Beauty goddesses
Category:Characters in the Argonautica
Category:Characters in the Odyssey
Category:Children of Zeus
Category:Consorts of Dionysus
Category:Consorts of Hephaestus
Category:Cypriot mythology
Category:Deities in the Iliad
Category:Divine women of Zeus
Category:Extramarital relationships
Category:Fertility goddesses
Category:Greek love and lust goddesses
Category:Kourotrophoi
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:New religious movement deities
Category:Nudity in mythology
Category:Prostitution
Category:Sexuality in ancient Greece
Category:Temporary marriages
Category:Twelve Olympians
Category:Venusian deities
Category:Planetary goddesses
Category:Women of Ares
Category:Women of Hermes
Category:Women of Poseidon
Category:Women of the Trojan war | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite | 2025-04-05T18:25:33.947965 |
1175 | April 1 | {{About|historical events on April 1|the joke custom|April Fools' Day}}
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{{This date in recent years}}
{{Day}}
Events
Pre-1600
* 527 &ndash; Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne.<ref>{{cite book|lastEvans|firstJ.A.S.|titleThe Emperor Justinian and the Byzantine Empire|locationWestport, Conn.|publisherGreenwood Press|date2005|isbn9780313325823|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idxDNv6qZ_I-IC|page38}}</ref>
*1081 &ndash; Alexios I Komnenos overthrows the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates,<ref>{{cite book|lastKotzampasi|firstSofia|titleThe Pantokrator Monastery in Constantinople|locationBoston|publisherWalter de Gruyter and Co|date2013|isbn9781614515999|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6S_nBQAAQBAJ|page17|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|lastNeville|firstLeonora Alice|titleAnna Komnene: The Life and Work of a Medieval Historian|locationNew York|publisherOxford University Press|date2019|isbn9780190939892|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idDHLADAAAQBAJ|page2}}</ref> and, after his troops spend three days extensively looting Constantinople, is formally crowned on April 4.<ref>{{cite book|lastGarland|firstLynda|author-linkLynda Garland |titleByzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204|locationLondon|publisherRoutledge|date2011|isbn9780415619448 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6gWGAgAAQBAJ|page184}}</ref>
*1572 &ndash; In the Eighty Years' War, the Watergeuzen capture Brielle from the Seventeen Provinces, gaining the first foothold on land for what would become the Dutch Republic.<ref>{{cite book|authorMultiple Authors|titleEarly Modern Wars 1500–1775|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idk_GxAgAAQBAJ&pgPT97|date17 September 2013|publisherAmber Books Ltd|isbn978-1-78274-121-3|pages97}}</ref>1601–1900*1789 &ndash; In New York City, the United States House of Representatives achieves its first quorum and elects Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania as its first Speaker.<ref>{{cite book|last1Jenkins|first1Jeffery A.|last2Stewart|first2Charles Haines|titleFighting for the Speakership: The House and the Rise of Party Government|locationPrinceton, N.J.|publisherPrinceton University Press|date2013|isbn9780691118123|page26|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=YHlZCBqGvZIC}}</ref>
*1833 &ndash; The Convention of 1833, a political gathering of settlers in Mexican Texas to help draft a series of petitions to the Mexican government, begins in San Felipe de Austin.<ref>{{cite book|lastWilliams|firstAmelia W.|titleThe Alamo Defenders: A Critical Study of the Siege of the Alamo and the Personnel of Its Defenders|locationRockport, Tex.|publisherCopano Bay Press|date2010|isbn9780982246771|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idspv_1-DkzWIC|page22}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; American Civil War: Union troops led by Philip Sheridan decisively defeat Confederate troops led by George Pickett, cutting the Army of Northern Virginia's last supply line during the Siege of Petersburg.<ref>{{cite book|titleInfantry|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idvOsnedbtySMC&pgPA45|dateJune 2011|publisherU.S. Army Infantry School|pages=45}}</ref>
*1867 &ndash; Singapore becomes a British crown colony.<ref>{{cite book|author-last1Vreeland|author-first1Nena|author-last2Dana|author-first2Glenn B.|author-last3Hurwitz|author-first3Geoffrey B.|author-last4Just|author-first4Peter|author-last5Shinn|author-first5R.S.|titleArea Handbook for Singapore|locationWashington, D.C.|publisherU.S. Government Printing Office|date1977|oclc3032967|page44|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id6Fwev4A3Rc0C}}</ref>
*1873 &ndash; The White Star steamer SS Atlantic sinks off Nova Scotia, killing 547 in one of the worst marine disasters of the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book|lastAdams|firstW.H. Davenport|titleGreat Shipwrecks: A Record of Perils and Disasters at Sea, 1544-1877|locationLondon|publisherT. Nelson|date1877|oclc1039482884|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idL3cBAAAAQAAJ|pages507–508|postscriptnone}}; {{cite book|authorCanada Department of Agriculture|titleThe Statistical Year-Book of Canada for 1899|locationOttawa|publisherCanada Department of Agriculture|date1900|oclc1080360321|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id7h0UAAAAYAAJ|page11}}</ref>
*1900 &ndash; Prince George becomes absolute monarch of the Cretan State.<ref>{{cite book|lastBurbank|firstRichard|titleTwentieth Century Music|locationNew York City, US|publisherFacts on File Publication, New York City, NY|year1984|isbn0-87196-464-3|page13}}|</ref>
1901–present
*1908 &ndash; The Territorial Force (renamed Territorial Army in 1920) is formed as a volunteer reserve component of the British Army.<ref>{{cite book |lastDennis |firstPeter |date1987 |titleThe Territorial Army: 1906-1940 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/territorialarmy10000denn/page/14/mode/2up |publisherBoydell Press |page14 |isbn0861932080}}</ref>
*1918 &ndash; The Royal Air Force is created by the merger of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.raf.mod.uk/history/raftimeline19181929.cfm |titleRAF Timeline 1918-1929 |websiteRoyal Air Force |access-date15 February 2023 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120812113116/http://www.raf.mod.uk/history/raftimeline19181929.cfm |archive-date=12 August 2012}}</ref>
*1922 &ndash; In newly formed Northern Ireland, six Catholics are murdered in the Arnon Street killings, one week after six others were killed in the McMahon killings.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.theirishstory.com/2020/10/27/the-dead-of-the-belfast-pogrom-counting-the-cost-of-the-revolutionary-period-1920-22/comment-page-1/ |titleThe Dead of the Belfast Pogrom |lastGlennon |firstKieran |date27 October 2020 |websiteThe Irish Story |publisher|access-date25 March 2024 |quote=}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; Adolf Hitler is sentenced to five years fortress confinement for his participation in the "Beer Hall Putsch" but spends only nine months in jail.<ref>{{cite book |lastFulda |firstBernhard |date2009 |titlePress and Politics in the Weimar Republic |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idStNY-71yVXQC |publisherOxford University Press |page69 |isbn=9780191563263}}</ref>
* 1924 &ndash; The Royal Canadian Air Force is formed.<ref>{{cite book |lastRoberts |firstLeslie |date1959 |titleThere Shall Be Wings: A History of the Royal Canadian Air Force |urlhttps://archive.org/details/thereshallbewing0000robe/page/54/mode/2up |locationToronto |publisherClarke, Irwin & Company |page55 |isbn=9781013416767}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; The recently elected Nazis under Julius Streicher organize a one-day boycott of all Jewish-owned businesses in Germany, ushering in a series of anti-Semitic acts.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/julius-streicher-biography |titleJulius Streicher: Biography |websiteUnited States Holocaust Memorial Museum |access-date15 February 2023}}</ref>
*1935 &ndash; India's central banking institution, the Reserve Bank of India, is formed.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.rbi.org.in/history/Brief_History.html |titleBrief History |websiteReserve Bank of India |access-date15 February 2023}}</ref>
*1937 &ndash; Aden becomes a British crown colony.
* 1937 &ndash; The Royal New Zealand Air Force is formed as an independent service.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://nzhistory.govt.nz/war/rnzaf |titleRoyal New Zealand Air Force |websiteNew Zealand History |access-date15 February 2023}}</ref>
*1939 &ndash; Spanish Civil War: Generalísimo Francisco Franco of the Spanish State announces the end of the Spanish Civil War, when the last of the Republican forces surrender.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Holguín |first1Sandie |dateDecember 2015 |titleHow Did the Spanish Civil War End? ... Not So Well |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/43697076 |journalThe American Historical Review |volume120 |issue5 |pages1767–1783 |doi10.1093/ahr/120.5.1767 |jstor43697076 |access-date17 March 2023}}</ref>
*1941 &ndash; Fântâna Albă massacre: Between two hundred and two thousand Romanian civilians are killed by Soviet Border Troops.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.romaniajournal.ro/society-people/75-years-since-the-romanian-katyn-massacre-at-fantana-alba-3000-romanians-killed/ |title75 Years Since 'The Romanian Katyn' Massacre At Fântâna Albă{{snd}}3,000 Romanians Killed |lastLupu |firstVictor |date1 April 2016 |websiteRomania Journal |access-date=17 March 2023}}</ref>
* 1941 &ndash; A military coup in Iraq overthrows the regime of 'Abd al-Ilah and installs Rashid Ali al-Gaylani as Prime Minister.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/scottjc/coup.htm |lastScott |firstJames C |titleThe Coup |workIraqi Coup |publisherCalifornia State University, Sacramento |date9 August 2001 |access-date17 March 2023 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20071024000835/http://www.csus.edu/indiv/s/scottjc/coup.htm |archive-date=24 October 2007}}</ref>
*1944 &ndash; World War II: Navigation errors lead to an accidental American bombing of the Swiss city of Schaffhausen.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://nationalinterest.org/blog/the-buzz/during-world-war-ii-america-accidently-bombed-switzerland-20077 |titleDuring World War II, America Accidently Bombed Switzerland |lastPeck |firstMichael |date8 April 2017 |websiteThe National Interest |access-date=17 March 2023}}</ref>
*1945 &ndash; World War II: The Tenth United States Army attacks the Thirty-Second Japanese Army on Okinawa.<ref>{{cite book |last1Appleman |first1Roy E. |last2Burns |first2James M. |last3Gugeler |first3Russel A. |last4Stevens |first4John |date2000 |titleOkinawa: The Last Battle |urlhttp://www.history.army.mil/BOOKS/WWII/OKINAWA/chapter3.htm |locationWashington, D.C. |publisherUnited States Army Center of Military History |page68 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120114000303/http://www.history.army.mil/BOOKS/WWII/OKINAWA/chapter3.htm |archive-date=14 January 2012}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; The 8.6 {{M|w}} Aleutian Islands earthquake shakes the Aleutian Islands with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI (Strong). A destructive tsunami reaches the Hawaiian Islands resulting in dozens of deaths, mostly in Hilo, Hawaii.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.usc.edu/dept/tsunamis/alaska/1946/webpages/ |title1946 Aleutian Tsunami |websiteUSC Thunami Research Group |access-date17 March 2023 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141016033328/http://www.usc.edu/dept/tsunamis/alaska/1946/webpages/ |archive-date=16 October 2014}}</ref>
* 1946 &ndash; The Malayan Union is established. Protests from locals led to the establishment of the Federation of Malaya two years later.<ref>{{Cite web |lastPeKhabar |date2016-04-01 |titlePenubuhan Malayan Union |urlhttps://pekhabar.com/h-i-d-s-penubuhan-malayan-union/ |access-date2022-03-31 |websitePeKhabar |language=ms-MY}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; The only mutiny in the history of the Royal New Zealand Navy begins.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://navymuseum.co.nz/explore/by-themes/post-war-1970/mutiny-at-hmnzs-philomel/ |titleMutiny at HMNZS Philomel |websiteTorpedo Bay Navy Museum |date16 October 2015 |access-date=17 March 2023}}</ref>
*1948 &ndash; Cold War: Communist forces respond to the introduction of the Deutsche Mark by attempting to force the western powers to withdraw from Berlin.<ref>{{cite book |lastMiller |firstRoger G. |date2000 |titleTo Save a City: The Berlin Airlift, 1948-1949 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/tosavecityberlin0000mill_b0n4/page/20/mode/2up?viewtheater |locationCollege Station, TX |publisherTexas A&M University Press |page20 |isbn9780890969670}}</ref>
* 1948 &ndash; Faroe Islands gain autonomy from Denmark.<ref>{{cite book |last1Pomfret |first1Richard |titleThe Economic Integration of Europe |date8 June 2021 |publisherHarvard University Press |isbn978-0-674-24413-9 |page200 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idi14lEAAAQBAJ&pgPA200 |language=en}}</ref>
*1949 &ndash; Chinese Civil War: The Chinese Communist Party holds unsuccessful peace talks with the Nationalist Party in Beijing, after three years of fighting.
* 1949 &ndash; The Government of Canada repeals Japanese-Canadian internment after seven years.<ref>{{cite book |lastAdachi |firstKen |date1976 |titleThe Enemy That Never Was |urlhttps://archive.org/details/enemythatneverwa0000adac/page/346/mode/2up |locationToronto |publisherMcClelland and Stewart |page346}}</ref>
*1954 &ndash; United States President Dwight D. Eisenhower authorizes the creation of the United States Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs, Colorado.<ref>{{cite news |date2 April 1954 |titleAir Force Academy Act Signed by Eisenhower |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?id9G8pAAAAIBAJ&pg6899%2C3318710 |workThe Spokesman-Review |locationSpokane, WA |access-date17 March 2023}}</ref>
*1955 &ndash; The EOKA rebellion against the British Empire begins in Cyprus, with the goal of unifying with Greece.<ref>{{cite book |lastFrench |firstDavid |date2015 |titleFighting EOKA: The British Counter-Insurgency Campaign on Cyprus, 1955-1959 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrrvuBgAAQBAJ |publisherOxford University Press |page71 |isbn=9780198729341}}</ref>
*1960 &ndash; The TIROS-1 satellite transmits the first television picture from space.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://airandspace.si.edu/multimedia-gallery/136061mainbmtiros3jpg |titleFirst Television Picture of Earth from Space, 1960 |websiteNational Air and Space Museum |dateApril 2020 |access-date=17 March 2023}}</ref>
*1964 &ndash; The British Admiralty, War Office and Air Ministry are replaced by a unified Defence Council of the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1964/15|titleDefence (Transfer of Functions) Act 1964}}</ref>
*1969 &ndash; The Hawker Siddeley Harrier, the first operational fighter aircraft with Vertical/Short Takeoff and Landing capabilities, enters service with the Royal Air Force.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.tangmere-museum.org.uk/aircraft-month/hawker-siddeley-harrier |titleHawker Siddeley Harrier |dateApril 2008 |websiteTangmere Military Aviation Museum |access-date17 March 2023 |archive-date17 March 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230317171910/https://www.tangmere-museum.org.uk/aircraft-month/hawker-siddeley-harrier |url-statusdead }}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; President Richard Nixon signs the Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act into law.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.byrdcenter.org/blog/the-public-health-cigarette-smoking-act-of-1970 |titleThe Public Health Cigarette Smoking Act of 1970 |lastBrumage |firstJody |date25 July 2017 |websiteRobert C. Byrd Center |access-date=20 March 2023}}</ref>
*1970 &ndash; A Royal Air Maroc Sud Aviation Caravelle crashes near Berrechid, Morocco, killing 61.<ref name":0">{{Cite web |titleASN Aircraft accident Sud Aviation SE-210 Caravelle III CN-CCV Berrechid |urlhttps://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id19700401-1 |access-date2023-11-19 |websiteaviation-safety.net}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Bangladesh Liberation War: The Pakistan Army massacre more than a thousand people in Keraniganj Upazila, Bangladesh.
*1973 &ndash; Project Tiger, a tiger conservation project, is launched in the Jim Corbett National Park, India.
*1974 &ndash; The Local Government Act 1972 of England and Wales comes into effect.<ref>{{Cite legislation UK |typeact |year1972 |chapter70 |actLocal Government Act 1972 |section1 |date1972 |accessdate=20 March 2023}}</ref>
*1976 &ndash; Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak found Apple Computer, Inc.<ref>{{Cite web|titleApple Fast Facts|urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2014/07/01/business/apple-fast-facts/index.html|access-date12 January 2022|websiteCNN|date=July 2014}}</ref>
*1979 &ndash; Iran becomes an Islamic republic by a 99% vote, officially overthrowing the Shah.<ref>{{cite news |date1 April 1979 |titleFighting Is Renewed By Iran Tribesmen |workThe Commercial Appeal |page2 |location=Memphis, Tennessee}}</ref>
*1984 &ndash; Singer Marvin Gaye is shot to death by his father in his home in Arlington Heights, Los Angeles, California.<ref namegaye>{{Cite web |titleThe tragic story of Marvin Gaye and the untimely death of a soul legend |urlhttps://www.smoothradio.com/artists/marvin-gaye/marvin-gaye-death-father-explained/ |access-date31 March 2022 |websiteSmooth |languageen}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Communist Party of Nepal (Mashal) cadres attack a number of police stations in Kathmandu, seeking to incite a popular rebellion.<ref>{{cite book |editor-lastMalone |editor-firstDavid M |editor-last2von Einsiedel |editor-first2Sebastian |editor-last3Pradhan |editor-first3Suman |date2012 |titleNepal in Transition: From People's War to Fragile Peace |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idHyZ03y3S6eEC |publisherCambridge University Press |page71 |isbn=9781107005679}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Margaret Thatcher's new local government tax, the Community Charge (commonly known as the "poll tax"), is introduced in Scotland.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.glasgowlive.co.uk/news/history/poll-tax-glasgow-biggest-battle-12956258 |titleFighting the poll tax - a look back at one of Glasgow's biggest battles captured in photos |lastRussell |firstJennifer |date1 April 2019 |websiteGlasgowLive |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; NASCAR racer Alan Kulwicki is killed in a plane crash near the Tri-Cities Regional Airport in Blountville, Tennessee.<ref name"ntsb">{{cite web |author |date16 March 1994 |titleNational Transportation Safety Board Aviation Accident Final Report |urlhttps://app.ntsb.gov/pdfgenerator/ReportGeneratorFile.ashx?EventID20001211X12077&AKey1&RTypeFinal&ITypeMA |access-date24 October 2017 |websiteapp.ntsb.gov |publisherNational Transportation Safety Board |idATL93MA068 |archive-date1 December 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20201201030501/https://app.ntsb.gov/pdfgenerator/ReportGeneratorFile.ashx?EventID20001211X12077&AKey1&RTypeFinal&ITypeMA |url-statusdead }}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Comet Hale–Bopp is seen passing at perihelion.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/comets/c-1995-o1-hale-bopp/in-depth/ |titleC/1995 O1 (Hale-Bopp) |websitesolarsystem.nasa.gov |access-date15 February 2023}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Nunavut is established as a Canadian territory carved out of the eastern part of the Northwest Territories.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.ntassembly.ca/visitors/creation-new-nwt |titleCreation of a New Northwest Territories |websiteLegislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories |date6 November 2012 |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; An EP-3E United States Navy surveillance aircraft collides with a Chinese People's Liberation Army Shenyang J-8 fighter jet. The Chinese pilot ejected but is subsequently lost. The Navy crew makes an emergency landing in Hainan, China and is detained.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/04/01/us.china.plane.03/ |titleU.S. aircraft collides with Chinese fighter, forced to land |date1 April 2001 |websiteCNN |access-date14 February 2023 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20081211063330/http://archives.cnn.com/2001/US/04/01/us.china.plane.03/ |archive-date11 December 2008}}</ref>
* 2001 &ndash; Former President of Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Slobodan Milošević surrenders to police special forces, to be tried on war crimes charges.<ref>{{cite book|titleThe Yale Journal of International Law|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idTupKAQAAIAAJ|year2001|publisherYale Law School|page334}}</ref>
* 2001 &ndash; Same-sex marriage becomes legal in the Netherlands, the first contemporary country to allow it.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0104/01/sm.10.html |titleSame-Sex Marriage Legalized in Amsterdam |date1 April 2001 |websiteCNN Transcripts |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160303221411/http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0104/01/sm.10.html |access-date14 February 2023|archive-date=2016-03-03 }}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Google launches its Email service Gmail.<ref>{{Cite web |last1Petrova |first1Magdalena |last2Elias |first2Jennifer |date26 October 2019 |titleGoogle's rocky path to email domination |urlhttps://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/26/gmail-dominates-consumer-email-with-1point5-billion-users.html |access-date31 March 2022 |website=CNBC}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA) of the Government of the United Kingdom is enforced, but later merged into National Crime Agency on 7 October 2013.
*2011 &ndash; After protests against the burning of the Quran turn violent, a mob attacks a United Nations compound in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan, resulting in the deaths of fourteen people, including seven UN workers.<ref>{{Cite news |date2011-04-02 |titleAfghanistan: Deadly Kandahar protest at Koran burning |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-south-asia-12944851 |access-date2024-04-19 |workBBC News |languageen-GB}}</ref>
*2016 &ndash; The 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict begins along the Nagorno-Karabakh Line of Contact.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.horizonweekly.ca/news/details/83600 |title12-year-old Vaghinak Grigoryan killed in Azeri shelling |date2 April 2016 |websiteHorizon |access-date14 February 2023 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160404222825/http://www.horizonweekly.ca/news/details/83600 |archive-date4 April 2016}}</ref>
Births
Pre-1600
*1220 &ndash; Emperor Go-Saga of Japan (d. 1272)
*1282 &ndash; Louis IV, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1347)
*1328 &ndash; Blanche of France, Duchess of Orléans (d. 1382)
*1543 &ndash; François de Bonne, Duke of Lesdiguières (d. 1626)
*1578 &ndash; William Harvey, English physician and academic (d. 1657)<ref>{{cite web |titleBBC - History - William Harvey |urlhttp://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/harvey_william.shtml |websitewww.bbc.co.uk |access-date26 October 2020}}</ref>
1601–1900
*1610 &ndash; Charles de Saint-Évremond, French soldier and critic (d. 1703)
*1629 &ndash; Jean-Henri d'Anglebert, French organist and composer (d. 1691)
*1640 &ndash; Georg Mohr, Danish mathematician and academic (d. 1697)
*1647 &ndash; John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, English poet and courtier (d. 1680)
*1697 &ndash; Antoine François Prévost, French novelist and translator (d. 1763)<ref>{{cite book | firstRichard A. | lastSmernoff | titleL'Abbé Prévost | placeBoston | publisherTwayne Publishers | year1985 | isbn978-0-8057-6594-6 | page[https://archive.org/details/labbeprevost0000smer/page/2 2] | url=https://archive.org/details/labbeprevost0000smer/page/2 }}</ref>
*1721 &ndash; Pieter Hellendaal, Dutch-English organist, violinist, and composer (d. 1799)
*1741 &ndash; George Dance the Younger, English architect and surveyor (d. 1825)
*1753 &ndash; Joseph de Maistre, French philosopher, lawyer, and diplomat (d. 1821)
*1765 &ndash; Luigi Schiavonetti, Italian engraver and etcher (d. 1810)
*1776 &ndash; Sophie Germain, French mathematician, physicist, and philosopher (d. 1831)<ref>{{cite book | last1Grinstein | first1Louise S. | last2Campbell | first2Paul J. | titleWomen of Mathematics : a Biobibliographic Sourcebook | placeNew York | publisherGreenwood Press | year1987 | isbn978-0-3132-4849-8 | page[https://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/47 47] | url=https://archive.org/details/womenofmathemati0000unse/page/47 }}</ref>
*1786 &ndash; William Mulready, Irish genre painter (d. 1863)
*1815 &ndash; Otto von Bismarck, German lawyer and politician, 1st Chancellor of the German Empire (d. 1898)<ref>{{cite book | last1Headlam | first1James Wycliffe | titleBismarck and the Foundation of the German Empire | placeNew York | publisherG. P. Putnam's Sons | year1899 | page=1 }}</ref>
* 1815 &ndash; Edward Clark, American lawyer and politician, 8th Governor of Texas (d. 1880)
*1823 &ndash; Simon Bolivar Buckner, American general and politician, 30th Governor of Kentucky (d. 1891)
*1824 &ndash; Louis-Zéphirin Moreau, Canadian bishop (d. 1901)
*1834 &ndash; James Fisk, American businessman (d. 1872)<ref>{{cite web |titleJames Fisk {{!}} American financier |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/biography/James-Fisk |websiteEncyclopedia Britannica |access-date16 May 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
*1852 &ndash; Edwin Austin Abbey, American painter and illustrator (d. 1911)
*1858 &ndash; Columba Marmion, Irish Benedictine abbot (d. 1923)<ref>* {{cite book |lastTierney |firstMark |titleBlessed Columba Marmion: A Short Biography |locationCollegeville, Mn. |publisherLiturgical Press |date2000 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/blessedcolumbama0000tier |page13|isbn=978-0-8146-2756-3 }}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; Richard Adolf Zsigmondy, Austrian-German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1929)
*1866 &ndash; William Blomfield, New Zealand cartoonist and politician (d. 1938)
* 1866 &ndash; Ferruccio Busoni, Italian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1924)
* 1866 &ndash; Ève Lavallière, French actress (d. 1929)<ref>{{cite book | firstKurt | lastGänzl | titleThe Encyclopedia of the Musical Theatre | urlhttps://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmu00ganz_0 | url-accessregistration | date17 May 2001 | placeNew York | publisherSchirmer | isbn978-0-02-864970-2 | page1157}}</ref>
*1868 &ndash; Edmond Rostand, French poet and playwright (d. 1918)
* 1868 &ndash; Walter Mead, English cricketer (d. 1954)
*1871 &ndash; F. Melius Christiansen, Norwegian-American violinist and conductor (d. 1955)
*1873 &ndash; Sergei Rachmaninoff, Russian pianist, composer, and conductor (d. 1943)
*1874 &ndash; Ernest Barnes, English mathematician and theologian (d. 1953)
* 1874 &ndash; Prince Karl of Bavaria (d. 1927)
*1875 &ndash; Edgar Wallace, English journalist, author, and playwright (d. 1932)
*1878 &ndash; C. Ganesha Iyer, Ceylon Tamil philologist (d. 1958)
*1879 &ndash; Stanislaus Zbyszko, Polish wrestler and strongman (d. 1967)
*1881 &ndash; Octavian Goga, Romanian Prime Minister (d. 1938)
*1883 &ndash; Lon Chaney, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1930)
* 1883 &ndash; Edvard Drabløs, Norwegian actor and director (d. 1976)
* 1883 &ndash; Laurette Taylor, Irish-American actress (d. 1946)
*1885 &ndash; Wallace Beery, American actor (d. 1949)
* 1885 &ndash; Clementine Churchill, English wife of Winston Churchill (d. 1977)
*1889 &ndash; K. B. Hedgewar, Indian physician and activist (d. 1940)
*1893 &ndash; Cicely Courtneidge, Australian-English actress (d. 1980)
*1895 &ndash; Alberta Hunter, African-American singer-songwriter and nurse (d. 1984)
*1898 &ndash; William James Sidis, Ukrainian-Russian Jewish American mathematician, anthropologist, and historian (d. 1944)
*1899 &ndash; Gustavs Celmiņš, Latvian academic and politician (d. 1968)
*1900 &ndash; Stefanie Clausen, Danish Olympic diver (d. 1981)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.stefanie-fryland-clausen.com/|titleStefanie Fryland Clausen|websitewww.stefanie-fryland-clausen.com|languageen-US|access-date2017-10-24}}</ref>1901–present
*1901 &ndash; Whittaker Chambers, American journalist and spy (d. 1961)
*1902 &ndash; Maria Polydouri, Greek poet (d. 1930)<ref>{{Cite web |titleΠολυδούρη, Μαρία |urlhttps://greek_greek.en-academic.com/232245/%CE%A0%CE%BF%CE%BB%CF%85%CE%B4%CE%BF%CF%8D%CF%81%CE%B7%2C_%CE%9C%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1 |access-date2022-08-07 |websiteAcademic Dictionaries and Encyclopedias |language=Greek}}</ref>
*1905 &ndash; Gaston Eyskens, Belgian economist and politician, 47th Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 1988)
* 1905 &ndash; Paul Hasluck, Australian historian, poet, and politician, 17th Governor-General of Australia (d. 1993)
*1906 &ndash; Alexander Sergeyevich Yakovlev, Russian engineer, founded the Yakovlev Design Bureau (d. 1989)
*1907 &ndash; Shivakumara Swami, Indian religious leader and philanthropist (d. 2019)
*1908 &ndash; Abraham Maslow, American psychologist and academic (d. 1970)
* 1908 &ndash; Harlow Rothert, American shot putter, lawyer, and academic (d. 1997)
*1909 &ndash; Abner Biberman, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1977)
* 1909 &ndash; Eddy Duchin, American pianist and bandleader (d. 1951)
*1910 &ndash; Harry Carney, American saxophonist and clarinet player (d. 1974)
* 1910 &ndash; Bob Van Osdel, American high jumper and soldier (d. 1987)
*1911 &ndash; Augusta Braxton Baker, African American librarian (d. 1998)<ref>{{cite book|authorStanton F. Biddle|titleCulture Keepers: Enlightening and Empowering Our Communities : Proceedings of the First National Conference of African American Librarians, September 4-6, 1992, Columbus, Ohio|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idrG7hAAAAMAAJ|year1993|publisherBlack Caucus of the American Library Association|isbn978-0-9640292-0-0|page124}}</ref>
*1913 &ndash; Memos Makris, Greek sculptor (d. 1993)
*1915 &ndash; O. W. Fischer, Austrian-Swiss actor and director (d. 2004)
*1916 &ndash; Sheila May Edmonds, British mathematician (d. 2002)<ref>{{cite book | titleWho's Who of British Scientists | placeLondon | publisherLongman | year1969 | isbn978-0-5821-1463-0 | page251}}</ref>
*1917 &ndash; Sydney Newman, Canadian screenwriter and producer, co-created Doctor Who (d. 1997)
* 1917 &ndash; Melville Shavelson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2007)
*1919 &ndash; Joseph Murray, American surgeon and soldier, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2012)
*1920 &ndash; Toshiro Mifune, Japanese actor (d. 1997)
*1921 &ndash; William Bergsma, American composer and educator (d. 1994)
* 1921 &ndash; Arthur "Guitar Boogie" Smith, American guitarist, fiddler, and composer (d. 2014)
*1922 &ndash; Duke Jordan, American pianist and composer (d. 2006)
* 1922 &ndash; William Manchester, American historian and author (d. 2004)
*1924 &ndash; Brendan Byrne, American lieutenant, judge, and politician, 47th Governor of New Jersey (d. 2018)
*1926 &ndash; Anne McCaffrey, American-Irish author (d. 2011)
*1927 &ndash; Walter Bahr, American soccer player, coach, and manager (d. 2018)
* 1927 &ndash; Amos Milburn, American R&B singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 1980)
* 1927 &ndash; Ferenc Puskás, Hungarian footballer and manager (d. 2006)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nsport.hu/cikk.php?cikk127775 |titleNemzeti Sport Online - Isten futballistának teremtette |access-date2009-06-24 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070714170916/http://www.nsport.hu/cikk.php?cikk127775 |archive-date14 July 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
*1929 &ndash; Jonathan Haze, American actor, producer, screenwriter, and production manager (d. 2024)
* 1929 &ndash; Milan Kundera, Czech-French novelist, poet, and playwright (d. 2023)<ref>{{cite news |last1Lewis |first1Daniel |titleMilan Kundera, Czech Literary Star and Communist Party Outcast, Dies at 94 |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2023/07/12/world/europe/milan-kundera-dead.html |access-date12 July 2023 |workThe New York Times |date=12 July 2023}}</ref>
* 1929 &ndash; Payut Ngaokrachang, Thai animator and director (d. 2010)
* 1929 &ndash; Jane Powell, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2021)
*1930 &ndash; Grace Lee Whitney, American actress and singer (d. 2015)<ref>{{cite web |titleGrace Lee Whitney |urlhttps://www.heraldscotland.com/opinion/13212557.grace-lee-whitney/ |websiteHeraldScotland |date6 May 2015 |access-date22 October 2022 |languageen}}</ref>
*1931 &ndash; George Baker, Bulgarian-English actor and screenwriter (d. 2011)
* 1931 &ndash; Rolf Hochhuth, German author and playwright (d. 2020)
*1932 &ndash; Debbie Reynolds, American actress, singer, and dancer (d. 2016)<ref>{{cite web |titleDebbie Reynolds obituary |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/film/2016/dec/29/debbie-reynolds-obituary-singin-in-the-rain-actor |websitethe Guardian |access-date28 December 2021 |languageen |date29 December 2016}}</ref>
*1933 &ndash; Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, Algerian-French physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate
* 1933 &ndash; Dan Flavin, American sculptor and educator (d. 1996)
* 1933 &ndash; Bengt Holbek, Danish folklorist (d. 1992)<ref>{{cite journal |last1Hansen |first1William |titleObituary: Bengt Holbek (1933-1992) |journalThe Journal of American Folklore |date1993 |volume106 |issue420 |pages184–189 |jstor541968 |issn0021-8715}}</ref>
*1934 &ndash; Vladimir Posner, French-American journalist and radio host
*1935 &ndash; Larry McDonald, American physician and politician (d. 1983)
*1936 &ndash; Peter Collinson, English-American director and producer (d. 1980)
* 1936 &ndash; Jean-Pascal Delamuraz, Swiss politician, 80th President of the Swiss Confederation (d. 1998)
* 1936 &ndash; Tarun Gogoi, Indian politician, 14th Chief Minister of Assam (d. 2020)
* 1936 &ndash; Abdul Qadeer Khan, Indian-Pakistani physicist, chemist, and engineer (d. 2021)
*1937 &ndash; Jordan Charney, American actor<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idu8KztKHh5OEC&pgPA224|titleTheatre World 2000-2001: Special Tony Honor Edition|firstJohn|lastWillis|publisherHal Leonard Corporation|page224|dateJanuary 1, 2004|isbn1557835233|via=Google Books}}</ref>
*1937 &ndash; Yılmaz Güney, Palme d'Or award-winning Kurdish film director, scenarist, actor, novelist and activist (d. 1984)<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttps://yilmazguneyofficial.com/|titleYılmaz Güney}}</ref>
*1939 &ndash; Ali MacGraw, American model and actress
* 1939 &ndash; Phil Niekro, American baseball player and manager (d. 2020)
*1940 &ndash; Wangari Maathai, Kenyan environmentalist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2011)
*1941 &ndash; Gideon Gadot, Israeli journalist and politician (d. 2012)
* 1941 &ndash; Ajit Wadekar, Indian cricketer, coach, and manager (d. 2018)
*1942 &ndash; Samuel R. Delany, American author and critic
* 1942 &ndash; Richard D. Wolff, American economist and academic
*1943 &ndash; Dafydd Wigley, Welsh academic and politician
* 1943 &ndash; Titina Silá, Bissau-Guinean revolutionary (d. 1973)<ref>{{cite book|editor-first1Peter|editor-last1Karibe Mendy|editor-first2Richard A.|editor-last2Lobban Jr.|year2013|chapterSila, Ernestina (1943–1973)|titleHistorical Dictionary of the Republic of Guinea-Bissau|edition4th|publisherScarecrow Press|pages375–376|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idNbJ8AQAAQBAJ|isbn=978-0-8108-8027-6}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; Nikitas Kaklamanis, Greek academic and politician, Greek Minister of Health and Social Security
* 1946 &ndash; Ronnie Lane, English bass player, songwriter, and producer (d. 1997)
* 1946 &ndash; Arrigo Sacchi, Italian footballer, coach, and manager<ref>{{cite book|authorGiancarlo Colombo|titleWho's who in Italy 2002|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idwXxmAAAAMAAJ|year2002|publisherWho's Who in Italy|isbn978-88-85246-48-5|page1536}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; Alain Connes, French mathematician and academic
* 1948 &ndash; Javier Irureta, Spanish footballer and manager
* 1948 &ndash; Peter Law, Welsh politician and independent Member of Parliament (d. 2006)<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1516661/Peter-Law.html Peter Law], Telegraph<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
*1949 &ndash; Gérard Mestrallet, French businessman
* 1949 &ndash; Paul Manafort, American lobbyist, political consultant, and convicted felon<ref>Reagan, Ronald (May 13, 1981)."[http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid43806 Nomination of Paul J. Manafort, Jr., To Be a Member of the Board of Directors of the Overseas Private Investment Corporation] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110522041546/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid43806 |dateMay 22, 2011 }}." In Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. Hosted online by the University of California, Santa Barbara, CA. www.presidency.ucsb.edu. Retrieved August 1, 2016.</ref>
* 1949 &ndash; Sammy Nelson, Northern Irish footballer and coach
* 1949 &ndash; Gil Scott-Heron, American singer-songwriter and author (d. 2011)
*1950 &ndash; Samuel Alito, American lawyer and jurist, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States
* 1950 &ndash; Loris Kessel, Swiss racing driver (d. 2010)
* 1950 &ndash; Daniel Paillé, Canadian academic and politician
*1951 &ndash; John Abizaid, American general
*1952 &ndash; Annette O'Toole, American actress
* 1952 &ndash; Bernard Stiegler, French philosopher and academic (d. 2020)
*1953 &ndash; Barry Sonnenfeld, American cinematographer, director, and producer
* 1953 &ndash; Alberto Zaccheroni, Italian footballer and manager
*1954 &ndash; Jeff Porcaro, American drummer, songwriter, and producer (d. 1992)
*1955 &ndash; Don Hasselbeck, American football player and sportscaster
* 1955 &ndash; Humayun Akhtar Khan, Pakistani politician, 5th Commerce Minister of Pakistan
*1957 &ndash; David Gower, English cricketer and sportscaster
* 1957 &ndash; Denise Nickerson, American actress (d. 2019)
*1958 &ndash; D. Boon, American singer and musician (d. 1985)
*1959 &ndash; Helmut Duckadam, Romanian footballer (d. 2024)
*1961 &ndash; Susan Boyle, Scottish singer
* 1961 &ndash; Sergio Scariolo, Italian professional basketball head coach
* 1961 &ndash; Mark White, English singer-songwriter and guitarist
* 1962 &ndash; Mark Shulman, American author
*1962 &ndash; Chris Grayling, English journalist and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain
* 1962 &ndash; Samboy Lim, Filipino basketball player and manager (d. 2023)
* 1962 &ndash; Phillip Schofield, English television host
*1963 &ndash; Teodoro de Villa Diaz, Filipino guitarist and songwriter (d. 1988)
* 1963 &ndash; Aprille Ericsson-Jackson, American aerospace engineer
*1964 &ndash; Erik Breukink, Dutch cyclist and manager
* 1964 &ndash; Kevin Duckworth, American basketball player (d. 2008)
* 1964 &ndash; John Morris, English cricketer
* 1964 &ndash; José Rodrigues dos Santos, Portuguese journalist, author, and educator
*1965 &ndash; Jane Adams, American film, television, and stage actress
* 1965 &ndash; Mark Jackson, American basketball player and coach
*1966 &ndash; Chris Evans, English radio and television host
* 1966 &ndash; Mehmet Özdilek, Turkish footballer and manager
*1967 &ndash; Nicola Roxon, Australian lawyer and politician, 34th Attorney-General for Australia
*1968 &ndash; Mike Baird, Australian politician, 44th Premier of New South Wales
* 1968 &ndash; Andreas Schnaas, German actor and director
* 1968 &ndash; Alexander Stubb, Finnish academic and politician, 43rd Prime Minister of Finland and 13th President of Finland
*1969 &ndash; Lev Lobodin, Ukrainian-Russian decathlete
* 1969 &ndash; Andrew Vlahov, Australian basketball player
* 1969 &ndash; Dean Windass, English footballer and manager
*1970 &ndash; Brad Meltzer, American author, screenwriter, and producer
*1971 &ndash; Sonia Bisset, Cuban javelin thrower<ref>{{cite web |titleSonia BISSET {{!}} Profile |urlhttps://www.worldathletics.org/athletes/cuba/sonia-bisset-65210 |websitewww.worldathletics.org |access-date1 April 2020}}</ref>
* 1971 &ndash; Shinji Nakano, Japanese racing driver
*1972 &ndash; Darren McCarty, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster
* 1972 &ndash; Jesse Tobias, American guitarist and songwriter
*1973 &ndash; Christian Finnegan, American comedian and actor
* 1973 &ndash; Stephen Fleming, New Zealand cricketer and coach
* 1973 &ndash; Rachel Maddow, American journalist and author
*1974 &ndash; Hugo Ibarra, Argentinian footballer and manager
*1975 &ndash; John Butler, American-Australian singer-songwriter and producer
* 1975 &ndash; Magdalena Maleeva, Bulgarian tennis player
*1976 &ndash; Hazem El Masri, Lebanese-Australian rugby league player and educator
* 1976 &ndash; David Gilliland, American race car driver
* 1976 &ndash; Gábor Király, Hungarian footballer<ref>{{cite web|titleGábor Király|urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/2665/G%C3%A1bor-Kir%C3%A1ly/overview|websitePremier League|access-date1 April 2024}}</ref>
* 1976 &ndash; David Oyelowo, English actor
* 1976 &ndash; Clarence Seedorf, Dutch-Brazilian footballer and manager
* 1976 &ndash; Yuka Yoshida, Japanese tennis player
*1977 &ndash; Vitor Belfort, Brazilian-American boxer and mixed martial artist
* 1977 &ndash; Haimar Zubeldia, Spanish cyclist
*1978 &ndash; Antonio de Nigris, Mexican footballer (d. 2009)
* 1978 &ndash; Mirka Federer, Slovak-Swiss tennis player
* 1978 &ndash; Anamaria Marinca, Romanian-English actress
* 1978 &ndash; Etan Thomas, American basketball player
*1979 &ndash; Ruth Beitia, Spanish high jumper
*1980 &ndash; Dennis Kruppke, German footballer
* 1980 &ndash; Randy Orton, American wrestler
* 1980 &ndash; Bijou Phillips, American actress and model
*1981 &ndash; Antonis Fotsis, Greek basketball player
* 1981 &ndash; Bjørn Einar Romøren, Norwegian ski jumper
*1982 &ndash; Taran Killam, American actor, voice artist, comedian, and writer
* 1982 &ndash; Andreas Thorkildsen, Norwegian javelin thrower
*1983 &ndash; Ólafur Ingi Skúlason, Icelandic footballer
* 1983 &ndash; Sean Taylor, American football player (d. 2007)
*1984 &ndash; Gilberto Macena, Brazilian footballer
*1985 &ndash; Daniel Murphy, American baseball player
* 1985 &ndash; Beth Tweddle, English gymnast<ref>{{cite web |titleBeth Tweedle |urlhttps://www.teamgb.com/athletes/beth-tweddle |websiteteamgb.com |access-date1 April 2020}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Nikolaos Kourtidis, Greek weightlifter<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ko/nikos-kourtidis-1.html |titleNikos Kourtidis Bio, Stats, and Results &#124; Olympics at Sports-Reference.com |websitewww.sports-reference.com |access-date30 June 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200418071738/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/ko/nikos-kourtidis-1.html |archive-date18 April 2020 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
* 1986 &ndash; Hillary Scott, American country singer-songwriter
*1987 &ndash; Vitorino Antunes, Portuguese footballer<ref>{{cite web|titleAntunes|urlhttps://int.soccerway.com/players/vitorino-gabriel-antunes/17028/|websiteSoccerway|access-date1 April 2024}}</ref>
* 1987 &ndash; Ding Junhui, Chinese professional snooker player
* 1987 &ndash; Gianluca Musacci, Italian footballer
* 1987 &ndash; Oliver Turvey, English racing driver
*1988 &ndash; Brook Lopez, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleBrook Lopez Stats, News, Bio |urlhttps://www.espn.co.uk/nba/player/_/id/3448/brook-lopez |websiteESPN |access-date1 April 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* 1988 &ndash; Robin Lopez, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleRobin Lopez Stats, News, Bio |urlhttps://www.espn.co.uk/nba/player/_/id/3447/robin-lopez |websiteESPN |access-date1 April 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
*1989 &ndash; Jan Blokhuijsen, Dutch speed skater<ref>{{cite web |titleJan Blokhuijsen |urlhttps://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/bl%2Fjan-blokhuijsen-1.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200417192111/https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/bl/jan-blokhuijsen-1.html |url-statusdead |archive-date17 April 2020 |websiteOlympics at Sports-Reference.com |access-date1 April 2020 |languageen}}</ref>
* 1989 &ndash; David Ngog, French footballer
* 1989 &ndash; Christian Vietoris, German racing driver
*1990 &ndash; Julia Fischer, German discus thrower
*1991 &ndash; Duván Zapata, Colombian footballer<ref>{{cite web|titleDuván Zapata|urlhttps://int.soccerway.com/players/daniel-zapata/33276/|websiteSoccerway|access-date1 April 2024}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Deng Linlin, Chinese gymnast
*1995 &ndash; Jofra Archer, Barbadian-English cricketer<ref>{{cite web |titleJofra Archer|urlhttps://www.cricket.com.au/players/jofra-archer/a092r6FB8EeqrDwdxlwLGA |workCricket Australia |access-date18 September 2019}}</ref>
* 1995 &ndash; Logan Paul, American YouTuber, actor and wrestler
*1997 &ndash; Asa Butterfield, English actor<ref>{{cite web |titleFamous birthdays for April 1: Mackenzie Davis, Asa Butterfield |urlhttps://www.upi.com/Entertainment_News/2021/04/01/Famous-birthdays-for-April-1-Mackenzie-Davis-Asa-Butterfield/4531616955986/ |publisherUPI |access-date18 March 2023 |date=1 April 2021}}</ref>
* 1997 &ndash; Álex Palou, Spanish racing driver<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.alexpalou.com/en/about-alex/ |titleAbout Alex |websiteAlexPalou.com |access-date22 March 2023 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304230905/http://www.alexpalou.com/en/about-alex/ |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref>
*1998 &ndash; Mitchell Robinson, American basketball player<ref>{{cite web |titleMitchell Robinson |urlhttps://www.nba.com/player/1629011/mitchell-robinson |websiteNBA.com |access-dateApril 1, 2024}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Gabe Davis, American football player<ref>{{cite web |titleGabriel Davis Stats, Height, Weight, Position, Draft, College |urlhttps://www.pro-football-reference.com/players/D/DaviGa01.htm |websitePro-Football-Reference.com |access-dateApril 1, 2024}}</ref>
*2000 &ndash; Rhian Brewster, English footballer<ref>{{cite web|titleRhian Brewster|urlhttps://www.premierleague.com/players/14742/Rhian-Brewster/overview|websitePremier League|access-date1 April 2024}}</ref>
<!-- Please do not add yourself, non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Deaths
Pre-1600
* 996 &ndash; John XV, pope of the Catholic Church
*1085 &ndash; Shen Zong, Chinese emperor (b. 1048)
*1132 &ndash; Hugh of Châteauneuf, French bishop (b. 1053)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://sthughofgrenoble.org/st-hugh-of-grenoble |titleSt. Hugh of Grenoble |websiteSt. Hugh of Grenoble Catholic Church |access-date15 March 2023}}</ref>
*1204 &ndash; Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of France and England (b. 1122)<ref>{{cite book | lastKoestler-Grack | firstRachel A. | titleEleanor of Aquitaine: Heroine of the Middle Ages | placePhiladelphia | publisherChelsea House | year2005 | isbn9780--7910-8633-9 | page138}}</ref>
*1205 &ndash; Amalric II, king of Cyprus and Jerusalem<ref>{{cite book |lastRunciman |firstSteven |author-linkSteven Runciman |date1954 |titleA History of the Crusades Volume III: The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades |publisherCambridge University Press |page103 |isbn0-521-06163-6}}</ref>
*1282 &ndash; Abaqa Khan, ruler of the Mongol Ilkhanate (b. 1234)
*1431 &ndash; Nuno Álvares Pereira, Portuguese general (b. 1360)
*1441 &ndash; Blanche I, queen of Navarre and Sicily (b. 1387)
*1455 &ndash; Zbigniew Oleśnicki, Polish cardinal and statesman (b. 1389)<ref>{{Cite CE1913 |wstitleZbigniew Olesnicki|volume11|firstMichael |lastOtt}}</ref>
*1528 &ndash; Francisco de Peñalosa, Spanish composer (b. 1470)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.spainisculture.com/en/artistas_creadores/francisco_de_penalosa.html |titleFrancisco de Peñalosa |websiteSpain Is Culture |access-date15 March 2023 |archive-date15 March 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230315202900/http://www.spainisculture.com/en/artistas_creadores/francisco_de_penalosa.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*1548 &ndash; Sigismund I, king of Poland (b. 1467)<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitleSigismund I. |lastBain |firstRobert Nisbet |author-linkRobert Nisbet Bain}}</ref>
*1580 &ndash; Alonso Mudarra, Spanish guitarist and composer (b. 1510)
1601–1900
*1621 &ndash; Cristofano Allori, Italian painter and educator (b. 1577)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.churchtimes.co.uk/articles/2021/17-december/books-arts/visual-arts/the-art-of-cristofano-allori-who-should-have-died-thereafter |titleThe art of Cristofano Allori, who should have died thereafter |lastCranfield |firstNicholas |date17 December 2021 |websiteChurch Times |access-date=15 March 2023}}</ref>
*1682 &ndash; Franz Egon of Fürstenberg, Bavarian bishop (b. 1625)<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Fürstenberg}}</ref>
*1787 &ndash; Floyer Sydenham, English scholar and academic (b. 1710)<ref>{{cite wikisource |titleSydenham, Floyer |wslinkAlumni Oxonienses: the Members of the University of Oxford, 1715-1886/Sydenham, Floyer |lastFoster |firstJoseph}}</ref>
*1839 &ndash; Benjamin Pierce, American soldier and politician, 11th Governor of New Hampshire (b. 1757)<ref>{{cite book |lastBugbee |firstJames M. |date1890 |titleMemorials of the Massachusetts Society of the Cincinnati |urlhttps://archive.org/details/cu31924032755161/page/n565/mode/2up | publisherPrinted for The Society by John Wilson & Son|locationBoston |page394}}</ref>
*1865 &ndash; Antonios Kriezis, Greek Navy officer and Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1796)<ref>{{cite web | urlhttps://www.orthodoxianewsagency.gr/istoria-ethnika-themata/antonios-kriezis-o-protos-antinayarxos-tou-polemikou-naytikou/ | titleΑντώνιος Κριεζής ο πρώτος Αντιναύαρχος του Πολεμικού Ναυτικού | date=April 2021 }}</ref>
* 1865 &ndash; Giuditta Pasta, Italian soprano (b. 1797)<ref>{{cite book | lastEmerson | firstIsabelle Putnam | titleFive Centuries of Women Singers | placeWestport | publisherPraeger | year2005 | isbn978-0-3133-0810-9 | page129}}</ref>
*1872 &ndash; Frederick Denison Maurice, English theologian and academic (b. 1805)<ref>{{cite book |date1884 |titleThe London Quarterly Review |volume62 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idj9E5AQAAMAAJ |publisherH. J. T. Tresidder |pages=347–348}}</ref>
*1878 &ndash; John C.W. Daly, English-Canadian soldier and politician (b. 1796)<ref>{{Cite DCB |lastSwainson |firstDonald |titleDaly, John Corry Wilson |volume10 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/daly_john_corry_wilson_10E.html}}</ref>
*1890 &ndash; David Wilber, American politician (b. 1820)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://bioguide.congress.gov/search/bio/W000452 |titleWILBER, David |websiteBiographical Dictionary of the United States Congress |access-date15 March 2023}}</ref>
* 1890 &ndash; Alexander Mozhaysky, Russian soldier, pilot, and engineer (b. 1825)
1901–present
*1914 &ndash; Rube Waddell, American baseball player (b. 1876)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://baseballhall.org/hall-of-famers/waddell-rube |titleRube Waddell |websiteBaseball Hall of Fame |access-date14 March 2023}}</ref>
* 1914 &ndash; Charles Wells, English founder of Charles Wells Ltd (b. 1842)
*1917 &ndash; Scott Joplin, American pianist and composer (b. 1868)<ref>{{cite book | lastArgyle | firstRay | titleScott Joplin and the Age of Ragtime | urlhttps://archive.org/details/scottjoplinageof0000argy | url-accessregistration | placeJefferson NC | publisherMcFarland | year2009 | isbn978-0-7864-4376-5 | page[https://archive.org/details/scottjoplinageof0000argy/page/166 166]}}</ref>
*1920 &ndash; Walter Simon, German banker and philanthropist (b. 1857)
*1922 &ndash; Charles I, emperor of Austria (b. 1887)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1922/04/02/102992792.pdf |titleCHARLES OF AUSTRIA DIES OF PNEUMONIA IN EXILE ON MADIERA |date1 April 1922 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=14 March 2023}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; Jacob Bolotin, American physician (b. 1888)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://nfb.org/history-bolotin |titleDr. Jacob Bolotin, the Blind Doctor |lastWilson |firstJoanne |websiteNational Federation of the Blind |access-date14 March 2023 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20120515082725/http://nfb.org/history-bolotin |archive-date=15 May 2012}}</ref>
*1924 &ndash; Lloyd Hildebrand, English cyclist (b. 1870)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/14746 |titleLloyd Hildebrand |websiteOlympedia |access-date14 March 2023}}</ref>
* 1924 &ndash; Stan Rowley, Australian sprinter (b. 1876)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.olympedia.org/athletes/64789 |titleStan Rowley |websiteOlympedia |access-date14 March 2023}}</ref>
*1946 &ndash; Noah Beery, Sr., American actor (b. 1882)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1946/04/02/archives/noah-beery-sr-62-film-veteran-dies-villain-on-screen-for-many-years.html |titleNOAH BEERY SR., 62, FILM VETERAN, DIES |date2 April 1946 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=14 March 2023}}</ref>
*1947 &ndash; George II, king of Greece (b. 1890)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.greekroyalfamily.gr/en/genealogical-tree/468-king-george-ii.html |titleKing George II |websitegreekroyalfamily.gr |access-date14 March 2023}}</ref>
*1950 &ndash; Charles R. Drew, American physician and surgeon (b. 1904)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/spotlight/bg/feature/biographical-overview |titleBiographical Overview {{!}} Charles R. Drew |websiteNational Library of Medicine |date12 March 2019 |access-date=14 March 2023}}</ref>
* 1950 &ndash; Recep Peker, Turkish soldier and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Turkey (b. 1889)<ref>{{cite book|authorMetin Tamkoç|titleThe warrior diplomats: guardians of the national security and modernization of Turkey|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?iddkBpAAAAMAAJ|year1976|publisherUniversity of Utah Press|page350|isbn9780874801156}}</ref>
*1962 &ndash; Jussi Kekkonen, Finnish captain and businessman (b. 1910)
*1963 &ndash; Agnes Mowinckel, Norwegian actress (b. 1875)<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|titleAgnes Mowinckel |first1Marit |last1Dalen |first2Lillian |last2Bikset |encyclopediaStore norske leksikon |date23 August 2023 |editor-lastBolstad | editor-firstErik |publisherNorsk nettleksikon |locationOslo |urlhttps://snl.no/Agnes_Mowinckel |languageno|access-date16 March 2024}}</ref>
*1965 &ndash; Helena Rubinstein, Polish-American businesswoman (b. 1870)<ref>{{cite book | last1Sicherman | first1Barbara | last2Hurd Green | first2Carol | titleNotable American Women: The Modern Period | placeCambridge MA | publisherBelknap | year1983 | isbn978-0-6746-2733-8 | page[https://archive.org/details/notableamericanw00sich_0/page/607 607] | url=https://archive.org/details/notableamericanw00sich_0/page/607 }}</ref>
*1966 &ndash; Brian O'Nolan, Irish author (b. 1911)<ref>{{cite book |titleA Dictionary of the Avant-Gardes |date13 May 2013 |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-1-136-80619-3 |page473 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idqlK7uHg2Dh8C&pgPT473 |language=en}}</ref>
*1968 &ndash; Lev Landau, Azerbaijani-Russian physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1908)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1962/landau/biographical/ |titleLev Landau |websiteThe Nobel Prize |access-date13 March 2023}}</ref>
*1971 &ndash; Kathleen Lonsdale, Irish crystallographer and prison reformer (b. 1903)<ref>{{cite book |last1Bailey Ogilvie |first1Marilyn |last2Harvey| first2Joy |titleThe Biographical Dictionary of Women in Science: Pioneering Lives from Ancient Times to the Mid-20th Century |date2000 | locationLondon |publisherRoutledge |isbn978-0-41592-039-1 |page805}}</ref>
*1976 &ndash; Max Ernst, German painter and sculptor (b. 1891)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1976/04/02/archives/max-ernst-catalytic-figure-in-20th-century-art-dies-max-ernst.html |titleMax Ernst, Catalytic Figure in 20th Century Art, Dies |lastRussell |firstJohn |date2 April 1976 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref>
*1981 &ndash; Eua Sunthornsanan, Thai singer-songwriter and bandleader (b. 1910)
*1984 &ndash; Marvin Gaye, American singer-songwriter (b. 1939)<ref name=gaye />
* 1984 &ndash; Elizabeth Goudge, English author (b. 1900)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/27/obituaries/elizabeth-goudge.html |titleELIZABETH GOUDGE |date27 April 1984 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref>
*1986 &ndash; Erik Bruhn, Danish actor, director, and choreographer (b. 1928)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1986/04/02/obituaries/erik-bruhn-dies-in-toronto-top-dancer-of-his-generation.html |titleERIK BRUHN DIES IN TORONTO; TOP DANCER OF HIS GENERATION |lastRockwell |firstJohn |date2 April 1986 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref>
* 1986 &ndash; Edwin Boston, English clergyman, author, and railway preservationist<ref>{{cite web |titleMemories of steam vicar 30 years on |urlhttps://www.pressreader.com/uk/hinckley-times/20160330/282024736397507 |lastParrish |firstRachel |date30 March 2016 |access-date18 February 2023 |publisherThe Hinckley Times |viaPressReader}}</ref>
*1987 &ndash; Henri Cochet, French tennis player (b. 1901)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1987/04/03/obituaries/henri-cochet-is-dead-french-tennis-leader.html |titleHenri Cochet Is Dead; French Tennis Leader |date3 April 1987 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=13 March 2023}}</ref>
*1991 &ndash; Martha Graham, American dancer and choreographer (b. 1894)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/02/obituaries/martha-graham-dies-at-96-a-revolutionary-in-dance.html |titleMartha Graham Dies at 96; A Revolutionary in Dance |lastKisselgoff |firstAnna |date2 April 1991 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=3 March 2023}}</ref>
* 1991 &ndash; Jaime Guzmán, Chilean lawyer and politician (b. 1946)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://chiletoday.cl/29-years-ago-the-assassination-of-jaime-guzman/ |title29 Years Ago: The Assassination of Jaime Guzmán |lastRivera |firstDiego |date1 April 2020 |websiteChile Today |access-date=3 March 2023}}</ref>
*1992 &ndash; Michael Havers, Baron Havers, English lawyer and politician, Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain (b. 1923)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/03/world/lard-havers-69-former-british-attorney-general.html |titleLord Havers, 69, Former British Attorney General |lastSchmidt |firstWilliam E. |date3 April 1992 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=3 March 2023}}</ref>
*1993 &ndash; Alan Kulwicki, American race car driver (b. 1954)<ref>{{cite web |last1Rosser |first1Aaron |titleHe Did It His Way: Alan Kulwicki, 1954-1993 |urlhttps://www.sbnation.com/2011/4/1/2084156/he-did-it-his-way-alan-kulwicki-1954-1993 |websiteSBNation |access-date3 January 2025 |date=April 1, 2011}}</ref>
*1994 &ndash; Robert Doisneau, French photographer (b. 1912)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.icp.org/browse/archive/constituents/robert-doisneau?all/all/all/all/0 |titleRobert Doisneau |websiteInternational Center of Photography |date31 January 2018 |access-date=3 March 2023}}</ref>
*1995 &ndash; H. Adams Carter, American mountaineer, journalist, and educator (b. 1914)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://publications.americanalpineclub.org/articles/12199636900/H-Adams-Carter-1914-1995 |titleH. ADAMS CARTER, 1914-1995 |lastHouston |firstCharles S. |date1996 |websiteThe American Alpine Club |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref>
* 1995 &ndash; Francisco Moncion, Dominican American ballet dancer, choreographer, charter member of the New York City Ballet (b. 1918)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/04/obituaries/francisco-moncion-76-a-charter-member-of-new-york-city-ballet.html |titleFrancisco Moncion, 76, a Charter Member of New York City Ballet |lastKisselgoff |firstAnna |date4 April 1995 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref>
* 1995 &ndash; Lucie Rie, Austrian-English potter (b. 1902)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/obituaries-dame-lucie-rie-1614074.html |titleOBITUARIES Dame Lucie Rie |lastCooper |firstEmmanuel |date2 April 1995 |websiteIndependent |access-date=27 February 2023}}</ref>
*1996 &ndash; Mário Viegas, Portuguese actor and poetry reciter (b. 1948)<ref>{{Cite web |date2025-03-07 |titleMário Viegas morreu há 25 anos |urlhttps://www.esquerda.net/artigo/mario-viegas-morreu-ha-25-anos/73576 |access-date2025-03-07 |websitewww.esquerda.net |languagept}}</ref>
*1997 &ndash; Makar Honcharenko, Ukrainian footballer and manager (b. 1912)
*1998 &ndash; Rozz Williams, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1963)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1998/04/14/arts/rozz-williams-34-songwriter-and-gothic-rock-band-leader.html |titleRozz Williams, 34, Songwriter And Gothic Rock Band Leader |lastStrauss |firstNeil |date14 April 1998 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=21 February 2023}}</ref>
*1999 &ndash; Jesse Stone, American pianist, songwriter, and producer (b. 1901)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1999/04/04/nyregion/jesse-stone-97-developer-of-rock-s-early-hits.html |titleJesse Stone, 97, Developer of Rock's Early Hits |date4 April 1999 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=21 February 2023}}</ref>
*2001 &ndash; Trịnh Công Sơn, Vietnamese guitarist and composer (b. 1939)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/local/2001/04/03/vietnamese-songwriter-trinh-cong-son-dies/4566885c-b359-4a2e-945b-e3f5591bc614/ |titleVietnamese Songwriter Trinh Cong Son Dies |date3 April 2001 |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>
*2002 &ndash; Simo Häyhä, Finnish soldier and sniper (b. 1905)<ref>{{cite book |lastSaarelainen |firstTapio A. M.|date2016 |titleThe White Sniper |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idR948DQAAQBAJ |publisherCasemate Publishers |atPart I |isbn=9781612004297}}</ref>
*2003 &ndash; Leslie Cheung, Hong Kong singer-songwriter and actor (b. 1956)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/2906999.stm |titleActor Leslie Cheung 'found dead' |date1 April 2003 |websiteBBC |access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>
*2004 &ndash; Ioannis Kyrastas, Greek footballer and manager (b. 1952)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.uefa.com/news-media/news/019c-0f84551e3722-6590fe590712-1000--greek-football-mourns-kyrastas/ |titleGreek football mourns Kyrastas |date1 April 2004 |websiteUEFA |access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>
* 2004 &ndash; Carrie Snodgress, American actress (b. 1945)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2004/04/10/business/carrie-snodgress-57-dies-starred-as-mad-housewife.html |titleCarrie Snodgress, 57, Dies; Starred as 'Mad Housewife' |date10 April 2004 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>
*2005 &ndash; Paul Bomani, Tanzanian politician and diplomat, 1st Tanzanian Minister of Finance (b 1925)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://allafrica.com/stories/200505040020.html |titleTanzania: A Tribute to Nationalist Paul Bomani |lastKamana |firstStanley |date2 May 2005 |publisherThe East African |access-date19 February 2023 |viaallAfrica}}</ref>
* 2005 &ndash; Robert Coldwell Wood, American political scientist and academic (b. 1923)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2005/04/05/education/robert-wood-education-expert-dies-at-81.html |titleRobert Wood, Education Expert, Dies at 81 |lastMartin |firstDouglas |date5 April 2005 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=19 February 2023}}</ref>
*2006 &ndash; In Tam, Cambodian general and politician, 26th Prime Minister of Cambodia (b. 1916)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.legacy.com/obituaries/name/tam-in-obituary?pid17305408 |titleTam In Obituary |date5 April 2006 |publisherEast Valley Tribune |access-date19 February 2023 |via=Legacy.com}}</ref>
*2010 &ndash; John Forsythe, American actor (b. 1918)<ref>{{cite news |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/04/02/AR2010040202419.html |titleJohn Forsythe dead; starred in 'Dynasty,' 'Bachelor Father' |lastBernstein |firstAdam |date3 April 2010 |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-date=18 February 2023}}</ref>
* 2010 &ndash; Tzannis Tzannetakis, Greek soldier and politician, 175th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1927)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://greekreporter.com/2010/04/01/former-greek-prime-minister-tzannetakis-dies-at-82%E2%80%8E/ |titleFormer Greek Prime Minister Tzannetakis dies at 82 |lastMakris |firstA |date1 April 2010 |websiteGreek Reporter |access-date=18 February 2023}}</ref>
*2012 &ndash; Lionel Bowen, Australian soldier, lawyer, and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Australia (b. 1922)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/death-of-labor-elder-bowen-who-remained-an-everyday-bloke-20120401-1w6lb.html |titleDeath of Labor elder Bowen, who remained an everyday bloke |lastWroe |firstDavid |date2 April 2012 |websiteThe Sydney Morning Herald |access-date=18 February 2023}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Giorgio Chinaglia, Italian-American soccer player and radio host (b. 1947)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/03/sports/soccer/giorgio-chinaglia-italian-star-and-the-cosmos-leader-dies-at-65.html |titleGiorgio Chinaglia, Italian Star and the Cosmos' Leader, Dies at 65 |lastMartin |firstDouglas |date3 April 2012 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=18 February 2023}}</ref>
* 2012 &ndash; Miguel de la Madrid, Mexican banker, academic, and politician, 52nd President of Mexico (b. 1934)<ref>{{cite web|urlhttps://www.buscabiografias.com/biografia/verDetalle/5826/Miguel%20de%20la%20Madrid%20Hurtado|titleMiguel de la Madrid Hurtado|publisherBusca Biografias|languagees|access-date=May 30, 2019}}</ref>
*2013 &ndash; Moses Blah, Liberian general and politician, 23rd President of Liberia (b. 1947)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-former-liberian-president-moses-blah-dies-2013apr01-story.html |title Former Liberian president Moses Blah dies |lastPaye-Layleh |firstJonathan |date1 April 2013 |websiteThe San Diego Union-Tribune |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref>
* 2013 &ndash; Karen Muir, South African swimmer and physician (b. 1952)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://vancouversun.com/sports/Vanderhoof%2Bdoctor%2Bformer%2BSouth%2BAfrica%2Bswimming%2Bsensation%2BKaren/8185524/story.html |titleVanderhoof doctor, former South Africa swimming sensation Karen Muir dies of cancer |lastEdmonds |firstScott |date2 April 2013 |websiteThe Vancouver Sun |access-date15 February 2023 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130405004359/https://vancouversun.com/sports/Vanderhoof+doctor+former+South+Africa+swimming+sensation+Karen/8185524/story.html |archive-date5 April 2013}}</ref>
*2014 &ndash; King Fleming, American pianist and bandleader (b. 1922)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/music/chi-king-fleming-dead-20140403-story.html |titleJazz pianist King Fleming dead at 91 |lastReich |firstHoward |date3 April 2014 |websiteChicago Tribune |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Jacques Le Goff, French historian and author (b. 1924)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/01/influential-french-historian-jacques-le-goff-dies |titleInfluential medieval historian Jacques Le Goff dies aged 90 |date1 April 2014 |websiteThe Guardian |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref>
* 2014 &ndash; Rolf Rendtorff, German theologian and academic (b. 1925)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://scriptoriumdaily.com/rolf-rendtorff-1925-2014/ |titleRolf Rendtorff (1925-2014) |lastSanders |firstFred |date2 April 2014 |websiteThe Scriptorium Daily |access-date=18 February 2023}}</ref>
*2015 &ndash; Nicolae Rainea, Romanian footballer and referee (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.uefa.com/news-media/news/0253-0d8017a8ba34-2e689152bfc9-1000--romania-mourns-much-celebrated-referee-rainea/ |titleRomania mourns much-celebrated referee Rainea |date1 April 2015 |websiteUEFA |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref>
*2017 &ndash; Lonnie Brooks, American blues singer and guitarist (b. 1933)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://chicago.suntimes.com/news/chicago-bluesman-lonnie-brooks-dies-at-83/amp/ |titleChicago bluesman Lonnie Brooks dies at 83 |lastDudek |firstMitch |date2 April 2017 |websiteChicago Sun-Times | access-date14 February 2023 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170403020037/https://chicago.suntimes.com/news/chicago-bluesman-lonnie-brooks-dies-at-83/amp/ |archive-date3 April 2017}}</ref>
* 2017 &ndash; Yevgeny Yevtushenko, Soviet and Russian poet and writer (b. 1932)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39467270 |titleSoviet-era poet Yevgeny Yevtushenko dies aged 84 |date1 April 2017 |websiteBBC |access-date=15 February 2023}}</ref>
*2018 &ndash; Steven Bochco, American television writer and producer (b. 1943)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/02/obituaries/steven-bochco-dead-tv-producer.html |titleSteven Bochco, Producer of 'Hill Street Blues' and 'NYPD Blue,' Dies at 74 |last1Haag |first1Matthew |last2Mele |first2Christopher |date2 April 2018 |websiteThe New York Times |access-date=14 February 2023}}</ref>
*2019 &ndash; Vonda N. McIntyre, American science fiction author (b. 1948)<ref>{{cite news|urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/05/obituaries/vonda-n-mcintyre-dead.html |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/05/obituaries/vonda-n-mcintyre-dead.html |archive-date2022-01-01 |url-accesslimited|titleVonda N. McIntyre, 70, Champion of Women in Science Fiction, Dies|newspaperThe New York Times|date2019-04-05|access-date2019-04-08}}{{cbignore}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Lou Conter, American naval commander (b. 1921)<ref>{{Cite web |lastEbrahimji |firstAlisha |date2024-04-02 |titleLou Conter, last survivor of USS Arizona in Pearl Harbor attack, dies at 102 |urlhttps://www.cnn.com/2024/04/02/us/lou-conter-last-pearl-harbor-survivor-dies/index.html |access-date2024-04-02 |websiteCNN |languageen}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Vontae Davis, American football player (b. 1988)<ref>{{cite web |titleBills mourn passing of former player Vontae Davis |urlhttps://www.buffalobills.com/news/bills-mourn-passing-of-former-player-vontae-davis |access-dateApril 2, 2024 |websiteBuffaloBills.com}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Joe Flaherty, American actor, writer, and comedian (b. 1941)<ref>{{Cite web |lastWright |firstTracy |date2024-04-02 |titleJoe Flaherty, 'SCTV' and 'Freaks and Geeks' star, dead at 82 |urlhttps://www.foxnews.com/entertainment/joe-flaherty-sctv-freaks-and-geeks-star-dead-82 |access-date2024-04-02 |websiteFox News |languageen-US}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Sami Michael, Iraqi-born Israeli writer and human rights activist (b. 1926)<ref>{{Cite news |lastחיות |firstאיה |date2024-04-01 |titleהסופר סמי מיכאל הלך לעולמו בגיל 97 |urlhttps://www.ynet.co.il/entertainment/article/HkC7NvZFw |access-date2024-04-02 |workYnet |languagehe}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Ed Piskor, American comic book artist (b. 1982)<ref>{{Cite web |titleEd Piskor, Hip Hop Family Tree and X-Men: Grand Design Artist, Reportedly Passes Away at Age 41 |urlhttps://comicbook.com/comics/news/ed-piskor-hip-hop-family-tree-and-x-men-grand-design-artist-reportedly-passes-away-at-age-41/ |access-date2024-04-06 |websiteComics |dateApril 2024 |languageen}}</ref>
*2024 &ndash; Mohammad Reza Zahedi, Iranian senior military officer (b. 1960)<ref>{{Cite news |date2024-04-01 |titleIran accuses Israel of killing generals in Syria strike |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-68708923 |access-date2024-04-02 |language=en-GB}}</ref>
*2025 &ndash; Val Kilmer, American actor (b. 1959)<ref>{{Cite web |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2025/04/01/movies/val-kilmer-dead.html |titleVal Kilmer, Film Star Who Played Batman and Jim Morrison, Dies at 65|last Weber|first Bruce|date April 1, 2025|accessdate April 2, 2025|newspaper The New York Times|url-access limited|language=en}}</ref>
<!-- Please do not add non-notable people, fictional characters, or people without Wikipedia articles to this list. No red links, please. Do not link multiple occurrences of the same year, just link the first occurrence. If there are multiple people in the same birth year, put them in alphabetical order. Do not trust "this year in history" websites for accurate date information. -->
Holidays and observances
*Christian feast day:
**Cellach of Armagh<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id2646 |titleSt. Cellach |websiteCatholic Online |access-date=20 February 2023}}</ref>
**Hugh of Grenoble<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id3809 |titleSt. Hugh of Grenoble |websiteCatholic Online |access-date=20 February 2023}}</ref>
**Frederick Denison Maurice (Church of England)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar |titleThe Calendar |websiteThe Church of England |access-date20 February 2023}}</ref>
**Mary of Egypt<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.catholicnewsagency.com/saint/st-mary-of-egypt-422 |titleSt. Mary of Egypt |websiteCatholic News Agency |access-date20 February 2023}}</ref>
**Melito of Sardis<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id1017 |titleSt. Melito of Sardis |websiteCatholic Online |access-date=20 February 2023}}</ref>
**Tewdrig<ref>{{cite book |lastOwen |firstRobert |author-linkRobert Owen (theologian) |date1880 |titleSanctorale Catholicum, Or Book of Saints |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idJIcXAAAAYAAJ&pgPA169 |publisherKegan Paul |page169}}</ref>
**Theodora<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id2206 |titleSt. Theodora |websiteCatholic Online |access-date=20 February 2023}}</ref>
**Walric, abbot of Leuconay<ref>{{cite book |lastFarmer |firstDavid |date2011 |titleThe Oxford Dictionary of Saints |edition5th |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id_zJJtvK2_KsC |publisherOxford University Press |page441 |isbn9780199596607}}</ref>
**April 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)
*April Fools' Day<ref>{{cite news |titleWhere does April Fools' Day come from? |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/39442476 |websiteCBBC Newsround |access-date16 May 2021}}</ref>
*Odisha Day (Odisha, India)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.indiatoday.in/education-today/gk-current-affairs/story/odisha-day-utkal-diwas-facts-html-1202387-2018-04-01 |titleOn Odisha Day or Utkal Diwas, know the history of the beautiful state |date1 April 2018 |websiteIndia Today |access-date=20 February 2023}}</ref>
*Arbor Day (Tanzania)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.arborday.org/celebrate |titleCelebrate Arbor Day |websiteArbor Day Foundation |access-date20 February 2023}}</ref>
*Civil Service Day (Thailand)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.mhesi.go.th/index.php/news/7190-1.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220402041948/https://www.mhesi.go.th/index.php/news/7190-1.html |url-statusdead |archive-dateApril 2, 2022 |title1 เมษายน วันข้าราชการพลเรือน |date31 March 2022 |websitemhesi.go.th |languageThai |access-date=20 February 2023 }}</ref>
*Cyprus National Day (Cyprus)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.officeholidays.com/holidays/cyprus/cyprus-national-day |titleNational Day in Cyprus in 2023 |websiteOfficeHolidays |access-date20 February 2023 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230220035637/https://www.officeholidays.com/holidays/cyprus/cyprus-national-day |archive-date=20 February 2023}}</ref>
*Edible Book Day<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.library.illinois.edu/geninfo/edible-book-festival/ |titleEdible Book Festival |websiteIllinois Library |access-date20 February 2023}}</ref>
*Fossil Fools Day<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.serc.ac.uk/blog/post/Fossil-Fools-Day |titleFossil Fools Day |websiteSouth Eastern Regional College |access-date20 February 2023}}</ref>
*Kha b-Nisan, the Assyrian New Year (Assyrian people)<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://ajammc.com/2017/04/05/the-joys-of-akitu/ |titleThe Joys of Akitu, the Assyrian New Year |lastShams |firstAlex |date5 April 2023 |websiteAjam Media Collective |access-date20 February 2023}}</ref> References {{Reflist}}External links
{{commons}}
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/1 BBC: On This Day]
* {{NYT On this day|month4|day1}}
* [https://www.onthisday.com/events/april/1 Historical Events on April 1]
{{months}}
Category:Days of April | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April_1 | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.024314 |
1176 | Antisymmetric relation | {{short description|Binary relation such that if A is related to B and is different from it then B is not related to A}}
{{Refimprove|date=January 2010}}
{{distinguish|Asymmetric relation}}
{{stack|{{Binary relations}}}}
In mathematics, a binary relation <math>R</math> on a set <math>X</math> is antisymmetric if there is no pair of distinct elements of <math>X</math> each of which is related by <math>R</math> to the other. More formally, <math>R</math> is antisymmetric precisely if for all <math>a, b \in X,</math>
<math display=block>\text{if } \,aRb\, \text{ with } \,a \neq b\, \text{ then } \,bRa\, \text{ must not hold},</math>
or equivalently,
<math displayblock>\text{if } \,aRb\, \text{ and } \,bRa\, \text{ then } \,a b.</math>
The definition of antisymmetry says nothing about whether <math>aRa</math> actually holds or not for any <math>a</math>. An antisymmetric relation <math>R</math> on a set <math>X</math> may be reflexive (that is, <math>aRa</math> for all <math>a \in X</math>), irreflexive (that is, <math>aRa</math> for no <math>a \in X</math>), or neither reflexive nor irreflexive. A relation is asymmetric if and only if it is both antisymmetric and irreflexive.
Examples
The divisibility relation on the natural numbers is an important example of an antisymmetric relation. In this context, antisymmetry means that the only way each of two numbers can be divisible by the other is if the two are, in fact, the same number; equivalently, if <math>n</math> and <math>m</math> are distinct and <math>n</math> is a factor of <math>m,</math> then <math>m</math> cannot be a factor of <math>n.</math> For example, 12 is divisible by 4, but 4 is not divisible by 12.
The usual order relation <math>\,\leq\,</math> on the real numbers is antisymmetric: if for two real numbers <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> both inequalities <math>x \leq y</math> and <math>y \leq x</math> hold, then <math>x</math> and <math>y</math> must be equal. Similarly, the subset order <math>\,\subseteq\,</math> on the subsets of any given set is antisymmetric: given two sets <math>A</math> and <math>B,</math> if every element in <math>A</math> also is in <math>B</math> and every element in <math>B</math> is also in <math>A,</math> then <math>A</math> and <math>B</math> must contain all the same elements and therefore be equal:
<math displayblock>A \subseteq B \text{ and } B \subseteq A \text{ implies } A B</math>
A real-life example of a relation that is typically antisymmetric is "paid the restaurant bill of" (understood as restricted to a given occasion). Typically, some people pay their own bills, while others pay for their spouses or friends. As long as no two people pay each other's bills, the relation is antisymmetric.
Properties
Partial and total orders are antisymmetric by definition. A relation can be both symmetric and antisymmetric (in this case, it must be coreflexive), and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric (for example, the "preys on" relation on biological species).
Antisymmetry is different from asymmetry: a relation is asymmetric if and only if it is antisymmetric and irreflexive.
See also
* {{annotated link|Reflexive relation}}
* Symmetry in mathematics
References
{{notelist}}
{{reflist}}
* {{MathWorld|urlnameAntisymmetricRelation|titleAntisymmetric Relation}}
* {{cite book|titleTheory and Problems of Discrete Mathematics|urlhttps://archive.org/details/schaumsoutlinedi00lips_585|url-accesslimited|firstSeymour|lastLipschutz|author-linkSeymour Lipschutz|author2Marc Lars Lipson|year1997|publisherMcGraw-Hill|isbn0-07-038045-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/schaumsoutlinedi00lips_585/page/n39 33]}}
* [https://ncatlab.org/nlab/show/antisymmetric+relation nLab antisymmetric relation]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Antisymmetric Relation}}
Category:Properties of binary relations | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisymmetric_relation | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.027436 |
1177 | Aleister Crowley | {{short description|English occultist (1875–1947)}}
{{good article}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=June 2020}}<!-- This article uses British English (neighbour, centre, etc.) with Oxford spellings (-ize instead of -ise). -->
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Aleister Crowley
| image = Aleister Crowley, thinker.jpg
| alt = 1925 photograph of Aleister Crowley
| caption = Crowley in 1925
| birth_name = Edward Alexander Crowley
| birth_date {{birth date|dfyes|1875|10|12}}
| birth_place = Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, England
| death_date {{death date and age|dfyes|1947|12|1|1875|10|12}}
| death_place = Hastings, Sussex, England
| resting_place= Ashes buried in Hampton, New&nbsp;Jersey
| occupation = {{Hlist | Occultist | poet | novelist | mountaineer }}
| signature = Signature of Aleister Crowley.svg
| signature_alt= Aleister Crowley's signature
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Rose Edith Kelly|1903|1909|end=div}}
* {{marriage|Maria Teresa Sanchez|1929}}
}}
| children = 5
| education = {{plainlist|
* Malvern College
* Tonbridge School
* Eastbourne College
* Trinity College, Cambridge
}}
| module =
}}
{{thelema|expand=Key figures}}
Aleister Crowley ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|l|ɪ|s|t|ər|_|ˈ|k|r|oʊ|l|i}} {{respell|AL|ist|ər|_|KROH|lee}}; born Edward Alexander Crowley; 12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947) was an English occultist, ceremonial magician, poet, novelist, mountaineer, and painter.<!-- these are arranged the frequency of use in sources. --> He founded the religion of Thelema, identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the Æon of Horus in the early 20th century. A prolific writer, he published widely over the course of his life.
Born to a wealthy family in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, Crowley rejected his parents' fundamentalist Christian Plymouth Brethren faith to pursue an interest in Western esotericism. He was educated at Trinity College at the University of Cambridge, where he focused his attention upon mountaineering and poetry, resulting in several publications. Some biographers allege that here he was recruited into a British intelligence agency, further suggesting that he remained a spy throughout his life. In 1898, he joined the esoteric Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, where he was trained in ceremonial magic by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers and Allan Bennett. He went mountaineering in Mexico with Oscar Eckenstein, before studying Hindu and Buddhist practices in India. In 1904, he married Rose Edith Kelly, and they honeymooned in Cairo, Egypt, where Crowley wrote down The Book of the Law—a sacred text that serves as the basis for Thelema, which he said had been dictated to him by a supernatural entity named Aiwass. The Book announced the start of the Æon of Horus, and declared that its followers should "Do what thou wilt", and seek to align themselves with their True Will via the practice of ceremonial magic.
After the unsuccessful 1905 Kanchenjunga expedition, and a visit to India and China, Crowley returned to Britain, where he attracted attention as a prolific author of poetry, novels, and occult literature. In 1907, he and George Cecil Jones co-founded an esoteric order—the A∴A∴, through which they propagated Thelema. After spending time in Algeria, in 1912 he was initiated into another esoteric order—the German-based Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), in which he rose to become the leader of its British branch, which he reformulated in accordance with his Thelemite beliefs. Through O.T.O., Thelemite groups were established in Britain, Australia, and North America. Crowley spent the First World War in the United States, where he took up painting, and campaigned for the German war effort against Britain. His biographers later revealed that he had infiltrated the pro-German movement to assist the British intelligence services. In 1920, he established the Abbey of Thelema—a religious commune in Cefalù, Sicily, where he lived with various followers. His libertine lifestyle led to denunciations in the British press, and the Italian government evicted him in 1923. He divided the following two decades between France, Germany, and England, and continued to promote Thelema until his death.
Crowley gained widespread notoriety during his lifetime, being a drug user, a bisexual, and an individualist social critic. Crowley has remained a highly influential figure over western esotericism and the counterculture of the 1960s, and he continues to be considered a prophet in Thelema. He is the subject of various biographies and academic studies.
Early life
Youth
Crowley was born Edward Alexander Crowley at 30 Clarendon Square in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, on 12 October 1875.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp4–5|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p15|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p14}} His father, Edward Crowley (1829–1887), was trained as an engineer, but his share in a lucrative family brewing business, Crowley's Alton Ales, allowed him to retire before his son was born.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp2–3|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp31–23|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp4–8|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp14–15}} His mother, Emily Bertha Bishop (1848–1917), came from a Devonshire-Somerset family and had a strained relationship with her son; she described him as "the Beast", a name that he revelled in.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p3|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp18–21|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp13–16|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp17–21}} The couple had been married at London's Kensington Registry Office in November 1874,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p3|2a1Kaczynski|2y2010|2pp13–14|3a1Churton|3y2011|3p17}} and were evangelical Christians. Crowley's father was born a Quaker, but converted to the Exclusive Brethren, a faction of a Christian fundamentalist group known as the Plymouth Brethren; Emily likewise converted upon marriage. Crowley's father was particularly devout, spending his time as a travelling preacher for the sect and reading a chapter from the Bible to his wife and son after breakfast every day.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp3–4, 6, 9–10|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp17–23|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp11–12, 16}} Following the death of their baby daughter in 1880, in 1881 the Crowleys moved to Redhill, Surrey.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp6–7|2a1Kaczynski|2y2010|2p16|3a1Churton|3y2011|3p24}} At the age of 8, Crowley was sent to H. T. Habershon's evangelical Christian boarding school in Hastings, and then to Ebor preparatory school in Cambridge, run by the Reverend Henry d'Arcy Champney, whom Crowley considered a sadist.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp12–14|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp25–29|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp17–18|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p24}}
In March 1887, when Crowley was eleven years old, his father died of tongue cancer. Crowley described this as a turning point in his life,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p15|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp24–25|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p19|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp24–25}} and he always maintained an admiration of his father, describing him as "my hero and my friend".{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p10|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p21}} Inheriting a third of his father's wealth, he began misbehaving at school and was harshly punished by Champney; Crowley's family removed him from the school when he developed albuminuria.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1pp27–30|2a1Kaczynski|2y2010|2pp19, 21–22}} He then attended Malvern College and Tonbridge School, both of which he despised and left after a few terms.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp32–39|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp32–33|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p27|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp26–27}} He became increasingly sceptical of Christianity, pointing out Biblical inconsistencies to his religious teachers,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp15–16|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp25–26|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p23}} and went against the Christian morality of his upbringing by smoking, masturbating, and having sex with prostitutes from whom he contracted gonorrhea.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp26–27|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p33|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp24, 27|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p26}} Sent to live with a Brethren tutor in Eastbourne, he undertook chemistry courses at Eastbourne College. Crowley developed interests in chess, poetry, and mountain climbing, and in 1894 climbed Beachy Head before visiting the Alps and joining the Scottish Mountaineering Club. The following year he returned to the Bernese Alps, climbing the Eiger, Trift, Jungfrau, Mönch, and Wetterhorn.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp39–43|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp30–32, 34|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp27–30|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp26–27}}Cambridge University: 1895–1898Having adopted the name of Aleister over Edward, in October 1895 Crowley began a three-year course at Trinity College, Cambridge, where he was entered for the Moral Science Tripos studying philosophy. With approval from his personal tutor, he changed to English literature, which was not then part of the curriculum offered.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p49|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp34–35|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p32|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp27–28}} Crowley spent much of his time at university engaged in his pastimes, becoming president of the chess club and practising the game for two hours a day; he briefly considered a professional career as a chess player.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp51–52|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp36–37|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p23}} Crowley also embraced his love of literature and poetry, particularly the works of Richard Francis Burton and Percy Bysshe Shelley.{{sfnm|1a1Kaczynski|1y2010|1p35}} Many of his own poems appeared in student publications such as The Granta, Cambridge Magazine, and Cantab.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp50–51|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp33–35}} He continued his mountaineering, going on holiday to the Alps to climb every year from 1894 to 1898, often with his friend Oscar Eckenstein, and in 1897 he made the first ascent of the Mönch without a guide. These feats led to his recognition in the Alpine mountaineering community.{{sfnm|1a1Symonds|1y1997|1p13|2a1Booth|2y2000|2pp53–56|3a1Sutin|3y2000|3pp50–52|4a1Kaczynski|4y2010|4p35, 42–45, 50–51|5a1Churton|5y2011|5p35}}
{{Quote box|width25em|alignleft|quoteFor many years I had loathed being called Alick, partly because of the unpleasant sound and sight of the word, partly because it was the name by which my mother called me. Edward did not seem to suit me and the diminutives Ted or Ned were even less appropriate. Alexander was too long and Sandy suggested tow hair and freckles. I had read in some book or other that the most favourable name for becoming famous was one consisting of a dactyl followed by a spondee, as at the end of a hexameter: like Jeremy Taylor. Aleister Crowley fulfilled these conditions and Aleister is the Gaelic form of Alexander. To adopt it would satisfy my romantic ideals.|sourceAleister Crowley, on his name change.{{sfn|Crowley|1989|p=139}}}}
Crowley had his first significant mystical experience while on holiday in Stockholm in December 1896.{{sfnm|1a1Symonds|1y1997|1p14|2a1Booth|2y2000|2pp56–57|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p36|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p29}} Several biographers, including Lawrence Sutin, Richard Kaczynski, and Tobias Churton, believed that this was the result of Crowley's first same-sex sexual experience, which enabled him to recognize his bisexuality.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1p38|2a1Kaczynski|2y2010|2p36|3a1Churton|3y2011|3p29}} At Cambridge, Crowley maintained a vigorous sex life with women—largely with female prostitutes, from one of whom he caught syphilis—but eventually he took part in same-sex activities, despite their illegality.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp59–62|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p43|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp27–28}} In October 1897, Crowley met Herbert Charles Pollitt, president of the Cambridge University Footlights Dramatic Club, and the two entered into a relationship. They broke apart because Pollitt did not share Crowley's increasing interest in Western esotericism, a break-up that Crowley regretted for many years.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp64–65|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp41–47|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp37–40, 45|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp33–24}}
In 1897, Crowley travelled to Saint Petersburg in Russia, later saying that he was trying to learn Russian as he was considering a future diplomatic career there.{{sfnm|1a1Spence|1y2008|1pp19–20|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p37|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p35|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp30–31}} In October 1897, a brief illness triggered considerations of mortality and "the futility of all human endeavour", and Crowley abandoned all thoughts of a diplomatic career in favour of pursuing an interest in the occult.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp57–58|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp37–39|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p=36}}
In March 1898, he obtained A. E. Waite's The Book of Black Magic and of Pacts, and then Karl von Eckartshausen's The Cloud Upon the Sanctuary, furthering his occult interests.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp58–59|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p41|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp40–42}} That same year, Leonard Smithers, a publisher who Crowley met through Pollitt, published 100 copies of Crowley's poem Aceldama: A Place to Bury Strangers In, but it was not a particular success.{{Sfnm|1a1Symonds|1y1997|1pp14–15|2a1Booth|2y2000|2pp72–73|3a1Sutin|3y2000|3pp44–45|4a1Kaczynski|4y2010|4pp46–47}} That same year, Crowley published a string of other poems, including White Stains, a Decadent collection of erotic poetry that was printed abroad lest its publication be prohibited by the British authorities.{{sfnm|1a1Symonds|1y1997|1p15|2a1Booth|2y2000|2pp74–75|3a1Sutin|3y2000|3pp44–45|4a1Kaczynski|4y2010|4pp48–50}} In July 1898, he left Cambridge, not having taken any degree at all despite a "first class" showing in his 1897 exams and consistent "second class honours" results before that.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp78–79|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp=35–36}}
{{clear left}}
The Golden Dawn: 1898–1899
garb, 1910]]
In August 1898, Crowley was in Zermatt, Switzerland, where he met the chemist Julian L. Baker, and the two began discussing their common interest in alchemy.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp81–82|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp52–53|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp52–53}} Back in London, Baker introduced Crowley to George Cecil Jones, Baker's brother-in-law and a fellow member of the occult society known as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, which was founded in 1888.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp82–85|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp53–54|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp54–55}} Crowley was initiated into the Outer Order of the Golden Dawn on 18 November 1898 by the group's leader, Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers. The ceremony took place in the Golden Dawn's Isis-Urania Temple held at London's Mark Masons Hall, where Crowley took the magical motto and name "Frater Perdurabo", which he interpreted as "Brother I shall endure to the end".{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp85, 93–94|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp54–55|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp60–61|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p35}}
Crowley moved into his own luxury flat at 67–69 Chancery Lane and soon invited a senior Golden Dawn member, Allan Bennett, to live with him as his personal magical tutor. Bennett taught Crowley more about ceremonial magic and the ritual use of drugs, and together they performed the rituals of the Goetia,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp98–103|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp64–66|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp54–55, 62–64, 67–68|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p49}} until Bennett left for South Asia to study Buddhism.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp103–05|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp70–71|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp70–71|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p55}} In November 1899, Crowley purchased Boleskine House in Foyers on the shore of Loch Ness in Scotland. He developed a love of Scottish culture, describing himself as the "Laird of Boleskine", and took to wearing traditional highland dress, even during visits to London.{{sfnm|1a1Symonds|1y1997|1p29|2a1Booth|2y2000|2pp107–11|3a1Sutin|3y2000|3pp72–73|4a1Kaczynski|4y2010|4pp68–69|5a1Churton|5y2011|5p52}} He continued writing poetry, publishing Jezebel and Other Tragic Poems, Tales of Archais, Songs of the Spirit, Appeal to the American Republic, and Jephthah in 1898–99; most gained mixed reviews from literary critics, although Jephthah was considered a particular critical success.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp114–15|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp44–45|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp61, 66, 70}}
Crowley soon progressed through the lower grades of the Golden Dawn, and was ready to enter the group's inner Second Order.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp115–16|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p71–72|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p64}} He was unpopular in the group; his bisexuality and libertine lifestyle gained him a bad reputation, and he developed feuds with some of the members, including W. B. Yeats.{{sfnm|1a1Symonds|1y1997|1p37|2a1Booth|2y2000|2pp115–16|3a1Sutin|3y2000|3pp67–69|4a1Kaczynski|4y2010|4pp64–67}} When the Golden Dawn's London lodge refused to initiate Crowley into the Second Order, he visited Mathers in Paris, who personally admitted him into the Adeptus Minor Grade.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p116|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp73–75|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp70–73|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp53–54}} A schism had developed between Mathers and the London members of the Golden Dawn, who were unhappy with his autocratic rule.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p118|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp73–75|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp74–75|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p57}} Acting under Mathers' orders, Crowley—with the help of his mistress and fellow initiate Elaine Simpson—attempted to seize the Vault of the Adepts, a temple space at 36 Blythe Road in West Kensington, from the London lodge members. When the case was taken to court, the judge ruled in favour of the London lodge, as they had paid for the space's rent, leaving both Crowley and Mathers isolated from the group.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp118–23|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp76–79|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp75–80|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp58–60}}Mexico, India, Paris, and marriage: 1900–1903In 1900, Crowley travelled to Mexico via the United States, settling in Mexico City and starting a relationship with a local woman. Developing a love of the country, he continued experimenting with ceremonial magic, working with John Dee's Enochian invocations. He later said he had been initiated into Freemasonry while there, and he wrote a play based on Richard Wagner's Tannhäuser as well as a series of poems, published as Oracles (1905). Eckenstein joined him later in 1900, and together they climbed several mountains, including Iztaccihuatl, Popocatepetl, and Colima, the latter of which they had to abandon owing to a volcanic eruption.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp127–37|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp80–86|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp83–90|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp64–70}} Leaving Mexico, Crowley headed to San Francisco before sailing for Hawaii aboard the Nippon Maru. On the ship, he had a brief affair with a married woman named Mary Alice Rogers; saying he fell in love with her, he wrote a series of poems about the romance, published as Alice: An Adultery (1903).{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp137–39|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp86–90|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp90–93|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp=71–75}}
Briefly stopping in Japan and Hong Kong, Crowley reached Ceylon, where he met with Allan Bennett, who was there studying Shaivism. The pair spent some time in Kandy before Bennett decided to become a Buddhist monk in the Theravada tradition, travelling to Burma to do so.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp139–44|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp90–95|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp93–96|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp76–78}} Crowley decided to tour India, devoting himself to the Hindu practice of Rāja yoga, by which means he believed he had achieved the spiritual state of dhyana. He spent much of this time studying at the Meenakshi Temple in Madura. At this time he also wrote poetry which was published as The Sword of Song (1904). He contracted malaria, and had to recuperate from the disease in Calcutta and Rangoon.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp144–47|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp94–98|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp96–98|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp78–83}} In 1902, he was joined in India by Eckenstein and several other mountaineers: Guy Knowles, H. Pfannl, V. Wesseley, and Jules Jacot-Guillarmod. Together, the Eckenstein-Crowley expedition attempted K2, which was never climbed before. On the journey, Crowley was afflicted with influenza, malaria, and snow blindness, and other expedition members were also struck with illness. They reached an altitude of {{convert|20000|ft|m}} before turning back.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp148–56|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp98–104|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp98–108|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p83}}
Having arrived in Paris in November 1902, he socialized with his friend the painter Gerald Kelly, and through him became a fixture of the Parisian arts scene. Whilst there, Crowley wrote a series of poems on the work of an acquaintance, the sculptor Auguste Rodin. These poems were later published as Rodin in Rime (1907).{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp159–63|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp104–08|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp109–15|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp84–86}} One of those frequenting this milieu was W. Somerset Maugham, who after briefly meeting Crowley later used him as a model for the character of Oliver Haddo in his novel The Magician (1908).{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp164–67|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp105–07|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp112–13|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p85}} He returned to Boleskine in April 1903. In August, Crowley wed Gerald Kelly's sister Rose Edith Kelly in a "marriage of convenience" to prevent her from entering an arranged marriage; the marriage appalled the Kelly family and damaged his friendship with Gerald. Heading on a honeymoon to Paris, Cairo, and then Ceylon, Crowley fell in love with Rose and worked to prove his affections. While on his honeymoon, he wrote her a series of love poems, published as Rosa Mundi and other Love Songs (1906), as well as authoring the religious satire Why Jesus Wept (1904).{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp171–77|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp110–16|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp119–24|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp89–90}}
Developing Thelema
Egypt and The Book of the Law: 1904
{{Quote box|width25em|alignright|quoteHad! The manifestation of Nuit.<br>The unveiling of the company of heaven.<br>Every man and every woman is a star.<br>Every number is infinite; there is no difference.<br>Help me, o warrior lord of Thebes, in my unveiling before the Children of men!|sourceThe opening lines of The Book of the Law}}
In February 1904, Crowley and Rose arrived in Cairo. Pretending to be a prince and princess, they rented an apartment in which Crowley set up a temple room and began invoking ancient Egyptian deities, while studying Islamic mysticism and Arabic.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp181–82|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp118–20|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p124|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p94}} According to Crowley's later account, Rose regularly became delirious and informed him "they are waiting for you." On 18 March, she explained that "they" were the god Horus, and on 20 March proclaimed that "the Equinox of the Gods has come". She led him to a nearby museum, where she showed him a seventh-century BCE mortuary stele known as the Stele of Ankh-ef-en-Khonsu; Crowley thought it important that the exhibit's number was 666, the Number of the Beast in Christian belief, and in later years termed the artefact the "Stele of Revealing".{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp182–83|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp120–22|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp124–26|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp96–98}}
According to Crowley's later statements, on 8 April he heard a disembodied voice identifying itself as that of Aiwass, the messenger of Horus, or Hoor-Paar-Kraat. Crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days, and titled it Liber AL vel Legis or The Book of the Law.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp184–88|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp122–25|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp127–29}} The book proclaimed that humanity was entering a new Aeon, and that Crowley would serve as its prophet. It stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this Aeon, "Do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the Law," and that people should learn to live in tune with their Will. This book, and the philosophy that it espoused, became the cornerstone of Crowley's religion, Thelema.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp184–88|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp125–33}} Crowley said that at the time he was unsure what to do with The Book of the Law. Often resenting it, he said that he ignored the instructions which the text commanded him to perform, which included taking the Stele of Revealing from the museum, fortifying his own island, and translating the book into all the world's languages. According to his account, he instead sent typescripts of the work to several occultists he knew, putting the manuscript away and ignoring it.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p188|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p139|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p129}}
Kanchenjunga and China: 1905–1906
Returning to Boleskine, Crowley came to believe that Mathers was using magic against him, and the relationship between the two broke down.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp189, 194–95|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp140–41|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p130|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p108}} On 28 July 1905, Rose gave birth to Crowley's first child, a daughter named Lilith, and Crowley wrote the pornographic ''Snowdrops from a Curate's Garden'' to entertain his recuperating wife.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp195–96|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p142|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p132|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p108}} He also founded a publishing company through which to publish his poetry, naming it the Society for the Propagation of Religious Truth in parody of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Among its first publications were Crowley's Collected Works, edited by Ivor Back, an old friend of Crowley's who was both a practicing surgeon and an enthusiast of literature.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p190|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p142|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp131–33}} His poetry often received strong reviews (either positive or negative), but never sold well. In an attempt to gain more publicity, he issued a reward of £100 for the best essay on his work. The winner of this was J. F. C. Fuller, a British Army officer and military historian, whose essay, The Star in the West (1907), heralded Crowley's poetry as some of the greatest ever written.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp241–42|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp177–79|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp136–37, 139, 168–69}}
, as seen from Darjeeling]]
Crowley decided to climb Kanchenjunga in the Himalayas of Nepal, widely recognised as the world's most treacherous mountain. The collaboration between Jacot-Guillarmod, Charles Adolphe Reymond, Alexis Pache, and Alcesti C. Rigo de Righi, the expedition was marred by much argument between Crowley and the others, who thought that he was reckless. They eventually mutinied against Crowley's control, with the other climbers heading back down the mountain as nightfall approached despite Crowley's warnings that it was too dangerous. Subsequently, Pache and several porters were killed in an accident, something for which Crowley was widely blamed by the mountaineering community.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp201–15|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp149–58|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp138–49|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp111–12}}
Spending time in Moharbhanj, where he took part in big-game hunting and wrote the homoerotic work The Scented Garden, Crowley met up with Rose and Lilith in Calcutta before being forced to leave India after non-lethally shooting two men who tried to mug him.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp217–19|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp158–62|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp151–52}} Briefly visiting Bennett in Burma, Crowley and his family decided to tour Southern China, hiring porters and a nanny for the purpose.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p221|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp162–63|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p114}} Crowley smoked opium throughout the journey, which took the family from Tengyueh through to Yungchang, Tali, Yunnanfu, and then Hanoi. On the way, he spent much time on spiritual and magical work, reciting the "Bornless Ritual", an invocation to his Holy Guardian Angel, on a daily basis.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp221–32|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp164–69|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp153–54|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp115–18}}
While Rose and Lilith returned to Europe, Crowley headed to Shanghai to meet old friend Elaine Simpson, who was fascinated by The Book of the Law; together they performed rituals in an attempt to contact Aiwass. Crowley then sailed to Japan and Canada, before continuing to New York City, where he unsuccessfully solicited support for a second expedition up Kanchenjunga.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp232–35|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp169–71|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp155–56|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp118–21}} Upon arrival in Britain, Crowley learned that his daughter Lilith had died of typhoid in Rangoon, something he later blamed on Rose's increasing alcoholism. Under emotional distress, his health began to suffer, and he underwent a series of surgical operations.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp235–36, 239|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp171–72|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp159–60|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p121}} He began short-lived romances with actress Vera "Lola" Neville (née Snepp){{sfn|Kaczynski|2010|p160}} and author Ada Leverson,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p246|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p179|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp159–60, 173–74}} while Rose gave birth to Crowley's second daughter, Lola Zaza, in February 1907.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp236–37|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp172–73|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp159–60|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p125}}
The A∴A∴ and The Holy Books of Thelema: 1907–1909
With his old mentor George Cecil Jones, Crowley continued performing the Abramelin rituals at the Ashdown Park Hotel in Coulsdon, Surrey. Crowley believed that in doing so he attained samadhi, or union with Godhead, thereby marking a turning point in his life.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp239–40|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp173–74|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp157–60}} Making heavy use of hashish during these rituals, he wrote an essay on "The Psychology of Hashish" (1909) in which he championed the drug as an aid to mysticism.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp240–41|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp173, 175–76|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p179|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p128}} He also said he had been contacted once again by Aiwass in late October and November 1907, adding that Aiwass dictated two further texts to him, "Liber VII" and "Liber Cordis Cincti Serpente", both of which were later classified in the corpus of The Holy Books of Thelema.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp251–52|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p181|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p172}} Crowley wrote down more Thelemic Holy Books during the last two months of the year, including "Liber LXVI", "Liber Arcanorum", "Liber Porta Lucis, Sub Figura X", "Liber Tau", "Liber Trigrammaton" and "Liber DCCCXIII vel Ararita", which he again said he had received from a preternatural source.{{sfn|Kaczynski|2010|pp173–75}} Crowley stated that in June 1909, when the manuscript of The Book of the Law was rediscovered at Boleskine, he developed the opinion that Thelema represented objective truth.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1pp195–96|2a1Kaczynski|2y2010|2pp189–90|3a1Churton|3y2011|3pp147–48}}
Crowley's inheritance was running out.{{sfn|Booth|2000|p243}} Trying to earn money, he was hired by George Montagu Bennett, the Earl of Tankerville, to help protect him from witchcraft; recognising Bennett's paranoia as being based in his cocaine addiction, Crowley took him on holiday to France and Morocco to recuperate.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp249–51|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p180|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp129–36}} In 1907, he also began taking in paying students, whom he instructed in occult and magical practice.{{Sfn|Booth|2000|p252}} Victor Neuburg, whom Crowley met in February 1907, became his sexual partner and closest disciple; in 1908 the pair toured northern Spain before heading to Tangier, Morocco.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp255–62|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp184–87|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp179–80|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp129–30, 142–43}} The following year Neuburg stayed at Boleskine, where he and Crowley engaged in sadomasochism.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp267–68|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp196–98|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp146–47}} Crowley continued to write prolifically, producing such works of poetry as Ambergris, Clouds Without Water, and Konx Om Pax,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp244–45|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp179, 181|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp176, 191–92|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p131}} as well as his first attempt at an autobiography, ''The World's Tragedy.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp246–47|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp182–83|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p231|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p141}} Recognizing the popularity of short horror stories, Crowley wrote his own, some of which were published,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp254–55|2a1Churton|2y2011|2p172}} and he also published several articles in Vanity Fair, a magazine edited by his friend Frank Harris.{{sfn|Kaczynski|2010|p178}} He also wrote Liber 777, a book of magical and Qabalistic correspondences that borrowed from Mathers and Bennett.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp247–48|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p175|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p183|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p=128}}
{{Quote box|width25em|alignright|quoteInto my loneliness comes—<br>The sound of a flute in dim groves that haunt the uttermost hills.<br>Even from the brave river they reach to the edge of the wilderness.<br>And I behold Pan.|sourceThe opening lines of Liber VII (1907), the first of the Holy Books of Thelema to be revealed to Crowley after The Book of the Law''.{{sfn|Crowley|1983|p=32}}}}
In November 1907, Crowley and Jones decided to found an occult order to act as a successor to the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, being aided in doing so by Fuller. The result was the A∴A∴. The group's headquarters and temple were situated at 124 Victoria Street in central London, and their rites borrowed much from those of the Golden Dawn, but with an added Thelemic basis.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp263–64|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp172–73|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p146}} Its earliest members included solicitor Richard Noel Warren, artist Austin Osman Spare, Horace Sheridan-Bickers, author George Raffalovich, Francis Henry Everard Joseph Feilding, engineer Herbert Edward Inman, Kenneth Ward, and Charles Stansfeld Jones.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1p207|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp185–89}} In March 1909, Crowley began production of a biannual periodical titled The Equinox. He billed this periodical, which was to become the "Official Organ" of the A∴A∴, as "The Review of Scientific Illuminism".{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp265–67|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp192–93|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp183–84|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p=144}}
Crowley became increasingly frustrated with Rose's alcoholism, and in November 1909 he divorced her on the grounds of his own adultery. Lola was entrusted to Rose's care; the couple remained friends and Rose continued to live at Boleskine. Her alcoholism worsened, and as a result she was institutionalized in September 1911.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp270–72|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp198–99|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp182–83, 194|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p148}}
Algeria and the Rites of Eleusis: 1909–1911
In November 1909, Crowley and Neuburg travelled to Algeria, touring the desert from El Arba to Aumale, Bou Saâda, and then Dā'leh Addin, with Crowley reciting the Quran to fortify himself against growing feelings of awe and dread.{{sfn|Owen|2004|pp186–202}} During the trip he invoked the thirty aethyrs of Enochian magic, with Neuburg recording the results, later published in The Equinox as The Vision and the Voice. Following a mountaintop sex magic ritual, Crowley also performed an evocation to the demon Choronzon involving blood sacrifice, and considered the results to be a watershed in his magical career.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp274–82|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp199–204|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp193–203|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp149–52}} Returning to London in January 1910, Crowley found that Mathers was suing him for publishing Golden Dawn secrets in The Equinox; the court found in favour of Crowley. The case was widely reported in the press, with Crowley gaining wider fame.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp282–83|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp205–06|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp205–08|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p160}} Crowley enjoyed this, and played up to the sensationalist stereotype of being a Satanist and advocate of human sacrifice, despite being neither.{{sfn|Booth|2000|pp283–84}}
The publicity attracted new members to the A∴A∴, among them Frank Bennett, James Bayley, Herbert Close, and James Windram.{{Sfn|Kaczynski|2010|pp210–11}} The Australian violinist Leila Waddell soon became Crowley's lover.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p285|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp206–07|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp211–13|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p160}} Deciding to expand his teachings to a wider audience, Crowley developed the Rites of Artemis, a public performance of magic and symbolism featuring A∴A∴ members personifying various deities. It was first performed at the A∴A∴ headquarters, with attendees given a fruit punch containing peyote to enhance their experience. Various members of the press attended, and reported largely positively on it. In October and November 1910, Crowley decided to stage something similar, the Rites of Eleusis, at Caxton Hall, Westminster; this time press reviews were mixed.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp286–89|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp209–12|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp217–28|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp161–62}} Crowley came under particular criticism from West de Wend Fenton, editor of The Looking Glass newspaper, who called him "one of the most blasphemous and cold-blooded villains of modern times".{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p289|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p212|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p225|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p163}} Fenton's articles suggested that Crowley and Jones were involved in homosexual activity; Crowley did not mind, but Jones unsuccessfully sued for libel.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp291–92|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp213–15|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp229–34|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p164}} Fuller broke off his friendship and involvement with Crowley over the scandal,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp293–94|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p215|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp234|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p164}} and Crowley and Neuburg returned to Algeria for further magical workings.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp289–90|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp213–14|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp229–30|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp=163–64}}
The Equinox continued publishing, and various books of literature and poetry were also published under its imprint, like Crowley's Ambergris, The Winged Beetle, and The Scented Garden, as well as Neuburg's The Triumph of Pan and Ethel Archer's The Whirlpool.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1pp207–08|2a1Kaczynski|2y2010|2pp213–15|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p158}} In 1911, Crowley and Waddell holidayed in Montigny-sur-Loing, where he wrote prolifically, producing poems, short stories, plays, and 19 works on magic and mysticism, including the two final Holy Books of Thelema.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p297|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp235–37}} In Paris, he met Mary Desti, who became his next "Scarlet Woman", with the two undertaking magical workings in St. Moritz; Crowley believed that one of the Secret Chiefs, Ab-ul-Diz, was speaking through her.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp297–301|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp217–22|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp239–248|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp165–66}} Based on Desti's statements when in trance, Crowley wrote the two-volume Book 4 (1912–13) and at the time developed the spelling "magick" in reference to the paranormal phenomenon as a means of distinguishing it from the stage magic of illusionists.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p301|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp222–24|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp247–50|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p166}}Ordo Templi Orientis and the Paris Working: 1912–1914In early 1912, Crowley published The Book of Lies, a work of mysticism that biographer Lawrence Sutin described as "his greatest success in merging his talents as poet, scholar, and magus".{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p302|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp224–25|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p251}} The German occultist Theodor Reuss later accused him of publishing some of the secrets of his own occult order, Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.), within The Book. Crowley convinced Reuss that the similarities were coincidental, and the two became friends. Reuss appointed Crowley as head of O.T.O's British branch, the Mysteria Mystica Maxima (MMM), and at a ceremony in Berlin Crowley adopted the magical name of Baphomet and was proclaimed "X° Supreme Rex and Sovereign Grand Master General of Ireland, Iona, and all the Britons".{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp302–05|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp225–26|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp251–25}} With Reuss' permission, Crowley set about advertising the MMM and re-writing many O.T.O. rituals, which were then based largely on Freemasonry; his incorporation of Thelemite elements proved controversial in the group. Fascinated by O.T.O's emphasis on sex magic, Crowley devised a magical working based on anal sex and incorporated it into the syllabus for those O.T.O. members who were initiated into the eleventh degree.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p306|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p228|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p256}}
In March 1913, Crowley acted as producer for The Ragged Ragtime Girls, a group of female violinists led by Waddell, as they performed at London's Old Tivoli theatre. They subsequently performed in Moscow for six weeks, where Crowley had a sadomasochistic relationship with the Hungarian Anny Ringler.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp308–09|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp232–34|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp261–65}} In Moscow, Crowley continued to write plays and poetry, including "Hymn to Pan", and the Gnostic Mass, a Thelemic ritual that became a key part of O.T.O. liturgy.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp309–10|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp234–35|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p264}} Churton suggested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city.{{sfn|Churton|2011|pp178–82}} In January 1914, Crowley and Neuburg settled into an apartment in Paris, where the former was involved in the controversy surrounding Jacob Epstein's new monument to Oscar Wilde.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p307|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p218|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp266–67}} Together Crowley and Neuburg performed the six-week "Paris Working", a period of intense ritual involving strong drug use in which they invoked the gods Mercury and Jupiter. As part of the ritual, the couple performed acts of sex magic together, at times being joined by journalist Walter Duranty. Inspired by the results of the Working, Crowley wrote Liber Agapé, a treatise on sex magic.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp313–16|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp235–40|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp269–74}} Following the Paris Working, Neuburg began to distance himself from Crowley, resulting in an argument in which Crowley cursed him.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp317–19|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp240–41|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp275–76}}
United States: 1914–1919
By 1914, Crowley was living a hand-to-mouth existence, relying largely on donations from A∴A∴ members and dues payments made to O.T.O.{{sfn|Booth|2000|p321}} In May, he transferred ownership of Boleskine House to the MMM for financial reasons,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp321–22|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p240|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p277|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p186}} and in July he went mountaineering in the Swiss Alps. During this time the First World War broke out.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p322|2a1Kaczynski|2y2010|2p=277}}
After recuperating from a bout of phlebitis, Crowley set sail for the United States aboard the RMS Lusitania in October 1914.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p323|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p241|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p278|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp187–89}} Arriving in New York City, he moved into a hotel and began earning money writing for the American edition of Vanity Fair and undertaking freelance work for the famed astrologer Evangeline Adams.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp323–34|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp281–82, 294}} In the city, he continued experimenting with sex magic, through the use of masturbation, female prostitutes, and male clients of a Turkish bathhouse; all of these encounters were documented in his diaries.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p325|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp243–44}}
''. The witch is hanged, as she deserves, and the satyr looks out from behind a tree."{{sfn|Kaczynski|2010|p=341}}]]
Professing to be of Irish ancestry and a supporter of Irish independence from Great Britain, Crowley began to espouse support for Germany in their war against Britain. He became involved in New York's pro-German movement, and in January 1915 pro-German propagandist George Sylvester Viereck employed him as a writer for his propagandist paper, The Fatherland, which was dedicated to keeping the US neutral in the conflict.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp326–30|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp245–47|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp283–84}} In later years, detractors denounced Crowley as a traitor to Britain for this action.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1p247|3a1Churton|3y2011|3p=186}}
Crowley entered into a relationship with Jeanne Robert Foster, with whom he toured the West Coast. In Vancouver, headquarters of the North American O.T.O., he met with Charles Stansfeld Jones and Wilfred Talbot Smith to discuss the propagation of Thelema on the continent. In Detroit he experimented with Peyote at Parke-Davis, then visited Seattle, San Francisco, Santa Cruz, Los Angeles, San Diego, Tijuana, and the Grand Canyon, before returning to New York.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp330–33|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp251–55|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp288–91, 295–97|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp198–203}} There he befriended Ananda Coomaraswamy and his wife Alice Richardson; Crowley and Richardson performed sex magic in April 1916, following which she became pregnant and then miscarried.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p333|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp255–57|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp298–301}} Later that year he took a "magical retirement" to a cabin by Lake Pasquaney owned by Evangeline Adams. There, he made heavy use of drugs and undertook a ritual after which he proclaimed himself "Master Therion". He also wrote several short stories based on James George Frazer's The Golden Bough and a work of literary criticism, The Gospel According to Bernard Shaw.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp333–35|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp257–61|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp304–09}}
In December, he moved to New Orleans, his favourite US city, before spending February 1917 with evangelical Christian relatives in Titusville, Florida.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp336–38|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp261–62|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp309–13}} Returning to New York City, he moved in with artist and A∴A∴ member Leon Engers Kennedy in May, learning of his mother's death.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p338|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p263|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp313–16}} After the collapse of The Fatherland, Crowley continued his association with Viereck, who appointed him contributing editor of arts journal The International. Crowley used it to promote Thelema, but it soon ceased publication.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp339–40|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp264–66|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p320}} He then moved to the studio apartment of Roddie Minor, who became his partner and Scarlet Woman. Through their rituals, which Crowley called "The Amalantrah Workings", he believed that they were contacted by a preternatural entity named Lam. The relationship soon ended.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp342–44|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp264–67|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp320–30}}
In 1918, Crowley went on a magical retreat in the wilderness of Esopus Island on the Hudson River. Here, he began an adaptation{{efn|Crowley did not read Chinese ({{harvnb|Redmond|2021|p199, fn. 2}}); his "translations" of Chinese texts are more properly considered "radical adaptation[s]" of existing translations ({{harvnb|Robinson|2017|p128}}).}} of the Tao Te Ching, painted Thelemic slogans on the riverside cliffs, and—he later wrote—experienced past life memories of being Ge Xuan, Pope Alexander VI, Alessandro Cagliostro, and Éliphas Lévi.{{sfnm | 1a1 Booth | 1y 2000 | 1pp 344–45 | 2a1 Sutin | 2y 2000 | 2pp 267–72 | 3a1 Kaczynski | 3y 2010 | 3pp 330–31 }} Back in New York City, he moved to Greenwich Village, where he took Leah Hirsig as his lover and next Scarlet Woman.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp346–50|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp274–76|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp338–43}} He took up painting as a hobby, exhibiting his work at the Greenwich Village Liberal Club and attracting the attention of The Evening World.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp344–45|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp274–76|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp340–41}} With the financial assistance of sympathetic Freemasons, Crowley revived The Equinox with the first issue of volume III, known as The Blue Equinox.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p351|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p273|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp342–44}} He spent mid-1919 on a climbing holiday in Montauk before returning to London in December.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp351–52|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p277|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p347}}Abbey of Thelema: 1920–1923Now destitute and back in London, Crowley came under attack from the tabloid John Bull, which labelled him traitorous "scum" for his work with the German war effort; several friends aware of his intelligence work urged him to sue, but he decided not to.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp355–56|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p278|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p356|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p246}} When he was suffering from asthma, a doctor prescribed him heroin, to which he soon became addicted.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p357|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p277|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p355}} In January 1920, he moved to Paris, renting a house in Fontainebleau with Leah Hirsig; they were soon joined in a ménage à trois by Ninette Shumway, and also (in living arrangement) by Leah's newborn daughter Anne "Poupée" Leah.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp356–60|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp278–79|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp356–58|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p246}} Crowley had ideas of forming a community of Thelemites, which he called the Abbey of Thelema after the Abbaye de Thélème in François Rabelais' satire Gargantua and Pantagruel. After consulting the I Ching, he chose Cefalù in Sicily as a location, and after arriving there, began renting the old Villa Santa Barbara as his Abbey on 2 April.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp360–63|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp279–80|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp358–59|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp246–48}}
in Cefalù, Sicily in 2017]]
Moving to the commune with Hirsig, Shumway, and their children Hansi, Howard, and Poupée, Crowley described the scenario as "perfectly happy ... my idea of heaven."{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p365}} They wore robes, and performed rituals to the sun god Ra at set times during the day, also occasionally performing the Gnostic Mass; the rest of the day they were left to follow their own interests.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p368|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p286|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p361}} Undertaking widespread correspondences, Crowley continued to paint, wrote a commentary on The Book of the Law, and revised the third part of Book 4.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp365–66|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp280–81|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp365, 372}} He offered a libertine education for the children, allowing them to play all day and witness acts of sex magic.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p367|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p359}} He occasionally travelled to Palermo to visit rent boys and buy supplies, including drugs; his heroin addiction came to dominate his life, and cocaine began to erode his nasal cavity.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp366, 369–70|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp281–82|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp361–62|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp251–52}} There was no cleaning rota, and wild dogs and cats wandered throughout the building, which soon became unsanitary.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p368|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp286–87}} Poupée died in October 1920, and Ninette gave birth to a daughter, Astarte Lulu Panthea, soon afterwards.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp372–73|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p285|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp365–66|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p=252}}
New followers continued to arrive at the Abbey to be taught by Crowley. Among them was film star Jane Wolfe, who arrived in July 1920, where she was initiated into the A∴A∴ and became Crowley's secretary.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp371–72|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp286–87|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp362–65, 371–72}} Another was Cecil Frederick Russell, who often argued with Crowley, disliking the same-sex sexual magic that he was required to perform, and left after a year.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp373–74|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp287–88|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp366–68}} More conducive was the Australian Thelemite Frank Bennett, who also spent several months at the Abbey.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp376–78|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp293–94|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp373–76|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp255–56}} In February 1922, Crowley returned to Paris for a retreat in an unsuccessful attempt to kick his heroin addiction.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p379|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp290–91|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp377–78|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp258–59}} He then went to London in search of money, where he published articles in The English Review criticising the Dangerous Drugs Act 1920 and wrote a novel, The Diary of a Drug Fiend, completed in July. On publication, it received mixed reviews; he was lambasted by the Sunday Express, which called for its burning and used its influence to prevent further reprints.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp380–85|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp298–301|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp379–80, 384–87|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p259}}
Subsequently, a young Thelemite named Raoul Loveday moved to the Abbey with his wife Betty May; while Loveday was devoted to Crowley, May detested him and life at the commune. She later said that Loveday was made to drink the blood of a sacrificed cat, and that they were required to cut themselves with razors every time they used the pronoun "I". Loveday drank from a local polluted stream, soon developing a liver infection resulting in his death in February 1923. Returning to London, May told her story to the press.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp385–94|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp301–06|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp381–84, 397–92|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp259–61}} John Bull proclaimed Crowley "the wickedest man in the world" and "a man we'd like to hang", and although Crowley deemed many of their accusations against him to be slanderous, he was unable to afford the legal fees to sue them. As a result, John Bull continued its attack, with its stories being repeated in newspapers throughout Europe and in North America.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp394–95|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp307–08|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp392–94|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp261–62}} The Fascist government of Benito Mussolini learned of Crowley's activities, and in April 1923 he was given a deportation notice forcing him to leave Italy; without him, the Abbey closed.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp395–96|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p308|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp396–97|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp263–64}}
Later life
Tunisia, Paris, and London: 1923–1929
Crowley and Hirsig went to Tunis, where, dogged by continuing poor health, he unsuccessfully tried again to give up heroin,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp399–401|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p310|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p397|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p270}} and began writing what he termed his "autohagiography", The Confessions of Aleister Crowley.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p403|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp310–11|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p398}} They were joined in Tunis by the Thelemite Norman Mudd, who became Crowley's public relations consultant.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp403–06|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp313–16|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp399–403|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp270–73}} Employing a local boy, Mohammad ben Brahim, as his servant, Crowley went with him on a retreat to Nefta, where they performed sex magic together.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp405–06|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp315–16|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp403–05|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp273–74}} In January 1924, Crowley travelled to Nice, France, where he met with Frank Harris, underwent a series of nasal operations,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp407–09|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp316–18|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p405|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p274}} and visited the Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man and had a positive opinion of its founder, George Gurdjieff.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1p317|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp406–07|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp281–82}} Destitute, he took on a wealthy student, Alexander Zu Zolar,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp410–12|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p319|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p287}} before taking on another American follower, Dorothy Olsen. Crowley took Olsen back to Tunisia for a magical retreat in Nefta, where he also wrote To Man (1924), a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing Thelema to humanity.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp412–17|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp319–20|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp413–15|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp287–88}} After spending the winter in Paris, in early 1925 Crowley and Olsen returned to Tunis, where he wrote The Heart of the Master (1938) as an account of a vision he experienced in a trance.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p418|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp323|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p417|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p323}} In March Olsen became pregnant, and Hirsig was called to take care of her; she miscarried, following which Crowley took Olsen back to France. Hirsig later distanced herself from Crowley, who then denounced her.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp419–20|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p322|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp417–18|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p=289}}
According to Crowley, Reuss named him head of O.T.O. upon his death, but this was challenged by a leader of the German O.T.O., {{Interlanguage link|Heinrich Tränker|de}}. Tränker called the Hohenleuben Conference in Thuringia, Germany, which Crowley attended. There, prominent members like Karl Germer and Martha Küntzel championed Crowley's leadership, but other key figures like Albin Grau, Oskar Hopfer, and Henri Birven backed Tränker by opposing it, resulting in a split in O.T.O.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp423–44|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp324–28|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp418–19|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp291–92, 332}} Moving to Paris, where he broke with Olsen in 1926, Crowley went through a large number of lovers over the following years, with whom he experimented in sex magic.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp425–26|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp332–34|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp426–27, 430–33}} Throughout, he was dogged by poor health, largely caused by his heroin and cocaine addictions.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp429–30}} In 1928, Crowley was introduced to Israel Regardie, a young Englishman, who embraced Thelema and became Crowley's secretary for the next three years.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p426|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp336–37|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp432–33|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p309}} That year, Crowley also met Gerald Yorke, who began organising Crowley's finances but never became a Thelemite.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp427–28|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p335|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp427–29|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p299}} He also befriended the journalist Tom Driberg; Driberg did not accept Thelema either.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp428–29|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp331–32|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p423|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp296–98|5a1Pasi|5y2014|5pp72–76}} It was here that Crowley also published one of his most significant works, Magick in Theory and Practice, which received little attention at the time.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p431|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p339|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp426, 428–29|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp=308–09}}
In December 1928 Crowley met the Nicaraguan Maria Teresa Sanchez (Maria Teresa Ferrari de Miramar).{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp430–31|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp340–41|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp433–34|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p310}} Crowley was deported from France by the authorities, who disliked his reputation and feared that he was a German agent.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp432–33|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p341|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p438|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp306, 312–14}} So that she could join him in Britain, Crowley married Sanchez in August 1929.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp434–35|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp342, 345|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p440|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p318}} Now based in London, Mandrake Press agreed to publish his autobiography in a limited edition six-volume set, also publishing his novel Moonchild and book of short stories The Stratagem. Mandrake went into liquidation in November 1930, before the entirety of Crowley's Confessions could be published.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp436–37|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p344|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp440–43|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p317}} Mandrake's owner P. R. Stephensen meanwhile wrote The Legend of Aleister Crowley, an analysis of the media coverage surrounding him.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp438–39|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p345|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp442, 447|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p321}}
Berlin and London: 1930–1938
In April 1930, Crowley moved to Berlin, where he took Hanni Jaegar as his magical partner; the relationship was troubled.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p439|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp351–54|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p448|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp333, 335}} In September he went to Lisbon in Portugal to meet the poet Fernando Pessoa. There, he decided to fake his own death, doing so with Pessoa's help at the Boca do Inferno rock formation.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p440|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp354–55|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp449–52|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp336–37|5a1Pasi|5y2014|5pp95–116}} He then returned to Berlin, where he reappeared three weeks later at the opening of his art exhibition at the Gallery Neumann-Nierendorf. Crowley's paintings fitted with the fashion for German Expressionism; few of them sold, but the press reports were largely favourable.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp441–42|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp360–61|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp455–57|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp337, 346–49}} In August 1931, he took Bertha Busch as his new lover; they had a violent relationship, and often physically assaulted one another.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p445|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p360|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p450|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p345}} He continued to have affairs with both men and women while in the city,{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1pp355–57}} and met with famous people like Aldous Huxley and Alfred Adler.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1pp355|2a1Kaczynski|2y2010|2pp448–49|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp335–36, 338–39}} After befriending him, in January 1932 he took the communist Gerald Hamilton as a lodger, through whom he was introduced to many figures within the Berlin far left; it is possible that he was operating as a spy for British intelligence at this time, monitoring the communist movement.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp445–46|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p361|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p457|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p349|5a1Pasi|5y2014|5pp83–88}}
{{Quote box|width25em|alignleft|quoteI have been over forty years engaged in the administration of the law in one capacity or another. I thought that I knew of every conceivable form of wickedness. I thought that everything which was vicious and bad had been produced at one time or another before me. I have learnt in this case that we can always learn something more if we live long enough. I have never heard such dreadful, horrible, blasphemous and abominable stuff as that which has been produced by the man (Crowley) who describes himself to you as the greatest living poet.|sourceJustice Swift, in Crowley's libel case.{{sfnm|1a1The United Press|1y1934|1p39|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p372}}}}
Crowley left Busch and returned to London,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p446|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp355–56}} where he took Pearl Brooksmith as his new Scarlet Woman.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p453|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp366–67|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp470–71|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp360–61}} Undergoing further nasal surgery, it was here in 1932 that he was invited to be guest of honour at Foyles' Literary Luncheon, also being invited by Harry Price to speak at the National Laboratory of Psychical Research.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1pp363–64|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp463–65|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p357}} In need of money, he launched a series of court cases against people whom he believed to have libelled him, some of which proved successful. He gained much publicity for his lawsuit against Constable and Co for publishing Nina Hamnett's Laughing Torso (1932)—a book he alleged libelled him by referring to his occult practice as black magic{{sfn|Hamnett|2007|pp173–174}}—but lost the case.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp447–53|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp367–73|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp466, 468, 472–81|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp358–59, 361–62}} The court case added to Crowley's financial problems, and in February 1935 he was declared bankrupt. During the hearing, it was revealed that Crowley was spending three times his income for several years.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp454–56|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p374|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp483–84|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p363}}
Crowley developed a friendship with Deidre Patricia Doherty; she offered to bear his child, who was born in May 1937. Named Randall Gair, Crowley nicknamed him Aleister Atatürk. He died in a car accident in 2002 at the age of 65.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp458–60|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp373–74|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp481, 489, 496|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp362, 370}} Crowley continued to socialize with friends, holding curry parties in which he cooked particularly spicy food for them.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp461|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp489–90}} In 1936, he published his first book in six years, The Equinox of the Gods, which contained a facsimile of The Book of the Law and was considered to be volume III, number 3, of The Equinox periodical. The work sold well, resulting in a second print run.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p467|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp380–81|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp490–91, 493, 497–99}} In 1937, he gave a series of public lectures on yoga in Soho.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p467|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp495–96|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p369}} Crowley was now living largely off contributions supplied by O.T.O.'s Agape Lodge in California, led by rocket scientist Jack Parsons.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p466|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p375}} Crowley was intrigued by the rise of Nazism in Germany, and influenced by his friend Martha Küntzel believed that Adolf Hitler might convert to Thelema; when the Nazis abolished the German O.T.O. and imprisoned Germer, who fled to the US, Crowley then lambasted Hitler as a black magician.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp468–69|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp375–80|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp384–85|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp365–66}}
Second World War and death: 1939–1947
When the Second World War broke out, Crowley wrote to the Naval Intelligence Division offering his services, but they declined. He associated with a variety of figures in Britain's intelligence community at the time, including Dennis Wheatley, Roald Dahl, Ian Fleming, and Maxwell Knight,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp471–72|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp506–07|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp376–78}} and wrote that he originated the "V for Victory" sign first used by the BBC; this has never been proven.{{sfnm|1a1Kaczynski|1y2010|1pp511–12|2a1Churton|2y2011|2pp=380–83, 392–96}}
In 1940, his asthma worsened, and with his German-produced medication unavailable, he returned to using heroin, once again becoming addicted.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p476|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p508}} As the Blitz hit London, Crowley relocated to Torquay, where he was briefly admitted to hospital with asthma, and entertained himself with visits to the local chess club.{{sfnm|1a1Kaczynski|1y2010|1pp509–10|2a1Churton|2y2011|2p380}} Tiring of Torquay, he returned to London, where he was visited by American Thelemite Grady McMurtry, to whom Crowley awarded the title of "Hymenaeus Alpha".{{sfnm|1a1Kaczynski|1y2010|1p527|2a1Churton|2y2011|2p403}} He stipulated that though Germer would be his immediate successor, McMurty should succeed Germer as head of O.T.O. after the latter's death.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp478–79|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp512, 531–32, 547|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp408–09}} With O.T.O. initiate Lady Frieda Harris, Crowley developed plans to produce a tarot card set, designed by him and painted by Harris. Accompanying this was a book, published in a limited edition as The Book of Thoth by Chiswick Press in 1944.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp473–74|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp501, 503–04, 510, 522, 530–21|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp370, 406}} To aid the war effort, he wrote a proclamation on the rights of humanity, "Liber OZ", and a poem for the liberation of France, Le Gauloise.{{sfnm|1a1Kaczynski|1y2010|1pp517–18, 522|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p397}} Crowley's final publication during his lifetime was a book of poetry, Olla: An Anthology of Sixty Years of Song.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp474–75|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp519–20, 542|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p410}} Another of his projects, Aleister Explains Everything, was posthumously published as Magick Without Tears.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p474|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p528|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p404}}
In April 1944 Crowley briefly moved to Aston Clinton in Buckinghamshire,{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p475|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p530|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp403–04}} where he was visited by the poet Nancy Cunard,{{sfnm|1a1Churton|1y2011|1pp407–08}} before relocating to Hastings in Sussex, where he took up residence at the Netherwood boarding house.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p475|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp532–33}} He took a young man named Kenneth Grant as his secretary, paying him in magical teaching rather than wages.{{sfnm|1a1Kaczynski|1y2010|1pp533–35|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp409, 411}} He was also introduced to John Symonds, whom he appointed to be his literary executor; Symonds thought little of Crowley, later publishing unfavorable biographies of him.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p481|2a1Kaczynski|2y2010|2pp540–41|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp413–14}} Corresponding with the illusionist Arnold Crowther, it was through him that Crowley was introduced to Gerald Gardner, the future founder of Gardnerian Wicca. They became friends, with Crowley authorising Gardner to revive Britain's ailing O.T.O.{{sfnm|1a1Kaczynski|1y2010|1pp542–44}} Another visitor was Eliza Marian Butler, who interviewed Crowley for her book The Myth of the Magus.{{sfnm|1a1Kaczynski|1y2010|1pp536–37|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p412}} Other friends and family also spent time with him, among them Doherty and Crowley's son Aleister Atatürk.{{sfnm|1a1Kaczynski|1y2010|1pp544–55|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p416}}
On 1 December 1947, Crowley died at Netherwood of chronic bronchitis aggravated by pleurisy and myocardial degeneration, aged 72.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p483|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2pp417–19|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3p548|4a1Churton|4y2011|4pp417–18}} His funeral was held at a Brighton crematorium on 5 December; about a dozen people attended, and Louis Wilkinson read excerpts from the Gnostic Mass, The Book of the Law, and "Hymn to Pan". The funeral generated press controversy, and was labelled a Black Mass by the tabloids. Crowley's body was cremated; his ashes were sent to Karl Germer in the US, who buried them in his garden in Hampton, New Jersey.{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1pp484–85|3a1Kaczynski|3y2010|3pp549–51|4a1Churton|4y2011|4p418}}{{sfn|Lachman|2014|p182}}
Beliefs and thought
{{main|Thelema}}
, the symbol of Thelema]]
Crowley's belief system, Thelema, has been described by scholars as a religion,{{sfnm|1a1Medway|1y2001|1p44|2a1Hanegraaff|2y2013|2p42|3a1Asprem|3y2013|3p87|4a1Djurdjevic|4y2014|4p38|5a1Hedenborg White|5y2020|5p4}} and more specifically as both a new religious movement,{{sfnm|1a1Asprem|1y2013|1p88|2a1Doyle White|2y2016|2p1}} and as a "magico-religious doctrine".{{sfn|Djurdjevic|2014|p91}} Although holding The Book of the Law—which was composed in 1904—as its central text, Thelema took shape as a complete system in the years after 1904.{{sfn|Asprem|2013|p=88}}
In his autobiography, Crowley wrote that his purpose in life was to "bring oriental wisdom to Europe and to restore paganism in a purer form", although what he meant by "paganism" was unclear.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p178}} Crowley also wrote in the 4th Book of Magick about a great pagan Umbral fleet ruled by Ottovius that would be handed down to the great Spartan. The esoteric nature of this was also unclear. Crowley's thought was not always cohesive, and was influenced by a variety of sources, ranging from eastern religious movements and practices like Hindu yoga and Buddhism, scientific naturalism, and various currents within Western esotericism, among them ceremonial magic, alchemy, astrology, Rosicrucianism, Kabbalah, and the Tarot.{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p23}} He was steeped in the esoteric teachings he had learned from the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, although pushed further with his own interpretations and strategies than the Golden Dawn had done.{{sfn|Asprem|2013|p86}} Crowley incorporated concepts and terminology from South Asian religious traditions like yoga and Tantra into his Thelemic system, believing that there was a fundamental underlying resemblance between Western and Eastern spiritual systems.{{sfn|Djurdjevic|2014|p36}} The historian Alex Owen noted that Crowley adhered to the "modus operandi" of the Decadent movement throughout his life.{{sfn|Owen|2012|p=37}}
Crowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanity's entry to the Aeon of Horus, a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny. He believed that this Aeon follows on from the Aeon of Osiris, in which paternalistic religions like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism dominated the world, and that this in turn had followed the Aeon of Isis, which was maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship.{{sfnm|1a1Drury|1y2012|1p210|2a1Doyle White|2y2016|2p3}} He believed that Thelema was the proper religion of the Aeon of Horus,{{sfn|Asprem|2013|p88}} and also deemed himself to be the prophet of this new Aeon.{{sfn|Djurdjevic|2014|p51}} Thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their own True Will that they should discover and pursue, and that this exists in harmony with the Cosmic Will that pervades the universe.{{sfnm|1a1Hutton|1y1999|1p174|2a1Drury|2y2012|2p209}} Crowley referred to this process of searching and discovery of one's True Will to be "the Great Work" or the attaining of the "knowledge and conversation of the Holy Guardian Angel".{{sfn|Asprem|2013|pp88–89}} His favoured method of doing so was through the performance of the Abramelin operation, a ceremonial magic ritual obtained from a 17th-century grimoire.{{sfn|Asprem|2013|p89}} The moral code of "Do What Thou Wilt" is believed by Thelemites to be the religion's ethical law, although the historian of religion Marco Pasi noted that this was not anarchistic or libertarian in structure, as Crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism.{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p49}}Magick and theologyCrowley believed in the objective existence of magic, which he chose to spell as "Magick", which is an archaic spelling of the word.{{sfnm|1a1Hutton|1y1999|1p174|2a1Asprem|2y2013|2p89|3a1Doyle White|3y2016|3p4}} He provided various different definitions of this term over his career.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p174}} In his book Magick in Theory and Practice, Crowley defined Magick as "the Science and Art of causing change to occur in conformity with Will".{{sfnm|1a1Hutton|1y1999|1p174|2a1DuQuette|2y2003|2p11|3a1Doyle White|3y2016|3p4}} He also told his disciple Karl Germer that "Magick is getting into communication with individuals who exist on a higher plane than ours. Mysticism is the raising of oneself to their level."{{sfn|Churton|2011|p417}} Crowley saw Magick as a third way between religion and science, giving The Equinox the subtitle of The Method of Science; the Aim of Religion.{{sfnm|1a1Asprem|1y2008|1p140|2a1Bogdan|2a2Starr|2y2012|2p4}} Within that journal, he expressed positive sentiments toward science and the scientific method,{{sfn|Asprem|2008|p150}} and urged magicians to keep detailed records of their magical experiments, having said: "The more scientific the record is, the better."{{sfn|Asprem|2008|pp151–52}} His understanding of magic was also influenced by the work of the anthropologist James Frazer, in particular the belief that magic was a precursor to science in a cultural evolutionary framework.{{sfn|Asprem|2008|pp145, 149}} Unlike Frazer, however, Crowley did not see magic as a survival from the past that required eradication, but rather he believed that magic had to be adapted to suit the new age of science.{{sfn|Asprem|2008|p150}} In Crowley's alternative schema, old systems of magic had to decline (per Frazer's framework) so that science and magic could synthesize into magick, which would simultaneously accept the existence of the supernatural and an experimental method.{{sfn|Josephson Storm|2017|p170}} Crowley deliberately adopted an exceptionally broad definition of magick that included almost all forms of technology as magick, adopting an instrumentalist definition of magic, science, and technology.{{sfn|Josephson Storm|2017|p172–73}}
{{Quote box|width25em|alignleft|quoteTo [Crowley] the greatest aim of the magician was to merge with a higher power connected to the wellsprings of the universe, but he did not trouble himself too much to define that power consistently; sometimes it was God, sometimes the One, sometimes a goddess, and sometimes one's own Holy Guardian Angel or higher self. In the last analysis he was content for the nature of divinity to remain a mystery. As a result, he wrote at times like an atheist, at times like a monotheist, and at others like a polytheist.|sourceRonald Hutton{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p=185}}}}
Sexuality played an important role in Crowley's ideas about magick and his practice of it,{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p173}} and has been described as being central to Thelema.{{sfn|Drury|2012|p216}} He outlined three forms of sex magick—the autoerotic, homosexual, and heterosexual—and argued that such acts could be used to focus the magician's will onto a specific goal such as financial gain or personal creative success.{{sfn|Drury|2012|p213}} For Crowley, sex was treated as a sacrament, with the consumption of sexual fluids interpreted as a Eucharist.{{sfn|Djurdjevic|2014|p44}} This was often manifested as the Cakes of Light, a biscuit containing either menstrual blood or a mixture of semen and vaginal fluids.{{sfn|Drury|2012|p210}} The Gnostic Mass is the central religious ceremony within Thelema.{{sfn|Asprem|2013|p99}}
Crowley's theological beliefs were not clear. The historian Ronald Hutton noted that some of Crowley's writings could be used to argue that he was an atheist,{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p174}} while some support the idea that he was a polytheist,{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p185}} and others would bolster the idea that he was a mystical monotheist.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p176}} On the basis of the teachings in The Book of the Law, Crowley described a pantheon of three deities taken from the ancient Egyptian pantheon: Nuit, Hadit, and Ra-Hoor-Khuit.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p178}} In 1928, he wrote that all true deities were derived from this trinity.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p178}} Jason Josephson Storm has argued that Crowley built on 19th-century attempts to link early Christianity to pre-Christian religions, such as Frazer's Golden Bough, to synthesize Christian theology and Neopaganism while remaining critical of institutional and traditional Christianity.{{sfn|Josephson Storm|2017|p165}}
Both during his life and after it, Crowley has been widely described as a Satanist, usually by detractors. Crowley stated he did not consider himself a Satanist, nor did he worship Satan, as he did not accept the Christian world view in which Satan was believed to exist.{{sfnm|1a1Hutton|1y1999|1p175|2a1Dyrendal|2y2012|2pp369–70}} He nevertheless used Satanic imagery, for instance by describing himself as "the Beast 666" and referring to the Whore of Babylon in his work, while in later life he sent "Antichristmas cards" to his friends.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p175}} In his writings, Crowley occasionally identified Aiwass as Satan and designated him as "Our Lord God the Devil" at one occasion.{{sfn|van Luijk|2016|p309}} The scholar of religion Gordan Djurdjevic stated that Crowley "was emphatically not" a Satanist, "if for no other reason than simply because he did not identify himself as such".{{sfn|Djurdjevic|2014|p58}} Crowley nevertheless expressed strong anti-Christian sentiment,{{sfnm|1a1Hutton|1y1999|1p176|2a1Hedenborg White|2y2020|2p45}} stating that he hated Christianity "as Socialists hate soap",{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p176}} an animosity probably stemming from his experiences among the Plymouth Brethren.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p175}} He was nevertheless influenced by the King James Bible, especially the Book of Revelation, the impact of which can be seen in his writings.{{sfn|Hedenborg White|2020|p39}} He was also accused of advocating human sacrifice, largely because of a passage in Book 4 in which he stated that "A male child of perfect innocence and high intelligence is the most satisfactory victim" and added that he had sacrificed about 150 every year. This was a tongue-in-cheek reference to ejaculation, something not realized by his critics.{{sfn|Medway|2001|pp120–21}}Image and opinionsCrowley considered himself to be one of the outstanding figures of his time.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p172}} The historian Ronald Hutton stated that in Crowley's youth, he was "a self-indulgent and flamboyant young man" who "set about a deliberate flouting and provocation of social and religious norms", while being shielded from an "outraged public opinion" by his inherited wealth.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p172}} Hutton also described Crowley as having both an "unappeasable desire" to take control of any organisation that he belonged to, and "a tendency to quarrel savagely" with those who challenged him.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p172}} Crowley biographer Martin Booth asserted that Crowley was "self-confident, brash, eccentric, egotistic, highly intelligent, arrogant, witty, wealthy, and, when it suited him, cruel".{{sfn|Booth|2000|p125}} Similarly, Richard B. Spence noted that Crowley was "capable of immense physical and emotional cruelty".{{sfn|Spence|2008|p10}} Biographer Lawrence Sutin noted that Crowley exhibited "courage, skill, dauntless energy, and remarkable focus of will" while at the same time showing a "blind arrogance, petty fits of bile, [and] contempt for the abilities of his fellow men".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p148}} The Thelemite Lon Milo DuQuette noted that Crowley "was by no means perfect" and "often alienated those who loved him dearest."{{sfn|DuQuette|2003|p9}}
Political opinions
Crowley enjoyed being outrageous and flouting conventional morality,{{sfn|Moore|2009|p33}} with John Symonds noting that he "was in revolt against the moral and religious values of his time".{{sfn|Symonds|1997|pvii}} Crowley's political thought was studied by the academic Marco Pasi, who noted that for Crowley, socio-political concerns were subordinate to metaphysical and spiritual ones.{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p23}} He was neither on the political left nor right but perhaps best categorized as a "conservative revolutionary" despite not being affiliated with the German-based movement of the same name.{{sfn|Pasi|2014|pp49–50}} Pasi described Crowley's fascination with the extreme ideologies of Nazism and Marxism–Leninism, which aimed to violently overturn society: "What Crowley liked about Nazism and communism, or at least what made him curious about them, was the anti-Christian position and the revolutionary and socially subversive implications of these two movements. In their subversive powers, he saw the possibility of an annihilation of old religious traditions, and the creation of a void that Thelema, subsequently, would be able to fill."{{sfn|Pasi|2014|pp52–53}} Crowley described democracy as an "imbecile and nauseating cult of weakness",{{sfn|Morgan|2011|p166}} and commented that The Book of the Law proclaimed that "there is the master and there is the slave; the noble and the serf; the 'lone wolf' and the herd".{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p49}} In this attitude, he was influenced by Social Darwinism and the work of Friedrich Nietzsche.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1p129|2a1Churton|2y2011|2p401|3a1Pasi|3y2014|3p48}} Although he had contempt for most of the British aristocracy, he regarded himself as an aristocrat and styled himself as Laird Boleskine,{{sfn|Booth|2000|p109}} once describing his ideology as "aristocratic communism".{{sfn|Pasi|2014|p50}}
Opinions on race and gender
Crowley was bisexual, but exhibited a preference for women,{{sfnm|1a1Hutton|1y1999|1p174|2a1Booth|2y2000|2p67|3a1Spence|3y2008|3p19}} with his relationships with men being fewer and mostly in the early part of his life.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p174}} In particular he was attracted to "exotic women",{{sfn|Booth|2000|p130}} and said he had fallen in love on multiple occasions; Kaczynski stated that "when he loved, he did so with his whole being, but the passion was typically short-lived".{{sfn|Kaczynski|2010|p91}} Even in later life, Crowley was able to attract young bohemian women to be his lovers, largely due to his charisma.{{sfn|Booth|2000|p350}} He applied the term "Scarlet Woman" to various female lovers whom he believed played an important role in his magical work.{{sfn|Hedenborg White|2020|p94}} During homosexual acts, he usually played 'the passive role',{{sfnm|1a1Booth|1y2000|1p63|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p159}} which Booth believed "appealed to his masochistic side".{{sfn|Booth|2000|p63}} An underlying theme in many of his writings is that spiritual enlightenment arises through transgressing socio-sexual norms.{{sfn|Hedenborg White|2020|pp48–49}}
Crowley advocated complete sexual freedom for both men and women.{{sfn|Hedenborg White|2020|p104}} He argued that homosexual and bisexual people should not suppress their sexual orientation,{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p174}} commenting that a person "must not be ashamed or afraid of being homosexual if he happens to be so at heart; he must not attempt to violate his own true nature because of public opinion, or medieval morality, or religious prejudice which would wish he were otherwise."{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p128}} On other issues he adopted a more conservative attitude; he opposed abortion on moral grounds, believing that no woman following her True Will would ever desire one.{{sfnm|1a1Hutton|1y1999|1p176|2a1Sutin|2y2000|2p145|3a1Hedenborg White|3y2020|3pp104–105}}
Biographer Lawrence Sutin stated that "blatant bigotry is a persistent minor element in Crowley's writings".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|pp223–24}} Sutin thought Crowley "a spoiled scion of a wealthy Victorian family who embodied many of the worst John Bull racial and social prejudices of his upper-class contemporaries", noting that he "embodied the contradiction that writhed within many Western intellectuals of the time: deeply held racist viewpoints courtesy of society, coupled with a fascination with people of colour".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|pp2, 336}} Crowley is said to have insulted his close Jewish friend Victor Neuburg, using antisemitic slurs, and he had mixed opinions about Jewish people as a group.{{sfn|Lachman|2014|pp87–89}} Although he praised their "sublime" poetry and stated that they exhibited "imagination, romance, loyalty, probity and humanity", he also thought that centuries of persecution had led some Jewish people to exhibit "avarice, servility, falseness, cunning and the rest".{{sfn|Booth|2000|pp268–69}} He was also known to praise various ethnic and cultural groups, for instance he thought that the Chinese people exhibited a "spiritual superiority" to the English,{{sfn|Booth|2000|p137}} and praised Muslims for exhibiting "manliness, straightforwardness, subtlety, and self-respect".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p180}}
Both critics of Crowley and adherents of Thelema have accused Crowley of sexism.{{sfn|Hedenborg White|2020|p5}} Booth described Crowley as exhibiting a "general misogyny", something the biographer believed arose from Crowley's bad relationship with his mother.{{sfn|Booth|2000|p61}} Sutin noted that Crowley "largely accepted the notion, implicitly embodied in Victorian sexology, of women as secondary social beings in terms of intellect and sensibility".{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p28}} The scholar of religion Manon Hedenborg White noted that some of Crowley's statements are "undoubtedly misogynist by contemporary standards", but characterized Crowley's attitude toward women as complex and multi-faceted.{{sfn|Hedenborg White|2020|p111}} Crowley's comments on women's role varied dramatically within his written work, even that produced in similar periods.{{sfn|Hedenborg White|2020|p111}} Crowley described women as "moral inferiors" who had to be treated with "firmness, kindness and justice",{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p114}} while also arguing that Thelema was essential to women's emancipation.{{sfn|Hedenborg White|2020|p105}}Possible links to intelligenceBiographers Richard B. Spence and Tobias Churton have suggested that Crowley was a spy for the British secret services and that among other things he joined the Golden Dawn under their command to monitor the activities of Mathers, who was known to be a Carlist.{{sfnm|1a1Spence|1y2008|1pp22–28|2a1Churton|2y2011|2pp38–46}} Spence suggested that the conflict between Mathers and the London lodge for the temple was part of an intelligence operation to undermine Mathers' authority.{{sfn|Spence|2008|p27}} Spence has suggested that the purpose of Crowley's trip to Mexico might have been to explore Mexican oil prospects for British intelligence.{{sfn|Spence|2008|p32}} Spence has suggested that his trip to China was orchestrated as part of a British intelligence scheme to monitor the region's opium trade.{{sfnm|1a1Spence|1y2008|1pp33–35|2a1Churton|2y2011|2p115}} Churton suggested that Crowley had travelled to Moscow on the orders of British intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city.{{sfn|Churton|2011|pp178–82}}
Spence and Sutin both wrote that Crowley's pro-German work in the United States during World War I was actually a cover for him being a double agent for Britain, citing his hyperbolic articles in The Fatherland to make the German lobby appear ridiculous in the eyes of the American public.{{sfnm|1a1Sutin|1y2000|1pp247–48|3a1Spence|3y2008|3pp67–76|4a1Kaczynski|4y2010|4pp284–87, 292–92|5a1Churton|5y2011|5pp190–93}} Spence also wrote that Crowley encouraged the German Navy to destroy the Lusitania, informing them that it would ensure the US stayed out of the war, while in reality hoping that it would bring the US into the war on Britain's side.{{sfnm|1a1Spence|1y2008|1pp82–89|2a1Churton|2y2011|2pp195–97}}
Legacy and influence
{{Quote box|width25em|alignright|quote"[H]e is today looked upon as a source of inspiration by many people in search of spiritual enlightenment and/or instructions in magical practice. Thus, while during his life his books hardly sold and his disciples were never very numerous, nowadays all his important works are constantly in print, and the people defining themselves as "thelemites" (that is, followers of Crowley's new religion) number several thousands all over the world. Furthermore, Crowley's influence over magically oriented new religious movements has in some cases been very deep and pervasive. It would be difficult to understand, for instance, some aspects of Anglo-Saxon neo-paganism and contemporary satanism without a solid knowledge of Crowley's doctrines and ideas. In other fields, such as poetry, alpinism and painting, he may have been a minor figure, but it is only fair to admit that, in the limited context of occultism, he has played and still plays a major role." |sourceMarco Pasi, 2003.{{sfn|Pasi|2003|p=225}}}}
Crowley has remained an influential figure, both amongst occultists and in popular culture, particularly that of Britain, but also of other parts of the world. In 2002, a BBC poll placed Crowley number 73 in a list of the 100 Greatest Britons.{{sfnm|1a1Pasi|1y2003|1p225|2a1Churton|2y2011|2p3}} Richard Cavendish has written of him that "In native talent, penetrating intelligence and determination, Aleister Crowley was the best-equipped magician to emerge since the seventeenth century."{{sfn|Cavendish|1978|p167}} The scholar of esotericism Egil Asprem described him as "one of the most well-known figures in modern occultism".{{sfn|Asprem|2013|p85}} The scholar of esotericism Wouter Hanegraaff asserted that Crowley was an extreme representation of "the dark side of the occult",{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2012|pix}} adding that he was "the most notorious occultist magician of the twentieth century".{{sfn|Hanegraaff|2013|p41}} The philosopher John Moore opined that Crowley stood out as a "Modern Master" when compared with other prominent occult figures like George Gurdjieff, P. D. Ouspensky, Rudolf Steiner, or Helena Blavatsky,{{sfn|Moore|2009|p5}} also describing him as a "living embodiment" of Oswald Spengler's "Faustian Man".{{sfn|Moore|2009|p40}} Biographer Tobias Churton considered Crowley "a pioneer of consciousness research".{{sfn|Churton|2011|p88}} Hutton noted that Crowley had "an important place in the history of modern Western responses to Oriental spiritual traditions",{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p171}} while Sutin thought that he had made "distinctly original contributions" to the study of yoga in the West.{{sfn|Sutin|2000|p=93}}
Thelema continued to develop and spread following Crowley's death. In 1969, O.T.O. was reactivated in California under the leadership of Grady Louis McMurtry;{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p7}} in 1985 its right to the title was unsuccessfully challenged in court by a rival group, the Society Ordo Templi Orientis, led by Brazilian Thelemite Marcelo Ramos Motta.{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p7}} Another American Thelemite is the filmmaker Kenneth Anger, who was influenced by Crowley's writings from a young age.{{sfnm|1a1Landis|1y1995|1pp26–34|2a1Doyle White|2y2016|2p1–3}} In the United Kingdom, Kenneth Grant propagated a tradition known as Typhonian Thelema through his organisation, the Typhonian O.T.O., later renamed the Typhonian Order.{{sfn|Evans|2007|pp284–350}} Also in Britain, an occultist known as Amado Crowley claimed to be Crowley's son; this has been refuted by academic investigation. Amado argued that Thelema was a false religion created by Crowley to hide his true esoteric teachings, which Amado said he was propagating.{{sfn|Evans|2007|pp229–83}}
Several Western esoteric traditions other than Thelema were also influenced by Crowley, with Djurdjevic observing that "Crowley's influence on twentieth-century and contemporary esotericism has been enormous".{{sfn|Djurdjevic|2014|pp35–36}} Gerald Gardner, the founder of Gardnerian Wicca, used much of Crowley's published material when composing the Gardnerian ritual liturgy,{{sfn|Hutton|2012|pp285–306}} and the Australian witch Rosaleen Norton was also heavily influenced by Crowley's ideas.{{sfn|Richmond|2012|pp307–34}} More widely, Crowley became "a dominant figure" in the modern Pagan community.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p180}} L. Ron Hubbard, the American founder of Scientology, was involved in Thelema in the early 1940s (with Jack Parsons), and it has been argued that Crowley's ideas influenced some of Hubbard's work.{{sfn|Urban|2012|pp335–68}} The scholars of religion Asbjørn Dyrendel, James R. Lewis, and Jesper Petersen noted that despite the fact that Crowley was not a Satanist, he "in many ways embodies the pre-Satanist esoteric discourse on Satan and Satanism through his lifestyle and his philosophy", with his "image and ought" becoming an "important influence" on the later development of religious Satanism.{{sfn|Dyrendal|Lewis|Petersen|2016|p39}} For instance, two prominent figures in religious Satanism, Anton LaVey and Michael Aquino, were influenced by Crowley's work.{{sfn|Dyrendal|2012|pp369–94}} In popular culture Crowley also had a wider influence in British popular culture. After his time in Cefalù, which brought him to public attention in Britain, various "literary Crowleys" appeared: characters in fiction based upon him.{{sfn|Freeman|2018|p103}} One of the earliest was the character of the poet Shelley Arabin in John Buchan's 1926 novel The Dancing Floor.{{sfn|Freeman|2018|p103}} In his novel The Devil Rides Out, the writer Dennis Wheatley used Crowley as a partial basis for the character of Damien Mocata, a portly bald defrocked priest who engages in black magic.{{sfn|Freeman|2018|pp106–07}} The occultist Dion Fortune used Crowley as a basis for characters in her books The Secrets of Doctor Taverner (1926) and The Winged Bull (1935).{{sfn|Freeman|2018|p105}} He was included as one of the figures on the cover art of The Beatles' album ''Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band'' (1967),{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p7}} and his motto of "Do What Thou Wilt" was inscribed on the vinyl of Led Zeppelin's album Led Zeppelin III (1970).{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p7}} Led Zeppelin co-founder Jimmy Page bought Boleskine in 1971, and part of the band's film The Song Remains the Same was filmed in the grounds. He sold it in 1992.{{sfn|House of the unholy|2007}} Though David Bowie makes but a fleeting reference to Crowley in the lyrics of his song "Quicksand" (1971),{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|p7}} it has been suggested that the lyrics of Bowie's No. 1 hit single "Let's Dance" (1983) may substantially paraphrase Crowley's 1923 poem "Lyric of Love to Leah".{{sfn|Pegg|2016|p368}} Ozzy Osbourne and his lyricist Bob Daisley wrote a song titled "Mr. Crowley" (1980).{{sfnm|1a1Moreman|1y2003|1p1|2a1Granholm|2y2013|2p13}} A prophetic quote about the coming of the New Aeon borrowed from Crowley's work Magick in Theory and Practice (1911) has been featured as the opening introduction to the video game Blood Omen: Legacy of Kain (1996).{{sfn|Bogdan|Starr|2012|pp95–96}} <!-- PLEASE DO NOT ADD ANY FURTHER INSTANCES OF CROWLEYAN INFLUENCE ON POPULAR CULTURE UNLESS YOU HAVE THIRD-PARTY, ACADEMIC REFERENCES TO BOLSTER SUCH STATEMENTS WITH. AS HAS BEEN DISCUSSED AT THE TALK PAGE, THIS SECTION IS NOT A DEPOSIT FOR ANY AND ALL TRIVIA REGARDING CROWLEY'S SUBSTANTIAL LEGACY ACROSS WESTERN CULTURE, LEAST OF ALL THOSE WHICH ARE INSUFFICIENTLY REFERENCED. IF IN DOUBT, OPEN A DISCUSSION ON THE TALK PAGE TO SEE IF YOU CAN GAIN SUPPORT FOR ADDING INFORMATION. --> Crowley began to receive scholarly attention from academics in the late 1990s.{{sfn|Hutton|1999|p171}}Bibliography{{Main|Aleister Crowley bibliography}}See also* Sri Sabhapati SwamiNotes and referencesExplanatory notes{{notelist}}Citations{{Reflist|20em}}Works cited{{Refbegin|30em|indentyes}}
* {{Cite journal |lastAsprem |firstEgil |year2008 |titleMagic Naturalized? Negotiating Science and Occult Experience in Aleister Crowley's Scientific Illuminism |journalAries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism |locationLeiden |volume8 |issue2 |pages139–165 |doi10.1163/156798908X327311 |issn=1567-9896}}
* {{Cite book |lastAsprem |firstEgil |titleArguing with Angels: Enochian Magic and Modern Occulture |publisherSUNY Press |year2013 |isbn978-1-4384-4191-7 |locationAlbany, New York |oclc809317694}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2012 |titleAleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |publisherOxford University Press |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/8721/chapter-abstract/154763237 |editor-lastBogdan |editor-firstHenrik |pages3–14 |doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863075.003.0001 |isbn978-0-19-986309-9 |oclc820009842 |last2Starr |first2Martin P. |contributionIntroduction |last1Bogdan |first1Henrik |editor2-lastStarr |editor2-first=Martin P.}}
* {{Cite book |lastBooth |firstMartin |titleA Magick Life: The Biography of Aleister Crowley |publisherCoronet Books |year2000 |isbn978-0-340-71806-3 |locationLondon |oclc59483726 |author-link=Martin Booth}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year1978 |titleA History of Magic |publisherSphere Books |locationLondon |author-linkRichard Cavendish (occult writer) |pages167–79 |isbn0-7221-2214-4 |oclc16423603 |contributionCrowley and After |last1Cavendish |first1=Richard}}
* {{Cite book |lastChurton |firstTobias |titleAleister Crowley: The Biography |publisherWatkins Books |year2011 |isbn978-1-78028-012-7 |locationLondon |oclc701810228 |author-link=Tobias Churton}}
* {{Cite book |lastCrowley |firstAleister |titleThe Confessions of Aleister Crowley: An Autohagiography |publisherArkana |year1989 |isbn978-0-14-019189-9 |locationLondon |oclc19865968}}
* {{Cite book |lastCrowley |firstAleister |titleThe Holy Books of Thelema |publisherSamuel Weiser |year1983 |isbn0-87728-686-8 |edition1st paper |locationYork Beach, Maine |oclc=30592109}}
* {{Cite book |lastDjurdjevic |firstGordan |titleIndia and the Occult: The Influence of South Asian Spirituality on Modern Western Occultism |publisherPalgrave Macmillan |year2014 |isbn978-1-137-40498-5 |locationNew York City |oclc870285576}}
* {{Cite journal |lastDoyle White |firstEthan |year2016 |titleLucifer Over Luxor: Archaeology, Egyptology, and Occultism in Kenneth Anger's Magick Lantern Cycle |urlhttps://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/1503457/ |journalPresent Pasts |volume7 |issue1 |pages1–10 |doi10.5334/pp.73 |doi-accessfree |issn1759-2941}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2012 |titlePathways in Modern Western Magic |publisherConcrescent Scholars |locationRichmond, CA |lastDrury |firstNevill |editor-lastDrury |editor-firstNevill | authorlinkNevill Drury| pages205–245 |isbn978-0-9843729-9-7 |oclc814283519 |contribution=The Thelemic Sex Magick of Aleister Crowley}}
* {{Cite book |lastDuQuette |firstLon Milo |titleThe Magick of Aleister Crowley: A Handbook of Rituals of Thelema |publisherWeiser |year2003 |isbn978-1-57863-299-2 |locationSan Francisco |oclc52621460 |author-link=Lon Milo DuQuette}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2012 |titleAleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |publisherOxford University Press |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/8721/chapter-abstract/154791217 |lastDyrendal |firstAsbjørn |editor-lastBogdan |editor-firstHenrik |pages369–394 |doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863075.003.0015 |isbn978-0-19-986309-9 |oclc820009842 |contributionSatan and the Beast: The Influence of Aleister Crowley on Modern Satanism |editor2-lastStarr |editor2-first=Martin P.}}
* {{Cite book |last1Dyrendal |first1Asbjørn |titleThe Invention of Satanism |last2Lewis |first2James R. |last3Petersen |first3Jesper Aa. |publisherOxford University Press |year2016 |isbn978-0-19-518110-4 |locationOxford and New York |oclc908934971}}
* {{Cite book |lastEvans |firstDave |titleThe History of British Magick After Crowley |publisherHidden Publishing |year2007 |isbn978-0-9555237-0-0 |locationn.p. |oclc183145633}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2018 |titleThe Occult Imagination in Britain: 1875–1947 |publisherRoutledge |locationLondon |lastFreeman |firstNick |editor-lastFerguson |editor-firstChristine |pages94–109 |doi10.4324/9781351168328-6 |isbn978-1-4724-8698-1 |contributionThe Black Magic Bogeyman 1908–1935 |editor2-lastRadford |editor2-firstAndrew}}
* {{Cite journal |lastGranholm |firstKennet |year2013 |titleRitual Black Metal: Popular Music as Occult Mediation and Practice |urlhttps://correspondencesjournal.com/11302-2/ |journalCorrespondences |volume1 |issue1 |pages5–33 |issn2053-7158}}
* {{Cite book |lastHamnett |firstNina |titleLaughing Torso: Reminiscences of Nina Hamnett |date2007 |publisherHildreth |isbn978-1-4067-2874-3 |locationLondon |oclc1156889313 |author-link=Nina Hamnett}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2012 |titleAleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |publisherOxford University Press |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/8721/chapter-abstract/154762837 |lastHanegraaff |firstWouter J. |author-linkWouter J. Hanegraaff |editor-lastBogdan |editor-firstHenrik |pagesvii–x |doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863075.002.0006 |doi-broken-date1 November 2024 |isbn978-0-19-986309-9 |oclc820009842 |contributionForeword: Bringing Light to the Underground |editor2-lastStarr |editor2-first=Martin P.}}
* {{Cite book |lastHanegraaff |firstWouter |titleWestern Esotericism: A Guide for the Perplexed |publisherBloomsbury Press |year2013 |isbn978-1-4411-8713-0 |locationLondon |oclc777652932}}
* {{Cite book |lastHedenborg White |firstManon |titleThe Eloquent Blood: The Goddess Babalon and the Construction of Femininities in Western Esotericism |publisherOxford University Press |year2020 |isbn978-0-19-006502-7 |locationOxford and New York |oclc1127052266}}
* {{Cite book |lastHutton |firstRonald |urlhttps://archive.org/details/triumphofmoonhis00hutt |titleThe Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft |publisherOxford University Press |year1999 |isbn978-0-19-285449-0 |locationNew York |oclc41452625 |author-linkRonald Hutton |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2012 |titleAleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |publisherOxford University Press |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/8721/chapter-abstract/154783905 |lastHutton |firstRonald |editor-lastBogdan |editor-firstHenrik |pages285–306 |doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863075.003.0012 |isbn978-0-19-986309-9 |oclc820009842 |contributionCrowley and Wicca |editor2-lastStarr |editor2-first=Martin P.}}
* {{Cite book |lastJosephson Storm |firstJason |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/chicago-scholarship-online/book/22973 |titleThe Myth of Disenchantment: Magic, Modernity, and the Birth of the Human Sciences |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |year2017 |isbn978-0-226-40336-6 |doi10.7208/chicago/9780226403533.001.0001 |oclc979417616 |author-linkJason Josephson Storm |s2cid=171898652}}
* {{Cite book |lastKaczynski |firstRichard |titlePerdurabo: The Life of Aleister Crowley |publisherNorth Atlantic Books |year2010 |editionRevised and Expanded |locationBerkeley, California |author-linkRichard Kaczynski |isbn=978-1-55643-899-8}}
* {{Cite book |lastLachman |firstGary |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idW4rZCwAAQBAJ |titleAleister Crowley: Magick, Rock and Roll, and the Wickedest Man in the World |publisherPenguin Random House |year2014 |isbn978-0-399-16190-2 |locationNew York |oclc869460695 |author-link=Gary Lachman}}
* {{Cite book |lastLandis |firstBill |titleAnger: The Unauthorised Biography of Kenneth Anger |publisherHarperCollins |year1995 |isbn978-0-06-016700-4 |locationNew York |oclc32429525}}
* {{Cite book |lastMedway |firstGareth J. |titleLure of the Sinister: The Unnatural History of Satanism |publisherNew York University Press |year2001 |isbn0-8147-5645-X |locationNew York and London |oclc42643579}}
* {{Cite journal |lastMoreman |firstChristopher M. |year2003 |titleDevil Music and the Great Beast: Ozzy Osbourne, Aleister Crowley, and the Christian Right |journalThe Journal of Religion and Popular Culture |volume3 |issue1 |pages1–12 |doi10.3138/jrpc.5.1.004 |issn1703-289X}}
* {{Cite journal |lastMorgan |firstMogg |year2011 |titleThe Heart of Thelema: Morality, Amorality, and Immorality in Aleister Crowley's Thelemic Cult |journalThe Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies |volume13 |issue2 |pages163–83 |doi10.1558/pome.v13i2.163 |doi-broken-date2 December 2024 |issn=1528-0268}}
* {{Cite book |lastMoore |firstJohn |titleAleister Crowley: A Modern Master |publisherMandrake |year2009 |isbn978-1-906958-02-2 |locationOxford |oclc652037939}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2012 |titleAleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |publisherOxford University Press |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/8721/chapter-abstract/154763655 |lastOwen |firstAlex |editor-lastBogdan |editor-firstHenrik |pages15–52 |doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863075.003.0002 |isbn978-0-19-986309-9 |oclc820009842 |contributionThe Sorcerer and His Apprentice: Aleister Crowley and the Magical Exploration of Edwardian Subjectivity |editor2-lastStarr |editor2-first=Martin P.}}
* {{Cite book |lastOwen |firstAlex |titleThe Place of Enchantment: British Occultism and the Culture of the Modern |publisherUniversity of Chicago Press |year2004 |isbn978-0-226-64201-7 |pages186–202 |languageen |chapterAleister Crowley in the Desert |doi10.7208/chicago/9780226642031.003.0007 |oclc593274241 |chapter-urlhttps://archive.org/details/placeofenchantme0000owen/page/186/mode/2up |chapter-url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite journal |lastPasi |firstMarco |year2003 |titleThe Neverendingly Told Story: Recent Biographies of Aleister Crowley |journalAries: Journal for the Study of Western Esotericism |volume3 |issue2 |pages224–45 |doi10.1163/157005903767876928 |issn1567-9896}}
* {{Cite book |lastPasi |firstMarco |titleAleister Crowley and the Temptation of Politics |publisherAcumen |othersAriel Godwin (translator) |year2014 |isbn978-1-84465-696-7 |locationDurham |oclc872678868 |orig-year1999}}
* {{Cite book |lastPegg |firstNicholas |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idLqFkDQAAQBAJ |titleThe Complete David Bowie: New Edition: Expanded and Updated |date2 November 2016 |publisherTitan Books |isbn978-1-78565-533-3 |languageen |oclc774591703 |author-link=Nicholas Pegg}}
* {{cite book |lastRedmond |firstGeoffrey |chapterThe Yijing in Early Postwar Counterculture in the West |editor-lastNg |editor-firstBenjamin Wai-ming |titleThe Making of the Global Yijing in the Modern World: Cross-cultural Interpretations and Interactions |year2021 |publisherSpringer Nature Singapore |isbn978-981-336-228-4 |pages197ff}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2012 |titleAleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |publisherOxford University Press |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/8721/chapter-abstract/154785470 |lastRichmond |firstKeith |editor-lastBogdan |editor-firstHenrik |pages307–34 |doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863075.003.0013 |isbn978-0-19-986309-9 |oclc820009842 |contributionThrough the Witch's Looking Glass: The Magick of Aleister Crowley and the Witchcraft of Rosaleen Norton |editor2-lastStarr |editor2-first=Martin P.}}
* {{cite book |lastRobinson |firstD. | authorlinkDouglas Robinson (academic) | year2017 |titleExorcising Translation: Towards an Intercivilizational Turn |publisherBloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-1-5013-2605-9}}
* {{Cite book |lastSpence |firstRichard B. |authorlinkRichard B. Spence |titleSecret Agent 666: Aleister Crowley, British Intelligence and the Occult |publisherFeral House |year2008 |isbn978-1-932595-33-8 |locationPort Townsend, Washington |oclc=658217241}}
* {{Cite book |lastSutin |firstLawrence |urlhttps://archive.org/details/dowhatthouwiltli0000suti |titleDo What Thou Wilt: A Life of Aleister Crowley |publisherSt. Martin's Press |year2000 |isbn978-0-312-25243-4 |locationNew York |oclc43581537 |author-linkLawrence Sutin |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |lastSymonds |firstJohn |titleThe Beast 666: The Life of Aleister Crowley |publisherPindar Press |year1997 |isbn978-1-899828-21-0 |locationLondon |oclc60232203 |author-link=John Symonds}}
* {{Cite news |date23 November 2007 |titleHouse of the Unholy |workThe Scotsman |urlhttp://www.scotsman.com/what-s-on/music/house-of-the-unholy-1-700265 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150916222244/http://www.scotsman.com/what-s-on/music/house-of-the-unholy-1-700265 |archive-date16 September 2015 |issn0307-5850 | ref {{SfnRef|House of the unholy|2007}} }}
* {{Cite news |lastThe United Press |date13 April 1934 |titleConfessed Genius Loses Weird Suit |workThe Pittsburgh Press |urlhttps://news.google.com/newspapers?idd_kaAAAAIBAJ&pg=2179,5203407}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |year2012 |titleAleister Crowley and Western Esotericism |publisherOxford University Press |urlhttps://academic.oup.com/book/8721/chapter-abstract/154788603 |lastUrban |firstHugh B. |authorlinkHugh Urban | editor-lastBogdan |editor-firstHenrik |pages335–68 |doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199863075.003.0014 |isbn978-0-19-986309-9 |oclc820009842 |contributionThe Occult Roots of Scientology? L. Ron Hubbard, Aleister Crowley, and the Origins of a Controversial New Religion |editor2-lastStarr |editor2-firstMartin P.}}
* {{Cite book |lastvan Luijk |firstRuben |titleChildren of Lucifer: The Origins of Modern Religious Satanism |publisherOxford University Press |year2016 |isbn978-0-19-027512-9 |seriesOxford Studies in Western Esotericism |locationNew York |pages294–343 |chapterPaths into the Twentieth Century |doi10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190275105.003.0011 |oclc933273961}}
{{refend}}
Further reading
{{Refbegin|2|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite journal |lastGillavry |firstD. M. |year2013 |titleAleister Crowley, the Guardian Angel and Aiwass: The Nature of Spiritual Beings in the Philosophies of the Great Beast 666 |urlhttps://journals.phil.muni.cz/sacra/article/view/31571 |journalSacra |volume11 |issue2 |pages33–42 |issn1214-5351 |s2cid58907340 |refnone |hdl-accessfree |hdl11222.digilib/132199}}
*{{cite book |lastReaddy |firstKeith |year2018 |titleOne Truth and One Spirit: Aleister Crowley's Spiritual Legacy |publisherIbis Press |isbn978-0892541843}}
* {{Cite journal |lastTully |firstCaroline |year2010 |titleWalk Like an Egyptian: Egypt as Authority in Aleister Crowley's Reception of The Book of the Law |urlhttps://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/items/6c3ae6dd-f07a-5c62-9161-b1b62f2daed0 |journalThe Pomegranate: The International Journal of Pagan Studies |volume12 |issue1 |pages20–47 |doi10.1558/pome.v12i1.20 |hdl11343/252812 |hdl-accessfree |issn1528-0268 |s2cid159745083 |ref=none}}
{{refend}}
External links
{{sister project links|bno|nno|vPortal:Thelema|wiktno|authoryes|commonsCategory:Aleister Crowley|d=Q172684}}
* {{Gutenberg author | id5341 | nameAleister Crowley}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Aleister Crowley}}
* {{Librivox author |id=3219}}
* [http://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=00144 Aleister Crowley Collection] at the Harry Ransom Center, University of Texas
* [https://www.wondersofsicily.com/cefalu-aleister-crowley-abbey-thelema.htm "Aleister Crowley and the Abbey of Thelema in Cefalù"] at WondersOfSicily.com, with photos
* [http://www.carlosatanes.com/#!perdurabo/c1oy7 Perdurabo (Where is Aleister Crowley?)] – film on the Abbey of Thelema by Carlos Atanes
* {{ISFDB name|6606}}
{{Magic and Witchcraft in the British Isles}}
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Category:Burials in Hunterdon County, New Jersey | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleister_Crowley | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.105760 |
1178 | Afterlife | {{Short description|Purported continued existence after death}}
{{Redirect-several|Afterlife|After death|Life after death|Hereafter}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{POV|dateJune 2023|talkAfterlife#Heaven and Hell}}
{{Religious text primary|reasonMost of the article either uses primary sources or unreliable sources|dateSeptember 2021}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
visiting Heaven and Hell from an illuminated manuscript version of the Islamic text Stories of the Prophets (1577)]]
{{Philosophy of religion sidebar |expanded=religion}}
{{Anthropology of religion|Basic}}
The afterlife or life after death is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individual's stream of consciousness or identity continues to exist after the death of their physical body.<ref>Microsoft News. [https://www.msn.com/en-us/health/medical/near-death-experience-expert-says-he-s-proven-there-is-an-afterlife-without-a-doubt/ar-AA1fYNDY?ocidwinp1taskbar&cvidebde2a3cdba34acd8f7f9001061c6450&ei=25 Near-death experience expert says he’s proven there is an afterlife ‘without a doubt’]. Retrieved 1 Sept., 2023</ref> The surviving essential aspect varies between belief systems; it may be some partial element, or the entire soul or spirit, which carries with it one's personal identity.
In some views, this continued existence takes place in a spiritual realm, while in others, the individual may be reborn into this world and begin the life cycle over again in a process referred to as reincarnation, likely with no memory of what they have done in the past. In this latter view, such rebirths and deaths may take place over and over again continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or otherworld. Major views on the afterlife derive from religion, esotericism, and metaphysics.
Some belief systems, such as those in the Abrahamic tradition, hold that the dead go to a specific place (e.g., paradise or hell) after death, as determined by their god, based on their actions and beliefs during life. In contrast, in systems of reincarnation, such as those of the Indian religions, the nature of the continued existence is determined directly by the actions of the individual in the ended life.
{{TOC limit|3}}
Different metaphysical models
Theist immortalists generally believe some afterlife awaits people when they die. Members of some generally non-theistic religions believe in an afterlife without reference to a deity.{{Citation needed|date=August 2024}}
Religions, such as Christianity, Islam, and various pagan belief systems, believe in the soul's existence in another world, while others, like many forms of Hinduism and Buddhism, believe in reincarnation. In both cases, these religions hold that one's status in the afterlife is determined by their conduct during life.{{Citation needed|dateMarch 2024}}Reincarnation
{{main|Reincarnation}}
Reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each death. This concept is also known as rebirth or transmigration and is part of the Saṃsāra/karma doctrine of cyclic existence. Samsara refers to the process in which souls (jivas) go through a sequence of human and animal forms. Traditional Hinduism teaches that each life helps the soul (jivas) learn until the soul becomes purified to the point of liberation.<ref>{{Cite book |lastAiken |firstLewis R. |urlhttps://archive.org/details/dyingdeathbereav0000aike_h4a8 |titleDying, death, and bereavement |date2000 |publisherLawrence Erlbaum Associates |isbn0-585-30171-9 |edition4th |locationMahwah, NJ |oclc45729833 |url-accessregistration}}</ref> All major Indian religions, namely Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism, and Sikhism have their own interpretations of the idea of reincarnation.<!--{{Sfn|Mark Juergensmeyer|Wade Clark Roof|2011|pp271-272}}{{sfn|Stephen J. Laumakis|2008|pp90–99}}--><ref name"Gross1993p148">{{cite book|authorRita M. Gross |titleBuddhism After Patriarchy: A Feminist History, Analysis, and Reconstruction of Buddhism |urlhttps://archive.org/details/buddhismafterpat00gros |url-accessregistration |year1993|publisherState University of New York Press|isbn978-1-4384-0513-1 |page[https://archive.org/details/buddhismafterpat00gros/page/148 148]}}</ref> The human idea of reincarnation is found in many diverse ancient cultures,<!--{{Sfn|Norman C. McClelland|2010|pp102–03}}--><ref>{{Cite journal |lastAnakwue |firstNicholas Chukwudike |date2018-02-22 |titleThe African Origins of Greek Philosophy: Ancient Egypt in Retrospect |journalPhronimon |volume18 |pages167–180 |doi10.25159/2413-3086/2361 |issn2413-3086|doi-accessfree }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastMcClelland |firstNorman |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idS_Leq4U5ihkC |titleEncyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma |publisherMcFarland |year2018 |isbn978-0786456758 |pages1–320 |languageEnglish}}</ref> and a belief in rebirth/metempsychosis was held by historic Greek figures, such as Pythagoras and Plato.<ref>see Charles Taliaferro, Paul Draper, Philip L. Quinn, A Companion to Philosophy of Religion. John Wiley and Sons, 2010, p. 640, [https://books.google.com/books?idSSCx-67Tk6cC&pg=PA640 Google Books]
For Plato, see Kamtekar 2016 and Campbell 2022.
Kamtekar, Rachana. "The Soul's (After-) Life," Ancient Philosophy 36 (2016): 1–18.
Campbell, Douglas R. "Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy," Review of Metaphysics 75 4 (2022): 643–665.</ref> It is a common belief of various ancient and modern religions, such as Spiritism, theosophy, and Eckankar. It is found as well in many tribal societies around the world, in places such as Australia, East Asia, Siberia, and South America.<ref>Gananath Obeyesekere, Imagining Karma: Ethical Transformation in Amerindian, Buddhist, and Greek Rebirth. University of California Press, 2002, p. 15.</ref>
Although the majority of denominations within the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate, particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation; these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of Kabbalah, the Cathars, Alawites, the Druze,<ref>Hitti, Philip K (2007) [1924]. Origins of the Druze People and Religion, with Extracts from their Sacred Writings (New Edition). Columbia University Oriental Studies. 28. London: Saqi. pp. 13–14. {{ISBN|0-86356-690-1}}</ref> and the Rosicrucians.<ref name":1">Heindel, Max (1985) [1939, 1908] The Rosicrucian Christianity Lectures (Collected Works): [http://www.rosicrucian.com/rcl/rcleng01.htm#lecture1 The Riddle of Life and Death] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100629063357/http://www.rosicrucian.com/rcl/rcleng01.htm#lecture1 |date=29 June 2010 }}. Oceanside, California. 4th edition. {{ISBN|0-911274-84-7}}</ref> The historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of neoplatonism, Orphism, Hermeticism, Manicheanism, and Gnosticism of the Roman era as well as the Indian religions have been the subject of scholarly research.<ref>An important recent work discussing the mutual influence of ancient Greek and Indian philosophy regarding these matters is The Shape of Ancient Thought by Thomas McEvilley.</ref> Unity Church and its founder Charles Fillmore teach reincarnation.
Rosicrucians<ref name":1" /> speak of a life review period occurring immediately after death and before entering the afterlife's planes of existence (before the silver cord is broken), followed by a judgment, more akin to a final review or end report over one's life.<ref>Max Heindel, [http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/death5.htm Death and Life in Purgatory] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060711223116/http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/death5.htm |date11 July 2006 }}—[http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/death6.htm Life and Activity in Heaven] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20060711223133/http://www.rosicrucian.com/zineen/death6.htm |date11 July 2006 }}</ref>Heaven and Hell
{{Main|Heaven|Hell}}
Heaven, the heavens, Seven Heavens, pure lands, Tian, Jannah, Valhalla, or the Summerland, is a common religious, cosmological, or transcendent place where beings such as gods, angels, jinn, saints, or venerated ancestors are said to originate, be enthroned, or live. According to the beliefs of some religions, heavenly beings can descend to earth or incarnate, and earthly beings can ascend to heaven in the afterlife, or in exceptional cases, enter heaven alive.
Heaven is often described as a "higher place", the holiest place, a paradise, in contrast to hell or the underworld or the "low places", and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity, goodness, piety, faith or other virtues or right beliefs or the will of God. Some believe in the possibility of a heaven on Earth in a world to come.
In Hinduism, heaven is termed Svarga loka. There are seven positive regions and seven negative regions to which the soul can go after death.<ref>{{Cite news |titleLife After Death Revealed – What Really Happens in the Afterlife |languageen-GB |workSpiritual Science Research Foundation |urlhttps://www.spiritualresearchfoundation.org/spiritual-research/afterlife/life-after-death/ |url-statuslive |access-date9 March 2018 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20180612141042/https://www.spiritualresearchfoundation.org/spiritual-research/afterlife/life-after-death/ |archive-dateJun 12, 2018}}</ref> After completing its stay in the respective region, the soul is subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma. This cycle can be broken after a soul achieves Moksha or Nirvana. Any place of existence, either of humans, souls or deities, outside the tangible world (heaven, hell, or other) is referred to as otherworld.
Hell, in many religious and folkloric traditions, is a place of torment and punishment in the afterlife. Religions with a linear divine history often depict hell as an eternal destination,<!--(for example, see Christian views on hell)--> while religions with a cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations.<!--(for example, see Chinese Diyu)--> Typically, these traditions locate hell in another dimension or under the Earth's surface and often include entrances to hell from the land of the living. Other afterlife destinations include purgatory and limbo.
Traditions that do not conceive of the afterlife as a place of punishment or reward merely describe hell as an abode of the dead, the grave, a neutral place (for example, Sheol or Hades) located under the surface of Earth.<ref name"EECO 2018">{{cite encyclopedia |author-lastSomov |author-firstAlexey |year2018 |titleAfterlife |editor1-lastHunter |editor1-firstDavid G. |editor2-lastvan Geest |editor2-firstPaul J. J. |editor3-lastLietaert Peerbolte |editor3-firstBert Jan |encyclopediaBrill Encyclopedia of Early Christianity Online |locationLeiden and Boston |publisherBrill Publishers |doi10.1163/2589-7993_EECO_SIM_00000067 |issn2589-7993}}</ref>
Ancient religions
Ancient Egyptian religion
{{main|Ancient Egyptian religion#Afterlife}}
]]
shows a heart being weighed on the scale of Maat against the feather of truth, by the jackal-headed Anubis. The ibis-headed Thoth, scribe of the gods, records the result. If the heart is lighter than the feather, a persion is allowed to pass into the afterlife. If not, they are eaten by the waiting Ammit. Vignettes such as these were a common illustration in Egyptian books of the dead.]]
The afterlife played an important role in Ancient Egyptian religion, and its belief system is one of the earliest known in recorded history. When the body died, parts of its soul known as ka (body double) and the ba (personality) would go to the Kingdom of the Dead. While the soul dwelt in the Fields of Aaru, Osiris demanded work as restitution for the protection he provided. Statues were placed in the tombs to serve as substitutes for the deceased.<ref>Richard P. Taylor, Death and the afterlife: A Cultural Encyclopedia, ABC-CLIO, 2000, {{ISBN|0-87436-939-8}}</ref>
Arriving at one's reward in afterlife was a demanding ordeal, requiring a sin-free heart and the ability to recite the spells, passwords, and formulae of the Book of the Dead. In the Hall of Two Truths, the deceased's heart was weighed against the Shu feather of truth and justice taken from the headdress of the goddess Ma'at.<ref>{{cite book | last Bard| first Katheryn | title Encyclopedia of the Archaeology of Ancient Egypt | publisher Routledge | year = 1999}}</ref> If the heart was lighter than the feather, they could pass on, but if it were heavier they would be devoured by the demon Ammit.<ref>Kathryn Demeritt, ''Ptah's Travels: Kingdoms of Ancient Egypt'', 2005, p. 82</ref>
Egyptians also believed that being mummified and put in a sarcophagus (an ancient Egyptian "coffin" carved with complex symbols and designs, as well as pictures and hieroglyphs) was the only way to have an afterlife. What are referred to as the Coffin Texts, are inscribed on a coffin and serve as a guide for the challenges in the afterlife. The Coffin texts are more or less a duplication of the Pyramid Texts, which would serve as a guide for Egyptian pharaohs or queens in the afterlife. Only if the corpse had been properly embalmed and entombed in a mastaba, could the dead live again in the Fields of Yalu and accompany the Sun on its daily ride. Due to the dangers the afterlife posed, the Book of the Dead was placed in the tomb with the body as well as food, jewelry, and 'curses'. They also used the "opening of the mouth".<ref>Glennys Howarth, Oliver Leaman, Encyclopedia of death and dying, 2001, p. 238</ref><ref>Natalie Lunis, ''Tut's Deadly Tomb, 2010, p. 11</ref>
Ancient Egyptian civilization was based on religion. The belief in the rebirth after death became the driving force behind funeral practices; for them, death was a temporary interruption rather than complete cessation of life. Eternal life could be ensured by means like piety to the gods, preservation of the physical form through mummification, and the provision of statuary and other funerary equipment. Each human consisted of the physical body, the ka, the ba, and the akh. The Name and Shadow were also living entities. To enjoy the afterlife, all these elements had to be sustained and protected from harm.<ref>Fergus Fleming, Alan Lothian, Ancient Egypt's Myths and Beliefs'', 2011, p. 96</ref>
On 30 March 2010, a spokesman for the Egyptian Culture Ministry claimed it had unearthed a large red granite door in Luxor with inscriptions by User,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.meeja.com.au/articles/door-to-afterlife-found-in-egyptian-tomb|titleDoor to Afterlife found in Egyptian tomb |publishermeeja.com.au |date30 March 2010 |access-date30 September 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110706110016/http://www.meeja.com.au/articles/door-to-afterlife-found-in-egyptian-tomb |archive-date6 July 2011}}</ref> a powerful adviser to the 18th Dynasty Queen Hatshepsut who ruled between 1479 BC and 1458 BC, the longest of any woman. It believes the false door is a 'door to the Afterlife'. According to the archaeologists, the door was reused in a structure in Roman Egypt.Ancient Greek and Roman religions
{{main|Greek underworld}}
The Greek god Hades is known in Greek mythology as the king of the underworld, a place where souls live after death.<ref>F. P. Retief and L. Cilliers, "Burial customs, the afterlife and the pollution of death in ancient Greece", Acta Theologica 26(2), 2006, p. 45 ([http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/viewFile/52560/41166 PDF] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141006083809/http://www.ajol.info/index.php/actat/article/viewFile/52560/41166 |date6 October 2014 }}).</ref> The Greek god Hermes, the messenger of the gods, would take the dead soul of a person to the underworld (sometimes called Hades or the House of Hades). Hermes would leave the soul on the banks of the River Styx, the river between life and death.<ref>Social Studies School Service, Ancient Greece, 2003, pp.&nbsp;49–51</ref>
Charon, also known as the ferry-man, would take the soul across the river to Hades, if the soul had gold: upon burial, the family of the dead soul would put coins under the deceased's tongue. Once crossed, the soul would be judged by Aeacus, Rhadamanthus and King Minos. The soul would be sent to Elysium, Tartarus, or Asphodel Fields. The Elysian Fields were for the ones that lived pure lives. It consisted of green fields, valleys and mountains, everyone there was peaceful and contented, and the Sun always shone there. Tartarus was for the people that blasphemed against the gods or were rebellious and consciously evil.<ref>Perry L. Westmoreland, Ancient Greek Beliefs, 2007, pp.&nbsp;68–70</ref> In Tartarus, the soul would be punished by being burned in lava or stretched on racks. The Asphodel Fields were for a varied selection of human souls including those whose sins equaled their goodness, those who were indecisive in their lives, and those who were not judged.
Some heroes of Greek legend are allowed to visit the underworld. The Romans had a similar belief system about the afterlife, with Hades becoming known as Pluto. In the ancient Greek myth about the Labours of Heracles, the hero Heracles had to travel to the underworld to capture Cerberus, the three-headed guard dog, as one of his tasks.
In Dream of Scipio, Cicero describes what seems to be an out of body experience, of the soul traveling high above the Earth, looking down at the small planet, from far away.<ref>N. Sabir, Heaven Hell Or, 2010, p. 147</ref>
In Book VI of Virgil's Aeneid, the hero, Aeneas, travels to the underworld to see his father. By the River Styx, he sees the souls of those not given a proper burial, forced to wait by the river until someone buries them. While down there, along with the dead, he is shown the place where the wrongly convicted reside, the fields of sorrow where those who committed suicide and now regret it reside, including Aeneas' former lover, the warriors and shades, Tartarus (where the titans and powerful non-mortal enemies of the Olympians reside) where he can hear the groans of the imprisoned, the palace of Pluto, and the fields of Elysium where the descendants of the divine and bravest heroes reside. He sees the river of forgetfulness, Lethe, which the dead must drink to forget their life and begin anew. Lastly, his father shows him all of the future heroes of Rome who will live if Aeneas fulfills his destiny in founding the city.
Other eschatological views populate the ancient-Greek worldview. For instance, Plato argued for reincarnation in several dialogues, including the Timaeus.<ref>See Timaeus 90–92. For a recent scholarly treatment, see Douglas R. Campbell, "Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy," Review of Metaphysics 75 (4): 643–665. 2022.</ref>
Norse religion
{{main|Death in Norse paganism}}
{{more citations needed section|date=July 2017}}
The Poetic and Prose Eddas, the oldest sources for information on the Norse concept of the afterlife, vary in their description of the several realms that are described as falling under this topic. The most well-known are:
* Valhalla: (lit. "Hall of the Slain" i.e. "the Chosen Ones") Half the warriors who die in battle join the god Odin who rules over a majestic hall called Valhalla in Asgard.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.viking-mythology.com/theNineWorlds.php|titleNorse Mythology {{!}} The Nine Worlds|websitewww.viking-mythology.com|access-date11 May 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160515211313/http://www.viking-mythology.com/theNineWorlds.php|archive-date15 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Fólkvangr: ({{lit|Field of the Host}}) The other half join the goddess Freyja in a great meadow known as Fólkvangr.<ref>{{Cite news|urlhttp://spangenhelm.com/folkvangr-freyjas-field-warriors/|titleFólkvangr, Freyja welcomes you to the Field of the Host|date20 May 2016|workSpangenhelm|access-date10 July 2017|languageen-US|archive-date15 September 2017|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170915104336/http://spangenhelm.com/folkvangr-freyjas-field-warriors/|url-status=live}}</ref>
* Niflhel: (lit. "The Dark" or "Misty Hel"). Niflhel is believed to be a place of punishment, where the oathbreakers and other wicked people go.
* Hel: ({{lit|The Covered Hall}}). Hel was the daughter of god Loki and her kingdom was located in downward and northward. Snorri Sturluson's Gylfaginning tells of evil men going to Niflhel via Hel.
Abrahamic religions
Judaism
{{main|Jewish Eschatology}}
Sheol
Sheol, in the Hebrew Bible, is a place of darkness (Job 10:21–22) to which all the dead go—both the righteous and the unrighteous—regardless of the moral choices made in life (Genesis 35:37; Book of Ezekiel 32; Isaiah 16; Job 30:23), a place of stillness (Psalm 88:13, 94:17; Ecclesiastes 9:10), at the longest possible distance from Heaven (Job 11:8; Amos 9:2; Psalm 139:8).<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13563-sheol|titleSHEOL - JewishEncyclopedia.com|websitewww.jewishencyclopedia.com|access-date8 December 2019|archive-date18 September 2015|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150918204814/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13563-sheol|url-status=live}}</ref>
The inhabitants of Sheol were the "shades" (rephaim), entities without personality or strength.<!--{{sfn|Longenecker|2003|p188}}--> Under some circumstances, they were thought to be able to be contacted by the living (as the Witch of Endor contacts the shade of Samuel for Saul), but such practices were forbidden (Deuteronomy 18:10).<!--{{sfn|Knobel|2011|pp205–06}}-->{{sfn|Berdichevsky|2016|page=22}}
Whereas the Hebrew Bible appears to describe Sheol as the permanent place of the dead, in the Second Temple period (roughly 500 BC – 70 AD), a more diverse set of ideas developed. In some texts, Sheol is considered to be the home of both the righteous and the wicked, separated into respective compartments; in others, it was considered a place of punishment, meant for the wicked dead alone.<!--{{sfn|Longenecker|2003|p189}}--><ref name":0" /> When the Hebrew scriptures were translated into Greek in ancient Alexandria around 200 BC, the word "Hades" (the Greek underworld) was substituted for Sheol. This is reflected in the New Testament where Hades is both the underworld of the dead and the personification of the evil it represents.<!--{{sfn|Longenecker|2003|p189}}--><ref name":0">{{Cite journal|lastPearson|firstFred|date1938|titleSheol and Hades in Old and New Testament|journalReview & Expositor|volume35|issue3|pages304–314|doi10.1177/003463733803500304|s2cid147690674|viaSAGE journals}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1Berdichevsky |first1Norman |titleModern Hebrew: The Past and Future of a Revitalized Language |date2016 |publisherMcFarland |isbn978-1-4766-2629-1 |page23 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idf1_TCwAAQBAJ&pgPA23 |languageen}}</ref>
World to Come
The Talmud offers several thoughts relating to the afterlife. After death, the soul is brought for judgment. Those who have led pristine lives immediately enter the Olam Haba or world to come. Most do not enter the world to come immediately but experience a period of reflection on their earthly actions and are made aware of what they have done wrong. Some view this period as "re-schooling", with the soul gaining wisdom as one's errors are reviewed. Others view this period as spiritual discomfort caused by past wrongs. At the end of this period, not longer than one year, the soul then takes its place in the world to come. Although discomforts are made part of certain Jewish conceptions of the afterlife, the concept of eternal damnation is not a tenet of the Jewish afterlife. According to the Talmud, extinction of the soul is reserved for a far smaller group of malicious and evil leaders whose very evil deeds go way beyond norms or who lead large groups of people to utmost evil.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/tsa/tsa37.htm |titleTractate Sanhedrin: Interpolated Section: Those Who have no Share in the World to Come |publisherSacred-texts.com |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date20 October 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191020131637/https://www.sacred-texts.com/jud/tsa/tsa37.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0011_0_10049.html |titleJehoiakim |publisherJewishvirtuallibrary.org |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date9 November 2016 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20161109045833/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/judaica/ejud_0002_0011_0_10049.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> This is also part of Maimonides' 13 principles of faith.<ref name="perek-helek-c">Maimonides' Introduction to Perek Helek, publ. and transl. by Maimonides Heritage Center, p. 22-23.</ref>
Maimonides describes the Olam Haba in spiritual terms, relegating the prophesied physical resurrection to the status of a future miracle unrelated to the afterlife or the Messianic era. According to Maimonides, an afterlife continues for the soul of every human being: soul now separated from the body in which it was "housed" during its earthly existence.<ref>{{Cite book|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idESOJDwAAQBAJ&qmaimonides+olam+haba&pgPA178|titleJewish Views of the Afterlife|lastPaull Raphael|firstSimcha|publisherRowman & Littlefield|year2019|isbn9781538103463|pages=177–180}}</ref>
The Zohar describes Gehenna not as a place of punishment for the wicked but as a place of spiritual purification for souls.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/06-Jewish-Thought/section-9.html |titlesoc.culture.jewish FAQ: Jewish Thought (6/12) Section – Question 12.8: What do Jews say happens when a person dies? Do Jews believe in reincarnation? In hell or heaven? Purgatory? |publisherFaqs.org |date8 August 2012 |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date12 February 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200212192206/http://www.faqs.org/faqs/judaism/FAQ/06-Jewish-Thought/section-9.html |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Reincarnation in Jewish tradition
Although there is no reference to reincarnation in the Talmud or any prior writings,<ref>Saadia Gaon in Emunoth ve-Deoth Section vi</ref> according to rabbis such as Avraham Arieh Trugman, reincarnation is recognized as being part and parcel of Jewish tradition. Trugman explains that it is through oral tradition that the meanings of the Torah, its commandments, and stories are known and understood. The classic work of Jewish mysticism,<ref name"youtube.com">{{YouTube|mM8dn68vgD8|Reincarnation in the Jewish Tradition}}</ref> the Zohar, is quoted liberally in all Jewish learning; in the Zohar, the idea of reincarnation is mentioned repeatedly. Trugman states that in the last five centuries, the concept of reincarnation, which until then had been a much-hidden tradition within Judaism, was given open exposure.<ref name"youtube.com"/>
Shraga Simmons commented that within the Bible itself, the idea [of reincarnation] is intimated in Deut. 25:5–10, Deut. 33:6 and Isaiah 22:14, 65:6.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://judaism.about.com/library/3_askrabbi_o/bl_simmons_reincarnation.htm |titleAsk the Rabbi – Reincarnation |publisherJudaism.about.com |date17 December 2009 |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date9 March 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140309003453/http://judaism.about.com/library/3_askrabbi_o/bl_simmons_reincarnation.htm |url-statusdead }}</ref>
Yirmiyahu Ullman wrote that reincarnation is an "ancient, mainstream belief in Judaism". The Zohar makes frequent and lengthy references to reincarnation. Onkelos, a righteous convert and authoritative commentator of the same period, explained the verse, "Let Reuben live and not die&nbsp;..." (Deuteronomy 33:6) to mean that Reuben should merit the World to Come directly and not have to die again as a result of being reincarnated. Torah scholar, commentator and kabbalist, Nachmanides (Ramban 1195–1270), attributed Job's suffering to reincarnation, as hinted in Job's saying "God does all these things twice or three times with a man, to bring back his soul from the pit to... the light of the living' (Job 33:29–30)."<ref>{{cite web |lastYirmiyahu |firstRabbi |urlhttp://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/1077 |titleReincarnation " Ask! " Ohr Somayach |publisherOhr.edu |date12 July 2003 |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date9 March 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140309003907/http://ohr.edu/yhiy/article.php/1077 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Reincarnation, called gilgul, became popular in folk belief and is found in much Yiddish literature among Ashkenazi Jews. Among a few kabbalists, it was posited that some human souls could end up being reincarnated into non-human bodies. These ideas were found in several Kabbalistic works from the 13th century and among many mystics in the late 16th century. Martin Buber's early collection of stories of the Baal Shem Tov's life includes several that refer to people reincarnating in successive lives.<ref>Martin Buber, "Legende des Baalschem" in Die Chassidischen Bücher, Hellerau 1928, especially Die niedergestiegene Seele</ref>
Among well-known (generally non-kabbalist or anti-kabbalist) rabbis who rejected the idea of reincarnation are Saadia Gaon, David Kimhi, Hasdai Crescas, Yedayah Bedershi (early 14th century), Joseph Albo, Abraham ibn Daud, the Rosh and Leon de Modena. Saadia Gaon, in Emunoth ve-Deoth (Hebrew: "beliefs and opinions"), concludes Section VI with a refutation of the doctrine of metempsychosis (reincarnation). While rebutting reincarnation, Saadia Gaon further states that Jews who hold to reincarnation have adopted non-Jewish beliefs. By no means do all Jews today believe in reincarnation, but belief in reincarnation is not uncommon among many Jews, including Orthodox.
Other well-known rabbis who are reincarnationists include Yonassan Gershom, Abraham Isaac Kook, Talmud scholar Adin Steinsaltz, DovBer Pinson, David M. Wexelman, Zalman Schachter,<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.sytekcom.com/rooster/bta-faq1.html |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110716181413/http://www.sytekcom.com/rooster/bta-faq1.html |archive-date16 July 2011 |titleReincarnation and the Holocaust FAQ}}</ref> and many others. Reincarnation is cited by authoritative Biblical commentators, including Ramban (Nachmanides), Menachem Recanti, and Rabbenu Bachya.
Among the many volumes of Yitzchak Luria, most of which come down from the pen of his primary disciple, Chaim Vital, are insights explaining issues related to reincarnation. His Shaar HaGilgulim ("The Gates of Reincarnation") is a book devoted exclusively to the subject of reincarnation in Judaism.
Rabbi Naftali Silberberg of The Rohr Jewish Learning Institute notes that "Many ideas that originate in other religions and belief systems have been popularized in the media and are taken for granted by unassuming Jews."<ref>{{cite news|titleWhere does the soul go? New course explores spiritual existence|urlhttp://www.westhartfordnews.com/articles/2015/10/14/news/doc561ecaa6934c1312697232.txt|agencyWest Hartford News|date14 October 2015|locationMiddletown, CT|access-date18 October 2015|archive-date4 March 2016|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160304101640/http://www.westhartfordnews.com/articles/2015/10/14/news/doc561ecaa6934c1312697232.txt|url-statuslive}}</ref>Christianity
{{main|Eternal life (Christianity)}}
{{see also|Heaven in Christianity|Christian views on Hell}}
{{Primary sources|section|findAfterlife|find2Christianity|date=July 2017}}
Mainstream Christianity professes belief in the Nicene Creed, and English versions of the Nicene Creed in current use include the phrase: "We look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life of the world to come."
When questioned by the Sadducees about the resurrection of the dead (in a context relating to who one's spouse would be if one had been married several times in life), Jesus said that marriage would be irrelevant after the resurrection as the resurrected will be like the angels in Heaven.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?searchmatthew%2022:23-33;&version47; |titleMatthew 22:23–33 |publisherBiblegateway.com |access-date8 March 2014}}</ref><ref name"Boulaouali 147–158">{{Cite journal |lastBoulaouali |firstTijani |date2022-11-03 |titleBiblical Eschatology and Qur'anic 'Ākhirāh: A Comparative Approach of the Concepts Afterlife, Death and the Day of Judgement |urlhttps://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/kt/article/view/19851 |journalKhazanah Theologia |volume4 |issue3 |pages147–158 |doi10.15575/kt.v4i3.19851 |s2cid255287161 |issn2715-9701 |access-date8 January 2023 |archive-date8 January 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230108124609/https://journal.uinsgd.ac.id/index.php/kt/article/view/19851 |url-statuslive |doi-accessfree }}</ref>
Jesus also maintained that the time would come when the dead would hear the voice of the Son of God, and all who were in the tombs would come out; those who have heard his "[commandments] and believes in the one who sent [Him]" to the "resurrection of life", but those who do not to the "resurrection of condemnation".<ref>John 5:24{{cite web |urlhttps://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PXD.HTM |titleThe New American Bible |publisherVatican.va |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date2 August 2013 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130802022938/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0839/__PXD.HTM |url-status=live }}</ref>
The Book of Enoch describes Sheol as divided into four compartments for four types of the dead: the faithful saints who await resurrection in Paradise, the merely virtuous who await their reward, the wicked who await punishment, and the wicked who have already been punished and will not be resurrected on Judgment Day.<ref>Fosdick, Harry Emerson. A guide to understanding the Bible. New York: Harper & Brothers. 1956. p. 276.</ref> The Book of Enoch is considered apocryphal by most denominations of Christianity and all of Judaism.
The book of 2 Maccabees clearly describes the dead waiting for future resurrection and judgment, along with prayers and offerings for the deceased to alleviate their sins.
's Inferno: a Christian vision of hell]]
The author of the Gospel of Luke recounts the story of Lazarus and the rich man, which shows people in Hades awaiting the resurrection either in comfort or torment. The author of the Book of Revelation writes about God and the angels versus Satan and demons in an epic battle at the end of times when all souls are judged. There is mention of ghostly bodies of the prophets and the transfiguration.
The non-canonical Acts of Paul and Thecla speak of the efficacy of prayer for the dead so that they might be "translated to a state of happiness".<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/thecla.html Acts of Paul and Thecla] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070606225812/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/basis/thecla.html |date6 June 2007 }} 8:5</ref>
Hippolytus of Rome pictures the underworld (Hades) as a place where the righteous dead, waiting in the bosom of Abraham for their resurrection, rejoice at their future prospect; the unrighteous are tormented at the sight of the "lake of unquenchable fire" into which they are destined to be cast.
Gregory of Nyssa discusses the long-before-believed possibility of purification of souls after death.<ref>He wrote that a person "may afterward in a quite different manner be very much interested in what is better, when, after his departure out of the body, he gains knowledge of the difference between virtue and vice and finds that he is not able to partake of divinity until he has been purged of the filthy contagion in his soul by the purifying fire" (emphasis added)—Sermon on the Dead, AD 382, quoted in [http://www.catholic.com/library/Roots_of_Purgatory.asp The Roots of Purgatory] {{webarchive |urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070527235028/http://www.catholic.com/library/Roots_of_Purgatory.asp |date27 May 2007 }}</ref>
Pope Gregory I repeats the concept, articulated over a century earlier by Gregory of Nyssa, that the saved suffer purification after death. In connection with this, he wrote of "purgatorial flames."
The noun "purgatorium" (Latin: place of cleansing<ref>[http://www.answers.com/topic/purgatory "purgatory"] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070317200253/http://www.answers.com/topic/purgatory |date17 March 2007 }}. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia University Press., 2003. Answers.com 6 June 2007.</ref>) is used for the first time to describe a state of painful purification of the saved afterlife. The same word in adjectival form (purgatorius -a -um, cleansing), which appears also in non-religious writing,<ref>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2339625 |titleCharlton T. Lewis, Charles Short, A Latin Dictionary |publisherPerseus.tufts.edu |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date21 February 2008 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080221225206/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2339625 |url-status=live }}</ref> was already used by Christians such as Augustine of Hippo and Pope Gregory I to refer to an after-death cleansing.
Theologians and philosophers presented various philosophies and beliefs during the Age of Enlightenment. A notable example is Emanuel Swedenborg who wrote some 18 theological works which describe in detail the nature of the afterlife according to his claimed spiritual experiences, the most famous of which is Heaven and Hell.<ref name"swedenborgdigitallibrary.org">{{cite web |urlhttps://newchristianbiblestudy.org/exposition/translation/heaven-and-hell-dole/contents/10 |authorSwedenborg, E. |titleHeaven and Hell |publisherSwedenborg Foundation |date2000 |access-date12 December 2017 |archive-date8 December 2017 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171208175232/https://newchristianbiblestudy.org/exposition/translation/heaven-and-hell-dole/contents/10 |url-statuslive }}</ref> His report of life there covers a wide range of topics, such as marriage in heaven (where all angels are married), children in heaven (where they are raised by angel parents), time and space in heaven (there are none), the after-death awakening process in the World of Spirits (a place halfway between Heaven and Hell and where people first wake up after death), the allowance of a free will choice between Heaven or Hell (as opposed to being sent to either one by God), the eternity of Hell (one could leave but would never want to), and that all angels or devils were once people on earth.<ref name"swedenborgdigitallibrary.org"/>The Catholic ChurchThe Catholic conception of the afterlife teaches that after the body dies, the soul is judged, the righteous and free of sin enter Heaven. However, those who die in unrepented mortal sin go to hell. In the 1990s, the Catechism of the Catholic Church defined hell not as punishment imposed on the sinner but rather as the sinner's self-exclusion from God. Unlike other Christian groups, the Catholic Church teaches that those who die in a state of grace but still carry venial sin go to a place called Purgatory, where they undergo purification to enter Heaven.Limbo
{{main|Limbo}}
Despite popular opinion, Limbo, which was elaborated upon by theologians beginning in the Middle Ages, was never recognized as a dogma of the Catholic Church, yet, at times, it has been a very popular theological theory within the Church. Limbo is a theory that unbaptized but innocent souls, such as those of infants or virtuous individuals who lived before Jesus Christ was born, exist in neither Heaven nor Hell proper. Therefore, these souls neither merit the beatific vision nor are subjected to any punishment because they are not guilty of any personal sin although they have not received baptism, so they still bear original sin. So, they are generally seen as existing in a state of natural, but not supernatural, happiness until the end of time.
In other Christian denominations, it has been described as an intermediate place or state of confinement in oblivion and neglect.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.thefreedictionary.com/limbo |titlelimbo – definition of limbo by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia |publisherThefreedictionary.com |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date15 May 2020 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200515065128/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/limbo |url-statuslive }}</ref>Purgatory
{{main|Purgatory}}
The notion of purgatory is associated mainly with the Catholic Church. In the Catholic Church, all those who die in God's grace and friendship but are still imperfectly purified are indeed assured of their eternal salvation. Still, after death, they undergo purification to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven or the final purification of the elect, which is entirely different from the punishment of the damned. The tradition of the church, by reference to specific texts of scripture, speaks of a "cleansing fire", but it is not always called purgatory.
Anglicans of the Anglo-Catholic tradition generally also hold to the belief. John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, believed in an intermediate state between death and the resurrection of the dead and in the possibility of "continuing to grow in holiness there", but Methodism does not officially affirm this belief and denies the possibility of helping by prayer any who may be in that state.<ref>Ted Campbell, Methodist Doctrine: The Essentials (Abingdon 1999), quoted in [http://www.umportal.org/article.asp?id5101 Feature article by United Methodist Reporter Managing Editor Robin Russell] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110722154244/http://www.umportal.org/article.asp?id5101 |date22 July 2011 }} and in [http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?clwL4KnN1LtH&b4746355&content_id%7B94F6F768-0EA6-4C1B-B6B6-0C88EC04E8A2%7D&notoc1 FAQ Belief: What happens immediately after a person dies?] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20160613074435/http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?clwL4KnN1LtH&b4746355&content_id%7B94F6F768-0EA6-4C1B-B6B6-0C88EC04E8A2%7D&notoc1 |date13 June 2016 }}</ref>
Orthodox Christianity
The Orthodox Church is intentionally reticent about the afterlife, as it acknowledges the mystery, especially of things that have not yet occurred. Beyond the second coming of Jesus, bodily resurrection, and final judgment, all of which are affirmed in the Nicene Creed (325 AD), Orthodoxy does not teach much else in any definitive manner. Unlike Western forms of Christianity, however, Orthodoxy is traditionally non-dualist and does not teach that there are two separate literal locations of heaven and hell, but instead acknowledges that "the 'location' of one's final destiny—heaven or hell—as being figurative."<ref name"Andrew P. Klager 2011">{{cite web| url http://www.clarion-journal.com/files/new-klager-compassionate-eschatology-with-biblioklager-1.pdf#page19| title Andrew P. Klager, "Orthodox Eschatology and St. Gregory of Nyssa's De vita Moysis: Transfiguration, Cosmic Unity, and Compassion," In Compassionate Eschatology: The Future as Friend, eds. Ted Grimsrud & Michael Hardin, 230–52 (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2011), 245.| access-date 3 May 2016| archive-date 25 March 2016| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160325232147/http://www.clarion-journal.com/files/new-klager-compassionate-eschatology-with-biblioklager-1.pdf#page19| url-status = live}}</ref>
Instead, Orthodoxy teaches that the final judgment is one's uniform encounter with divine love and mercy, but this encounter is experienced multifariously depending on the extent to which one has been transformed, partaken of divinity, and is therefore compatible or incompatible with God. "The monadic, immutable, and ceaseless object of eschatological encounter is therefore the love and mercy of God, his glory which infuses the heavenly temple, and it is the subjective human reaction which engenders multiplicity or any division of experience."<ref name="Andrew P. Klager 2011"/> For instance, St. Isaac the Syrian observes in his Ascetical Homilies that "those who are punished in Gehenna, are scourged by the scourge of love. ... The power of love works in two ways: it torments sinners ... [as] bitter regret. But love inebriates the souls of the sons of Heaven by its delectability."<ref>St. Isaac the Syrian, "Homily 28," In The Ascetical Homilies of Saint Isaac the Syrian, trans. Dana Miller (Brookline, MA: Holy Transfiguration Monastery Press, 1984), 141.</ref> In this sense, the divine action is always, immutably, and uniformly love, and if one experiences this love negatively, the experience is then one of self-condemnation because of free will rather than condemnation by God.
Orthodoxy therefore uses the description of Jesus' judgment in John 3:19–21 as their model: "19 And this is the judgment: the light has come into the world, and people loved the darkness rather than the light because their works were evil. 20 For everyone who does wicked things hates the light and does not come to the light, lest his works should be exposed. 21 But whoever does what is true comes to the light, so that it may be clearly seen that his works have been carried out in God." As a characteristically Orthodox understanding, then, Fr. Thomas Hopko writes, "[I]t is precisely the presence of God's mercy and love which cause the torment of the wicked. God does not punish; he forgives... In a word, God has mercy on all, whether all like it or not. If we like it, it is paradise; if we do not, it is hell. Every knee will bend before the Lord. Everything will be subject to Him. God in Christ will indeed be 'all and in all,' with boundless mercy and unconditional pardon. But not all will rejoice in God's gift of forgiveness, and that choice will be judgment, the self-inflicted source of their sorrow and pain."<ref>Fr. Thomas Hopko, "Foreword," in The Orthodox Church, Sergius Bulgakov (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1988), xiii.</ref>
Moreover, Orthodoxy includes a prevalent tradition of apokatastasis, or the restoration of all things in the end. This has been taught most notably by Origen, but also many other Church fathers and Saints, including Gregory of Nyssa. The Second Council of Constantinople (553 AD) affirmed the orthodoxy of Gregory of Nyssa while simultaneously condemning Origen's brand of universalism because it taught the restoration back to our pre-existent state, which Orthodoxy does not teach. It is also a teaching of such eminent Orthodox theologians as Olivier Clément, Metropolitan Kallistos Ware, and Bishop Hilarion Alfeyev.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.clarion-journal.com/files/new-klager-compassionate-eschatology-with-biblioklager-1.pdf#page25| title Andrew P. Klager, "Orthodox Eschatology and St. Gregory of Nyssa's De vita Moysis: Transfiguration, Cosmic Unity, and Compassion," In Compassionate Eschatology: The Future as Friend, eds. Ted Grimsrud & Michael Hardin, 230–52 (Eugene, OR: Wipf & Stock, 2011), 251.| access-date 3 May 2016| archive-date 25 March 2016| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20160325232147/http://www.clarion-journal.com/files/new-klager-compassionate-eschatology-with-biblioklager-1.pdf#page25| url-status live}}</ref> Although apokatastasis is not a dogma of the church but instead a theologoumenon, it is no less a teaching of the Orthodox Church than its rejection. As Met. Kallistos Ware explains, "It is heretical to say that all must be saved, for this is to deny free will; but, it is legitimate to hope that all may be saved,"<ref>Kallistos Ware, The Orthodox Church (New York: Penguin, 1997), 262.</ref> as insisting on torment without end also denies free will.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
{{main|Plan of salvation (Latter Day Saints)|Exaltation (Mormonism)|Degrees of glory}}
Joseph F. Smith of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints presents an elaborate vision of the afterlife. It is revealed as the scene of an extensive missionary effort by righteous spirits in paradise to redeem those still in darkness—a spirit prison or "hell" where the souls of the dead remain until judgment. It is divided into two parts: Spirit Prison and Paradise. These are also known as the Spirit World (also Abraham's Bosom; see Luke 16:19–25). They believe that Christ visited the spirit prison [https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/nt/1-pet/3.18-20?langeng (1 Peter 3:18–20)] and opened the gate for those who repent to cross over to Paradise. This is similar to the Harrowing of Hell doctrine of some mainstream Christian faiths.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1Paulsen|first1David L.|last2Cook|first2Roger D.|last3Christensen|first3Kendel J.|date2010|titleThe Harrowing of Hell: Salvation for the Dead in Early Christianity|journalJournal of the Book of Mormon and Other Restoration Scripture|volume19|issue1|pages56–77|doi10.5406/jbookmormotheres.19.1.0056|jstor10.5406/jbookmormotheres.19.1.0056|s2cid171733241|issn1948-7487|urlhttps://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms/vol19/iss1/7|access-date28 December 2022|archive-date28 November 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221128015024/https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms/vol19/iss1/7/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Both Spirit Prison and Paradise are temporary according to Latter-day Saint beliefs. After the resurrection, spirits are assigned "permanently" to three degrees of heavenly glory, determined by how they lived – Celestial, Terrestrial, and Telestial. (1 Cor 15:44–42; Doctrine and Covenants, Section 76) Sons of Perdition, or those who have known and seen God and deny it, will be sent to the realm of Satan, which is called Outer Darkness, where they shall live in misery and agony forever.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/76?langeng| title Doctrine and Covenants, Section 76.| access-date 15 July 2019| archive-date 13 July 2019| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20190713010958/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/76?langeng| url-status live}}</ref> However, according to the beliefs of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, most persons lack the amount of knowledge to commit the Eternal sin and are therefore incapable of becoming sons of perdition.<ref>Spencer W. Kimball: The Miracle of Forgiveness, p. 123.</ref>
The Celestial Kingdom is believed to be where the righteous can live eternally with their families. Progression does not end once one has entered the Celestial Kingdom but extends eternally. According to "True to the Faith" (a handbook on doctrines in the LDS faith), "The celestial kingdom is the place prepared for those who have "received the testimony of Jesus" and been "made perfect through Jesus the mediator of the new covenant, who wrought out this perfect atonement through the shedding of his own blood" (Doctrine and Covenants, 76:51, 69). To inherit this gift, we must receive the ordinances of salvation, keep the commandments, and repent of our sins."<ref>{{Cite web | urlhttps://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/true-to-the-faith/kingdoms-of-glory.p1?langeng | titleKingdoms of Glory | access-date15 July 2019 | archive-date12 January 2021 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210112061937/https://www.churchofjesuschrist.org/study/manual/true-to-the-faith/kingdoms-of-glory.p1?langeng | url-statuslive }}</ref>
Jehovah's Witnesses
Jehovah's Witnesses occasionally use terms such as "afterlife"<ref>{{cite journal|journalThe Watchtower|titleIs Gehenna a Place of Fiery Torment?|date1 April 2011|page31|urlhttp://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2011252|access-date31 December 2014|archive-date31 December 2014|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20141231095604/http://wol.jw.org/en/wol/d/r1/lp-e/2011252|url-statuslive}}</ref> to refer to any hope for the dead, but they understand Ecclesiastes 9:5 to preclude belief in an immortal soul.<ref>{{cite book|titleReasoning From the Scriptures|pages168–75}}</ref> Individuals judged by God to be wicked, such as in the Great Flood or at Armageddon, are given no hope of an afterlife. However, they believe that after Armageddon, there will be a bodily resurrection of "both righteous and unrighteous" dead (but not the "wicked"). Survivors of Armageddon and those who are resurrected are then to restore the Earth to a paradise gradually.<ref>{{cite book|titleInsight on the Scriptures|volume2|pages574–76}}</ref> After Armageddon, unrepentant sinners are punished with eternal death (non-existence).
Seventh-day Adventists
The Seventh-day Adventist Church's beliefs regarding the afterlife differ from those of other Christian churches. Rather than ascend to Heaven or descend to Hell, Adventists believe the dead "remain unconscious until the return of Christ in judgement". The concept that the dead remain dead until resurrection is one of the fundamental beliefs of Seventh-day Adventism.<ref>{{Cite web|titleThe State of the Dead: From Death to Life|urlhttps://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental-beliefs/restoration/death-and-resurrection/|websiteSeventh-day Adventist World Church Official Website|date30 March 2015 |access-date4 August 2020|archive-date12 August 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200812065438/https://www.adventist.org/beliefs/fundamental-beliefs/restoration/death-and-resurrection/|url-statuslive}}</ref> Adventists believe that death is an unconscious state (a "sleep"). This is based on Matt. 9:24; Mark 5:39; John 11:11–14; 1 Cor. 15:51, 52; 1 Thess. 4:13–17; 2 Peter 3:4; Eccl. 9:5, 6, 10. At death, all consciousness ends. The dead person does not know anything and does not do anything.<ref>{{Cite web|titleFrom Life to Death: What Really Happens When You Die?|urlhttps://www.adventist.org/articles/waking-up-to-eternity/|websiteSeventh-day Adventist World Church Official Website|date30 March 2015|access-date4 August 2020|archive-date18 September 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200918160711/https://www.adventist.org/articles/waking-up-to-eternity/|url-statuslive}}</ref> They believe that death is a decreation, or an undoing of what was created. This is described in Ecclesiastes 12:7: "When a person dies, the body turns to dust again, and the spirit goes back to God, who gave it." The spirit of every person who dies—whether saved or unsaved—returns to God at death. The spirit that returns to God at death is the breath of life.<ref>{{Cite web|titleAre the Dead Really Dead?|urlhttps://www.amazingfacts.org/media-library/study-guide/e/4987/t/are-the-dead-really-dead-|websiteAmazing Facts|access-date4 August 2020|archive-date28 September 2020|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200928060753/https://www.amazingfacts.org/media-library/study-guide/e/4987/t/are-the-dead-really-dead-|url-statuslive}}</ref>Islam
, Buraq and Gabriel visit Hell.]]
{{main|Akhirah}}
The Quran (the holy book of Islam) emphasizes the insignificance of worldly life (ḥayāt ad-dunyā usually translated as "this world") vis-a-vis the hereafter.{{#tag:ref|some of the verses are:
*"... but compared with the Hereafter the life of this world is but a [trifling] enjoyment" {{Qref|13|26|by|sy}}
*" ...The life of this world is nothing but the wares of delusion." {{Qref|3|185–186|by|sy}}
*" ...Know that the life of this world is mere diversion and play, glamour and mutual vainglory among you and rivalry for wealth and children" (Q.57:20){{Qref|57|20|by|sy}}
*" ...Seek the abode of the Hereafter by means of what Allah has given you, while not forgetting your share of this world. {{Qref|28|77|by|sy}}|group=Note}}
A central doctrine of Islamic faith is the Judgement Day (al-yawm al-ākhir, also known by other names),{{#tag:ref|The Last Day has a number of other names. It is also called the Encompassing Day (al-yawm al-muḥīṭ), more commonly known as the "Day of Resurrection" (yawm al-qiyāma), "Day of Judgment" (yawm ad-dīn), and "Day of Reckoning" (yawm al-ḥisāb), as well as both the "Day of Separation" (yawm al-faṣl) and "Day of Gathering" (yawm al-jamʿ), and is also referred to as as-Sāʿah, meaning "the Hour" signaled by the blowing of the horn/trumpet.<ref>{{Qref|39|68|byl}}</ref>|groupNote}} on which the world will come to an end and God will raise all mankind (as well as the jinn) from the dead and evaluate their worldly actions. The resurrected will be judged according to their deeds, records of which are kept on two books compiled for every human being—one for their good deeds and one for their evil ones.<ref nameBritannica/><ref name"Boulaouali 147–158"/>
Having been judged, the resurrected will cross the bridge of As-Sirāt over the pit of hell; when the condemned attempt to they will be made to fall off into hellfire below, while the righteous will have no trouble and continue on to their eternal abode of heaven.<ref>{{Cite book |titleThe Oxford dictionary of Islam |date2004 |publisherOxford University Press |isbn978-0-19-512558-0 |editor-lastEsposito |editor-firstJohn L. |edition1. issued as paperback |seriesOxford paperback reference |location=Oxford}}</ref>
Afterlife in Islam actually begins before the Last Day. After death, humans will be questioned about their faith by two angels, Munkar and Nakīr. Those who die as martyrs go immediately to paradise.<ref nameBritannica>{{cite web |titleLast Judgement |websiteBritannica |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/Last-Judgment-religion |access-date31 January 2022 |archive-date31 January 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220131151138/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Last-Judgment-religion |url-statuslive }}</ref> Others who have died and been buried will receive a taste of their eternal reward from the al-qabr or "the grave" (compare the Jewish concept of Sheol). Those bound for hell will suffer "Punishment of the Grave", while those bound for heaven will find the grave "peaceful and blessed".<ref name=JACBMM2014:46>J. A. C. Brown, Misquoting Muhammad, 2014: p. 46</ref>
Islamic scripture—the Quran and hadith (reports of the words and deeds of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad who is believed to have visited heaven and hell during his Isra and Mi'raj journey) – give vivid descriptions of the pleasures of paradise (Jannah) and sufferings of hell (Jahannam). The gardens of Jannah have cool shade,{{Qref|36|56–57|by|sy}} adorned couchs and cushions,{{Qref|18|31|sy}} rich carpets spread out, cups{{Qref|88|10–16|sy}} full of wine,{{Qref|52|23|sy}} and every meat{{Qref|52|22|sy}} and fruit{{Qref|36|56–57|sy}}. Men will be provided with perpetually youthful, beautiful ḥūr, "untouched beforehand by man or jinn",<ref name"Rustomji 2017">{{cite book |author-lastRustomji |author-firstNerina |year2017 |chapterBeauty in the Garden: Aesthetics and the Wildān, Ghilmān, and Ḥūr |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id5_MoDgAAQBAJ&pgPA297 |editor1-lastGünther |editor1-firstSebastian |editor2-lastLawson |editor2-firstTodd |titleRoads to Paradise: Eschatology and Concepts of the Hereafter in Islam |locationLeiden and Boston |publisherBrill Publishers |pages297–307 |seriesIslamic History and Civilization |volume136 |doi10.1163/9789004333154_014 |isbn978-90-04-33315-4 |issn0929-2403 |lccn2016047258 |access-date2 December 2021 |archive-date19 April 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230419034025/https://books.google.com/books?id5_MoDgAAQBAJ&pgPA297 |url-statuslive }}</ref>{{Qref|55|56|sy}} with large, beautiful eyes{{Qref|37|48|sy}}. (In recent years some have argued that the term ḥūr refers both to pure men and pure women,<ref name"dawn-houri-20">{{cite web |titleAre all 'houris' female? |urlhttps://www.dawn.com/news/635343 |websiteDawn.com |access-date22 April 2019 |date9 June 2011 |archive-date22 April 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190422220337/https://www.dawn.com/news/635343 |url-statuslive }}</ref> and/or that Quranic references to "immortal boys" ({{qref|56|17}}, {{qref|76|19}}) or "young men" ({{qref|52|24}}) (ghilmān, wildān, and suqāh) who serve wine and meals to the blessed, are the male equivalents of hur.)<ref name="Rustomji 2017"/>
In contrast, those in Jahannam will dwell in a land infested with thousands of serpents and scorpions;<ref>Ghazālī, Iḥyāʾ, v.157, trans. Winter p.221-2; quoted in {{cite book|first1Christian |last1Lange |editorChristian Lange |title Locating Hell in Islamic Traditions |chapterIntroducing Hell in Islamic Studies |publisher BRILL |isbn978-90-04-30121-4 |date2016 |refCLLHiIT2016 |page14|jstor10.1163/j.ctt1w8h1w3.7 }}</ref> be "burnt" by "scorching fire" {{Qref|88|1-7|sy}} and when "their skins are roasted through, We shall change them for fresh skins" to repeat the process forever {{Qref|4|56|sy}}; they will have nothing to drink but "boiling water and running sores"{{Qref|78|21–30|sy}};<ref name"hughes-DoI">{{cite web |last1Hughes |first1Thomas Patrick |titleProject Gutenberg's A Dictionary of Islam. Hell |urlhttps://www.gutenberg.org/files/61526/61526-h/61526-h.htm#hell |websitegutenberg.org/ |access-date30 January 2022 |dateFebruary 27, 2020 |archive-date30 January 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220130194648/https://www.gutenberg.org/files/61526/61526-h/61526-h.htm#hell |url-statuslive }}</ref> their cries of remorse and pleading for forgiveness will be in vain{{Qref|26|96–106|sy}}.<ref nameItQ-233>{{cite book|editor1-lastKaltner|editor1-firstJohn |titleIntroducing the Qur'an: For Today's Reader|date2011|publisherFortress Press|pages233|isbn9781451411386 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idCBFKDjJgh9UC&qjahannam |access-date2 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{qref|26|96-102|cy}}, {{qref|41|24|cy}}</ref>
Traditionally Jannah and Jahannam are thought to have different levels. Eight gates and eight levels in Jannah, where the higher the level the better it is and the happier you are. Jahannam possess seven layers. Each layer more horrible than the one above.
The Quran teaches that the purpose of Man's creation is to worship God and God alone.{{#tag:ref|"I have created the jinn and humankind only for My worship."{{Qref|51|56|sy}}|groupNote}} Those it describes as being punished in hell are "most typically" unbelievers, including those who worship others besides Allah{{Qref|10|24|sy}}, those who deny the divine origin of the Quran {{Qref|74|16–26|sy}}, or the coming of Judgement Day{{Qref|25|11–14|sy}}.<ref>{{RefQuran|17|10|byl}}</ref><ref nameETISN2009>{{cite journal |last1Thomassen |first1Einar |titleIslamic Hell |journalNumen |date2009 |volume56 |issue2–3 |pages401–416 |doi10.1163/156852709X405062 |jstor27793798 |refETISN2009}}</ref>{{rp|404}}
Straightforward crimes/sins against other people are also grounds for going to hell: the murder of a believer{{Qref|4|93|sy}}{{Qref|3|21|sy}}, usury (Q.2:275){{Qref|2|275|sy}}, devouring the property of an orphan {{Qref|4|10|sy}}, and slander {{Qref|104|sy|by}}, particularly of a chaste woman{{Qref|24|23|sy}}.<ref nameETISN2009:405 >Thomassen, "Islamic Hell", Numen, 56, 2009: p.405</ref> However, it is a common belief among Muslims that whatever crimes/sins Muslims may have committed, their punishment in hell will be temporary. Only unbelievers will reside in hell permanently.<ref name"ReferenceA">A F Klein Religion Of Islam Routledge 2013 {{ISBN|978-1-136-09954-0}} page 92</ref>{{#tag:ref|"One should note there was a near consensus among Muslim theologians of the later periods that punishment for Muslim grave sinners would only be temporary; eventually after a purgatory sojourn in hell's top layer they would be admitted into paradise."<ref nameCLLHiIT2016:7>Lange, "Introducing Hell in Islamic Studies", 2016: p.7</ref> Prior to that, theologians of the Kharijite and Mu'tazilite schools insisted that the "sinful" and "unrepentant" should be punished even if they were believers, but this position has been "lastingly defeated and erased" by mainstream Islam.<ref name=CLLHiIT2016:8>Lange, "Introducing Hell in Islamic Studies", 2016: p.8</ref>
|group=Note}} Thus Jahannam combines both the concept of an eternal hell (for unbelievers), and what is known in Christian Catholicism as purgatory (for believers eventually destined for heaven after punishment for their sins).<ref>John Renard The Handy Islam Answer Book Visible Ink Press 2015 {{ISBN|978-1-578-59544-0}}</ref>
The common belief holds that Jahannam coexists with the temporal world.<ref name"Islamic Traditions p. 12">{{cite book|first1 Christian |last1Lange |title Locating Hell in Islamic Traditions |chapterIntroducing Hell in Islamic Studies |year2016 |publisherBRILL | isbn978-90-04-30121-4 |page12|jstor10.1163/j.ctt1w8h1w3.7 }}</ref> Mainstream Islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death. The resurrection that will take place on the Last Day is physical, and is explained by suggesting that God will re-create the decayed body ("Have they not realized that Allah, Who created the heavens and the earth, can ˹easily˺ re-create them?" {{Qref|17|99|sy}}).AhmadiyyaAhmadi Muslims believe that the afterlife is not material but of a spiritual nature. According to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, founder of the Ahmadiyya, the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth. On earth, if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of God, his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires. With this, an "embryonic soul" begins to take shape. Different tastes are said to be born which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment. For example, sacrifice of one's own rights over that of others becomes enjoyable, or that forgiveness becomes second nature. In such a state a person finds contentment and peace at heart and at this stage, according to Ahmadiyya beliefs, it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape.<ref>{{cite book | urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiU1Yn4sSXEkC&qelementary%20study%20of%20islam | titleAn Elementary Study of Islam | authorMirza Tahir Ahmad | page50 | publisherIslam International Publications | isbn978-1-85372-562-3 | year1997 | access-date15 October 2020 | archive-date30 December 2023 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230123256/https://books.google.com/books?idiU1Yn4sSXEkC&qelementary%20study%20of%20islam#vsnippet&qelementary%20study%20of%20islam&ffalse | url-statuslive }}</ref>Sufism
{{Main|Sufism}}
The Sufi Muslim scholar Ibn 'Arabi defined Barzakh as the intermediate realm or "isthmus". It is between the world of corporeal bodies and the world of spirits, and is a means of contact between the two worlds. Without it, there would be no contact between the two and both would cease to exist. He described it as simple and luminous, like the world of spirits, but also able to take on many different forms just like the world of corporeal bodies can. In broader terms Barzakh, "is anything that separates two things". It has been called the dream world in which the dreamer is in both life and death.<ref name"Ibn Al-Arabi 2006 29n, 50n, 59, 64–68, 73, 75–78, 82, 102">{{cite book|lastIbn Al-Arabi|firstMuhyiddin|titleThe Universal Tree and The Four Birds|year2006|publisherAnqa Publishing|pages29n, 50n, 59, 64–68, 73, 75–78, 82, 102|editorAngela Jaffray}}</ref>
Baháʼí Faith
{{Main|Baháʼí Faith on life after death}}
The teachings of the Baháʼí Faith state that the nature of the afterlife is beyond the understanding of those living, just as an unborn fetus cannot understand the nature of the world outside of the womb. The Baháʼí writings state that the soul is immortal and after death it will continue to progress until it finally attains God's presence.<ref>Baháʼu'lláh, Gleanings from the Writings of Baháʼu'lláh, ed. by US Baháʼí Publishing Trust, 1990, pp. 155–156.</ref> In Baháʼí belief, souls in the afterlife will continue to retain their individuality and consciousness and will be able to recognize and communicate spiritually with other souls whom they have made deep profound friendships with, such as their spouses.<ref name"PSmith">{{cite encyclopedia|last Smith|firstPeter|encyclopedia A concise encyclopedia of the Baháʼí Faith|titleburial, "death and afterlife", evil, evil spirits, sin|year 2000|publisherOneworld Publications|location Oxford|isbn978-1-85168-184-6|pages [https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/96 96–97, 118–19, 135–36, 322–23]|url= https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/96}}</ref>
The Baháʼí scriptures also state there are distinctions between souls in the afterlife, and that souls will recognize the worth of their own deeds and understand the consequences of their actions. It is explained that those souls that have turned toward God will experience gladness, while those who have lived in error will become aware of the opportunities they have lost. Also, in the Baháʼí view, souls will be able to recognize the accomplishments of the souls that have reached the same level as themselves, but not those that have achieved a rank higher than them.<ref name"PSmith"/>Indian religions
{{Main|Indian religions}}
Early Indian religions were characterized by the belief in an afterlife, Ancestor worship, and related rites. These concepts started to significantly change after the period of the Upanishads.<ref>{{Cite book |lastSayers |firstMatthew R. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id3AOBwiZBjRMC |titleFeeding the Dead: Ancestor Worship in Ancient India |date2013-09-12 |publisherOUP USA |isbn978-0-19-989643-1 |languageen |access-date16 September 2022 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230123257/https://books.google.com/books?id3AOBwiZBjRMC |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Buddhism
{{main|Buddhist eschatology}}
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2014}}
Afterlife in Buddhism consists of intermediated spirit realm that's beyond spatial means, which includes the six realms of existence, the 31 planes of existence, Naraka, Tengoku and the pure land after achieving enlightenment. Ancestor worship, and links to one's ancestors, was once an important component of early Buddhism, but became less relevant already before the formation of the different Buddhist streams. The concepts and importance of afterlife vary among modern Buddhist teachings.<ref name"Sayers">{{Cite thesis |titleFeeding the ancestors: ancestor worship in ancient Hinduism and Buddhism |urlhttps://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |dateMay 2008 |degreeThesis |firstMatthew R. |lastSayers |access-date16 September 2022 |archive-date20 September 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220920163432/https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/handle/2152/3945 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>Dying, Death and the Afterlife in Dharma Traditions and Western Religions (pp.29–44) Deepak Heritage Books, January 2006</ref>
Buddhists maintain that rebirth takes place without an unchanging self or soul passing from one form to another.<ref>{{cite book |last1Becker |first1Carl B. |titleBreaking the circle: death and the afterlife in Buddhism |date1993 |publisherSouthern Illinois University Press |locationCarbondale |isbn978-0-585-03949-7 |pageviii |quoteBuddhists believe in karma and rebirth, and yet they deny the existence of permanent souls.}}</ref> The type of rebirth will be conditioned by the moral tone of the person's actions (kamma or karma). For example, if a person has committed harmful actions by body, speech and mind based on greed, hate and delusion, would have his/her rebirth in a lower realm, i.e. an animal, a hungry ghost or a hell realm, is to be expected. On the other hand, where a person has performed skillful actions based on generosity, loving-kindness (metta), compassion and wisdom, rebirth in a happy realm, i.e. human or one of the many heavenly realms, can be expected.<ref>{{Cite web|titleThe Buddhist Society: Kamma – Actions and Results|urlhttps://www.thebuddhistsociety.org/page/kamma-actions-and-results|access-date2021-11-20|websitewww.thebuddhistsociety.org|archive-date20 November 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211120071730/https://www.thebuddhistsociety.org/page/kamma-actions-and-results|url-statuslive}}</ref>
However, the mechanism of rebirth with Kamma is not deterministic. It depends on various levels of kamma. The most important moment that determines where a person is reborn into is the last thought moment. At that moment, heavy kamma would ripen if there were performed. If not, near death kamma would ripen, and if not death kamma, then habitual kamma would ripen. Finally if none of the above happened, then residual kamma from previous actions can ripen.<ref>{{Cite web|date2011-01-24|titleORDER OF EFFECT {{!}} Dhamma Earth 法域|urlhttps://tusitainternational.net/zh/workings-of-kamma-rev2-chapter-iii-order-of-effect/|access-date2021-11-20|languagezh-CN|archive-date20 November 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211120071729/https://tusitainternational.net/zh/workings-of-kamma-rev2-chapter-iii-order-of-effect/|url-statuslive}}</ref> According to Theravada Buddhism, there are 31 realms of existence that one can be reborn into. According to these, 31 existences comprise 20 existences of supreme deities (Brahmas); 6 existences of deities (Devas); the human existence (Manussa); and, lastly, 4 existences of deprivation or unhappiness (Apaya).
Pure Land Buddhism of Mahayana believes in a special place apart from the 31 planes of existence called Pure Land. It is believed that each Buddha has their own pure land, created out of their merits for the sake of sentient beings who recall them mindfully to be able to be reborn in their pure land and train to become a Buddha there. Thus the main practice of pure land Buddhism is to chant a Buddha's name.
In Tibetan Buddhism the Tibetan Book of the Dead explains the intermediate state of humans between death and reincarnation. The deceased will find the bright light of wisdom, which shows a straightforward path to move upward and leave the cycle of reincarnation. There are various reasons why the deceased do not follow that light. Some had no briefing about the intermediate state in the former life. Others only used to follow their basic instincts like animals. And some have fear, which results from foul deeds in the former life or from insistent haughtiness. In the intermediate state the awareness is very flexible, so it is important to be virtuous, adopt a positive attitude, and avoid negative ideas. Ideas which are rising from subconsciousness can cause extreme tempers and cowing visions. In this situation they have to understand, that these manifestations are just reflections of the inner thoughts. No one can really hurt them, because they have no more material body. The deceased get help from different Buddhas who show them the path to the bright light. The ones who do not follow the path after all will get hints for a better reincarnation. They have to release the things and beings on which or whom they still hang from the life before. It is recommended to choose a family where the parents trust in the Dharma and to reincarnate with the will to care for the welfare of all beings.
Hinduism
{{main|Hindu eschatology}}
There are two major views of an afterlife in Hinduism: mythical and philosophical. The philosophies of Hinduism consider each individual consists of three bodies: physical body compose of water and bio-matter (sthūla śarīra), an energetic/psychic/mental/subtle body (sūkṣma-śarīra) and a causal body (kāraṇa śarīra) comprising subliminal stuff i.e. mental impressions etc.<ref>{{Cite web|date2016-04-06|titleThe Hindu Concept of Three Bodies – Body, Mind and Existence|urlhttps://www.sanskritimagazine.com/indian-religions/hinduism/hindu-concept-three-bodies-body-mind-existence/|access-date2021-11-20|websiteSanskriti – Hinduism and Indian Culture Website|languageen-US|archive-date20 November 2021|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211120220631/https://www.sanskritimagazine.com/indian-religions/hinduism/hindu-concept-three-bodies-body-mind-existence/|url-status=live}}</ref>
The individual is a stream of consciousness (Ātman), which flows through all the physical changes of the body and at the death of the physical body, flows on into another physical body. The two components that transmigrate are the subtle body and the causal body.
The thought that occupies the mind at the time of death determines the quality of our rebirth (antim smaraṇa), hence Hinduism advises to be mindful of one's thoughts and cultivate positive wholesome thoughts – mantra chanting (japa) is commonly practiced for this.
The mythical includes the philosophical but adds heaven and hell myths.
When one leaves the physical body at death he appears in the court of Yama, the God of Death, for an exit interview. The panel consists of Yama and Chitragupta – the cosmic accountant, he has a book which consists the history of the dead persons according to his/her mistakes the Yama decides the punishment is and Varuna, the cosmic intelligence officer. He is counseled about his life, achievements and failures and is shown a mirror in which his entire life is reflected. Philosophically, these three men are projections of one's mind. Yama sends him to a heavenly realm (Svarga) if he has been exceptionally benevolent and beneficent for a period of rest and recreation. His period is limited in time by the weight of his good deeds. If he has been exceptionally malevolent and caused immense suffering to other beings, then he is sent to a hell realm (Naraka) for his sins. After one has exhausted his karma, he takes birth again to continue his spiritual evolution. However, the belief in rebirth was not a part of early Vedic religions and texts. It was later developed by rishis (sages) who challenged the idea of one's life as being simplistic.
Rebirth can take place as a god (deva), a human (manuṣya) an animal (tiryak)—but it is generally taught that the spiritual evolution takes place from lower to higher species. In certain cases of traumatic death a person can take the form of a preta or hungry ghost – and remains in an earth-bound state interminably – until certain ceremonies are done to liberate them. This mythological part is extensively elaborated in the Puranas, especially in the Garuda Purana.
The Upanishads are the first scriptures in Hinduism which explicitly mention the afterlife.<ref>"When the body becomes weak and goes into oblivion as it were, the Atman departs, and following it, the vital breath departs ... he becomes a pure consciousness, and with this consciousness, he proceeds. His past learning and deeds as well subtle memory accompany him. Just as a worm upon reaching the tip of a blade of grass, reaches out towards another blade of grass by way of support, so also does this Jiva end this body, becomes imperceptible, and then obtains another body by way of support, and pulls itself together."
– Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4</ref> The Bhagavad Gita, a famous Hindu scripture, says that just as a man discards his old clothes and wears new ones; similarly the Atman discards the old body and takes on a new one. In Hinduism, the belief is that the body is nothing but a shell, the consciousness inside is immutable and indestructible and takes on different lives in a cycle of birth and death. The end of this cycle is called mukti ({{Langx|sa|मुक्ति}}) and staying finally with the ultimate reality forever is moksha ({{Langx|sa|मोक्ष|links=no}}) or liberation.
The (diverse) views of modern Hinduism in part differ significantly from the Historical Vedic religion.<ref name"Sayers"/>JainismJainism also believes in the afterlife. They believe that the soul takes on a body form based on previous karmas or actions performed by that soul through eternity. Jains believe the soul is eternal and that the freedom from the cycle of reincarnation is the means to attain eternal bliss.<ref>{{cite web|last1Jhaveri|first1Pujya Gurudevshri Rakeshbhai|titleDeath the Awakener|urlhttp://www.shrimadrajchandramission.org/pujya-gurudevshri/pearls-of-wisdom/death-the-awakener-2110.htm|websiteShrimad Rajchandra Mission Dharampur|access-date21 January 2018|archive-date26 October 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20191026171833/http://www.shrimadrajchandramission.org/pujya-gurudevshri/pearls-of-wisdom/death-the-awakener-2110.htm|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Sikhism
{{more citations needed section|date=November 2014}}
The essential doctrine of Sikhism is to experience the divine through simple living, meditation, and contemplation while being alive. Sikhism also has the belief of being in union with God while living. Accounts of afterlife are considered to be aimed at the popular prevailing views of the time so as to provide a referential framework without necessarily establishing a belief in the afterlife. Thus while it is also acknowledged that living the life of a householder is above the metaphysical truth, Sikhism can be considered agnostic to the question of an afterlife. Some scholars also interpret the mention of reincarnation to be naturalistic akin to the biogeochemical cycles.<ref>{{cite journal |titleConcept of reincarnation in Guru Nanak's philosophy |journalUnderstanding Sikhism – the Research Journal |publisherIUS Canada |date2011 |volume13 |issue1–2 |pages52–9 |urlhttp://www.iuscanada.com/journal/archives/2011/j1312p52.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.iuscanada.com/journal/archives/2011/j1312p52.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref>
But if one analyses the Sikh Scriptures carefully, one may find that on many occasions the afterlife and the existence of heaven and hell are mentioned and criticised in Guru Granth Sahib and in Dasam Granth as non-true man made ideas, so from that it can be concluded that Sikhism does not believe in the existence of heaven and hell; however, heaven and hell are created to temporarily reward and punish, and one will then take birth again until one merges in God. According to the Sikh scriptures, the human form is the closet form to God if the Guru is read and understood,<ref>see God in Sikhism</ref><ref>{{Cite book |urlhttp://www.khalsadarbar.com/PDFs/SriGuruGranthSahibJiDarpanEnglish.pdf |titleSentence By Sentence English Translation & Transliteration of Siri Guru Granth Sahib |pages267 |languageEnglish |translator-lastKhalsa |translator-firstSingh Sahib Sant Singh |access-date1 May 2023 |archive-date20 July 2022 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220720021817/http://khalsadarbar.com/PDFs/SriGuruGranthSahibJiDarpanEnglish.pdf |url-statuslive }}</ref> and the best opportunity for a human being to attain salvation and merge back with God and fully understand Him. Sikh Gurus said that nothing dies, nothing is born, everything is ever present, and it just changes forms. Like standing in front of a wardrobe, you pick up a dress and wear it and then you discard it. You wear another one. Thus, in the view of Sikhism, your soul is never born and never dies. Your soul is a part of God and hence lives forever.<ref>{{Cite web | urlhttp://www.realsikhism.com/index.php?subactionshowfull&id1248308791&ucat7 | titleSikhism: What happens after death? | access-date19 December 2014 | archive-date7 January 2022 | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220107165521/http://www.realsikhism.com/index.php?subactionshowfull&id1248308791&ucat7 | url-statususurped }}</ref>
Others
Confucianism
Confucius did not directly discuss the afterlife. Nonetheless, Chinese folk religion has had a strong influence on Confucianism, so adherents believe that their ancestors become deified spirits after death.<ref>{{Cite web |lastLemmon |firstCheyenne |date12 February 2023 |titleHachiman, Japanese God of War {{!}} History & Symbol |urlhttps://study.com/academy/lesson/hachiman-japanese-god-war-mythology-symbol.html |websiteStudy.com |access-date30 October 2023 |archive-date30 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231030140229/https://study.com/academy/lesson/hachiman-japanese-god-war-mythology-symbol.html |url-statuslive }}</ref> Ancestor veneration in China is widespread.
Gnosticism
In Gnostic teachings humans contain a divine spark within them said to have been trapped in their bodies by the creator of the material universe known as the Demiurge. It was believed that this spark could be released from the material world and enter into the heavenly spiritual world beyond it if special knowledge or gnosis was attained.<ref>{{cite book|firstStefan|lastRossbach|titleGnostic Wars|origyear1999|dateAugust 7, 2019|publisherEdinburgh University Press|page49|isbn9781474472180}}</ref> The Cathars, for example, viewed reincarnation as a trap made by Satan, who tricked angels from the heavenly realm into entering the physical bodies of humans. They viewed the purpose of life as a way to escape the constant cycle of spiritual incarnations by letting go of worldly attachments.<ref>{{cite web|firstJoshua|lastJ. Mark|titleCathars|urlhttps://www.worldhistory.org/Cathars/|publisherWorld History Encyclopedia|dateApril 2, 2019|access-date2022-09-23|archive-date23 September 2022|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220923052100/https://www.worldhistory.org/Cathars/|url-statuslive}}</ref>
Shinto
{{further|Shinto#Cosmology and afterlife}}
It is common for families to participate in ceremonies for children at a shrine, yet have a Buddhist funeral at the time of death. In old Japanese legends, it is often claimed that the dead go to a place called yomi (黄泉), a gloomy underground realm with a river separating the living from the dead mentioned in the legend of Izanami and Izanagi. This yomi very closely resembles the Greek Hades; however, later myths include notions of resurrection and even Elysium-like descriptions such as in the legend of Ōkuninushi and Susanoo. Shinto tends to hold negative views on death and corpses as a source of pollution called kegare. However, death is also viewed as a path towards apotheosis in Shintoism as can be evidenced by how legendary individuals become enshrined after death. Perhaps the most famous would be Emperor Ōjin who was enshrined as Hachiman the God of War after his death.<ref>{{Cite web |lastsays |firstŌmiya Hachiman-Schrein{{!}} Ways to Japan |date2015-07-16 |titleŌmiya Hachiman-Shrine (大宮八幡宮) (Engl.) |urlhttps://thomasgittel.wordpress.com/2015/07/16/omiya-hachiman-shrine-%e5%a4%a7%e5%ae%ae%e5%85%ab%e5%b9%a1%e5%ae%ae-engl/ |access-date2023-10-30 |websiteWays to Japan |languageen |archive-date30 October 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231030140230/https://thomasgittel.wordpress.com/2015/07/16/omiya-hachiman-shrine-%E5%A4%A7%E5%AE%AE%E5%85%AB%E5%B9%A1%E5%AE%AE-engl/ |url-statuslive }}</ref>SpiritualismThe spirit world, according to spiritualism, is the world or realm inhabited by spirits, both good or evil of various spiritual manifestations. This spirit world is regarded as an external environment for spirits.<ref>{{Cite book |lastHill |firstJ. Arthur |titleSpiritualism - Its History, Phenomena, And Doctrine |publisherCassell and Company, Ltd. |year1918 |isbn1-4067-0162-9 |locationLondon, New York, Toronto and Melbourne |page211}}</ref> The Spiritualism religious movement in the nineteenth century espoused a belief in an afterlife where individual's awareness persists beyond death.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofoc0002unse_h4m2/page/1463/mode/1up |titleEncyclopedia of Occultism & Parapsychology |publisherGale Group |year2001 |isbn0810394898 |editor-lastMelton |editor-firstJ. Gordon |editor-linkJ. Gordon Melton |edition5th |volume2 |locationUS |pages1463}}</ref>TaoismTaoism views life as an illusion and death as a transformation into immortality. Taoists believe that immortality of the soul can be achieved by living a virtuous life in harmony with the Tao. They are taught not to fear death, as it is simply part of nature.<ref>{{cite book |last1Wong |first1Eva |titleThe Shambhala guide to Taoism |date1997 |publisherShambhala |locationBoston |isbn1570621691 |editionFirst}}</ref>Traditional African religionsTraditional African religions are diverse in their beliefs in an afterlife. Hunter-gatherer societies such as the Hadza have no particular belief in an afterlife, and the death of an individual is a straightforward end to their existence.<ref>{{cite book|last1Bond|first1George C.|editor1-lastObayashi|editor1-firstHiroshi|titleDeath and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date1992|publisherGreenwood Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0-313-27906-5|pages3–18|chapterLiving with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quoteThe entire process of death and burial is simple, without elaborate rituals and beliefs in an afterlife. The social and spiritual existence of the person ends with the burial of the corpse.}}</ref> Ancestor cults are found throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, including cultures like the Yombe,<ref>{{cite book|last1Bond|first1George C.|editor1-lastObayashi|editor1-firstHiroshi|titleDeath and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date1992|publisherGreenwood Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0-313-27906-5|pages3–18|chapterLiving with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quoteThe belief in the ancestors remains a strong and active spiritual and moral force in the daily lives of the Yombe; the ancestors are thought to intervene in the affairs of the living.... The afterlife is this world.}}</ref> Beng,<ref>{{cite journal|last1Gottlieb|first1Alma|last2Graham|first2Philip|last3Gottlieb-Graham|first3Nathaniel|s2cid154032549|titleInfants, Ancestors, and the Afterlife: Fieldwork's Family Values in Rural West Africa|journalAnthropology and Humanism|date1998|volume23|issue2|page121|doi10.1525/ahu.1998.23.2.121|quoteBut Kokora Kouassi, an old friend and respected Master of the Earth in the village of Asagbé, came to our compound early one morning to describe the dream he had just had: he had been visited by the revered and ancient founder of his matriclan, Denju, who confided that Nathaniel was his reincarnation and so should be given his name. The following morning a small ritual was held, and Nathaniel was officially announced to the world not only as Denju but as N'zri Denju—Grandfather Denju—an honorific that came to be used even by Nathaniel's closest playing companions.|urlhttps://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a12b/7183cff1ee6eba57710ad30325152762e481.pdf|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20200218175427/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a12b/7183cff1ee6eba57710ad30325152762e481.pdf|url-statusdead|archive-date2020-02-18}}</ref> Yoruba and Ewe, "[T]he belief that the dead come back into life and are reborn into their families is given concrete expression in the personal names that are given to children....What is reincarnated are some of the dominant characteristics of the ancestor and not his soul. For each soul remains distinct and each birth represents a new soul."<ref name"Opoku">{{cite book|last1Opoku|first1Kofi Asare|editor1-lastBadham|editor1-firstPaul|editor2-lastBadham|editor2-firstLinda|titleDeath and Immortality in the Religions of the World|date1987|publisherParagon House|locationNew York|isbn978-0-913757-54-3|pages9–23|chapterDeath and Immortality in the African Religious Heritage|ol25695134M}}</ref> The Yoruba, Dogon and LoDagoa have eschatological ideas similar to Abrahamic religions, "but in most African societies, there is a marked absence of such clear-cut notions of heaven and hell, although there are notions of God judging the soul after death."<ref name"Opoku" /> In some societies like the Mende, multiple beliefs coexist. The Mende believe that people die twice: once during the process of joining the secret society, and again during biological death after which they become ancestors. However, some Mende also believe that after people are created by God they live ten consecutive lives, each in progressively descending worlds.<ref>{{cite book|last1Bond|first1George C.|editor1-lastObayashi|editor1-firstHiroshi|titleDeath and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date1992|publisherGreenwood Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0-313-27906-5|pages3–18|chapterLiving with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quoteThe process of being born, dying, and moving to a lower level of earth continues through ten lives.}}</ref> One cross-cultural theme is that the ancestors are part of the world of the living, interacting with it regularly.<ref>{{cite book|last1Bond|first1George C.|editor1-lastObayashi|editor1-firstHiroshi|titleDeath and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date1992|publisherGreenwood Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0-313-27906-5|pages3–18|chapterLiving with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quoteThe ancestors are of people, whereas God is external to creation. They are of this world and close to the living. The Yombe believe that the afterlife of the ancestors lies in this world and that they are a spiritual and moral force within it.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1Bond|first1George C.|editor1-lastObayashi|editor1-firstHiroshi|titleDeath and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions|date1992|publisherGreenwood Press|locationNew York|isbn978-0-313-27906-5|pages3–18|chapterLiving with Spirits: Death and Afterlife in African Religions|quoteDeath represents a transition from corporeal to incorporeal life in the religious heritage of Africa and the incorporeal life is taken to be as real as the corporeal.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1Ephirim-Donkor|first1Anthony|titleAfrican Religion Defined a Systematic Study of Ancestor Worship among the Akan.|date2012|publisherUniversity Press of America|locationLanham|isbn978-0-7618-6058-7|page26|edition2nd |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idndxOAQAAQBAJ&pgPA26}}</ref>
Unitarian Universalism
Some Unitarian Universalists believe in universalism: that all souls will ultimately be saved and that there are no torments of hell.<ref>{{cite web |last1Bond |first1Jon |urlhttp://en.allexperts.com/q/Unitarians-945/unitarian-view-afterlife.htm |titleUnitarians: unitarian view of afterlife, unitarian universalist association uua, unitarian universalist association |publisherEn.allexperts.com |date13 June 2004 |access-date8 March 2014 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20151106125811/http://en.allexperts.com/q/Unitarians-945/unitarian-view-afterlife.htm |archive-date6 November 2015 }}</ref> Unitarian Universalists differ widely in their theology hence there is no exact same stance on the issue.<ref>Mark W. Harris (2009). The A to Z of Unitarian Universalism. p. 147</ref> Although Unitarians historically believed in a literal hell, and Universalists historically believed that everyone goes to heaven, modern Unitarian Universalists can be categorized into those believing in a heaven, reincarnation and oblivion. Most Unitarian Universalists believe that heaven and hell are symbolic places of consciousness and the faith is largely focused on the worldly life rather than any possible afterlife.<ref>Robyn E. Lebron (2012). Searching for Spiritual Unity&nbsp;... Can There Be Common Ground? p. 582,</ref>
Wicca
The Wiccan afterlife is most commonly described as The Summerland. Here, souls rest, recuperate from life, and reflect on the experiences they had during their lives. After a period of rest, the souls are reincarnated, and the memory of their previous lives is erased. Many Wiccans see The Summerland as a place to reflect on their life actions. It is not a place of reward, but rather the end of a life journey at an end point of incarnations.<ref>Solitary Wicca For Life: Complete Guide to Mastering the Craft on Your Own p. 162, Arin Murphy-Hiscock (2005)</ref>
Zoroastrianism
{{main|Frashokereti}}Zoroastrianism states that the urvan, the disembodied spirit, lingers on earth for three days before departing downward to the kingdom of the dead that is ruled by Yima.<ref>{{Citation |lastHintze |firstAlmut |titleZoroastrian afterlife beliefs and funerary practices |date2017-05-18 |workThe Routledge Companion to Death and Dying |pages86–97 |editor-lastMoreman |editor-firstChristopher M. |urlhttps://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317528883/chapters/10.4324/9781315723747-10 |access-date2024-10-25 |edition1 |publisherRoutledge |languageen |doi10.4324/9781315723747-10 |isbn=978-1-315-72374-7}}</ref> For the three days that it rests on Earth, righteous souls sit at the head of their body, chanting the Ustavaiti Gathas with joy, while a wicked person sits at the feet of the corpse, wails and recites the Yasna. Zoroastrianism states that for the righteous souls, a beautiful maiden, which is the personification of the soul's good thoughts, words and deeds, appears. For a wicked person, a very old, ugly, naked hag appears. After three nights, the soul of the wicked is taken by the demon Vizaresa (Vīzarəša), to Chinvat bridge, and is made to go to darkness (hell).
Yima is believed to have been the first king on earth to rule, as well as the first man to die. Inside of Yima's realm, the spirits live a shadowy existence, and are dependent on their own descendants which are still living on Earth. Their descendants are to satisfy their hunger and clothe them, through rituals done on earth.
Rituals which are done on the first three days are vital and important, as they protect the soul from evil powers and give it strength to reach the underworld. After three days, the soul crosses Chinvat bridge which is the Final Judgment of the soul. Rashnu and Sraosha are present at the final judgment. The list is expanded sometimes, and include Vahman and Ormazd. Rashnu is the yazata who holds the scales of justice. If the good deeds of the person outweigh the bad, the soul is worthy of paradise. If the bad deeds outweigh the good, the bridge narrows down to the width of a blade-edge, and a horrid hag pulls the soul in her arms, and takes it down to hell with her.
Misvan Gatu is the "place of the mixed ones" where the souls lead a gray existence, lacking both joy and sorrow. A soul goes here if his/her good deeds and bad deeds are equal, and Rashnu's scale is equal.
Parapsychology
{{Main|Parapsychology}}
The Society for Psychical Research was founded in 1882 with the express intention of investigating phenomena relating to Spiritualism and the afterlife. Its members continue to conduct scientific research on the paranormal to this day. Some of the earliest attempts to apply scientific methods to the study of phenomena relating to an afterlife were conducted by this organization. Its earliest members included noted scientists like William Crookes, and philosophers such as Henry Sidgwick and William James.<ref>{{Cite journal |lastResende |firstPedro Henrique Costa de |last2Moreira-Almeida |first2Alexander |last3Schubert Coelho |first3Humberto |dateSeptember 2023 |titleThe epistemologies of research on the survival of consciousness after death in the golden era of the Society for Psychical Research (1882–1930) |urlhttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0957154X231175575 |journalHistory of Psychiatry |languageen |volume34 |issue3 |pages287–304 |doi10.1177/0957154X231175575 |issn0957-154X}}</ref>
Parapsychological investigation of the afterlife includes the study of haunting, apparitions of the deceased, instrumental trans-communication, electronic voice phenomena, and mediumship.<ref>David Fontana (2005): Is there an afterlife. A comprehensive overview of the evidence.</ref>
A study conducted in 1901 by physician Duncan MacDougall sought to measure the weight lost by a human when the soul "departed the body" upon death.<ref>{{cite book | last Roach | first Mary | title Spook – Science Tackles the Afterlife | publisher W. W. Norton & Co. | year 2005 | isbn 978-0-393-05962-5}}</ref> MacDougall weighed dying patients in an attempt to prove that the soul was material, tangible and thus measurable. Although MacDougall's results varied considerably from "21 grams", for some people this figure has become synonymous with the measure of a soul's mass.<ref>[http://www.snopes.com/religion/soulweight.asp Urban Legends] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://archive.today/20140630064537/http://www.snopes.com/religion/soulweight.asp |date30 June 2014 }} – Reference Page (Soul man).</ref> The title of the 2003 movie 21 Grams is a reference to MacDougall's findings. His results have never been reproduced, and are generally regarded either as meaningless or considered to have had little if any scientific merit.<ref>{{cite book|lastPark|firstRobert Ezra|titleSuperstition: Belief in the Age of Science|page90|year2010|publisherPrinceton University Press|locationPrinceton, NJ|isbn978-0-691-14597-6}}</ref>
Frank Tipler has argued that physics can explain immortality, although such arguments are not falsifiable and, in Karl Popper's views, they do not qualify as science.<ref>{{cite book | last Tipler | first Franl J. | title The Physics of Immortality – Modern Cosmology, God and the Resurrection of the Dead | publisher Anchor | year 1997 | isbn 978-0-385-46799-5}}</ref>
After 25 years of parapsychological research Susan Blackmore came to the conclusion that, according to her experiences, there is not enough empirical evidence for many of these cases.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Chapters/Kurtz.htm |titleSkeptical Odysseys: Personal Accounts by the World's Leading Paranormal Inquirers pp. 85–94 |publisherSusanblackmore.co.uk |date25 March 2002 |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date6 April 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140406225824/http://www.susanblackmore.co.uk/Chapters/Kurtz.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last Kurtz | first Paul | title Skeptical Odysseys: Personal Accounts by the World's Leading Paranormal Inquirers | publisher Prometheus Books | year 2001 | isbn 978-1-57392-884-7}}</ref>
Mediumship
Mediums purportedly act as a vessel for communications from spirits in other realms. Mediumship is not specific to one culture or religion; it can be identified in several belief systems, most notably Spiritualism. While the practice gained popularity in Europe and North America in the 19th century, evidence of mediumship dates back thousands of years in Asia.<ref>David Marks. (2000). The Psychology of the Psychic. Prometheus Books. {{ISBN|978-1-57392-798-7}}</ref><ref>Nicola Holt, Christine Simmonds-Moore, David Luke, Christopher French. (2012). Anomalistic Psychology (Palgrave Insights in Psychology). Palgrave Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-0-230-30150-4}}</ref><ref>Millais Culpin. (1920). Spiritualism and the New Psychology, an Explanation of Spiritualist Phenomena and Beliefs in Terms of Modern Knowledge. Kennelly Press. {{ISBN|978-1-4460-5651-6}}</ref> Mediums who claim to have contact with deceased people include Tyler Henry and Pascal Voggenhuber.
Near death research
{{See also|Near-death studies|Near death experience|Deathbed phenomena}}
Research also includes the study of the near death experience. Scientists who have worked in this area include Elisabeth Kübler-Ross, Raymond Moody, Sam Parnia, Michael Sabom, Bruce Greyson, Peter Fenwick, Jeffrey Long, Susan Blackmore, Charles Tart, William James, Ian Stevenson, Michael Persinger, Pim van Lommel, Penny Sartori, Walter van Laack among others.<ref>{{cite web |urlhttp://profezie3m.altervista.org/archivio/TheLancet_NDE.htm |titleNear-death experience in survivors of cardiac arrest: a prospective study in the Netherlands |publisherProfezie3m.altervista.org |access-date8 March 2014 |archive-date13 July 2014 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20140713092829/http://profezie3m.altervista.org/archivio/TheLancet_NDE.htm |url-statuslive }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/7463606.stm | access-date 6 August 2008 | work BBC News | title Nurse writes book on near-death | date 19 June 2008 | archive-date 31 March 2009 | archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20090331144411/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/7463606.stm | url-status live }}</ref> Past life regression
{{Main|Past life regression}}
Past life regression is a method that uses hypnosis to recover what practitioners believe are memories of past lives or incarnations. The technique used during past-life regression involves the subject answering a series of questions while hypnotized to reveal identity and events of alleged past lives, a method similar to that used in recovered memory therapy and one that, similarly, often misrepresents memory as a faithful recording of previous events rather than a constructed set of recollections.
However, medical experts and practitioners do not agree that the past life memories gained from past life regressions are truly from past lives; experts generally regard claims of recovered memories of past lives as fantasies or delusions or a type of confabulation, because the use of hypnosis and suggestive questions can tend to leave the subject particularly likely to hold distorted or false memories.<ref name Skepdic>{{cite book |authorCarroll RT | author-link Robert Todd Carroll |titleThe Skeptic's Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions | title-link The Skeptic's Dictionary |publisherWiley |locationNew York |year2003 |pages[https://books.google.com/books?id6FPqDFx40vYC&pgPA276 276–7] |isbn978-0-471-27242-7}}</ref><ref name Cordon>{{cite book |authorCordón LA |titlePopular Psychology: An Encyclopedia |publisherGreenwood Press |locationWestport, Conn. |year2005 |pages[https://archive.org/details/popularpsycholog0000cord/page/183 183–5] |isbn978-0-313-32457-4 |urlhttps://archive.org/details/popularpsycholog0000cord/page/183 }}</ref><ref name encyclopedia>{{cite book |vauthorsLinse P, Shermer M |titleThe Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience |publisherABC-CLIO |locationSanta Barbara, Calif. |year2002 |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idGr4snwg7iaEC&pgPA206 |pages206–7 |isbn978-1-57607-653-8 |access-date15 November 2022 |archive-date30 December 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20231230123318/https://books.google.com/books?idGr4snwg7iaEC&pgPA206 |url-statuslive }}</ref>
Philosophy
Modern philosophy
There is a view based on the philosophical question of personal identity, termed open individualism by Daniel Kolak, that concludes that individual conscious experience is illusory, and because consciousness continues after death in all conscious beings, you do not die. This position has allegedly been supported by physicists such as Erwin Schrödinger and Freeman Dyson.<ref>{{cite book | last Kolak | first Daniel | title I Am You: The Metaphysical Foundations for Global Ethics | url https://archive.org/details/springer_10.1007-978-1-4020-3014-7 | publisher Springer | year 2005 | isbn = 978-1-4020-2999-8}}</ref>
Certain problems arise with the idea of a particular person continuing after death. Peter van Inwagen, in his argument regarding resurrection, notes that the materialist must have some sort of physical continuity.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://philosophy.nd.edu/people/all/profiles/van-inwagen-peter/documents/Resurrection.doc|titleI Look for the Resurrection of the Dead and the Life of the World to Come |authorPeter van Inwagen |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20070610012631/http://philosophy.nd.edu/people/all/profiles/van-inwagen-peter/documents/Resurrection.doc |archive-date10 June 2007}}</ref> John Hick also raises questions regarding personal identity in his book, Death and Eternal Life, using an example of a person ceasing to exist in one place while an exact replica appears in another. If the replica had all the same experiences, traits, and physical appearances of the first person, we would all attribute the same identity to the second, according to Hick.<ref>{{Cite book|lastHick|firstJohn|titleDeath and eternal life|year1994|publisherWestminster/J. Knox Press|isbn978-0-664-25509-1|pages279–294|oclc878755693}}</ref>Process philosophyIn the panentheistic model of process philosophy and theology the writers Alfred North Whitehead and Charles Hartshorne rejected the idea that the universe was made of substance, instead saying reality is composed of living experiences (occasions of experience). According to Hartshorne people do not experience subjective (or personal) immortality in the afterlife, but they do have objective immortality because their experiences live on forever in God, who contains all that was. However other process philosophers such as David Ray Griffin have written that people may have subjective experience after death.<ref>Charles Hartshorne, Omnipotence and Other Theological Mistakes (Albany: State University of New York, 1984) p.&nbsp;32–36</ref><ref>David Griffin, "The Possibility of Subjective Immortality in Whitehead's Philosophy," in The Modern Schoolman, LIII, November. 1975, pp.&nbsp;39–51.</ref><ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title3040&C2598 What Is Process Theology? by Robert B. Mellert] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20130109062948/http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title3040&C2598 |date9 January 2013 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title2736&C2480 A Whiteheadian Conception of Immortality by Forrest Wood, Jr.] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20111205005800/http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title2736&C2480 |date5 December 2011 }}</ref>SciencePsychological proposals for the origin of a belief in an afterlife include cognitive disposition, cultural learning, and as an intuitive religious idea.<ref>{{cite journal|last1Pereira|first1Vera|last2Faísca|first2Luís|last3de Sá-Saraiva|first3Rodrigo|titleImmortality of the Soul as an Intuitive Idea: Towards a Psychological Explanation of the Origins of Afterlife Beliefs|journalJournal of Cognition and Culture|date1 January 2012|volume12|issue1|page121|doi10.1163/156853712X633956|urlhttp://sapientia.ualg.pt/bitstream/10400.1/4894/1/Immortality%20of%20the%20soul%20as%20an%20intuitive%20idea.%20Towards%20a%20psychological%20explanation%20of%20the%20origins%20of%20afterlife%20beliefs.pdf |archive-urlhttps://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sapientia.ualg.pt/bitstream/10400.1/4894/1/Immortality%20of%20the%20soul%20as%20an%20intuitive%20idea.%20Towards%20a%20psychological%20explanation%20of%20the%20origins%20of%20afterlife%20beliefs.pdf |archive-date2022-10-09 |url-statuslive|hdl10400.1/4894|hdl-accessfree}}</ref> Fear of death or death anxiety is hypothesized to be a primary motivator for afterlife beliefs.<ref>{{cite journal |last1Jong |first1Jonathan |titleDeath anxiety and religion |journalCurrent Opinion in Psychology |date1 August 2021 |volume40 |pages40–44 |doi10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.08.004 |issn2352-250X}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Jong |first1Jonathan |last2Ross |first2Robert |last3Philip |first3Tristan |last4Chang |first4Si-Hua |last5Simons |first5Naomi |last6Halberstadt |first6Jamin |titleThe religious correlates of death anxiety: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journalReligion, Brain & Behavior |date2 January 2018 |volume8 |issue1 |pages4–20 |doi10.1080/2153599X.2016.1238844 |languageen |issn2153-599X}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1Gulliford |first1Liz |titleDeath anxiety and religious belief: an existential psychology of religion |urlhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13617672.2018.1454246 |websiteJournal of Beliefs & Values |pages525–526 |languageen |doi10.1080/13617672.2018.1454246 |date2 October 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |titleFacing Death without Religion {{!}} Harvard Divinity Bulletin |urlhttps://bulletin.hds.harvard.edu/facing-death-without-religion/ |websitebulletin.hds.harvard.edu |access-date17 November 2024}}</ref> Jamin Halberstadt finds that one function of religion is to alleviate death anxiety via afterlife beliefs.<ref>{{cite news |titleWhy almost everyone believes in an afterlife – even atheists |urlhttps://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24432570-500-why-almost-everyone-believes-in-an-afterlife-even-atheists/ |access-date17 November 2024 |workNew Scientist}}</ref> There also is research about afterlife beliefs from an evolutionary perspective, i.e. in the context of group selection.<ref>{{cite web |titleAfterlife Beliefs: An Evolutionary Perspective |urlhttps://osf.io/preprints/psyarxiv/5xajk |websiteosf.io |access-date17 November 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1Atkinson |first1Quentin D. |last2Bourrat |first2Pierrick |titleBeliefs about God, the afterlife and morality support the role of supernatural policing in human cooperation |journalEvolution and Human Behavior |date1 January 2011 |volume32 |issue1 |pages41–49 |doi10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2010.07.008 |issn1090-5138}}</ref> Near death experiences
{{See also|Near death experience|Deathbed phenomena}}
In 2008, a large-scale study conducted by the University of Southampton involving 2,060 patients from 15 hospitals in the United Kingdom, United States and Austria was launched. The AWARE (AWAreness during REsuscitation) study examined the broad range of mental experiences in relation to death. In a large study, researchers also tested the validity of conscious experiences for the first time using objective markers, to determine whether claims of awareness compatible with out-of-body experiences correspond with real or hallucinatory events.<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://www.southampton.ac.uk/news/2014/10/07-worlds-largest-near-death-experiences-study.page |titleResults of world's largest Near Death Experiences |date7 October 2014 |access-date16 January 2019 |archive-date16 January 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190116200740/https://www.southampton.ac.uk/news/2014/10/07-worlds-largest-near-death-experiences-study.page |url-statuslive }}</ref> The results revealed that 40% of those who survived a cardiac arrest were aware during the time that they were clinically dead and before their hearts were restarted. One patient also had a verified out-of-body experience (over 80% of patients did not survive their cardiac arrest or were too sick to be interviewed), but his cardiac arrest occurred in a room without markers. Dr. Parnia in the interview stated, "The evidence thus far suggests that in the first few minutes after death, consciousness is not annihilated."<ref>{{Cite news |urlhttps://bioethics.georgetown.edu/2015/07/consciousness-after-clinical-death-the-biggest-ever-scientific-study-published/ |titleConsciousness after clinical death. The biggest ever scientific study published |access-date16 January 2019 |archive-date16 January 2019 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190116150054/https://bioethics.georgetown.edu/2015/07/consciousness-after-clinical-death-the-biggest-ever-scientific-study-published/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The AWARE study drew the following primary conclusions:
# In some cases of cardiac arrest, memories of visual awareness compatible with so called out-of-body experiences may correspond with actual events.
# A number of NDErs may have vivid death experiences, but do not recall them due to the effects of brain injury or sedative drugs on memory circuits.
# The recalled experience surrounding death merits a genuine investigation without prejudice.<ref>[https://iands.org/news/news/front-page-news/1060-aware-study-initial-results-are-published.html AWARE STUDY INITIAL RESULTS ARE PUBLISHED!] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220708230558/https://iands.org/news/news/front-page-news/1060-aware-study-initial-results-are-published.html |date8 July 2022 }}, Retrieved 8 July 2022</ref>
Studies have also been done on the widely reported phenomenon of near death experiences (NDE). Experiencers commonly report being transported to a different "realm" or "plane of existence" and they have been shown to display a lasting positive aftereffect on most experiencers.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 Greyson | first1 Bruce | year 2003 | title Near-Death Experiences in a Psychiatric Outpatient Clinic Population | journal Psychiatric Services | volume 54 | issue 12| pages 1649–1651 | doi 10.1176/appi.ps.54.12.1649 | pmid 14645808 }}</ref>
See also
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* Allegory of the long spoons
* Astral plane
* Bardo
* Brig of Dread (Bridge of Dread)
* Empiricism
* Epistemology
* Eternal oblivion
* Exaltation (Mormonism)
* Fate of the unlearned
* Heaven
* Hell
* Immortality
* Mictlan
* Mind uploading
* Nirvana
* Omega Point
* Paradise
* Phowa
* Pre-existence
* Purgatory
* Rebirth
* Reincarnation
* Soul
* Soul flight
* Soul retrieval
* Spiritism
* Suspended animation
* Spirit World
* Undead
* Underworld
{{div col end}}
References
Explanatory notes
{{reflist|groupNote}}Citations{{reflist|30em}} Bibliography
* Philip C Almond, Afterlife: A History of Life after Death, London and Ithaca NY: I.B. Tauris and Cornell University Press, 2015.
* {{cite book|lastBerdichevsky|firstNorman|titleModern Hebrew: The Past and Future of a Revitalized Language|locationJefferson, North Carolina|publisherMcFarland|year2014|isbn978-1-47662-629-1|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?id=f1_TCwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book|last1 Brown|first1 Jonathan A.C.<!--|author-linkJonathan A.C. Brown--> |title Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy|date 2014|publisher Oneworld Publications|isbn 978-1780744209|urlhttps://archive.org/stream/misquoting-muhammad-pbuh/misquoting-muhammad-pbuh_djvu.txt |access-date4 June 2018 |ref JACBMM2014}}
* Campbell, Douglas R. "Plato's Theory of Reincarnation: Eschatology and Natural Philosophy," Review of Metaphysics 75 (4): 643–665. 2022.
* Dan Cohn-Sherbok and Christopher Lewis, (eds.), Beyond Death: Theological and Philosophical Reflections on Life after Death, Pelgrave-MacMillan, 1995.
* David Fontana, Is there an afterlife: a comprehensive overview of the evidence, O Books 2005.
* Jane Idelman Smith and Yazbeck Haddad, The Islamic Understanding of Death and Resurrection. Oxford UP, 2002.
* Michael Martin and Keith Augustine (eds.), The Myth of an Afterlife: The Case against Life After Death, Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. {{ISBN|978-0-8108-8677-3}}.
* John J. McGraw, Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul, Aegis Press, 2004.
* Mark Mirabello, ''A Traveler's Guide to the Afterlife: Traditions and Beliefs on Death, Dying, and What Lies Beyond, Inner Traditions. 2016. {{ISBN|978-1-62055-597-2}}
* Christopher M. Moreman, Beyond the Threshold: Afterlife Beliefs and Experiences in World Religions, Rowman & Littlefield, 2008.
* Robert A. Morey, Death and the Afterlife, Minneapolis, Minn.: Bethany House Publishers, 1984. 315 p. {{ISBN|0-87123-433-5}}
* Hiroshi Obayashi (ed.), Death and Afterlife: Perspectives of World Religions, Praeger, 1991.
* {{cite book |lastRatzinger |firstJoseph |author-linkJoseph Ratzinger |year1988 |orig-date1977 |chapterPart II: Death and Immortality – The Individual Dimension of Eschatology |chapter-urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBH_pDwAAQBAJ&pgPA67 |titleEschatology: Death and Eternal Life |locationWashington, D.C. |publisherThe Catholic University of America Press |edition2nd |pages67–163 |isbn=9780813216447}}
* Alan F. Segal, Life After Death: A History of the Afterlife in Western Religion, Doubleday, 2004.
Further reading
* {{Gutenberg|no19082|nameThe Destiny of the Soul: A Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future Life}} (Extensive 1878 text by William Rounseville Alger)
* {{Cite book |lastJennings |firstKen |year2023 |title100 Places to See After You Die: A Travel Guide to the Afterlife |locationNew York |publisherScribner |isbn9781501131585 |oclc1347430851}}
External links
{{Commons category|Afterlife}}
{{Wikiquote|Afterlife}}
{{Wiktionary|afterlife|hereafter}}
* {{Cite SEP |url-idafterlife |titleAfterlife |lastHasker |firstWilliam}}
* [https://www.vatican.va/archive-ccc_css/archive/catechism/p123a12.htm Vatican.va: Catechism of the Catholic Church]
* [http://www.islam-guide.com/life-after-deaty-by-wamy.htm Islamic Guide: Life After Death]
* [http://www.jewfaq.org/olamhaba.htm Judaism 101: Olam Ha-Ba: The Afterlife]
* Stewart Salmond, [https://archive.org/details/christiandoctri04salmgoog Christian Doctrine of Immortality]
* {{usurped|1[https://web.archive.org/web/20070311081839/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?iddv1-76 Dictionary of the History of Ideas'': "Death and Immortality"]}}
* [https://newchristianbiblestudy.org/exposition/translation/heaven-and-hell-dole/contents/10 Online searchable edition of Swedenborg's Heaven and Hell] (Swedenborg Foundation 2000)
* [https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23935 Collection: Heaven, Hell, and Afterlives] from the University of Michigan Museum of Art
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Category:Religious belief and doctrine | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.178866 |
1181 | Astrometry | thumb|right|300px|Illustration of the use of interferometry in the optical wavelength range to determine precise positions of stars. Courtesy NASA/JPL-Caltech
Astrometry is a branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies. It provides the kinematics and physical origin of the Solar System and this galaxy, the Milky Way.
History
thumb|Concept art for the TAU spacecraft, a 1980s era study which would have used an interstellar precursor probe to expand the baseline for calculating stellar parallax in support of Astrometry.
The history of astrometry is linked to the history of star catalogues, which gave astronomers reference points for objects in the sky so they could track their movements. This can be dated back to the ancient Greek astronomer Hipparchus, who around 190 BC used the catalogue of his predecessors Timocharis and Aristillus to discover Earth's precession. In doing so, he also developed the brightness scale still in use today. Hipparchus compiled a catalogue with at least 850 stars and their positions. Hipparchus's successor, Ptolemy, included a catalogue of 1,022 stars in his work the Almagest, giving their location, coordinates, and brightness.
In the 10th century, the Iranian astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes and star color; furthermore, he provided drawings for each constellation, which are depicted in his Book of Fixed Stars. Egyptian mathematician Ibn Yunus observed more than 10,000 entries for the Sun's position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 1.4 metres. His observations on eclipses were still used centuries later in Canadian–American astronomer Simon Newcomb's investigations on the motion of the Moon, while his other observations of the motions of the planets Jupiter and Saturn inspired French scholar Laplace's Obliquity of the Ecliptic and Inequalities of Jupiter and Saturn. In the 15th century, the Timurid astronomer Ulugh Beg compiled the Zij-i-Sultani, in which he catalogued 1,019 stars. Like the earlier catalogs of Hipparchus and Ptolemy, Ulugh Beg's catalogue is estimated to have been precise to within approximately 20 minutes of arc.
In the 16th century, Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe used improved instruments, including large mural instruments, to measure star positions more accurately than previously, with a precision of 15–35 arcsec. Ottoman scholar Taqi al-Din measured the right ascension of the stars at the Constantinople Observatory of Taqi ad-Din using the "observational clock" he invented. When telescopes became commonplace, setting circles sped measurements
English astronomer James Bradley first tried to measure stellar parallaxes in 1729. The stellar movement proved too insignificant for his telescope, but he instead discovered the aberration of light and the nutation of the Earth's axis. His cataloguing of 3222 stars was refined in 1807 by German astronomer Friedrich Bessel, the father of modern astrometry. He made the first measurement of stellar parallax: 0.3 arcsec for the binary star 61 Cygni. In 1872, British astronomer William Huggins used spectroscopy to measure the radial velocity of several prominent stars, including Sirius.
Being very difficult to measure, only about 60 stellar parallaxes had been obtained by the end of the 19th century, mostly by use of the filar micrometer. Astrographs using astronomical photographic plates sped the process in the early 20th century. Automated plate-measuring machines and more sophisticated computer technology of the 1960s allowed more efficient compilation of star catalogues. Started in the late 19th century, the project Carte du Ciel to improve star mapping could not be finished but made photography a common technique for astrometry. In the 1980s, charge-coupled devices (CCDs) replaced photographic plates and reduced optical uncertainties to one milliarcsecond. This technology made astrometry less expensive, opening the field to an amateur audience.
In 1989, the European Space Agency's Hipparcos satellite took astrometry into orbit, where it could be less affected by mechanical forces of the Earth and optical distortions from its atmosphere. Operated from 1989 to 1993, Hipparcos measured large and small angles on the sky with much greater precision than any previous optical telescopes. During its 4-year run, the positions, parallaxes, and proper motions of 118,218 stars were determined with an unprecedented degree of accuracy. A new "Tycho catalog" drew together a database of 1,058,332 stars to within 20-30 mas (milliarcseconds). Additional catalogues were compiled for the 23,882 double and multiple stars and 11,597 variable stars also analyzed during the Hipparcos mission.
In 2013, the Gaia satellite was launched and improved the accuracy of Hipparcos.
The precision was improved by a factor of 100 and enabled the mapping of a billion stars.
Today, the catalogue most often used is USNO-B1.0, an all-sky catalogue that tracks proper motions, positions, magnitudes and other characteristics for over one billion stellar objects. During the past 50 years, 7,435 Schmidt camera plates were used to complete several sky surveys that make the data in USNO-B1.0 accurate to within 0.2 arcsec.
Applications
thumb|right|200px|Diagram showing how a smaller object (such as an extrasolar planet) orbiting a larger object (such as a star) could produce changes in position and velocity of the latter as they orbit their common center of mass (red cross).
thumb|right|200px|Motion of barycenter of solar system relative to the Sun
Apart from the fundamental function of providing astronomers with a reference frame to report their observations in, astrometry is also fundamental for fields like celestial mechanics, stellar dynamics and galactic astronomy. In observational astronomy, astrometric techniques help identify stellar objects by their unique motions. It is instrumental for keeping time, in that UTC is essentially the atomic time synchronized to Earth's rotation by means of exact astronomical observations. Astrometry is an important step in the cosmic distance ladder because it establishes parallax distance estimates for stars in the Milky Way.
Astrometry has also been used to support claims of extrasolar planet detection by measuring the displacement the proposed planets cause in their parent star's apparent position on the sky, due to their mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system. Astrometry is more accurate in space missions that are not affected by the distorting effects of the Earth's atmosphere. NASA's planned Space Interferometry Mission (SIM PlanetQuest) (now cancelled) was to utilize astrometric techniques to detect terrestrial planets orbiting 200 or so of the nearest solar-type stars. The European Space Agency's Gaia Mission, launched in 2013, applies astrometric techniques in its stellar census. In addition to the detection of exoplanets, it can also be used to determine their mass.
Astrometric measurements are used by astrophysicists to constrain certain models in celestial mechanics. By measuring the velocities of pulsars, it is possible to put a limit on the asymmetry of supernova explosions. Also, astrometric results are used to determine the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy.
Astronomers use astrometric techniques for the tracking of near-Earth objects. Astrometry is responsible for the detection of many record-breaking Solar System objects. To find such objects astrometrically, astronomers use telescopes to survey the sky and large-area cameras to take pictures at various determined intervals. By studying these images, they can detect Solar System objects by their movements relative to the background stars, which remain fixed. Once a movement per unit time is observed, astronomers compensate for the parallax caused by Earth's motion during this time and the heliocentric distance to this object is calculated. Using this distance and other photographs, more information about the object, including its orbital elements, can be obtained. Asteroid impact avoidance is among the purposes.
Quaoar and Sedna are two trans-Neptunian dwarf planets discovered in this way by Michael E. Brown and others at Caltech using the Palomar Observatory's Samuel Oschin telescope of and the Palomar-Quest large-area CCD camera. The ability of astronomers to track the positions and movements of such celestial bodies is crucial to the understanding of the Solar System and its interrelated past, present, and future with others in the Universe.
Statistics
A fundamental aspect of astrometry is error correction. Various factors introduce errors into the measurement of stellar positions, including atmospheric conditions, imperfections in the instruments and errors by the observer or the measuring instruments. Many of these errors can be reduced by various techniques, such as through instrument improvements and compensations to the data. The results are then analyzed using statistical methods to compute data estimates and error ranges.
Computer programs
XParallax viu (Free application for Windows)
Astrometrica (Application for Windows)
Astrometry.net (Online blind astrometry)
See also
References
Further reading
External links
MPC Guide to Minor Body Astrometry
Astrometry Department of the U.S. Naval Observatory
USNO Astrometric Catalog and related Products
SuperNOVAS high-precision astrometry library for C/C++.
Planet-Like Body Discovered at Fringes of Our Solar System (2004-03-15)
Mike Brown's Caltech Home Page
Scientific Paper describing Sedna's discovery
The Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission — on ESA | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.192838 |
1182 | Athena | {{short description|Goddess of wisdom and war in ancient Greek religion and mythology}}
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{{For|the capital city of Greece|Athens}}
{{redirect-several|Athena|Athene|Athina|Pallas Athena}}
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{{Use British English|date=December 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2025}}
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{{Infobox deity
| type = Greek
| name = Athena
| image = Mattei Athena Louvre Ma530 n2.jpg
| caption = Mattei Athena at Louvre. Roman copy from the 1st century BC/AD after the Greek original Piraeus Athena of the 4th century BC attributed to Cephisodotos or Euphranor.
| god_of = Goddess of wisdom, warfare, and handicraft
| member_of = the Twelve Olympians
| abode = Mount Olympus
| tree = Olive
| animals = Owl, serpent, horse
| symbol = Aegis, helmet, spear, armor, Gorgoneion, chariot, distaff
| parents Zeus and Metis{{efn|In other traditions, Athena's father is sometimes listed as Zeus by himself or Pallas, Brontes, or Itonos.}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages121–122}}
| children = Erichthonius {{small|(adopted)}}
| Roman_equivalent = Minerva
| equivalent1_type = Egyptian
| equivalent1 = Neith
}}
{{Contains special characters}}
Athena{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|θ|iː|n|ə}}; Attic Greek: {{lang|grc|Ἀθηνᾶ}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Athēnâ}}, or {{lang|grc|Ἀθηναία}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Athēnaía}}; Epic: {{lang|grc|Ἀθηναίη}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Athēnaíē}}; Doric: {{lang|grc|Ἀθάνα}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Athā́nā}}}} or Athene,{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ə|ˈ|θ|iː|n|iː}}; Ionic: {{lang|grc|Ἀθήνη}}, {{lang|grc-Latn|Athḗnē}}}} often given the epithet Pallas,{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|æ|l|ə|s}}; {{lang|grc|Παλλάς}} {{lang|grc-Latn|Pallás}}}} is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft<ref name"Merriam-Webster">{{cite book |titleMerriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature |date1995 |publisherMerriam-Webster |isbn9780877790426 |page[https://books.google.com/books?ideKNK1YwHcQ4C&pgPA81 81]}}</ref> who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva.{{sfn|Deacy|Villing|2001}} She was regarded as the patron and protectress of various cities across Greece, particularly the city of Athens, from which she most likely received her name.<!--PLEASE DO NOT CHANGE THIS TO SAY ATHENS WAS NAMED AFTER ATHENA. Walter Burkert, a major authority on ancient Greek religion, states: "Since -ene is a typical place-name suffix - Mykene, Pallene, Troizen(e), Messene, and Cyrene - the goddess most probably takes her name from the city; she is the Pallas of Athens, just as Hera of Argos is Here Argeie." Thank you.-->{{snf|Burkert|1985|page=139}} The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is dedicated to her. Her major symbols include owls, olive trees, snakes, and the Gorgoneion. In art, she is generally depicted wearing a helmet and holding a spear.
From her origin as an Aegean palace goddess, Athena was closely associated with the city. She was known as Polias and Poliouchos (both derived from polis, meaning "city-state"), and her temples were usually located atop the fortified acropolis in the central part of the city. The Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis is dedicated to her, along with numerous other temples and monuments. As the patron of craft and weaving, Athena was known as Ergane. She was also a warrior goddess, and was believed to lead soldiers into battle as Athena Promachos. Her main festival in Athens was the Panathenaia, which was celebrated during the month of Hekatombaion in midsummer and was the most important festival on the Athenian calendar.
In Greek mythology, Athena was believed to have been born from the forehead of her father Zeus. In some versions of the story, Athena has no mother and is born from Zeus' forehead by parthenogenesis. In others, such as Hesiod's Theogony, Zeus swallows his consort Metis, who was pregnant with Athena; in this version, Athena is first born within Zeus and then escapes from his body through his forehead. She was usually accompanied by her close attendant, the goddess Nike ("Victory"). In the founding myth of Athens, she bested Poseidon in a competition over patronage of the city by creating the first olive tree. She was known as Athena Parthenos ("Athena the Virgin"); in one archaic Attic myth, Hephaestus tried and failed to rape her, resulting in Gaia giving birth to Erichthonius, an important Athenian founding hero. Athena was the patron goddess of heroic endeavor; she was believed to have aided the heroes Perseus, Bellerophon, Jason, and Heracles, whom she advised and supported during his labours and the Gigantomachy. Along with Aphrodite and Hera, Athena was one of the three goddesses whose feud resulted in the beginning of the Trojan War. She plays an active role in the Iliad, in which she assists the Achaeans and, in the Odyssey, she is the divine counselor to Odysseus.
In the later writings of the Roman poet Ovid, Athena was said to have competed against the mortal Arachne in a weaving competition, afterward transforming Arachne into the first spider<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses ([https://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Metamorph6.htm Book VI])</ref>; Ovid also describes how Athena transformed Medusa into the monstrous Gorgon after witnessing the young woman being raped by Poseidon in her temple.<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses ([https://ovid.lib.virginia.edu/trans/Metamorph4.htm#478205208 Book IV, ln. 753-803])</ref> Since the Renaissance, Athena has become an international symbol of wisdom, the arts, and classical learning. Western artists and allegorists have often used Athena as a symbol of freedom and democracy.
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Etymology
. Athena's name probably comes from the name of the city of Athens.{{snf|Burkert|1985|page139}}{{snf|Ruck|Staples|1994|page24}}]]
Athena is associated with the city of Athens.{{snf|Burkert|1985|page139}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page230}} The name of the city in ancient Greek is {{Lang|grc|Ἀθῆναι}} ({{Lang|grc-Latn|Athȇnai}}), a plural toponym, designating the place where—according to myth—she presided over the Athenai, a sisterhood devoted to her worship.{{snf|Ruck|Staples|1994|page24}} In ancient times, scholars argued whether Athena was named after Athens or Athens after Athena.{{snf|Burkert|1985|page139}} Now scholars generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city;{{snf|Burkert|1985|page139}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page230}} the ending -ene is common in names of locations, but rare for personal names.{{snf|Burkert|1985|page139}} Testimonies from different cities in ancient Greece attest that similar city goddesses were worshipped in other cities{{snf|Ruck|Staples|1994|page24}} and, like Athena, took their names from the cities where they were worshipped.{{snf|Ruck|Staples|1994|page24}} For example, in Mycenae there was a goddess called Mykene, whose sisterhood was known as Mykenai,{{snf|Ruck|Staples|1994|page24}} whereas at Thebes an analogous deity was called Thebe, and the city was known under the plural form Thebai (or Thebes, in English, where the 's' is the plural formation).{{snf|Ruck|Staples|1994|page24}} The name Athenai is likely of Pre-Greek origin because it contains the presumably Pre-Greek morpheme *-ān-.{{snf|Beekes|2009|page29}}
In his dialogue Cratylus, the ancient Greek philosopher Plato (428–347 BC) gives some rather imaginative etymologies of Athena's name, based on the theories of the ancient Athenians and his etymological speculations:
{{blockquote|That is a graver matter, and there, my friend, the modern interpreters of Homer may, I think, assist in explaining the view of the ancients. Most of these in their explanations of the poet, assert that he meant by Athena "mind" [{{lang|grc|νοῦς}}, noũs] and "intelligence" [{{lang|grc|διάνοια}}, diánoia], and the maker of names appears to have had a singular notion about her; and indeed calls her by a still higher title, "divine intelligence" [{{lang|grc|θεοῦ νόησις}}, theoũ nóēsis], as though he would say: This is she who has the mind of God [{{lang|grc|ἁ θεονόα}}, a theonóa]. Perhaps, however, the name Theonoe may mean "she who knows divine things" [{{lang|grc|τὰ θεῖα νοοῦσα}}, ta theia noousa] better than others. Nor shall we be far wrong in supposing that the author of it wished to identify this Goddess with moral intelligence [{{lang|grc|εν έθει νόεσιν}}, en éthei nóesin], and therefore gave her the name Etheonoe; which, however, either he or his successors have altered into what they thought a nicer form, and called her Athena.|authorPlato|titleCratylus 407b}}
Thus, Plato believed that Athena's name was derived from Greek {{lang|grc|Ἀθεονόα}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|Atheonóa}}—which the later Greeks rationalised as from the deity's ({{Lang|grc|θεός}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|theós}}) mind ({{Lang|grc|νοῦς}}, {{Lang|grc-Latn|noũs}}). The second-century AD orator Aelius Aristides attempted to derive natural symbols from the etymological roots of Athena's names to be aether, air, earth, and moon.{{snf|Johrens|1981|pages438–452}}Originsdating the late thirteenth century BC depicting a warrior goddess, possibly Athena, wearing a boar's tusk helmet and clutching a griffin.{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page14}}]]
Athena was originally the Aegean goddess of the palace, who presided over household crafts and protected the king.{{sfn|Nilsson|1967|pages347, 433}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page140}}{{sfn|Puhvel|1987|page133}}{{sfn|Kinsley|1989|pages141–142}} A single Mycenaean Greek inscription {{lang|gmy|{{script|Linb|𐀀𐀲𐀙𐀡𐀴𐀛𐀊}}}} {{Lang|gmy-Latn|a-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja|italicno}} appears at Knossos in the Linear B tablets from the Late Minoan II-era "Room of the Chariot Tablets";{{sfn|Ventris|Chadwick|1973|page126}}{{sfn|Chadwick|1976|pages88–89}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page14}} these comprise the earliest Linear B archive anywhere.{{sfn|Ventris|Chadwick|1973|page126}} Although Athana potnia is often translated as "Mistress Athena", it could also mean "the Potnia of Athana", or the Lady of Athens.{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page14}}{{sfn|Palaima|2004|page444}} However, any connection to the city of Athens in the Knossos inscription is uncertain.{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page44}} A sign series {{Lang|gmy-Latn|a-ta-no-dju-wa-ja}} appears in the still undeciphered corpus of Linear A tablets, written in the unclassified Minoan language.<ref>KO Za 1 inscription, line 1.</ref> This could be connected with the Linear B Mycenaean expressions {{Lang|gmy-Latn|a-ta-na po-ti-ni-ja}} and {{Lang|gmy-Latn|di-u-ja}} or {{Lang|gmy-Latn|di-wi-ja}} (Diwia, "of Zeus" or, possibly, related to a homonymous goddess),{{sfn|Ventris|Chadwick|1973|page126}} resulting in a translation "Athena of Zeus" or "divine Athena". Similarly, in the Greek mythology and epic tradition, Athena figures as a daughter of Zeus ({{Lang|grc|Διός θυγάτηρ}}; cfr. Dyeus).{{sfn|Best|1989|page30}} However, the inscription quoted seems to be very similar to "{{Lang|gmy-Latn|a-ta-nū-tī wa-ya}}", quoted as SY Za 1 by Jan Best.{{sfn|Best|1989|page30}} Best translates the initial {{Lang|gmy-Latn|a-ta-nū-tī}}, which is recurrent in line beginnings, as "I have given".{{sfn|Best|1989|page30}}
A Mycenean fresco depicts two women extending their hands towards a central figure, who is covered by an enormous figure-eight shield; this may depict the warrior-goddess with her palladium, or her palladium in an aniconic representation.{{sfn|Mylonas|1966|page159}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|pages13–14}} In the "Procession Fresco" at Knossos, which was reconstructed by the Mycenaeans, two rows of figures carrying vessels seem to meet in front of a central figure, which is probably the Minoan precursor to Athena.{{sfn|Fururmark|1978|page672}} The early twentieth-century scholar Martin Persson Nilsson argued that the Minoan snake goddess figurines are early representations of Athena.{{sfn|Nilsson|1967|pages347, 433}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=140}}
Nilsson and others have claimed that, in early times, Athena was either an owl herself or a bird goddess in general.{{snf|Nilsson|1950|page496}} In the third book of the Odyssey, she takes the form of a sea-eagle.{{snf|Nilsson|1950|page496}} Proponents of this view argue that she dropped her prophylactic owl mask before she lost her wings. "Athena, by the time she appears in art," Jane Ellen Harrison remarks, "has completely shed her animal form, has reduced the shapes she once wore of snake and bird to attributes, but occasionally in black-figure vase-paintings she still appears with wings."<ref>Harrison 1922:306. Cfr. ibid., p. 307, fig. 84: {{cite web|urlhttp://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Winged_Athena.jpg |titleDetail of a cup in the Faina collection |access-date6 May 2007 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20041105112709/http://people.uncw.edu/kozloffm/Winged_Athena.jpg |archive-date5 November 2004 }}.</ref>
cylinder seal (dating {{circa}} 2334–2154 BC) depicting Inanna, the goddess of war, armored and carrying weapons, resting her foot on the back of a lion{{snf|Wolkstein|Kramer|1983|pages=92, 193}}]]
It is generally agreed that the cult of Athena preserves some aspects of the Proto-Indo-European transfunctional goddess.{{snf|Puhvel|1987|pages133–134}}{{snf|Mallory|Adams|2006|page433}} The cult of Athena may have also been influenced by those of Near Eastern warrior goddesses such as the East Semitic Ishtar and the Ugaritic Anat,{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page14}} both of whom were often portrayed bearing arms.{{snf|Burkert|1985|page140}} Classical scholar Charles Penglase notes that Athena resembles Inanna in her role as a "terrifying warrior goddess"{{sfn|Penglase|1994|page235}} and that both goddesses were closely linked with creation.{{sfn|Penglase|1994|page235}} Athena's birth from the head of Zeus may be derived from the earlier Sumerian myth of Inanna's descent into and return from the Underworld.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages20–21, 41}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|pages233–325}}
Plato notes that the citizens of Sais in Egypt worshipped a goddess known as Neith,{{efn|"The citizens have a deity for their foundress; she is called in the Egyptian tongue Neith and is asserted by them to be the same whom the Hellenes call Athena; they are great lovers of the Athenians, and say that they are in some way related to them." (Timaeus 21e.)}} whom he identifies with Athena.<ref>Cf. also Herodotus, Histories 2:170–175.</ref> Neith was the ancient Egyptian goddess of war and hunting, who was also associated with weaving; her worship began during the Egyptian Pre-Dynastic period. In Greek mythology, Athena was reported to have visited mythological sites in North Africa, including Libya's Triton River and the Phlegraean plain.{{efn|Aeschylus, Eumenides, v. 292 f. Cf. the tradition that she was the daughter of Neilos: see, e.&nbsp;g. Clement of Alexandria Protr. 2.28.2; Cicero, De Natura Deorum 3.59.}} Based on these similarities, the Sinologist Martin Bernal created the "Black Athena" hypothesis, which claimed that Neith was brought to Greece from Egypt, along with "an enormous number of features of civilization and culture in the third and second millennia".{{snf|Bernal|1987|pages21, 51 ff}}{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages221–229}} The "Black Athena" hypothesis stirred up widespread controversy near the end of the twentieth century,{{snf|Berlinerblau|1999|page93ff}}{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages221–255}} but it has now been widely rejected by modern scholars.{{snf|Jasanoff|Nussbaum|1996|page194}}{{sfn|Fritze|2009|pages250–255}}
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Epithets and attributes
{{see also|:Category:Epithets of Athena}}
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| alt1 | caption1 Cult statue of Athena with the face of the Carpegna type (late 1st century BC to early 1st century AD), from the Piazza dell'Emporio, Rome
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Athena was also the goddess of peace.<ref name=":0" />
In a similar manner to her patronage of various activities and Greek cities, Athena was thought to be a "protector of heroes" and a "patron of art" and various local traditions related to the arts and handicrafts.<ref name":0">{{Cite book |last1Janson |first1Horst Woldemar |titleHistory of Art: The Western Tradition |last2Janson |first2Anthony F. |publisherPearson Education |year2004 |isbn0-13-182622-0 |editor-lastTouborg |editor-firstSarah |editionRevised 6th |volume1 |locationUpper Saddle River, New Jersey |pages111, 160 |author-linkHorst Woldemar Janson |editor-last2Moore |editor-first2Julia |editor-last3Oppenheimer |editor-first3Margaret |editor-last4Castro |editor-first4Anita}}</ref>
Athena was known as Atrytone ({{lang|grc|Άτρυτώνη}} "the Unwearying"), Parthenos ({{lang|grc|Παρθένος}} "Virgin"), and Promachos ({{lang|grc|Πρόμαχος}} "she who fights in front"). The epithet Polias (Πολιάς "of the city"), refers to Athena's role as protectress of the city.{{snf|Schmitt|2000|pages1059–1073}} The epithet Ergane (Εργάνη "the Industrious") pointed her out as the patron of craftsmen and artisans.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages1059–1073}} Burkert notes that the Athenians sometimes simply called Athena "the Goddess", hē theós (ἡ θεός), certainly an ancient title.{{snf|Burkert|1985|page139}} After serving as the judge at the trial of Orestes in which he was acquitted of having murdered his mother Clytemnestra, Athena won the epithet Areia (Αρεία).{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages1059–1073}} Some have described Athena, along with the goddesses Hestia and Artemis as being asexual, this is mainly supported by the fact that in the Homeric Hymns, 5, To Aphrodite, where Aphrodite is described as having "no power" over the three goddesses.<ref>{{Cite book |urlhttps://www.worldcat.org/oclc/59339816 |titleThe Homeric hymns |date2003 |publisherPenguin Books |translator-first1Jules |translator-last1Cashford |isbn0-14-043782-7 |locationLondon |oclc=59339816}}</ref>
Athena was sometimes given the epithet Hippia (Ἵππια "of the horses", "equestrian"),{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page15}}{{sfn|Hubbard|1986|page28}} referring to her invention of the bit, bridle, chariot, and wagon.{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page15}} The Greek geographer Pausanias mentions in his Guide to Greece that the temple of Athena Chalinitis ("the bridler"){{sfn|Hubbard|1986|page28}} in Corinth was located near the tomb of Medea's children.{{sfn|Hubbard|1986|page28}} Other epithets include Ageleia, Itonia and Aethyia, under which she was worshiped in Megara.{{sfn|Bell|1993|page13}}<ref>Pausanias, i. 5. § 3; 41. § 6.</ref> She was worshipped as Assesia in Assesos. The word aíthyia ({{lang|grc|αἴθυια}}) signifies a "diver", also some diving bird species (possibly the shearwater) and figuratively, a "ship", so the name must reference Athena teaching the art of shipbuilding or navigation.<ref>John Tzetzes, ad Lycophr., l.c..</ref> In a temple at Phrixa in Elis, reportedly built by Clymenus, she was known as Cydonia (Κυδωνία).{{sfn|Schaus|Wenn|2007|page30}} Pausanias wrote that at Buporthmus there was a sanctuary of Athena Promachorma (Προμαχόρμα), meaning protector of the anchorage.<ref>{{Cite web |titlePausanias, Description of Greece, 2.34.8 |urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.34.8 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210629120746/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.34.8 |archive-date29 June 2021 |access-date20 February 2021}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |titlePausanias, Description of Greece, 2.34.9 |urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.34.9 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210624082637/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docurn:cts:greekLit:tlg0525.tlg001.perseus-grc1:2.34.9 |archive-date24 June 2021 |access-date=20 February 2021}}</ref>
The Greek biographer Plutarch describes Pericles's dedication of a statue to her as Athena Hygieia (Ὑγίεια, "Health") after she inspired, in a dream, his successful treatment of a man injured during the construction of the gateway to the Acropolis.<ref>{{cite book |titlePlutarch, Parallel Lives |date1916 |publisheruchicago.edu |chapterLife of Pericles 13,8 |quoteThe Parallel Lives by Plutarch published in Vol. III of the Loeb Classical Library edition, 1916 |chapter-urlhttps://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Pericles*.html#13.8}}</ref>
Mechanitis (Μηχανῖτις), meaning skilled in inventing, was one of the epithets of her.<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DM%3Aentry+group%3D14%3Aentry%3Dmechaneus-bio-1 A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, Mechaneus]</ref>
At Athens there is the temple of Athena Phratria, as patron of a phratry, in the Ancient Agora of Athens.<ref>{{cite book |authorLesley A. Beaumont |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idiXSmuBlH79QC |titleChildhood in Ancient Athens: Iconography and Social History |publisherRoutledge |year2013 |isbn978-0415248747 |page69}}</ref>
Pallas Athena
'' (1657) by Rembrandt, which recalls her attributes as the goddess of warfare.|left]]
Athena's epithet Pallas – her most renowned one – is derived either from {{lang|grc|πάλλω}}, meaning "to brandish [as a weapon]", or, more likely, from {{lang|grc|παλλακίς}} and related words, meaning "youth, young woman".<ref>Chantraine, s.v.; the New Pauly says the etymology is simply unknown</ref> On this topic, Walter Burkert says "she is the Pallas of Athens, Pallas Athenaie, just as Hera of Argos is Here Argeie".{{snf|Burkert|1985|page=139}} In later times, after the original meaning of the name had been forgotten, the Greeks invented myths to explain its origins, such as those reported by the Epicurean philosopher Philodemus and the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus, which claim that Pallas was originally a separate entity, whom Athena had slain in combat.<ref>New Pauly s.v. Pallas</ref>
In one version of the myth, Pallas was the mortal daughter of the sea-god Triton,{{sfn|Graves|1960|pages50–55}} who looked after Athena after she emerged from her father's head. Pallas and Athena developed a close friendship over their common interest in combat. Zeus, one day watched Athena and Pallas have a friendly sparring match in which the victor would be whoever managed to disarm her opponent. At the beginning of the fight, Athena got the upper hand, until Pallas took over. Not wanting his daughter to lose, Zeus flapped his aegis to distract Pallas, whom Athena accidentally impaled.{{sfn|Graves|1960|page50}} Distraught over what she had done, Athena took the name Pallas for herself as a sign of her grief and tribute to her friend and Zeus gave her the aegis as an apology.{{sfn|Graves|1960|page50}} In another version of the story, Pallas was a Giant;{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page120}} Athena slew him during the Gigantomachy and flayed off his skin to make her cloak, which she wore as a victory trophy.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page120}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page140}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page51}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page231}} In an alternative variation of the same myth, Pallas was instead Athena's father,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page120}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page140}} who attempted to assault his own daughter,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page120-121}} causing Athena to kill him and take his skin as a trophy.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page121}}
The palladium was a statue of Athena that was said to have stood in her temple on the Trojan Acropolis.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page68}} Athena was said to have carved the statue herself in the likeness of her dead friend Pallas.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page68}} The statue had special talisman-like properties{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page68}} and it was thought that, as long as it was in the city, Troy could never fall.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page68}} When the Greeks captured Troy, Cassandra, the daughter of Priam, clung to the palladium for protection,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page68}} but Ajax the Lesser violently tore her away from it and dragged her over to the other captives.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page68}} Athena was infuriated by this violation of her protection and,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages68–69}} although Agamemnon attempted to placate her anger with sacrifices, threw one of her father's thunderbolts at the ship of Ajax. The entire ship went to pieces, but Ajax made his way safe to a rock and declared that he was saved in spite of the intention of Athena. But Poseidon, the grandfather of Pallas, smote the rock with his trident and split it, and Ajax fell into the sea and perished; and his body, being washed up, was buried by Thetis in Myconos".{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page71}}
Glaukopis
, surrounded by an olive wreath. Reverse of an Athenian silver tetradrachm, {{circa}} 175 BC]]
In Homer's epic works, Athena's most common epithet is {{lang|grc-Latn|Glaukopis}} ({{lang|grc|γλαυκῶπις}}), which usually is translated as, "bright-eyed" or "with gleaming eyes".<ref>{{LSJ|glaukw{{=}}pis|γλαυκῶπις|shortref}}.</ref> The word is a combination of {{lang|grc-Latn|glaukós}} ({{lang|grc|γλαυκός}}, meaning "gleaming, silvery", and later, "bluish-green" or "gray")<ref>{{LSJ|glauko/s1|γλαυκός|shortref}}.</ref> and {{lang|grc-Latn|ṓps}} ({{lang|grc|ὤψ}}, "eye, face").<ref>{{LSJ|w)/y|ὤψ|shortref}}.</ref>
The word {{lang|grc-Latn|glaúx}} ({{lang|grc|γλαύξ}},<ref>{{cite book |author1Thompson, D'Arcy Wentworth |urlhttps://archive.org/stream/glossaryofgreekb00thomrich#page/44/mode/2up |titleA glossary of Greek birds |date1895 |publisherOxford, Clarendon Press |page45 |author-link1D'Arcy Wentworth Thompson}}</ref> "little owl")<ref>{{LSJ|glau/c|γλαύξ|shortref}}.</ref> is from the same root, presumably according to some, because of the bird's own distinctive eyes. Athena was associated with the owl from very early on;{{sfn|Nilsson|1950|pages491–496}} in archaic images, she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her hand.{{sfn|Nilsson|1950|pages491–496}} Through its association with Athena, the owl evolved into the national mascot of the Athenians and eventually became a symbol of wisdom.{{sfn|Deacy|Villing|2001}} Tritogeneia In the Iliad (4.514), the Odyssey (3.378), the Homeric Hymns, and in Hesiod's Theogony, Athena is also given the curious epithet Tritogeneia (Τριτογένεια), whose significance remains unclear.{{sfn|Graves|1960|page55}} It could mean various things, including "Triton-born", perhaps indicating that the homonymous sea-deity was her parent according to some early myths.{{sfn|Graves|1960|page55}} One myth relates the foster father relationship of this Triton towards the half-orphan Athena, whom he raised alongside his own daughter Pallas.{{sfn|Graves|1960|pages50–55}} Kerényi suggests that "Tritogeneia did not mean that she came into the world on any particular river or lake, but that she was born of the water itself; for the name Triton seems to be associated with water generally."{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page=128}}<ref>{{LSJ|*tritoge/neia|Τριτογένεια|shortref}}.</ref> In Ovid's Metamorphoses, Athena is occasionally referred to as "Tritonia".
Another possible meaning may be "triple-born" or "third-born", which may refer to a triad or to her status as the third daughter of Zeus or the fact she was born from Metis, Zeus, and herself; various legends list her as being the first child after Artemis and Apollo, though other legends identify her as Zeus' first child.<ref>Hesiod, Theogony II, 886–900.</ref> Several scholars have suggested a connection to the Rigvedic god Trita,{{sfn|Janda|2005|page289-298}} who was sometimes grouped in a body of three mythological poets.{{sfn|Janda|2005|page289-298}} Michael Janda has connected the myth of Trita to the scene in the Iliad in which the "three brothers" Zeus, Poseidon, and Hades divide the world between them, receiving the "broad sky", the sea, and the underworld respectively.{{sfn|Janda|2005|page293}}<ref>Homer, Iliad XV, 187–195.</ref> Janda further connects the myth of Athena being born of the head (i.&nbsp;e. the uppermost part) of Zeus, understanding Trito- (which perhaps originally meant "the third") as another word for "the sky".{{sfn|Janda|2005|page293}} In Janda's analysis of Indo-European mythology, this heavenly sphere is also associated with the mythological body of water surrounding the inhabited world (cfr. Triton's mother, Amphitrite).{{sfn|Janda|2005|page=293}}
Yet another possible meaning is mentioned in Diogenes Laertius' biography of Democritus, that Athena was called "Tritogeneia" because three things, on which all mortal life depends, come from her.<ref>{{Cite web |titleDiogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, BOOK IX, Chapter 7. DEMOCRITUS(? 460-357 B.C.) |urlhttps://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D9%3Achapter%3D7}}</ref>Cult and patronages Panhellenic and Athenian cult
representing the goddess Athena]]
{{Ancient Greek religion}}
In her aspect of Athena Polias, Athena was venerated as the goddess of the city and the protectress of the citadel.{{snf|Burkert|1985|page140}}{{snf|Herrington|1955|pages11–15}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page15}} In Athens, the Plynteria, or "Feast of the Bath", was observed every year at the end of the month of Thargelion.{{sfn|Simon|1983|page46}} The festival lasted for five days. During this period, the priestesses of Athena, or plyntrídes, performed a cleansing ritual within the Erechtheion, a sanctuary devoted to Athena and Poseidon.{{sfn|Simon|1983|pages46–49}} Here Athena's statue was undressed, her clothes washed, and body purified.{{sfn|Simon|1983|pages46–49}} Athena was worshipped at festivals such as Chalceia as Athena Ergane,{{snf|Herrington|1955|pages1–11}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page15}} the patroness of various crafts, especially weaving.{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages1–11}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page15}} She was also the patron of metalworkers and was believed to aid in the forging of armor and weapons.{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages1–11}} During the late fifth century BC, the role of goddess of philosophy became a major aspect of Athena's cult.{{sfn|Burkert|1985|pages305–337}}
was woven for Athena and ceremonially brought to dress her cult image (British Museum).]]
As Athena Promachos, she was believed to lead soldiers into battle.{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages11–14}}{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages1059–1073}} Athena represented the disciplined, strategic side of war, in contrast to her brother Ares, the patron of violence, bloodlust, and slaughter—"the raw force of war".{{sfn|Darmon|1992|pages114–115}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages123–124}} Athena was believed to only support those fighting for a just cause{{sfn|Darmon|1992|pages114–115}} and was thought to view war primarily as a means to resolve conflict.{{sfn|Darmon|1992|pages114–115}} The Greeks regarded Athena with much higher esteem than Ares.{{sfn|Darmon|1992|pages114–115}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages123–124}} Athena was especially worshipped in this role during the festivals of the Panathenaea and Pamboeotia,{{sfn|Robertson|1992|pages90–109}} both of which prominently featured displays of athletic and military prowess.{{sfn|Robertson|1992|pages90–109}} As the patroness of heroes and warriors, Athena was believed to favor those who used cunning and intelligence rather than brute strength.{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page=18}}
on the Athenian Acropolis, which is dedicated to Athena Parthenos{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page=143}}]]
In her aspect as a warrior maiden, Athena was known as Parthenos'' ({{lang|grc|Παρθένος}} "virgin"),{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages11–14}}{{sfn|Goldhill|1986|page121}}{{sfn|Garland|2008|page217}} because, like her fellow goddesses Artemis and Hestia, she was believed to remain perpetually a virgin.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page123}}{{sfn|Goldhill|1986|page31}}{{sfn|Herrington|1955|pages11–14}}{{sfn|Garland|2008|page217}}{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} Athena's most famous temple, the Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis, takes its name from this title.{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} According to Karl Kerényi, a scholar of Greek mythology, the name Parthenos is not merely an observation of Athena's virginity, but also a recognition of her role as enforcer of rules of sexual modesty and ritual mystery.{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} Even beyond recognition, the Athenians allotted the goddess value based on this pureness of virginity, which they upheld as a rudiment of female behavior.{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} Kerényi's study and theory of Athena explains her virginal epithet as a result of her relationship to her father Zeus and a vital, cohesive piece of her character throughout the ages.{{sfn|Kerényi|1952}} This role is expressed in several stories about Athena. Marinus of Neapolis reports that when Christians removed the statue of the goddess from the Parthenon, a beautiful woman appeared in a dream to Proclus, a devotee of Athena, and announced that the "Athenian Lady" wished to dwell with him.<ref>{{cite web |titleMarinus of Samaria, The Life of Proclus or Concerning Happiness |urlhttp://www.tertullian.org/fathers/marinus_01_life_of_proclus.htm |websitetertullian.org |pages15–55 |date1925 |quote=Translated by Kenneth S. Guthrie (Para:30)}}</ref>
Athena was also credited with creating the pebble-based form of divination. Those pebbles were called thriai, which was also the collective name of a group of nymphs with prophetic powers. Her half-brother Apollo, however, angered and spiteful at the practitioners of an art rival to his own, complained to their father Zeus about it, with the pretext that many people took to casting pebbles, but few actually were true prophets. Zeus, sympathizing with Apollo's grievances, discredited the pebble divination by rendering the pebbles useless. Apollo's words became the basis of an ancient Greek idiom.{{sfn|Apollodorus of Athens|2016|page[https://books.google.com/books?ideFmQCwAAQBAJ&pgPT224 224]}} Regional cults
silver tetradrachm minted by Attalus I, showing Athena seated on a throne ({{circa|200}} BC)]]
Athena was not only the patron goddess of Athens, but also other cities, including Pergamon,<ref name":0" /> Argos, Sparta, Gortyn, Lindos, and Larisa.{{snf|Schmitt|2000|pages1059–1073}} The various cults of Athena were all branches of her panhellenic cult{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages1059–1073}} and often proctored various initiation rites of Grecian youth, such as the passage into citizenship by young men or the passage of young women into marriage.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages1059–1073}} These cults were portals of a uniform socialization, even beyond mainland Greece.{{sfn|Schmitt|2000|pages1059–1073}} Athena was frequently equated with Aphaea, a local goddess of the island of Aegina, originally from Crete and also associated with Artemis and the nymph Britomartis.{{sfn|Pilafidis-Williams|1998}} In Arcadia, she was assimilated with the ancient goddess Alea and worshiped as Athena Alea.{{sfn|Jost|1996|pages134–135}} Sanctuaries dedicated to Athena Alea were located in the Laconian towns of Mantineia and Tegea. The temple of Athena Alea in Tegea was an important religious center of ancient Greece.{{efn|"This sanctuary had been respected from early days by all the Peloponnesians, and afforded peculiar safety to its suppliants" (Pausanias, Description of Greece iii.5.6)}} The geographer Pausanias was informed that the temenos had been founded by Aleus.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece viii.4.8.</ref>
Athena had a major temple on the Spartan Acropolis,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page127}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page15}} where she was venerated as Poliouchos and Khalkíoikos ("of the Brazen House", often latinized as Chalcioecus).{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page127}}{{sfn|Hurwit|1999|page15}} This epithet may refer to the fact that cult statue held there may have been made of bronze,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page127}} that the walls of the temple itself may have been made of bronze,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page127}} or that Athena was the patron of metal-workers.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page127}} Bells made of terracotta and bronze were used in Sparta as part of Athena's cult.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page127}} An Ionic-style temple to Athena Polias was built at Priene in the fourth century BC.{{sfn|Burn|2004|page10}} It was designed by Pytheos of Priene,{{sfn|Burn|2004|page11}} the same architect who designed the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus.{{sfn|Burn|2004|page11}} The temple was dedicated by Alexander the Great{{sfn|Burn|2004|pages10–11}} and an inscription from the temple declaring his dedication is now held in the British Museum.{{sfn|Burn|2004|page=10}} She was worshipped as Athena Asia in Colchis – supposedly on an account of a nearby mountain with that name – from which her worship was believed to have been brought by Castor and Pollux to Laconia, where a temple was built to her at Las.<ref>Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.24.5</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Manheim
| first = Ralph
| author-link = Ralph Manheim
| title = Prometheus: Archetypal Image of Human Existence
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| date = 1963
| pages = 56
| language = English
| url https://books.google.com/books?idFdPgDwAAQBAJ
| isbn = 9780691019079
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last = Farnell
| first = Lewis Richard
| author-link = Lewis Richard Farnell
| title = Greek Hero Cults and Ideas of Immortality: The Gifford Lectures Delivered in the University of St. Andrews in the Year 1920
| publisher = Clarendon Press
| date = 1921
| pages = 199
| language = English
| url https://books.google.com/books?idUk4KaZk7eSkC
| isbn =978-0-19-814292-8
}}</ref>
In Pergamon, Athena was thought to have been a god of the cosmos and the aspects of it that aided Pergamon and its fate.<ref name":0" />MythologyBirth
, as he grasps the clothing of Eileithyia on the right; black-figured amphora, 550–525 BC, Louvre.]]
, the most faithful copy of the Athena Parthenos, as displayed in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens.]]
She was the daughter of Zeus, produced without a mother, and emerged full-grown from his forehead. There was an alternate story that Zeus swallowed his wife Metis, the goddess of counsel, while she was pregnant with Athena and when she was fully grown she emerged from Zeus' forehead. Being the favorite child of Zeus, she had great power.
In the classical Olympian pantheon, Athena was regarded as the favorite child of Zeus, born fully armed from his forehead.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages118–120}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages17–32}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|pages230–231}}{{efn|Jane Ellen Harrison's famous characterization of this myth-element as, "a desperate theological expedient to rid an earth-born Kore of her matriarchal conditions" (Harrison 1922:302) has never been refuted nor confirmed.}} The story of her birth comes in several versions.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages118–122}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages17–19}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages121–123}} The earliest mention is in Book V of the Iliad, when Ares accuses Zeus of being biased in favor of Athena because "autos egeinao" (literally "you fathered her", but probably intended as "you gave birth to her").<ref>Iliad Book V, line 880</ref>{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=18}}
She was essentially urban and civilized, the antithesis in many respects of Artemis, goddess of the outdoors. Athena was probably a pre-Hellenic goddess and was later taken over by the Greeks.
In the version recounted by Hesiod in his Theogony, Zeus married the goddess Metis, who is described as the "wisest among gods and mortal men", and engaged in sexual intercourse with her.<ref name"HesiodTheogony929e929t">Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D886 885–900] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224172406/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D886 |date24 February 2021 }}, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D901 929e-929t] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211028114913/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0130:card901 |date28 October 2021 }}</ref>{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages118–119}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page18}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages121–122}} After learning that Metis was pregnant, however, he became afraid that the unborn offspring would try to overthrow him, because Gaia and Ouranos had prophesied that Metis would bear children wiser than their father.<ref name"HesiodTheogony929e929t"/>{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages118–119}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page18}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages121–122}} In order to prevent this, Zeus tricked Metis into letting him swallow her, but it was too late because Metis had already conceived, gave birth to their daughter inside him, and raised her inside his mind, a position from which she continues to give him advice as a ruler. When Athena fully grew up, Metis crafted robes, an armor, a shield, and a spear for her daughter, who banged her spear and shield together in order to give her father a terrible headache.<ref name"HesiodTheogony929e929t"/>{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page119}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page18}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages121–122}} A later account of the story from the Bibliotheca of Pseudo-Apollodorus, written in the second century AD, makes Metis Zeus's unwilling sexual partner, rather than his wife.<ref name"Pseudo-Apollodorus136">Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D6 1.3.6] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210224174038/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D3%3Asection%3D6 |date24 February 2021 }}</ref>{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages122–123}} According to this version of the story, Metis transformed into many different shapes in effort to escape Zeus,<ref name"Pseudo-Apollodorus136"/>{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages122–123}} but Zeus successfully raped her and swallowed her.<ref name"Pseudo-Apollodorus136"/>{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages=122–123}}
After swallowing Metis, Zeus took six more wives in succession until he married his seventh and present wife, Hera.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages121–122}} Then Zeus experienced an enormous headache.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|pages119–120}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page18}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages121–122}} He was in such pain that he ordered someone (either Prometheus, Hephaestus, Hermes, Ares, or Palaemon, depending on the sources examined) to cleave his head open with the labrys, the double-headed Minoan axe.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page120}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page18}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|page231}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages122–123}} Athena leaped from Zeus's head, fully grown and armed.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page120}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page18}}{{sfn|Penglase|1994|pages230–231}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages122–124}} The "First Homeric Hymn to Athena" states in lines 9–16 that the gods were awestruck by Athena's appearance{{sfn|Penglase|1994|page233}} and even Helios, the god of the sun, stopped his chariot in the sky.{{sfn|Penglase|1994|page233}} Pindar, in his "Seventh Olympian Ode", states that she "cried aloud with a mighty shout" and that "the Sky and mother Earth shuddered before her".<ref>Pindar, "[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DO.%3Apoem%3D7 Seventh Olympian Ode] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225043956/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text.jsp?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DO.%3Apoem%3D7 |date25 February 2021 }}" lines 37–38</ref>{{sfn|Penglase|1994|page=233}}
Hesiod states that Hera was so annoyed at Zeus for having given birth to a child on his own that she conceived and bore Hephaestus by herself,{{sfn|Hansen|2004|pages121–122}} but in Imagines [https://archive.org/stream/imagines00philuoft#page/246/mode/2up 2. 27] (trans. Fairbanks), the third-century AD Greek rhetorician Philostratus the Elder writes that Hera "rejoices" at Athena's birth "as though Athena were her daughter also". The second-century AD Christian apologist Justin Martyr takes issue with those pagans who erect at springs images of Kore, whom he interprets as Athena: "They said that Athena was the daughter of Zeus not from intercourse, but when the god had in mind the making of a world through a word (logos) his first thought was Athena."<ref>Justin, Apology 64.5, quoted in Robert McQueen Grant, Gods and the One God, vol. 1:155, who observes that it is Porphyry "who similarly identifies Athena with 'forethought'{{-"}}.</ref> According to a version of the story in a scholium on the Iliad (found nowhere else), when Zeus swallowed Metis, she was pregnant with Athena by the Cyclops Brontes.<ref>Gantz, p. 51; Yasumura, [https://books.google.com/books?id7cXUAAAAQBAJ&pgPA89 p. 89] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221227092613/https://books.google.com/books?id7cXUAAAAQBAJ&pgPA89 |date27 December 2022 }}; scholia bT to Iliad 8.39.</ref> The Etymologicum Magnum{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page281}} instead deems Athena the daughter of the Daktyl Itonos.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page122}} Fragments attributed by the Christian Eusebius of Caesarea to the semi-legendary Phoenician historian Sanchuniathon, which Eusebius thought had been written before the Trojan War, make Athena instead the daughter of Cronus, a king of Byblos who visited "the inhabitable world" and bequeathed Attica to Athena.{{sfn|Oldenburg|1969|page86}}<ref>{{cite book |chapter-urlhttp://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/af/af01.htm |titleAncient Fragments |editor-firstCory |editor-lastI. P. |translatorCory |date1832 |chapterThe Theology of the Phœnicians from Sanchoniatho |viaInternet Sacred Text Archive |access-date25 August 2010 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100905172619/http://www.sacred-texts.com/cla/af/af01.htm |archive-date5 September 2010 |url-statuslive}}</ref>
Lady of Athens
and Neptune'' by René-Antoine Houasse ({{circa|1689 or 1706}})]]
Athena became the goddess of good counsel, prudent restraint and practical insight, which is why she became the guardian of the welfare of rulers. In a founding myth reported by Pseudo-Apollodorus,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page281}} she competed with Poseidon for the patronage of Athens.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page124}} They agreed that each would give the Athenians one gift{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page124}} and that Cecrops, the king of Athens, would determine which gift was better.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page124}} Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a salt water spring sprang up;{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page124}} this gave the Athenians access to trade and water.{{sfn|Graves|1960|page62}} Athens at its height was a significant sea power, defeating the Persian fleet at the Battle of Salamis{{sfn|Graves|1960|page62}}—but the water was salty and undrinkable.{{sfn|Graves|1960|page62}} In an alternative version of the myth from Vergil's Georgics,{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page281}} Poseidon instead gave the Athenians the first horse.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page124}} Athena offered the first domesticated olive tree.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page124}}{{sfn|Garland|2008|page217}} Cecrops accepted this gift{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page124}} and declared Athena the patron goddess of Athens.{{sfn|Kerényi|1951|page124}} The olive tree brought wood, oil, and food,{{sfn|Graves|1960|page62}} and became a symbol of Athenian economic prosperity.{{sfn|Garland|2008|page217}}{{sfn|Kinsley|1989|page143}} Robert Graves was of the opinion that "Poseidon's attempts to take possession of certain cities are political myths",{{sfn|Graves|1960|page62}} which reflect the conflict between matriarchal and patriarchal religions.{{sfn|Graves|1960|page62}} Afterwards, Poseidon was so angry over his defeat that he sent one of his sons, Halirrhothius, to cut down the tree. But as he swung his axe, he missed his aim and it fell in himself, killing him. This was supposedly the origin of calling Athena's sacred olive tree moria, for Halirrhotius's attempt at revenge proved fatal (moros in Greek). Poseidon in fury accused Ares of murder, and the matter was eventually settled on the Areopagus ("hill of Ares") in favour of Ares, which was thereafter named after the event.<ref>Servius ''On Virgil's Georgics'' [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0092%3Abook%3D1%3Acommline%3D18 1.18]; scholia on Aristophanes's Clouds 1005</ref>{{sfn|Wunder|1855|page[https://books.google.com/books?id4grgAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA2-PA100, note on verse 703]}}
, a Roman copy of a Greek statue of Pallas Athena. The guardian serpent of the Athenian Acropolis sits coiled at her feet.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=88}}]]
Pseudo-Apollodorus{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page281}} records an archaic legend, which claims that Hephaestus once attempted to rape Athena, but she pushed him away, causing him to ejaculate on her thigh.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page123}}{{snf|Burkert|1985|page143}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}} Athena wiped the semen off using a tuft of wool, which she tossed into the dust, impregnating Gaia and causing her to give birth to Erichthonius.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page123}}{{snf|Burkert|1985|page143}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}} Athena adopted Erichthonius as her son and raised him.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page123}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}} The Fabulae'', a work of Roman mythography attributed to Gaius Julius Hyginus, records a similar story in which Hephaestus demanded Zeus to let him marry Athena since he was the one who had smashed open Zeus's skull, allowing Athena to be born.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page123}} Zeus agreed to this and Hephaestus and Athena were married,{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page123}} but, when Hephaestus was about to consummate the union, Athena vanished from the bridal bed, causing him to ejaculate on the floor, thus impregnating Gaia with Erichthonius.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page123}}
The geographer Pausanias{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page281}} records that Athena placed the infant Erichthonius into a small chest{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page125}} (cista), which she entrusted to the care of the three daughters of Cecrops: Herse, Pandrosos, and Aglauros of Athens.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page125}} She warned the three sisters not to open the chest,{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page125}} but did not explain to them why or what was in it.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page125}} Aglauros, and possibly one of the other sisters,{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page125}} opened the chest.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page125}} Differing reports say that they either found that the child itself was a serpent, that it was guarded by a serpent, that it was guarded by two serpents, or that it had the legs of a serpent.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|pages125–126}} In Pausanias's story, the two sisters were driven mad by the sight of the chest's contents and hurled themselves off the Acropolis, dying instantly,{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page126}} but an Attic vase painting shows them being chased by the serpent off the edge of the cliff instead.{{snf|Kerényi|1951|page126}}
Erichthonius was one of the most important founding heroes of Athens and the inventor of the quadriga.{{snf|Burkert|1985|page143}} The legend of his birh and the daughters of Cecrops was a cult myth linked to the rituals of the Arrhephoria festival.{{snf|Burkert|1985|page143}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages88–89}} Pausanias records that, during the Arrhephoria, two young girls known as the Arrhephoroi, who lived near the temple of Athena Polias, would be given hidden objects by the priestess of Athena,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page89}} which they would carry on their heads down a natural underground passage.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page89}} They would leave the objects they had been given at the bottom of the passage and take another set of hidden objects,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page89}} which they would carry on their heads back up to the temple.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page89}} The ritual was performed in the dead of night{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page89}} and no one, not even the priestess, knew what the objects were.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page89}} The serpent in the story may be the same one depicted coiled at Athena's feet in Pheidias's famous statue of the Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page88}} Many of the surviving sculptures of Athena show this serpent.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=88}}
Herodotus records that a serpent lived in a crevice on the north side of the summit of the Athenian Acropolis{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page88}} and that the Athenians left a honey cake for it each month as an offering.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page88}} On the eve of the Second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, the serpent did not eat the honey cake{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page88}} and the Athenians interpreted it as a sign that Athena herself had abandoned them.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page88}} Another version of the myth of the Athenian maidens is told in Metamorphoses by the Roman poet Ovid (43 BC{{snds}}17 AD); in this late variant Hermes falls in love with Herse. Herse, Aglaulus, and Pandrosus go to the temple to offer sacrifices to Athena. Hermes demands help from Aglaulus to seduce Herse. Aglaulus demands money in exchange. Hermes gives her the money the sisters have already offered to Athena. As punishment for Aglaulus's greed, Athena asks the goddess Envy to make Aglaulus jealous of Herse. When Hermes arrives to seduce Herse, Aglaulus stands in his way instead of helping him as she had agreed. He turns her to stone.<ref>Ovid, Metamorphoses, X. Aglaura, Book II, 708–751; XI. The Envy, Book II, 752–832.</ref>
Athena gave her favour to an Attic girl named Myrsine, a wise and chaste girl who outdid all her fellow athletes in both the palaestra and the race. Out of envy, the other athletes murdered her. Out of grief, Athena honored her by transforming her dead body into a myrtle, a plant thereafter as favoured by the goddess as the olive was.<ref>{{cite book | title Brill's New Pauly: Encyclopaedia of the Ancient World | volume IX | first1 Hubert | last1 Cancik| first2 Helmuth | last2 Schneider | first3 Christine F. | last3 Salazar | first4 David E. | last4 Orton | publisher Brill Publications | date 2002 | page 423 | url https://books.google.com/books?idDzIOAQAAMAAJ | isbn 978-90-04-12272-7}}</ref> An almost exact story was said about another girl, Elaea, who transformed into an olive, Athena's sacred tree.<ref>{{cite book | page 278 | title Metamorphosis in Greek Myths | first Paul M. C. | last Forbes Irving | publisher Clarendon Press | date 1990 | url https://books.google.com/books?idURvXAAAAMAAJ | isbn 0-19-814730-9}}</ref>Patron of heroesIn Homer's Iliad, Athena, as a war goddess, inspired and fought alongside the Greek heroes; her aid was synonymous with military prowess. Also in the Iliad, Zeus, the chief god, specifically assigned the sphere of war to Ares, the god of war, and Athena. Athena's moral and military superiority to Ares derived in part from the fact that she represented the intellectual and civilized side of war and the virtues of justice and skill, whereas Ares represented mere blood lust. Her superiority also derived in part from the vastly greater variety and importance of her functions and the patriotism of Homer's predecessors, Ares being of foreign origin. In the Iliad, Athena was the divine form of the heroic, martial ideal: she personified excellence in close combat and glory, which she is why is she is usually accompained by the embodiment of victory, the goddess Nike. The qualities that led to victory were found on the aegis, or breastplate, that Athena wore when she went to war: fear, strife, defense, and assault. Athena appears in Homer's Odyssey as the tutelary deity of Odysseus, and myths from later sources portray her similarly as the helper of Perseus and Heracles (Hercules). dragon disgorges the hero Jason{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page62}}]]
According to Pseudo-Apollodorus's Bibliotheca, Athena advised Argos, the builder of the Argo, the ship on which the hero Jason and his band of Argonauts sailed, and aided in the ship's construction.<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D16 1.9.16] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210225061942/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D9%3Asection%3D16 |date25 February 2021 }}</ref>{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page124}} Pseudo-Apollodorus also records that Athena guided the hero Perseus in his quest to behead Medusa.{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page141}}{{sfn|Kinsley|1989|page151}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page61}} She and Hermes, the god of travelers, appeared to Perseus after he set off on his quest and gifted him with tools he would need to kill the Gorgon;{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page61}}<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.37, 38, 39</ref> Athena lent Perseus her polished bronze shield to view Medusa's reflection without becoming petrified himself,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page61}}<ref name"Bibliotheca2.41">Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.41</ref> while Hermes lent Perseus his harpe to behead Medusa with.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page61}}<ref>Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 2.39</ref> When Perseus swung the blade to behead Medusa, Athena guided it, allowing the blade to cut the Gorgon's head clean off.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page61}}<ref name"Bibliotheca2.41"/> According to Pindar's Thirteenth Olympian Ode, Athena helped the hero Bellerophon tame the winged horse Pegasus by giving him a bit.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page48}}<ref>Pindar, Olympian Ode [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DO.%3Apoem%3D13 13.75–78] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210106114234/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0162%3Abook%3DO.%3Apoem%3D13 |date6 January 2021 }}</ref> In Aeschylus's tragedy Orestes, Athena intervenes to save Orestes from the wrath of the Erinyes and presides over his trial for the murder of his mother Clytemnestra at the order of Apollo.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|page161}} When half the jury votes to acquit and the other half votes to convict, Athena casts the deciding vote to acquit Orestes{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|page161}} and declares that, from then on, whenever a jury is tied, the defendant shall always be acquitted.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|pages161–162}}
In ancient Greek art, Athena is frequently shown aiding the hero Heracles.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages64–65}} She appears in four of the twelve metopes on the Temple of Zeus at Olympia depicting Heracles's Twelve Labors,{{sfn|Pollitt|1999|pages48–50}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages64–65}} including the first, in which she advises Heracles to use one of the Nemean lion's own claws to skin the pelt,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages64–65}} and the tenth, in which she is actively helping him hold up the sky.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page65}} During the Gigantomachy, on Athena's advice and with the blessing of her close attendant Nike, Heracles dragged the giant Alcyoneus from his native land, where he was inmmortal, and slayed him with his arrows. Athena is presented as Heracles's "stern ally",{{sfn|Pollitt|1999|page50}} but also the "gentle&nbsp;... acknowledger of his achievements".{{sfn|Pollitt|1999|page50}} Artistic depictions of Heracles's apotheosis show Athena driving him to Mount Olympus in her chariot and presenting him to Zeus for his deification.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page65}}
In The Odyssey, Odysseus' cunning and shrewd nature quickly wins Athena's favour.{{sfn|Jenkyns|2016|page19}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page124}} For the first part of the poem, however, she largely is confined to aiding him only from afar, mainly by implanting thoughts in his head during his journey home from Troy. Her guiding actions reinforce her role as the "protectress of heroes", or, as mythologian Walter Friedrich Otto dubbed her, the "goddess of nearness", due to her mentoring and motherly probing.<ref>W. F. Otto, Die Gotter Griechenlands (55–77). Bonn: F. Cohen, 1929.</ref>{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page141}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page59}} It is not until he washes up on the shore of the island of the Phaeacians, where Nausicaa is washing her clothes that Athena arrives personally to provide more tangible assistance.{{sfn|de Jong|2001|page152}} She appears in Nausicaa's dreams to ensure that the princess rescues Odysseus and plays a role in his eventual escort to Ithaca.{{sfn|de Jong|2001|pages152–153}} Athena appears to Odysseus upon his arrival, disguised as a herdsman;{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages31–35}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page142}}{{sfn|Jenkyns|2016|page19}} she initially lies and tells him that Penelope, his wife, has remarried and that he is believed to be dead,{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages31–35}} but Odysseus lies back to her, employing skillful prevarications to protect himself.{{sfn|Trahman|1952|page35}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page142}} Impressed by his resolve and shrewdness, she reveals herself and tells him what he needs to know to win back his kingdom.{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages35–43}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page142}}{{sfn|Jenkyns|2016|page19}} She disguises him as an elderly beggar so that he will not be recognized by the suitors or Penelope,{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages35–42}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page142}} and helps him to defeat the suitors.{{sfn|Trahman|1952|pages35–42}}{{sfn|Jenkyns|2016|pages19–20}}{{sfn|Burkert|1985|page142}} Athena also appears to Odysseus's son Telemachus.{{sfn|Murrin|2007|page499}} Her actions lead him to travel around to Odysseus's comrades and ask about his father.{{sfn|Murrin|2007|pages499–500}} He hears stories about some of Odysseus's journey.{{sfn|Murrin|2007|pages499–500}} Athena's push for Telemachus's journey helps him grow into the man role, that his father once held.{{sfn|Murrin|2007|pages499–514}} She also plays a role in ending the resultant feud against the suitors' relatives. She instructs Laertes to throw his spear and to kill Eupeithes, the father of Antinous.
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Athena Herakles Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2648.jpg|Athena and Heracles on an Attic red-figure kylix, 480–470 BC
File:Kantharos 58.9.jpg|Athena, detail from a silver kantharos with Theseus in Crete ({{circa}} 440-435 BC), part of the Vassil Bojkov collection, Sofia, Bulgaria
File:Herakleia AR SNGANS 064.jpg|Silver coin showing Athena with Scylla decorated helmet and Heracles fighting the Nemean lion (Heraclea Lucania, 390-340 BC)
File:Orestes Delphi BM GR1917.12-10.1.jpg|Paestan red-figure bell-krater ({{circa}} 330 BC), showing Orestes at Delphi flanked by Athena and Pylades among the Erinyes and priestesses of Apollo, with the Pythia sitting behind them on her tripod
</gallery>
Punishment myths
from the fourth century BC]]
The Gorgoneion appears to have originated as an apotropaic symbol intended to ward off evil.{{sfn|Phinney|1971|pages445–447}} In a version of the Perseus-Medusa myth recounted by the poet Ovid in his Metamorpheses (originally published sometime in 8 AD) to explain the origins of the Gorgon,{{sfn|Phinney|1971|pages445–463}} Medusa is described as having been a beautiful maiden that the god Poseidon (Neptune), lord of the seas, lusted after, with Medusa being in a temple of Athena (Minerva) that the god rapes her inside. Upon discovering the desecration of her temple, Athena transformed Medusa into a hideous monster with serpents for hair whose gaze would turn any mortal to stone.{{sfn|Seelig|2002|page=895-911}}
In his Twelfth Pythian Ode, Pindar recounts the story of how Athena invented the aulos, a kind of flute, in imitation of the lamentations of Medusa's sisters, the Gorgons, after she was beheaded by the hero Perseus.{{sfn|Poehlmann|2017|page330}} According to Pindar, Athena gave the aulos to mortals as a gift.{{sfn|Poehlmann|2017|page330}} Later, the comic playwright Melanippides of Melos ({{circa}} 480–430 BC) embellished the story in his comedy Marsyas,{{sfn|Poehlmann|2017|page330}} claiming that Athena looked in the mirror while she was playing the aulos and saw how blowing into it puffed up her cheeks and made her look silly, so she threw the aulos away and cursed it so that whoever picked it up would meet an awful death.{{sfn|Poehlmann|2017|page330}} The aulos was picked up by the satyr Marsyas, who was later killed by Apollo for his hubris.{{sfn|Poehlmann|2017|page330}} Later, this version of the story became accepted as canonical{{sfn|Poehlmann|2017|page330}} and the Athenian sculptor Myron created a group of bronze sculptures based on it, which was installed before the western front of the Parthenon in around 440 BC.{{sfn|Poehlmann|2017|page=330}}
A myth told by the early third-century BC Hellenistic poet Callimachus in his Hymn 5 begins with Athena bathing in a spring on Mount Helicon at midday with one of her favorite companions, the nymph Chariclo.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page315}} Chariclo's son Tiresias happened to be hunting on the same mountain and came to the spring searching for water.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page315}} He inadvertently saw Athena naked, so she struck him blind to ensure he would never again see what man was not intended to see.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|pages315–316}}{{sfn|Kugelmann|1983|page73}} Chariclo intervened on her son's behalf and begged Athena to have mercy.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}}{{sfn|Kugelmann|1983|page73}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page316}} Athena replied that she could not restore Tiresias's eyesight,{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}}{{sfn|Kugelmann|1983|page73}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page316}} so, instead, she gave him the ability to understand the language of the birds and thus foretell the future.{{sfn|Edmunds|1990|page373}}{{sfn|Morford|Lenardon|1999|page316}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}}
Myrmex was a clever and chaste Attic girl who became quickly a favourite of Athena. However, when Athena invented the plough, Myrmex went to the Atticans and told them that it was in fact her own invention. Hurt by the girl's betrayal, Athena transformed her into the small insect bearing her name, the ant.<ref>Servius, ''Commentary on Virgil's Aeneid [https://topostext.org/work/548#4.402 4.402] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20220101232723/https://topostext.org/work/548#4.402 |date1 January 2022 }}; Smith 1873, s.v. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DM%3Aentry+group%3D32%3Aentry%3Dmyrmex-bio-1 Myrmex] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20221225235924/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0104%3Aalphabetic+letter%3DM%3Aentry+group%3D32%3Aentry%3Dmyrmex-bio-1 |date25 December 2022 }}</ref>
and Arachne by René-Antoine Houasse (1706)]]
The fable of Arachne appears in the Roman poet Ovid's Metamorphoses (8 AD) (vi.5–54 and 129–145),{{sfn|Powell|2012|pages233–234}}{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|page78}}{{sfn|Norton|2013|page166}} which is nearly the only extant source for the legend.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|page78}}{{sfn|Norton|2013|page166}} The story does not appear to have been well known prior to Ovid's rendition of it{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|page78}} and the only earlier reference to it is a brief allusion in Virgil's Georgics, (29 BC) (iv, 246) that does not mention Arachne by name.{{sfn|Norton|2013|page166}} According to Ovid, Arachne (whose name means spider in ancient Greek<ref>{{LSJ|a)ra/xnh|ἀράχνη}}, {{LSJ|a)ra/xnhs|ἀράχνης|ref}}.</ref>) was the daughter of a famous dyer in Tyrian purple in Hypaipa of Lydia, and a weaving student of Athena.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page233}} She became so conceited of her skill as a weaver that she began claiming that her skill was greater than that of Athena herself and that she didn't own the goddess anything despite Athena invented the art of weaving.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page233}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}} Athena gave Arachne a chance to redeem herself by assuming the form of an old woman and warning Arachne not to offend the deities.{{sfn|Powell|2012|pages233–234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}} Arachne scoffed and wished for a weaving contest, so she could prove her skill.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}} Athena wove the scene of her victory over Poseidon in the contest for the patronage of Athens.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page234}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages102–142}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}} Athena's tapestry also depicted the 12 Olympian gods and defeat of mythological figures who challenged their authority.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|p92}} Arachne's tapestry featured twenty-one episodes of the deities' sexual affairs,{{sfn|Powell|2012|page234}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages102–142}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}} including Zeus with Leda, with Europa, and with Danaë.{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages102–142}} It represented the unjust, failing and discrediting behavior of the gods towards mortals.{{sfn|Roman|Roman|2010|p92}} Athena admitted that Arachne's work was flawless,{{sfn|Powell|2012|page234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages102–142}} but was outraged at Arachne's choice of subject.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages102–142}} Finally, losing her temper, Athena destroyed Arachne's tapestry and loom, striking it with her shuttle.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages102–142}} Athena then struck Arachne across the face with her staff four times.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages102–142}} Arachne hanged herself in despair,{{sfn|Powell|2012|page234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages102–142}} but Athena took pity on her and brought her back from the dead in the form of a spider.{{sfn|Powell|2012|page234}}{{sfn|Harries|1990|pages64–82}}{{sfn|Leach|1974|pages=102–142}}
In a rarer version, surviving in the scholia of an unnamed scholiast on Nicander, whose works heavily influenced Ovid, Arachne is placed in Attica instead and has a brother named Phalanx. Athena taught Arachne the art of weaving and Phalanx the art of war, but when brother and sister laid together in bed, Athena was so disgusted with them that she turned them both into spiders, animals forever doomed to be eaten by their own young.<ref>{{cite book | title A Web of Fantasies: Gaze, Image, and Gender in Ovid's Metamorphoses | first Patricia B. | last Salzman-Mitchell | publisher Ohio State University Press | date 2005 | isbn 0-8142-0999-8 | url https://books.google.com/books?idSfz9GZIYPcsC | page [https://books.google.com/books?idSfz9GZIYPcsC&pg=PA228 228]}}</ref>
{{clear}}
Trojan War
{{Main|Judgement of Paris}}
dating to the second century AD, depicting the Judgement of Paris]]
The myth of the Judgement of Paris is mentioned briefly in the Iliad,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page31}} but is described in depth in an epitome of the Cypria, a lost poem of the Epic Cycle,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages31–32}} which records that all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles).{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page31}} Only Eris, goddess of discord, was not invited.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages31–32}} She was annoyed at this, so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ (kallistēi, "for the fairest"), which she threw among the goddesses.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}} Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page=125}}
The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris, a Trojan prince.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}} After bathing in the spring of Mount Ida where Troy was situated, the goddesses appeared before Paris for his decision.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}} In the extant ancient depictions of the Judgement of Paris, Aphrodite is only occasionally represented nude, and Athena and Hera are always fully clothed.{{sfn|Bull|2005|pages346–347}} Since the Renaissance, however, Western paintings have typically portrayed all three goddesses as completely naked.{{sfn|Bull|2005|pages=346–347}}
All three goddesses were ideally beautiful and Paris could not decide between them, so they resorted to bribes.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}} Hera tried to bribe Paris with power over all Asia and Europe,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}} and Athena offered fame and glory in battle,{{sfn|Walcot|1977|page32}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}} but Aphrodite promised Paris that, if he were to choose her as the fairest, she would let him marry the most beautiful woman on earth.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages32–33}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}} This woman was Helen, who was already married to King Menelaus of Sparta.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages32–33}} Paris selected Aphrodite and awarded her the apple.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages32–33}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}} The other two goddesses were enraged and, as a direct result, sided with the Greeks in the Trojan War.{{sfn|Walcot|1977|pages32–33}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page125}}
In Books V–VI of the Iliad, Athena aids the hero Diomedes, who, in the absence of Achilles, proves himself to be the most effective Greek warrior. She and Hera plot to harm Ares, who had been seen by Diomedes in assisting the Trojans. Diomedes called for his soldiers to fall back slowly. Hera, Ares's mother, asked Zeus, Ares's father, for permission to drive Ares away from the battlefield. Hera encouraged Diomedes to attack Ares and he threw his spear at the god. Athena drove the spear into Ares's body, and he bellowed in pain and fled to Mount Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back.{{sfn|Burgess|2001|page84}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page124}} Several artistic representations from the early sixth century BC may show Athena and Diomedes,{{sfn|Burgess|2001|page84}} including an early sixth-century BC shield band depicting Athena and an unidentified warrior riding on a chariot, a vase painting of a warrior with his charioteer facing Athena, and an inscribed clay plaque showing Diomedes and Athena riding in a chariot.{{sfn|Burgess|2001|page84}} Numerous passages in the Iliad also mention Athena having previously served as the patron of Diomedes's father Tydeus.<ref>Iliad [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D4%3Acard%3D350 4.390] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211130204829/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0134:book%3D4:card%3D350 |date30 November 2021 }}, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D5%3Acard%3D84 5.115–120] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211130204825/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0134:book%3D5:card%3D84 |date30 November 2021 }}, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D10%3Acard%3D254 10.284-94] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211130204827/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0134:book%3D10:card%3D254 |date30 November 2021 }}</ref>{{sfn|Burgess|2001|pages84–85}} When the Trojans go to the temple of Athena on the Acropolis to plead her for protection from Diomedes, Athena ignores them.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages68–69}}
In Book XXII of the Iliad, while Achilles is chasing Hector around the walls of Troy, Athena appears to Hector disguised as his brother Deiphobus{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page69}} and persuades him to hold his ground so that they can fight Achilles together.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page69}} Then, Hector throws his spear at Achilles and misses, expecting Deiphobus to hand him another,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages69–70}} but Athena disappears instead, leaving Hector to face Achilles alone without his spear.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages69–70}} In Sophocles's tragedy Ajax, she punishes Odysseus's rival Ajax the Great, driving him insane and causing him to massacre the Achaeans' cattle, thinking that he is slaughtering the Achaeans themselves.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages59–60}} Even after Odysseus himself expresses pity for Ajax,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page60}} Athena declares, "To laugh at your enemies – what sweeter laughter can there be than that?" (lines 78–9).{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page60}} Ajax later commits suicide as a result of his humiliation.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page60}}
Classical art
Athena appears frequently in classical Greek art, including on coins and in paintings on ceramics.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page193}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page126}} She is especially prominent in works produced in Athens.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page193}} In classical depictions, Athena is usually portrayed standing upright, wearing a full-length chiton.{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page28-32}} She is most often represented dressed in armor like a male soldier{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page126}}{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page28-32}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page230}} and wearing a Corinthian helmet raised high atop her forehead.{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page32}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page230}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page126}} Her shield bears at its centre the aegis with the head of the gorgon (gorgoneion) in the center and snakes around the edge.{{sfn|Phinney|1971|pages445–463}} Sometimes she is shown wearing the aegis as a cloak.{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page126}} As Athena Promachos, she is shown brandishing a spear.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page193}}{{sfn|Powell|2012|page230}}{{sfn|Hansen|2004|page126}} Scenes in which Athena was represented include her birth from the head of Zeus, her battle with the Gigantes, the birth of Erichthonius, and the Judgement of Paris.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page193}}
The Mourning Athena or Athena Meditating is a famous relief sculpture dating to around 470–460 BC{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page32}}{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page193}} that has been interpreted to represent Athena Polias.{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page32}} The most famous classical depiction of Athena was the Athena Parthenos, a now-lost {{cvt|11.5|m}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|url https://www.worldhistory.org/article/785/athena-parthenos-by-phidias/ |titleAthena Parthenos by Phidias|encyclopediaWorld History Encyclopedia|access-date26 June 2019}}</ref> gold and ivory statue of her in the Parthenon created by the Athenian sculptor Phidias.{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page28-32}}{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page193}} Copies reveal that this statue depicted Athena holding her shield in her left hand with Nike, the winged goddess of victory, standing in her right.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page193}} Athena Polias is also represented in a Neo-Attic relief now held in the Virginia Museum of Fine Arts,{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page32}} which depicts her holding an owl in her hand{{efn|The owl's role as a symbol of wisdom originates in this association with Athena.}} and wearing her characteristic Corinthian helmet while resting her shield against a nearby herma.{{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page32}} The Roman goddess Minerva adopted most of Athena's Greek iconographical associations,{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page194}} but was also integrated into the Capitoline Triad.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page194}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Exaleiptron birth Athena Louvre CA616 n2.jpg|Attic black-figure exaleiptron of the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus ({{circa}} 570–560 BC) by the C Painter{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page=193}}
File:Athena Promachos MGEt Inv39565.jpg|Attic red-figure kylix of Athena Promachos holding a spear and standing beside a Doric column ({{circa}} 500-490 BC)
File:NAMABG-Aphaia Athena statue.JPG|Restoration of the polychrome decoration of the Athena statue from the Aphaea temple at Aegina, {{circa|490}} BC (from the exposition "Bunte Götter" by the Munich Glyptothek)
File:Pensive Athena in Acropolis Museum 2024.jpg|The Mourning Athena relief ({{circa}} 470-460 BC){{sfn|Palagia|Pollitt|1996|page32}}{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page193}}
File:Athena Enkelados Louvre CA3662.jpg|Attic red-figure kylix showing Athena slaying the Giant Enceladus ({{circa}} 550–500 BC)
File:Pergamonaltarathena.jpg|Relief of Athena and Nike slaying the Giant Alkyoneus (?) from the Gigantomachy Frieze on the Pergamon Altar (early second century BC)
File:Athena mosaic Pio-Clementino.jpg|Classical mosaic from a villa at Tusculum, 3rd century AD, now at Museo Pio-Clementino, Vatican
File:Athena portrait by Eukleidas on Syracuse tetradrachm c. 400 BC.jpg|Athena portrait by Eukleidas on a tetradrachm from Syracuse, Sicily c. 400 BC
File:StonePaletteMythologicalScene.jpg|Mythological scene with Athena (left) and Heracles (right), on a stone palette of the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, India
File:Atena farnese, copia romana da orig. greco della cerchia fidiaca, forse Pyrrhos nel 430 ac ca., 6024, 01.JPG|Atena farnese, Roman copy of a Greek original from Phidias' circle, {{circa}} 430 AD, Museo Archeologico, Naples
File:Gandharan Athena.jpg|Athena (2nd century BC) in the art of Gandhara, displayed at the Lahore Museum, Pakistan
File:Tétradrachme à l'effigie d' Alexandre le Grand Crop.jpg|Athena Alkidemos, i.e. "Athena, defender of the people", on a coin of Ptolemy I Soter, under the name of Alexander the Great; minted c. 310–305 BC
</gallery>
Post-classical culture
Art and symbolism
. Athena has been used throughout Western history as a symbol of freedom and democracy.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|pages=145–149}}]]
Early Christian writers, such as Clement of Alexandria and Firmicus, denigrated Athena as representative of all the things that were detestable about paganism;{{snf|Deacy|2008|pages141–144}} they condemned her as "immodest and immoral".{{snf|Deacy|2008|page144}} During the Middle Ages, however, many attributes of Athena were given to the Virgin Mary,{{snf|Deacy|2008|page144}} who, in fourth-century portrayals, was often depicted wearing the Gorgoneion.{{snf|Deacy|2008|page144}} Some even viewed the Virgin Mary as a warrior maiden, much like Athena Parthenos;{{snf|Deacy|2008|page144}} one anecdote tells that the Virgin Mary once appeared upon the walls of Constantinople when it was under siege by the Avars, clutching a spear and urging the people to fight.{{snf|Deacy|2008|pages144–145}} During the Middle Ages, Athena became widely used as a Christian symbol and allegory, and she appeared on the family crests of certain noble houses.{{snf|Deacy|2008|pages=146–148}}
During the Renaissance, Athena donned the mantle of patron of the arts and human endeavor;{{snf|Deacy|2008|pages145–146}} allegorical paintings involving Athena were a favorite of the Italian Renaissance painters.{{snf|Deacy|2008|pages145–146}} In Sandro Botticelli's painting Pallas and the Centaur, probably painted sometime in the 1480s, Athena is the personification of chastity, who is shown grasping the forelock of a centaur, who represents lust.{{sfn|Randolph|2002|page221}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page145}} Andrea Mantegna's 1502 painting Minerva Expelling the Vices from the Garden of Virtue uses Athena as the personification of Graeco-Roman learning chasing the vices of medievalism from the garden of modern scholarship.{{sfn|Brown|2007|page1}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page145}}{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|pages193–194}} Athena is also used as the personification of wisdom in Bartholomeus Spranger's 1591 painting The Triumph of Wisdom or Minerva Victorious over Ignorance.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page194}}
During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Athena was used as a symbol for female rulers.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page147-148}} In his book A Revelation of the True Minerva (1582), Thomas Blennerhassett portrays Queen Elizabeth I of England as a "new Minerva" and "the greatest goddesse nowe on earth".{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page147}} A series of paintings by Peter Paul Rubens depict Athena as Marie de' Medici's patron and mentor;{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page148}} the final painting in the series goes even further and shows Marie de' Medici with Athena's iconography, as the mortal incarnation of the goddess herself.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page148}} The Flemish sculptor Jean-Pierre-Antoine Tassaert (Jan Peter Anton Tassaert) later portrayed Catherine II of Russia as Athena in a marble bust in 1774.{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|page194}} During the French Revolution, statues of pagan gods were torn down all throughout France, but statues of Athena were not.{{snf|Deacy|2008|page148}} Instead, Athena was transformed into the personification of freedom and the republic{{snf|Deacy|2008|page148}} and a statue of the goddess stood in the center of the Place de la Revolution in Paris.{{snf|Deacy|2008|page148}} In the years following the Revolution, artistic representations of Athena proliferated.{{snf|Deacy|2008|pages=148–149}}
A statue of Athena stands directly in front of the Austrian Parliament Building in Vienna,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page149}} and depictions of Athena have influenced other symbols of Western freedom, including the Statue of Liberty and Britannia.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page149}} For over a century, a full-scale replica of the Parthenon has stood in Nashville, Tennessee.{{sfn|Garland|2008|page330}} In 1990, the curators added a gilded forty-two-foot (12.5 m) tall replica of Phidias's Athena Parthenos, built from concrete and fiberglass.{{sfn|Garland|2008|page330}} The Great Seal of California bears the image of Athena kneeling next to a brown grizzly bear.<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id97 |titleSymbols of the Seal of California |publisherLearnCalifornia.org |access-date25 August 2010 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20101124160916/http://learncalifornia.org/doc.asp?id97 |archive-date24 November 2010}}</ref> Athena has occasionally appeared on modern coins, as she did on the ancient Athenian drachma. Her head appears on the $50 1915-S Panama-Pacific commemorative coin.{{sfn|Swiatek|Breen|1981|pages201–202}}
<gallery mode"packed" heights"200">
File:Palas y el Centauro.jpg|Pallas and the Centaur ({{circa}} 1482) by Sandro Botticelli
File:Minerve chassant les Vices du jardin des Vertus, Mantegna (Louvre INV 371) 02.jpg|Minerva Expelling the Vices from the Garden of Virtue (1502) by Andrea Mantegna{{sfn|Brown|2007|page1}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page145}}{{sfn|Aghion|Barbillon|Lissarrague|1996|pages=193–194}}
File:Athena Scorning the Advances of Hephaestus.jpg|Athena Scorning the Advances of Hephaestus ({{circa}} 1555–1560) by Paris Bordone
File:Bartholomäus Spranger 017.jpg|Minerva Victorious over Ignorance ({{circa}} 1591) by Bartholomeus Spranger
File:Peter Paul Rubens - Marie de Medicis as Bellona2.jpg|Maria de Medici (1622) by Peter Paul Rubens, showing her as the incarnation of Athena{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=148}}
File:Rubens peace-war.jpg|Minerva Protecting Peace from Mars (1629) by Peter Paul Rubens
File:Giuseppe Bottani - Athena revealing Ithaca to Ulysses.jpg|Minerva Revealing Ithaca to Ulysses (fifteenth century) by Giuseppe Bottani
File:Rene Antoine Houasse - Minerva and the Triumph of Jupiter, 1706.jpg|Minerva and the Triumph of Jupiter (1706) by René-Antoine Houasse
File:The Combat of Mars and Minerva.jpg|The Combat of Mars and Minerva (1771) by Joseph-Benoît Suvée
File:The Combat of Ares and Athena.jpg|Minerva Fighting Mars (1771) by Jacques-Louis David
File:Minerva-Vedder-Highsmith-detail-1.jpeg|Minerva of Peace mosaic in the Library of Congress
File:Seal of California.png|Athena on the Great Seal of California
File:Pompeii - Casa del Menandro - Menelaos.jpg|altPompeii's Roman fresco shows Ajax dragging Cassandra away from palladium in the fall of Troy, event that provoked Athena's wrath to Greek armies[49]|Pompeii's Roman fresco shows Ajax dragging Cassandra away from palladium in the fall of Troy, event that provoked Athena's wrath to Greek armies{{sfn|Deacy|2008|p163}}
</gallery>
Modern interpretations
Hellenist altar dedicated to Athena and Apollo]]
One of Sigmund Freud's most treasured possessions was a small, bronze sculpture of Athena, which sat on his desk.{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page153}} Freud once described Athena as "a woman who is unapproachable and repels all sexual desires{{snd}} since she displays the terrifying genitals of the Mother".{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page154}} Feminist views on Athena are sharply divided;{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page154}} some feminists regard her as a symbol of female empowerment,{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page154}} while others regard her as "the ultimate patriarchal sell out&nbsp;... who uses her powers to promote and advance men rather than others of her sex".{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page154}} In contemporary Wicca, Athena is venerated as an aspect of the Goddess{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|page109}} and some Wiccans believe that she may bestow the "Owl Gift" ("the ability to write and communicate clearly") upon her worshippers.{{sfn|Gallagher|2005|page109}} Due to her status as one of the twelve Olympians, Athena is a major deity in Hellenismos,{{sfn|Alexander|2007|pages31–32}} a Neopagan religion which seeks to authentically revive and recreate the religion of ancient Greece in the modern world.{{sfn|Alexander|2007|pages=11–20}}
Athena is a natural patron of universities: At Bryn Mawr College in Pennsylvania, a statue of Athena (a replica of the original bronze one in the arts and archaeology library) resides in the Great Hall.{{sfn|Friedman|2005|page121}} It is traditional at exam time for students to leave offerings to the goddess with a note asking for good luck,{{sfn|Friedman|2005|page121}} or to repent for accidentally breaking any of the college's numerous other traditions.{{sfn|Friedman|2005|page121}} Pallas Athena is the tutelary goddess of the international social fraternity Phi Delta Theta.<ref name"pdt">{{cite web |urlhttp://www.phideltatheta.org/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id20&Itemid122 |titlePhi Delta Theta International – Symbols |access-date7 June 2008 |publisherphideltatheta.org | archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080607045215/http://www.phideltatheta.org/index.php?optioncom_content&taskview&id20&Itemid122| archive-date 7 June 2008 | url-statuslive}}</ref> Her owl is also a symbol of the fraternity.<ref name"pdt"/>
{{clear}}
Genealogy
{{chart top|Athena's family tree|collapsed=yes}}
{{chart/start}}
{{chart}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | |URA |y|GAI |URAUranus|GAIGaia}}
{{chart| | | | | |,|-|-|-|v|-|^|-|v|-|-|-|.}}
{{chart|URA| |OCE |y|TET | |CRO |y|RHE |OCEOceanus |TETTethys|URA<small>Uranus' genitals</small>|CROCronus|RHE=Rhea}}
{{chart| |!| |,|-|-|-|'|,|-|-|-|-|-|-|^|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|v|-|-|-|.}}
{{chart| |!|MET|~|y|ZEU |V|~|~|y|~|HER | |POS | |HAD | |DEM | |HES |METMetis|HESHestia|DEMDemeter|ZEUZeus|HERHera|HADHades|POS=Poseidon}}
{{chart| |!| | | | |!| | | |:| |,|^|-|.| |!}}
{{chart| |!| | | |ATH | | |:| |!| |AAA |!|ATH=ATHENA
|AAA&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a{{Efn|According to Homer, Iliad [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:1.570 1.570–579], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:14.338 14.338], Odyssey [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.312 8.312], Hephaestus was apparently the son of Hera and Zeus, see Gantz, p. 74.}}|border_AAA0}}
{{chart|border0| |!| | | | | | | | |:| |!| | |!|BBB |BBB&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b{{Efn|According to Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHes.+Th.+927 927–929], Hephaestus was produced by Hera alone, with no father, see Gantz, p. 74.}}}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| |!| | |!| |!}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:|ARE | |HEP |AREAres|HEPHephaestus}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|LET |LET=Leto}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| |,|-|^|-|.}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:|APO | |ART |APOApollo|ARTArtemis}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|MAI |MAI=Maia}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |HER |HER=Hermes}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |D|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|~|SEM |SEM=Semele}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |:| | |DIO |DIO=Dionysus}}
{{chart| |!| | | | | | | | |L|~|~|~|~|y|~|~|~|DIO |DIO=Dione}}
{{chart|border0|AAA | | | | | | | | | | | |BBB|AAA&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a{{Efn|According to Hesiod, Theogony [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docHes.+Th.+183 183–200], Aphrodite was born from Uranus' severed genitals, see Gantz, pp. 99–100.}}|BBB=&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;b{{Efn|According to Homer, Aphrodite was the daughter of Zeus (Iliad [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.374 3.374], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:20.105 20.105]; Odyssey [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.308 8.308], [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg002.perseus-eng1:8.320 320]) and Dione (Iliad [http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0012.tlg001.perseus-eng1:5.370 5.370–71]), see Gantz, pp. 99–100.}}}}
{{chart| |`|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|.| |!}}
{{chart| | | | | | | | | | | | | |APH |APH=Aphrodite}}
{{chart/end}}
{{chart bottom}}
See also
{{Portal|Ancient Greece|Myths|Religion}}
* Athenaeum (disambiguation)
* Ambulia, a Spartan epithet used for Athena, Zeus, and Castor and Pollux
Notes
{{notelist|40em}}
References
{{Reflist|25em}}
Bibliography
Ancient sources
{{refbegin}}
* Apollodorus, Library, 3,180
* Augustine, De civitate dei xviii.8–9
* Cicero, De natura deorum iii.21.53, 23.59
* Eusebius, Chronicon 30.21–26, 42.11–14
* Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PhD in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20210415210948/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0134%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 |date15 April 2021 }}.
* Homer; The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, PH.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0136%3Abook%3D1%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211029182326/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0136:book1:card1 |date29 October 2021 }}.
* Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts., Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0130%3Acard%3D1 Online version at the Perseus Digital Library] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20211117192240/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?docPerseus:text:1999.01.0130:card%3D1 |date17 November 2021 }}.
* Lactantius, Divinae institutions i.17.12–13, 18.22–23
* Livy, Ab urbe condita libri vii.3.7
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{{refend}}
External links
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category}}
{{Library resources box |byno |onlinebooksyes |othersyes |aboutyes |labelAthena |viaf |lcheading|wikititle }}
* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/Herakles/athena.html ATHENA] on the Perseus Project
* [https://www.theoi.com/Olympios/Athena.html ATHENA] from The Theoi Project
* [https://mythopedia.com/topics/athena ATHENA] from Mythopedia
* [https://iconographic.warburg.sas.ac.uk/category/vpc-taxonomy-000098 The Warburg Institute Iconographic Database] (images of Athena)
{{Greek myth (Olympian)}}
{{Greek religion}}
{{Greek mythology (deities)}}
{{Symbols of Greece}}
{{Authority control}}
Category:Handicraft deities
Category:Greek war deities
Category:Greek virgin goddesses
Category:Justice goddesses
Category:Peace goddesses
Category:Smithing goddesses
Category:Tutelary goddesses
Category:War goddesses
Category:Wisdom goddesses
Category:Women metalsmiths
Category:Snake goddesses
Category:Agricultural goddesses
Category:New religious movement deities
Category:Children of Zeus
Category:Metamorphoses characters
Category:Deeds of Poseidon
Category:Deities in the Iliad
Category:Attic mythology
Category:Civic personifications
Category:Women in Greek mythology
Category:Textiles in folklore
Category:Characters in the Odyssey
Category:Women warriors
Category:Women of the Trojan war
Category:Twelve Olympians
Category:Kourotrophoi
Category:Arts goddesses
Category:Shapeshifters in Greek mythology
Category:Odyssean gods | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.629470 |
1183 | Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game | The Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game is a role-playing game created and written by Erick Wujcik, set in the fictional universe created by author Roger Zelazny for his Chronicles of Amber. The game is unusual in that no dice are used in resolving conflicts or player actions; instead a simple diceless system of comparative ability, and narrative description of the action by the players and gamemaster, is used to determine how situations are resolved.
Amber DRPG was created in the 1980s, and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era.
The original 256-page game book was published in 1991 by Phage Press, covering material from the first five novels (the "Corwin Cycle") and some details – sorcery and the Logrus – from the remaining five novels (the "Merlin Cycle"), in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the Courts of Chaos. Some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice – for example, players can be full Trump Artists without having walked the Pattern or the Logrus, which Merlin says is impossible; and players' psychic abilities are far greater than those shown in the books.
thumb|200px|right|Cover of Shadow Knight
A 256-page companion volume, Shadow Knight, was published in 1993. This supplemental rule book includes the remaining elements from the Merlin novels, such as Broken Patterns, and allows players to create Constructs such as Merlin's Ghostwheel. The book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series' continuity but as an example of a roleplaying campaign with Merlin, Luke, Julia, Jurt and Coral as the PCs. The remainder of the book is a collection of essays on the game, statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series, and (perhaps most usefully for GMs) plot summaries of each of the ten books. The book includes some material from the short story "The Salesman's Tale," and some unpublished material cut from Prince of Chaos, notably Coral's pregnancy by Merlin.
Both books were translated into French and published by Jeux Descartes in 1994 and 1995.
A third book, Rebma, was promised. Cover art was commissioned and pre-orders were taken, but it was never published. Wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the Courts of Chaos. The publishing rights to the Amber DRPG games were acquired in 2004 by Guardians of Order, who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game. However, no new edition was released before Guardians of Order went out of business in 2006. The two existing books are now out-of-print, but they have been made available as PDF downloads.
In June 2007 a new publishing company, headed by Edwin Voskamp and Eleanor Todd, was formed with the express purpose of bringing Amber DRPG back into print. The new company is named Diceless by Design.
In May 2010, Rite Publishing secured a license from Diceless by Design to use the rules system with a new setting in the creation of a new product to be written by industry and system veteran Jason Durall. The project Lords of Gossamer & Shadow (Diceless) was funded via Kickstarter in May 2013. In Sept 2013 the project was completed, and on in Nov 2013 Lords of Gossamer and Shadow (Diceless) was released publicly in full-color Print and PDF, along with additional supplements and continued support.
Setting
The game is set in the multiverse described in Zelazny's Chronicles of Amber. The first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the Patternfall war; that is, after the end of the fifth book in the series, The Courts of Chaos, but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of Zelazny's cosmology that were featured there in more detail. The Amber multiverse consists of Amber, a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found the Pattern, the symbol of Order; The Courts of Chaos, an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found the Logrus, the manifestation of Chaos, and the Abyss, the source or end of all reality; and Shadow, the collection of all possible universes (shadows) between and around them. Inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the Pattern and the Logrus to travel through Shadow.
It is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books – the ruling family of Amber, known as the Elder Amberites – or a resident of the Courts. However, since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting, it is fairly common to either start with King Oberon's death before the book begins and roleplay the Elder Amberites as they vie for the throne; or to populate Amber from scratch with a different set of Elder Amberites. The former option is one presented in the book; the latter is known in the Amber community as an "Amethyst" game. A third option is to have the players portray Corwin's children, in an Amber-like city built around Corwin's pattern; this is sometimes called an "Argent" game, since one of Corwin's heraldic colours is Silver.
System
Attributes
Characters in Amber DRPG are represented by four attributes: Psyche, Strength, Endurance and Warfare.
Psyche is used for feats of willpower or magic
Strength is used for feats of strength or unarmed combat
Endurance is used for feats of endurance
Warfare is used for armed combat, from duelling to commanding armies
The attributes run from −25 (normal human level), through −10 (normal level for a denizen of the Courts of Chaos) and 0 (normal level for an inhabitant of Amber), upwards without limit. Scores above 0 are "ranked", with the highest score being ranked 1st, the next-highest 2nd, and so on. The character with 1st rank in each attribute is considered "superior" in that attribute, being considered to be substantially better than the character with 2nd rank even if the difference in scores is small. All else being equal, a character with a higher rank in an attribute will always win a contest based on that attribute.
The Attribute Auction
A character's ability scores are purchased during character creation in an auction; players get 100 character points, and bid on each attribute in turn. The character who bids the most for an attribute is "ranked" first and is considered superior to all other characters in that attribute. Unlike conventional auctions, bids are non-refundable; if one player bids 65 for psyche and another wins with a bid of 66, then the character with 66 is "superior" to the character with 65 even though there is only one bid difference. Instead, lower bidding characters are ranked in ascending order according to how much they have bid, the characters becoming progressively weaker in that attribute as they pay less for it. After the auction, players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks, but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank. Further, a character with a bid-for rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a bought-up rank.
The Auction simulates a 'history' of competition between the descendants of Oberon for player characters who have not had dozens of decades to get to know each other. Through the competitive Auction, characters may begin the game vying for standings. The auction serves to introduce some unpredictability into character creation without the need to resort to dice, cards, or other randomizing devices. A player may intend, for example, to create a character who is a strong, mighty warrior, but being "outplayed" in the auction may result in lower attribute scores than anticipated, therefore necessitating a change of character concept. Since a player cannot control another player's bids, and since all bids are non-refundable, the auction involves a considerable amount of strategizing and prioritization by players. A willingness to spend as many points as possible on an attribute may improve your chances of a high ranking, but too reckless a spending strategy could leave a player with few points to spend on powers and objects. In a hotly contested auction, such as for the important attribute of warfare, the most valuable skill is the ability to force one's opponents to back down. With two or more equally determined players, this can result in a "bidding war," in which the attribute is driven up by increments to large sums. An alternative strategy is to try to cow other players into submission with a high opening bid. Most players bid low amounts between one and ten points in an initial bid in order to feel out the competition and to save points for other uses. A high enough opening bid could signal a player's determination to be first ranked in that attribute, thereby dissuading others from competing.
Psyche in Amber DRPG compared to the Chronicles
Characters with high psyche are presented as having strong telepathic abilities, being able to hypnotise and even mentally dominate any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eye-contact. This is likely due to three scenes in the Chronicles: first, when Eric paralyzes Corwin with an attack across the Trump and refuses to desist because one or the other would be dominated; second, when Corwin faces the demon Strygalldwir, it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet; and third, when Fiona is able to keep Brand immobile in the final battle at the Courts of Chaos. However, in general, the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mind-to-mind contact (for example, Trump contact) and magic or Trump is involved in all three of the above conflicts, so it is not clear whether Zelazny intended his characters to have such a power; the combination of Brand's "living trump" powers and his high Psyche (as presented in the roleplaying game) would have guaranteed him victory over Corwin. Shadow Knight does address this inconsistency somewhat, by presenting the "living trump" abilities as somewhat limited.
Powers
Characters in Amber DRPG have access to the powers seen in the Chronicles of Amber: Pattern, Logrus, Shape-shifting, Trump, and magic.
Pattern: A character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe, and while there can manipulate probability.
Logrus: A character who has mastered the Logrus can send out Logrus tendrils and pull themselves or objects through shadow.
Shape-shifting: Shape-shifters can alter their physical form and abilities.
Trump: Trump Artists can create Trumps, a sort of tarot card which allows mental communication and travel. The book features Trump portraits of each of the elder Amberites. The trump picture of Corwin is executed in a subtly different style – and has features very similar to Roger Zelazny's.
Magic: Three types of magic are detailed: Power Words, with a quick, small effect; Sorcery, with pre-prepared spells as in many other game systems; and Conjuration, the creation of small objects.
Each of the first four powers is available in an advanced form.
Artifacts, Personal shadows and Constructs
While a character with Pattern, Logrus or Conjuration can acquire virtually any object, players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues – unbreakability, or a mind of their own. Since they have paid points for the items, they are a part of the character's legend, and cannot lightly be destroyed. Similarly, a character can find any possible universe, but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are (in some sense) "real" and therefore useful. The expansion, Shadow Knight, adds Constructs – artifacts with connections to shadows.
Stuff
Unspent character points become good stuff – a good luck for the character. Players are also allowed to overspend (in moderation), with the points becoming bad stuff – bad luck which the Gamemaster should inflict on the character. Stuff governs how non-player characters perceive and respond to the character: characters with good stuff will often receive friendly or helpful reactions, while characters with bad stuff are often treated with suspicion or hostility.
As well as representing luck, stuff can be seen as representing a character's outlook on the universe: characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place, while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile.
Conflict resolution
In any given fair conflict between two characters, the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win. The key words here are fair and eventually – if characters' ranks are close, and the weaker character has obtained some advantage, then the weaker character can escape defeat or perhaps prevail. Close ranks result in longer contests while greater difference between ranks result in fast resolution. Alternatively, if characters' attribute ranks are close, the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict. For example, if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is Strength; a character could reveal a weapon, changing it to Warfare; they could try to overcome the other character's mind using a power, changing it to Psyche; or they could concentrate their strength on defense, changing it to Endurance. If there is a substantial difference between characters' ranks, the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react.
The "Golden Rule"
Amber DRPG advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit, even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes.
Reception
Steve Crow reviewed Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game in White Wolf #31 (May/June, 1992), rating it a 4 out of 5 and stated that "It is undoubtedly a game for experienced gamers. While I would not recommend Amber to novices, it is a must buy for experienced gamemasters and players looking for new challenges."
In the June 1992 edition of Dragon (Issue 182), both Lester Smith and Allen Varney published reviews of this game.
Smith admired the professional production qualities of the 256-page rulebook, noting that because it was Smyth sewn in 32-page signatures, the book would always lie flat when opened. However, he found the typeface difficult to read, and the lack a coherent hierarchy of rules increased the reading difficulty as well. Smith admired the Attribute Auction and point-buy system for skills, and the focus on roleplaying in place of dice-rolling, but he mused that all of the roleplaying would mean "GMs have to spend quite a bit of time and creative effort coming up with wide-reaching plots for their players to work through. Canned, linear adventures just won't serve." He concluded by stating that the diceless system is not for every gamer: "As impressed as I am with the game, do I think it is the 'end-all' of role-playing games, or that diceless systems are the wave of the future? I'll give a firm “No” on both counts... However, I certainly do think that the Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game is destined for great popularity and a niche among the most respected of role-playing game designs."
Allen Varney thought the "Attribute Auction" to be "brilliant and elegant", but he wondered if character advancement was perhaps too slow to keep marginal players interested. He also believed that being a gamemaster would be "tough work. Proceed with caution." Varney recommended that players need some familiarity with the first five "Amber" novels by Zelazny. He concluded, "The intensity of the Amber game indicates [game designer Erik ] Wujcik is on to something. When success in every action depends on the role and not the roll, players develop a sense of both control and urgency, along with creativity that borders on mania."
Loyd Blankenship reviewed Amber in Pyramid #2 (July/Aug., 1993), and stated that "Amber is a valuable resource to a GM - even if he isn't running an Amber game. For gamers who have an aspiring actor or actress lurking within their breast, or for someone running a campaign via electronic mail or message base, Amber should be given serious consideration."
In his 2023 book Monsters, Aliens, and Holes in the Ground, RPG historian Stu Horvath noted, "There hasn't been an RPG quite like Amber, before or since. Bold though it was, the game didn't do very well commercially. The lack of dice became a flashpoint of controversy, with dice enthusiasts dramatically swearing off the game. That's a bit ridiculous, but it does get at a key hurdle Amber face: People like rolling dice. They've been doing it for thousands of years and a significant part of the appeal of RPGs is giving dice, often in sparkly colours, a toss."
Community
Despite the game's out-of-print status, a thriving convention scene exists supporting the game. Amber conventions, known as Ambercons, are held yearly in Massachusetts, Michigan, Portland (United States), Milton Keynes (England), Belfast (Northern Ireland) and Modena, Italy. Additionally, Phage Press published 12 volumes of a dedicated Amber DRPG magazine called Amberzine. Some Amberzine issues are still available from Phage Press.
References
Review
External links
The Official Amber DRPG, Erick Wujcik, and Lords of Olympus Forum
Category:The Chronicles of Amber
Category:Fantasy role-playing games
Category:Role-playing games based on novels
Category:American role-playing games
Category:Role-playing games introduced in 1991
Category:Role-playing game systems | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber_Diceless_Roleplaying_Game | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.667221 |
1184 | Athene (disambiguation) | Athene or Athena is the shrewd companion of heroes and the goddess of heroic endeavour in Greek mythology.
Athene may also refer to:
881 Athene, a main-belt asteroid
Athene (bird), a genus of small owls
Athene (Cynuria), a town in ancient Cynuria, Greece
Athene Glacier, a glacier in Antarctica
HMS Athene, an aircraft transport
USS Athene (AKA-22), an Artemis-class attack cargo ship
Bachir Boumaaza or Athene (born 1980), Belgian YouTube personality and social activist
Athene (research center), stylized as ATHENE, an IT security research institute in Darmstadt, Germany
Athene, an insurance company acquired by Apollo Global Management
People with the given name
Athene Seyler (1889–1990), English actress
Athene Donald (born 1953), British physicist
Athene (gamer), pseudonym of Bachir Boumaaza (born 1980), Belgian internet personality
See also
Altena (disambiguation)
Atena (disambiguation)
Athen (disambiguation)
Athena (disambiguation)
Athens (disambiguation)
Athenea (given name) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athene_(disambiguation) | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.675247 |
1187 | Alloy | thumb|300x300px|From left to right: three alloys (beryllium copper, Inconel, steel) and three pure metals (titanium, aluminum, magnesium)
An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which in most cases at least one is a metallic element, although it is also sometimes used for mixtures of elements; herein only metallic alloys are described. Most alloys are metallic and show good electrical conductivity, ductility, opacity, and luster, and may have properties that differ from those of the pure elements such as increased strength or hardness. In some cases, an alloy may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties. In other cases, the mixture imparts synergistic properties such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength.
In an alloy, the atoms are joined by metallic bonding rather than by covalent bonds typically found in chemical compounds. The alloy constituents are usually measured by mass percentage for practical applications, and in atomic fraction for basic science studies. Alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys, depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy. They can be further classified as homogeneous (consisting of a single phase), or heterogeneous (consisting of two or more phases) or intermetallic. An alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements (a single phase, where all metallic grains (crystals) are of the same composition) or a mixture of metallic phases (two or more solutions, forming a microstructure of different crystals within the metal).
Examples of alloys include red gold (gold and copper), white gold (gold and silver), sterling silver (silver and copper), steel or silicon steel (iron with non-metallic carbon or silicon respectively), solder, brass, pewter, duralumin, bronze, and amalgams.
Alloys are used in a wide variety of applications, from the steel alloys, used in everything from buildings to automobiles to surgical tools, to exotic titanium alloys used in the aerospace industry, to beryllium-copper alloys for non-sparking tools.
Characteristics
thumb|Liquid bronze, being poured into molds during casting
An alloy is a mixture of chemical elements, which forms an impure substance (admixture) that retains the characteristics of a metal. An alloy is distinct from an impure metal in that, with an alloy, the added elements are well controlled to produce desirable properties, while impure metals such as wrought iron are less controlled, but are often considered useful. Alloys are made by mixing two or more elements, at least one of which is a metal. This is usually called the primary metal or the base metal, and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy. The other constituents may or may not be metals but, when mixed with the molten base, they will be soluble and dissolve into the mixture.
The mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents. A metal that is normally very soft (malleable), such as aluminium, can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal, such as copper. Although both metals are very soft and ductile, the resulting aluminium alloy will have much greater strength. Adding a small amount of non-metallic carbon to iron trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel. Due to its very-high strength, but still substantial toughness, and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment, steel is one of the most useful and common alloys in modern use. By adding chromium to steel, its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced, creating stainless steel, while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics, producing silicon steel.
thumb|left|A brass lamp
Like oil and water, a molten metal may not always mix with another element. For example, pure iron is almost completely insoluble with copper. Even when the constituents are soluble, each will usually have a saturation point, beyond which no more of the constituent can be added. Iron, for example, can hold a maximum of 6.67% carbon. Although the elements of an alloy usually must be soluble in the liquid state, they may not always be soluble in the solid state. If the metals remain soluble when solid, the alloy forms a solid solution, becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals, called a phase. If as the mixture cools the constituents become insoluble, they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals, creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases, some with more of one constituent than the other. However, in other alloys, the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs. If cooled very quickly, they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase, but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents. As time passes, the atoms of these supersaturated alloys can separate from the crystal lattice, becoming more stable, and forming a second phase that serves to reinforce the crystals internally.
thumb|A gate valve, made from Inconel
Some alloys, such as electrum—an alloy of silver and gold—occur naturally. Meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel, but are not native to the Earth. One of the first alloys made by humans was bronze, which is a mixture of the metals tin and copper. Bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients, because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components. Steel was another common alloy. However, in ancient times, it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires (smelting) during the manufacture of iron. Other ancient alloys include pewter, brass and pig iron. In the modern age, steel can be created in many forms. Carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content, producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel. Alloy steels can be made by adding other elements, such as chromium, molybdenum, vanadium or nickel, resulting in alloys such as high-speed steel or tool steel. Small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities, like phosphorus, sulfur and oxygen, which can have detrimental effects on the alloy. However, most alloys were not created until the 1900s, such as various aluminium, titanium, nickel, and magnesium alloys. Some modern superalloys, such as incoloy, inconel, and hastelloy, may consist of a multitude of different elements.
An alloy is technically an impure metal, but when referring to alloys, the term impurities usually denotes undesirable elements. Such impurities are introduced from the base metals and alloying elements, but are removed during processing. For instance, sulfur is a common impurity in steel. Sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide, which is very brittle, creating weak spots in the steel. Lithium, sodium and calcium are common impurities in aluminium alloys, which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings. Conversely, otherwise pure-metals that contain unwanted impurities are often called "impure metals" and are not usually referred to as alloys. Oxygen, present in the air, readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides; especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying. Great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities, using fluxes, chemical additives, or other methods of extractive metallurgy.
Theory
Alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements. The most common and oldest alloying process is performed by heating the base metal beyond its melting point and then dissolving the solutes into the molten liquid, which may be possible even if the melting point of the solute is far greater than that of the base. For example, in its liquid state, titanium is a very strong solvent capable of dissolving most metals and elements. In addition, it readily absorbs gases like oxygen and burns in the presence of nitrogen. This increases the chance of contamination from any contacting surface, and so must be melted in vacuum induction-heating and special, water-cooled, copper crucibles. However, some metals and solutes, such as iron and carbon, have very high melting-points and were impossible for ancient people to melt. Thus, alloying (in particular, interstitial alloying) may also be performed with one or more constituents in a gaseous state, such as found in a blast furnace to make pig iron (liquid-gas), nitriding, carbonitriding or other forms of case hardening (solid-gas), or the cementation process used to make blister steel (solid-gas). It may also be done with one, more, or all of the constituents in the solid state, such as found in ancient methods of pattern welding (solid-solid), shear steel (solid-solid), or crucible steel production (solid-liquid), mixing the elements via solid-state diffusion.
By adding another element to a metal, differences in the size of the atoms create internal stresses in the lattice of the metallic crystals; stresses that often enhance its properties. For example, the combination of carbon with iron produces steel, which is stronger than iron, its primary element. The electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals. The physical properties, such as density, reactivity, Young's modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its base element, but engineering properties such as tensile strength, ductility, and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials. This is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy, because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms, and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors, helping the alloy resist deformation. Sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present. For example, impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties, as first predicted by White, Hogan, Suhl, Tian Abrie and Nakamura.
Unlike pure metals, most alloys do not have a single melting point, but a melting range during which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases (a slush). The temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus, and the temperature when melting is just complete is called the liquidus. For many alloys there is a particular alloy proportion (in some cases more than one), called either a eutectic mixture or a peritectic composition, which gives the alloy a unique and low melting point, and no liquid/solid slush transition.
Heat treatment
thumb|left|Allotropes of iron, (alpha iron and gamma iron) showing the differences in atomic arrangement
thumb|Photomicrographs of steel. Top photo: Annealed (slowly cooled) steel forms a heterogeneous, lamellar microstructure called pearlite, consisting of the phases cementite (light) and ferrite (dark). Bottom photo: Quenched (quickly cooled) steel forms a single phase called martensite, in which the carbon remains trapped within the crystals, creating internal stresses
Alloying elements are added to a base metal, to induce hardness, toughness, ductility, or other desired properties. Most metals and alloys can be work hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure. These defects are created during plastic deformation by hammering, bending, extruding, et cetera, and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized. Otherwise, some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment. Nearly all metals can be softened by annealing, which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects, but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling. Many alloys of aluminium, copper, magnesium, titanium, and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment, but few respond to this to the same degree as does steel. Because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight, these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry, including the construction of modern aircraft.
Mechanisms
thumb|Different atomic mechanisms of alloy formation, showing pure metal, substitutional, interstitial, and a combination of the two
When a molten metal is mixed with another substance, there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form, called atom exchange and the interstitial mechanism. The relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur. When the atoms are relatively similar in size, the atom exchange method usually happens, where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent. This is called a substitutional alloy. Examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass, in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms respectively.
In the case of the interstitial mechanism, one atom is usually much smaller than the other and can not successfully substitute for the other type of atom in the crystals of the base metal. Instead, the smaller atoms become trapped in the interstitial sites between the atoms of the crystal matrix. This is referred to as an interstitial alloy. Steel is an example of an interstitial alloy, because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix.
Stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys, because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices, but some of the iron atoms are substituted by nickel and chromium atoms.
History and examples
thumb|left|A meteorite and a hatchet that was forged from meteoric iron. Evidence of the Widmanstätten patterns from the original meteorite used to make the hatchet's head can be seen on its surface.
Meteoric iron
The use of alloys by humans started with the use of meteoric iron, a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron. It is the main constituent of iron meteorites. As no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel, the alloy was used as it was. Meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools, weapons, and nails. In many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads. They were often used as anvils. Meteoric iron was very rare and valuable, and difficult for ancient people to work.
Bronze and brass
thumb|Bronze axe 1100 BC
thumb|left|A bronze doorknocker
Iron is usually found as iron ore on Earth, except for one deposit of native iron in Greenland, which was used by the Inuit. Native copper, however, was found worldwide, along with silver, gold, and platinum, which were also used to make tools, jewelry, and other objects since Neolithic times. Copper was the hardest of these metals, and the most widely distributed. It became one of the most important metals to the ancients. Around 10,000 years ago in the highlands of Anatolia (Turkey), humans learned to smelt metals such as copper and tin from ore. Around 2500 BC, people began alloying the two metals to form bronze, which was much harder than its ingredients. Tin was rare, however, being found mostly in Great Britain. In the Middle East, people began alloying copper with zinc to form brass. Ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced, such as hardness, toughness and melting point, under various conditions of temperature and work hardening, developing much of the information contained in modern alloy phase diagrams.
Amalgams
Mercury has been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years. Mercury dissolves many metals, such as gold, silver, and tin, to form amalgams (an alloy in a soft paste or liquid form at ambient temperature). Amalgams have been used since 200 BC in China for gilding objects such as armor and mirrors with precious metals. The ancient Romans often used mercury-tin amalgams for gilding their armor. The amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized, leaving the gold, silver, or tin behind. Mercury was often used in mining, to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores.
Precious metals
thumb|Electrum, a natural alloy of silver and gold, was often used for making coins
Many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes. In ancient Egypt and Mycenae, gold was often alloyed with copper to produce red-gold, or iron to produce a bright burgundy-gold. Gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of colored gold. These metals were also used to strengthen each other, for more practical purposes. Copper was often added to silver to make sterling silver, increasing its strength for use in dishes, silverware, and other practical items. Quite often, precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers. Around 250 BC, Archimedes was commissioned by the King of Syracuse to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown, leading to the famous bath-house shouting of "Eureka!" upon the discovery of Archimedes' principle.
Pewter
The term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin. As a pure metal, tin is much too soft to use for most practical purposes. However, during the Bronze Age, tin was a rare metal in many parts of Europe and the Mediterranean, so it was often valued higher than gold. To make jewellery, cutlery, or other objects from tin, workers usually alloyed it with other metals to increase strength and hardness. These metals were typically lead, antimony, bismuth or copper. These solutes were sometimes added individually in varying amounts, or added together, making a wide variety of objects, ranging from practical items such as dishes, surgical tools, candlesticks or funnels, to decorative items like ear rings and hair clips.
The earliest examples of pewter come from ancient Egypt, around 1450 BC. The use of pewter was widespread across Europe, from France to Norway and Britain (where most of the ancient tin was mined) to the Near East. The alloy was also used in China and the Far East, arriving in Japan around 800 AD, where it was used for making objects like ceremonial vessels, tea canisters, or chalices used in shinto shrines.
Iron
thumb|Puddling in China, . Opposite to most alloying processes, liquid pig-iron is poured from a blast furnace into a container and stirred to remove carbon, which diffuses into the air forming carbon dioxide, leaving behind a mild steel to wrought iron
The first known smelting of iron began in Anatolia, around 1800 BC. Called the bloomery process, it produced very soft but ductile wrought iron. By 800 BC, iron-making technology had spread to Europe, arriving in Japan around 700 AD. Pig iron, a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon, was being produced in China as early as 1200 BC, but did not arrive in Europe until the Middle Ages. Pig iron has a lower melting point than iron, and was used for making cast-iron. However, these metals found little practical use until the introduction of crucible steel around 300 BC. These steels were of poor quality, and the introduction of pattern welding, around the 1st century AD, sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them, to create a tougher metal. Around 700 AD, the Japanese began folding bloomery-steel and cast-iron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords, using clay fluxes to remove slag and impurities. This method of Japanese swordsmithing produced one of the purest steel-alloys of the ancient world.
While the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 BC, mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin, the metal was much softer than bronze. However, very small amounts of steel, (an alloy of iron and around 1% carbon), was always a byproduct of the bloomery process. The ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 BC, and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons. Because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully, the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of blister steel during the Middle Ages. This method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time, but the absorption of carbon in this manner is extremely slow thus the penetration was not very deep, so the alloy was not homogeneous. In 1740, Benjamin Huntsman began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content, creating the first process for the mass production of tool steel. Huntsman's process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s.
The introduction of the blast furnace to Europe in the Middle Ages meant that people could produce pig iron in much higher volumes than wrought iron. Because pig iron could be melted, people began to develop processes to reduce carbon in liquid pig iron to create steel. Puddling had been used in China since the first century, and was introduced in Europe during the 1700s, where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air, to remove the carbon by oxidation. In 1858, Henry Bessemer developed a process of steel-making by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content. The Bessemer process led to the first large scale manufacture of steel.
After Benjamin Huntsman developed his crucible steel in 1740, he began experimenting with the addition of elements like manganese (in the form of a high-manganese pig-iron called spiegeleisen), which helped remove impurities such as phosphorus and oxygen; a process adopted by Bessemer and still used in modern steels (albeit in concentrations low enough to still be considered carbon steel). Afterward, many people began experimenting with various alloys of steel without much success. However, in 1882, Robert Hadfield, being a pioneer in steel metallurgy, took an interest and produced a steel alloy containing around 12% manganese. Called mangalloy, it exhibited extreme hardness and toughness, becoming the first commercially viable alloy-steel. Afterward, he created silicon steel, launching the search for other possible alloys of steel.
Robert Forester Mushet found that by adding tungsten to steel it could produce a very hard edge that would resist losing its hardness at high temperatures. "R. Mushet's special steel" (RMS) became the first high-speed steel. Mushet's steel was quickly replaced by tungsten carbide steel, developed by Taylor and White in 1900, in which they doubled the tungsten content and added small amounts of chromium and vanadium, producing a superior steel for use in lathes and machining tools. In 1903, the Wright brothers used a chromium-nickel steel to make the crankshaft for their airplane engine, while in 1908 Henry Ford began using vanadium steels for parts like crankshafts and valves in his Model T Ford, due to their higher strength and resistance to high temperatures. In 1912, the Krupp Ironworks in Germany developed a rust-resistant steel by adding 21% chromium and 7% nickel, producing the first stainless steel.
Others
Due to their high reactivity, most metals were not discovered until the 19th century. A method for extracting aluminium from bauxite was proposed by Humphry Davy in 1807, using an electric arc. Although his attempts were unsuccessful, by 1855 the first sales of pure aluminium reached the market. However, as extractive metallurgy was still in its infancy, most aluminium extraction-processes produced unintended alloys contaminated with other elements found in the ore; the most abundant of which was copper. These aluminium-copper alloys (at the time termed "aluminum bronze") preceded pure aluminium, offering greater strength and hardness over the soft, pure metal, and to a slight degree were found to be heat treatable. However, due to their softness and limited hardenability these alloys found little practical use, and were more of a novelty, until the Wright brothers used an aluminium alloy to construct the first airplane engine in 1903.
Prior to 1910, research mainly consisted of private individuals tinkering in their own laboratories. However, as the aircraft and automotive industries began growing, research into alloys became an industrial effort in the years following 1910, as new magnesium alloys were developed for pistons and wheels in cars, and pot metal for levers and knobs, and aluminium alloys developed for airframes and aircraft skins were put into use.
See also
Alloy broadening
CALPHAD
Ideal mixture
List of alloys
References
Bibliography
External links
Category:Metallurgy
Category:Chemistry | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.727476 |
1192 | Artistic revolution | {{more citations needed|date=January 2013}}
{{essay|date=November 2019}}
Throughout history, forms of art have gone through periodic abrupt changes called artistic revolutions. Movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways.
Scientific and technological
1
Not all artistic revolutions were political. Sometimes, science and technological innovations have brought about unforeseen transformations in the works of artists. The stylistic revolution known as Impressionism, by painters eager to more accurately capture the changing colors of light and shadow, is inseparable from discoveries and inventions in the mid-19th century in which the style was born.
Michel Eugène Chevreul, a French chemist hired as director of dyes at a French tapestry works, began to investigate the optical nature of color in order to improve color in fabrics. Chevreul realized It was the eye, and not the dye, that had the greatest influence on color, and from this, he revolutionized color theory by grasping what came to be called the law of simultaneous contrast: that colors mutually influence one another when juxtaposed, each imposing its own complementary color on the other. The French painter Eugène Delacroix, who had been experimenting with what he called broken tones, embraced Chevreul's book, The Law of Contrast of Color (1839) with its explanations of how juxtaposed colors can enhance or diminish each other, and his exploration of all the visible colors of the spectrum. Inspired by Chevreul's 1839 treatise, Delacroix passed his enthusiasm on to the young artists who were inspired by him. It was Chevreul who led the Impressionists to grasp that they should apply separate brushstrokes of pure color to a canvas and allow the viewer's eye to combine them optically.<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.britannica.com/biography/Michel-Eugene-Chevreul| title Michel-Eugène Chevreul {{!}} French chemist {{!}} Britannica}}</ref>
They were aided greatly in this by innovations in oil paint itself. Since the Renaissance, painters had to grind pigment, add oil and thus create their own paints; these time-consuming paints also quickly dried out, making studio painting a necessity for large works, and limiting painters to mix one or two colors at a time and fill in an entire area using just that one color before it dried out. In 1841, a little-known American painter named John G. Rand invented a simple improvement without which the Impressionist movement could not have occurred: the small, flexible tin tube with removable cap in which oil paints could be stored.<ref>http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/never-underestimate-the-power-of-a-paint-tube-36637764/?no-ist, May 2013, by Perry Hurt</ref> Oil paints kept in such tubes stayed moist, usable, and portable. For the first time since the Renaissance, painters were not trapped by the time frame of how quickly oil paint dried.
Paints in tubes could be easily loaded up and carried out into the real world, to directly observe the play of color and natural light, in shadow and movement, to paint in the moment. Selling the oil paint in tubes also brought about the arrival of dazzling new pigments - chrome yellow, cadmium blue - invented by 19th century industrial chemists. The tubes freed the Impressionists to paint quickly, and across an entire canvas, rather than carefully delineated single-color sections at a time; in short, to sketch directly in oil - racing across the canvas in every color that came to hand and thus inspiring their name of "impressionists" - since such speedy, bold brushwork and dabs of separate colors made contemporary critics think their paintings were mere impressions, not finished paintings, which were to have no visible brush marks at all, seamless under layers of varnish.
Pierre-Auguste Renoir said, “Without colors in tubes, there would be no Cézanne, no Monet, no Pissarro, and no Impressionism.”<ref>{{cite web| url http://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/never-underestimate-the-power-of-a-paint-tube-36637764/#P4ovFKfbRLyMIhQT.99| title Never Underestimate the Power of a Paint Tube {{!}} Arts & Culture {{!}} Smithsonian Magazine}}</ref>
Finally, the careful, hyper-realistic techniques of French neo-classicism were seen{{By whom|date=November 2022}} as stiff and lifeless when compared to the remarkable new vision of the world as seen through the new invention of photography by the mid-1850s. It was not merely that the increasing ability of this new invention, particularly by the French inventor Daguerre, made the realism of the painted image redundant as he deliberately competed in the Paris diorama with large-scale historical paintings.<ref>"Speculating Daguerre: Art and Enterprise in the Work of L. J. M. Daguerre" by Stephen C. Pinson, Chicago, (2012) p. 1-12</ref> The neo-classical subject matter, limited by Academic tradition to Greek and Roman legends, historical battles and Biblical stories, seemed oppressively clichéd and limited to artists eager to explore the actual world in front of their own eyes revealed by the camera - daily life, candid groupings of everyday people doing simple things, Paris itself, rural landscapes and most particularly the play of captured light - not the imaginary lionizing of unseen past events.<ref>Review of "The Lens of Impressionism," at University of Michigan Museum of Art, October- Dec. 2009 by Simon Kelly, Volume 9, Issue 1 Spring 2010, http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/spring10/the-lens-of-impressionism</ref> Early photographs influenced Impressionist style by its use of asymmetry, cropping and most obviously the blurring of motion, as inadvertently captured in the very slow speeds of early photography.
Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir - in their framing, use of color, light and shadow, subject matter - put these innovations to work to create a new language of visual beauty and meaning.
Faking revolution: the CIA and Abstract Expressionism
Their initial break with realism into an exploration of light, color and the nature of paint was brought to an ultimate conclusion by the abstract expressionists who broke away from recognizable content of any kind into works of pure shape, color and painterliness which emerged at the end of the Second World War. At first thought of{{By whom|date=November 2022}} as primitive, inept works - as in "my four year old could do that - these works were misunderstood and neglected until given critical and support by the rise of art journalists and critics who championed their work in the 1940s and 50s, expressing the power of such work in aesthetic terms the artists themselves seldom used, or even understood. Jackson Pollock who pioneered splatter painting, dispensing with a paint brush altogether, soon became lionized as the angry young man in a large spread in Life magazine.
In fact, in a deliberate, secret and successful effort to separate artistic revolutions from political ones, abstract expressionists like Pollock, Robert Motherwell, Willem de Kooning and Mark Rothko, while seemingly difficult, pathbreaking artists, were in fact secretly supported for twenty years by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in a Cold War policy begun in 1947 to prove that the United States could foster more artistic freedom than the Soviet bloc.<ref>{{cite web| url https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/modern-art-was-cia-weapon-1578808.html| title Modern art was CIA 'weapon' {{!}} The Independent | website Independent.co.uk| date 21 October 1995}}</ref> "It was recognized that Abstract Expressionism was the kind of art that made Socialist Realism look even more stylized and rigid and confined than it was," said former CIA case worker Donald Jameson, who finally broke the silence on this program in 1995. Ironically, the covert CIA support for these radical works was required because an attempt to use government funds for a European tour of these works during the Truman administration led to a public uproar in conservative McCarthy-era America, with Truman famously remarking, "If that's art, I'm a Hottentot." Thus, the program was hidden under the guise of fabricated foundations and the support of wealthy patrons who were actually using CIA funds, not their own, to sponsor traveling exhibitions of American abstract expressionists all over the world, publish books and articles praising them and to purchase and exhibit abstract expressionist works in major American and British museums. Thomas Braden, in charge of these cultural programs for the CIA, in the early years of the Cold War, had formerly been executive secretary of the Museum of Modern Art, America's leading institution for 20th century art and the charges of collusion between the two echoed for many years after this program was revealed, though most of the artists involved had no idea they were being used in this way and were furious when they found out.<ref>{{cite magazine| url https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2005/10/17/unpopular-front| title Unpopular Front {{!}} The New Yorker| magazine The New Yorker| date 10 October 2005}}</ref>
See also
* Cultural movement
References
{{Reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Artistic Revolution}}
Category:History of art
Category:Revolutions by type | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic_revolution | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.774065 |
1193 | Agrarianism | {{Short description|Philosophy supporting rural society}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Agrarianism sidebar|expanded=all}}
Agrarianism is a social and political philosophy that advocates for rural development, a rural agricultural lifestyle, family farming, widespread property ownership, and political decentralization.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAgrarianism {{!}} Definition, Ideals, History, & Proponents |urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/agrarianism |access-date14 October 2023 |websitewww.britannica.com |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/agrarian |titleDefinition of 'agrarian' |website collinsdictionary.com | access-date3 April 2020 |quote Agrarian means relating to the ownership and use of land, especially farmland, or relating to the part of a society or economy that is concerned with agriculture.}}</ref> Those who adhere to agrarianism tend to value traditional forms of local community over urban modernity.<ref>{{Cite web |titleAgrarianism {{!}} Definition, Ideals, History, & Proponents|urlhttps://www.britannica.com/topic/agrarianism |access-date14 October 2023 |websitewww.britannica.com |languageen}}</ref> Agrarian political parties sometimes aim to support the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants against the wealthy, powerful and famous in society.<ref>{{cite web |url https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/agrarianism |titleDefinition of agrarianism |website merriam-webster.com |access-date3 April 2020}}</ref> Philosophy Some scholars suggest that agrarianism espouses the superiority of rural society to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker, and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values.<ref>Thompson, Paul. 2010. "Interview Eighteen" in Sustainability Ethics: 5 Questions Ed. Ryne Raffaelle, Wade Robinson, and Evan Selinger. United States: Automatic Press</ref> It stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life in comparison to the complexity of urban life. For example, M. Thomas Inge defines agrarianism by the following basic tenets:<ref>M. Thomas Inge, ed. Agrarianism in American Literature (1969), introduction; [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/HNS/Yoeman/agri1.html paraphrased] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20170717203649/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/HNS/Yoeman/agri1.html |date=17 July 2017 }}</ref>
* Farming is the sole occupation that offers total independence and self-sufficiency.
* Urban life, fascism, capitalism, and technology destroy independence and dignity and foster vice and weakness.
* The agricultural community, with its fellowship of labor and co-operation, is the model society.
* The farmer has a solid, stable position in the world order. They have "a sense of identity, a sense of historical and religious tradition, a feeling of belonging to a concrete family, place, and region, which are psychologically and culturally beneficial." The harmony of their life checks the encroachments of a fragmented, alienated modern society.
* Cultivation of the soil "has within it a positive spiritual good" and from it the cultivator acquires the virtues of "honor, manliness, self-reliance, courage, moral integrity, and hospitality." They result from a direct contact with nature and, through nature, a closer relationship to God. The agrarian is blessed in that they follow the example of God in creating order out of chaos.
History
{{main|History of agrarianism}}
The philosophical roots of agrarianism include European and Chinese philosophers. The Chinese school of Agriculturalism (农家/農家) was a philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. In societies influenced by Confucianism that had as its foundation that humans are innately good, the farmer was considered an esteemed productive member of society, but merchants who made money were looked down upon.<ref name"wp">{{cite book |last Deutsch |firstEliot |author2 Ronald Bontekoei|year1999 | page 183|titleA companion to world philosophies|publisherWiley Blackwell}}</ref> That influenced European intellectuals like François Quesnay, an avid Confucianist and advocate of China's agrarian policies, in forming the French agrarian philosophy of physiocracy.<ref>L.A. Maverick, "Chinese Influences upon the Physiocrats," Economic History, 3:54–67 (February 1938),</ref> The physiocrats, along with the ideas of John Locke and the Romantic Era, formed the basis of modern European and American agrarianism.
Types of agrarianism
Physiocracy
{{excerpt|Physiocracy}}
Jeffersonian democracy
and his supporters idealised farmers as the citizens that the American Republic should be formed around.]]
{{Main|Jeffersonian democracy|land grant}}
{{Further|Economic history of the United States#Land grants}}
The United States president Thomas Jefferson was an agrarian who based his ideas about the budding American democracy around the notion that farmers are "the most valuable citizens" and the truest republicans.<ref>Thomas P. Govan, "Agrarian and Agrarianism: A Study in the Use and Abuse of Words," Journal of Southern History, Vol. 30#1 (Feb. 1964), pp. 35–47 {{jstor|2205372}}</ref> Jefferson and his support base were committed to American republicanism, which they saw as being in opposition to monarchy, aristocracy, clericalism and corruption, and which prioritized morality and virtue, exemplified by the "yeoman farmer", "planters", and the "plain folk".<ref>{{cite book |lastWood |firstGordon S. |titleThe American Revolution: A History |page100 }}</ref> In praising the rural farmfolk, the Jeffersonians felt that financiers, bankers and industrialists created "cesspools of corruption" in the cities and should thus be avoided.<ref>Elkins and McKitrick. (1995) ch 5; Wallace Hettle, The Peculiar Democracy: Southern Democrats in Peace and Civil War (2001) p. 15</ref>
The Jeffersonians sought to align the American economy more with agriculture than industry. Part of their motive to do so was Jefferson's fear that the over-industrialization of America would create a class of wage slaves who relied on their employers for income and sustenance. In turn, these workers would cease to be independent voters as their vote could be manipulated by said employers. To counter this, Jefferson introduced, as scholar Clay Jenkinson noted, "a graduated income tax that would serve as a disincentive to vast accumulations of wealth and would make funds available for some sort of benign redistribution downward" and tariffs on imported articles, which were mainly purchased by the wealthy.<ref>Jenkinson, ''Becoming Jefferson's People'', p. 26</ref> In 1811, Jefferson, writing to a friend, explained: "these revenues will be levied entirely on the rich... . the rich alone use imported articles, and on these alone the whole taxes of the general government are levied. the poor man ... pays not a farthing of tax to the general government, but on his salt."<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/03-03-02-0439|titleFounders Online: Thomas Jefferson to Tadeusz Kosciuszko, 16 April 1811|website=founders.archives.gov}}</ref>
There is general agreement that the substantial United States' federal policy of offering land grants (such as thousands of gifts of land to veterans) had a positive impact on economic development in the 19th century.<ref>Whaples, R. (1995). Where is there consensus among American economic historians? The results of a survey on forty propositions. The Journal of Economic History, 55(1), 139–154.</ref>
Agrarian socialism
{{Main|Agrarian socialism}}
Agrarian socialism is a form of agrarianism that is anti-capitalist in nature and seeks to introduce socialist economic systems in their stead.
Zapatismo
fought in the Mexican Revolution in the name of the Mexican peasants and sought to introduce reforms such as land redistribution.]]
Notable agrarian socialists include Emiliano Zapata who was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution. As part of the Liberation Army of the South, his group of revolutionaries fought on behalf of the Mexican peasants, whom they saw as exploited by the landowning classes. Zapata published the Plan of Ayala, which called for significant land reforms and land redistribution in Mexico as part of the revolution. Zapata was killed and his forces crushed over the course of the Revolution, but his political ideas lived on in the form of Zapatismo.
Zapatismo would form the basis for neozapatismo, the ideology of the Zapatista Army of National Liberation. Known as Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional or EZLN in Spanish, EZLN is a far-left libertarian socialist political and militant group that emerged in the state of Chiapas in southmost Mexico in 1994. EZLN and Neozapatismo, as explicit in their name, seek to revive the agrarian socialist movement of Zapata, but fuse it with new elements such as a commitment to indigenous rights and community-level decision making.
Subcommander Marcos, a leading member of the movement, argues that the peoples' collective ownership of the land was and is the basis for all subsequent developments the movement sought to create:<blockquote>
...When the land became property of the peasants ... when the land passed into the hands of those who work it ... [This was] the starting point for advances in government, health, education, housing, nutrition, women's participation, trade, culture, communication, and information ...[it was] recovering the means of production, in this case, the land, animals, and machines that were in the hands of large property owners."<ref>See ''The Zapatistas' Dignified Rage: Final Public Speeches of Subcommander Marcos''. Edited by Nick Henck. Translated by Henry Gales. (Chico: AK Press, 2018), pp. 81–82.</ref></blockquote>
Maoism
Maoism, the far-left ideology of Mao Zedong and his followers, places a heavy emphasis on the role of peasants in its goals. In contrast to other Marxist schools of thought which normally seek to acquire the support of urban workers, Maoism sees the peasantry as key. Believing that "political power grows out of the barrel of a gun",<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/mao/works/red-book/ch05.htm|titleQuotations From Chairman Mao|publisherPeking Foreign Languages Press|access-date1 April 2018}}</ref> Maoism saw the Chinese Peasantry as the prime source for a Marxist vanguard because it possessed two qualities: (i) they were poor, and (ii) they were a political blank slate; in Mao's words, "A clean sheet of paper has no blotches, and so the newest and most beautiful words can be written on it".<ref>Gregor, A. James; Chang, Maria Hsia (1978). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1407255 "Maoism and Marxism in Comparative Perspective"]. The Review of Politics. 40: 3. pp. 307–327.</ref> During the Chinese Civil War and the Second Sino-Japanese War, Mao and the Chinese Communist Party made extensive use of peasants and rural bases in their military tactics, often eschewing the cities.
Following the eventual victory of the Communist Party in both wars, the countryside and how it should be run remained a focus for Mao. In 1958, Mao launched the Great Leap Forward, a social and economic campaign which, amongst other things, altered many aspects of rural Chinese life. It introduced mandatory collective farming and forced the peasantry to organize itself into communal living units which were known as people's communes. These communes, which consisted of 5,000 people on average, were expected to meet high production quotas while the peasants who lived on them adapted to this radically new way of life. The communes were run as co-operatives where wages and money were replaced by work points. Peasants who criticised this new system were persecuted as "rightists" and "counter-revolutionaries". Leaving the communes was forbidden and escaping from them was difficult or impossible, and those who attempted it were subjected to party-orchestrated "public struggle sessions," which further jeopardized their survival.<ref>Thaxton, Ralph A. Jr (2008). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id14A1qPQOgQMC Catastrophe and Contention in Rural China: Mao's Great Leap Forward Famine and the Origins of Righteous Resistance in Da Fo Village] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190226022145/https://books.google.com/books?id14A1qPQOgQMC&sourcegbs_navlinks_s |date=26 February 2019 }}. Cambridge University Press. p.&nbsp;3. {{ISBN|0-521-72230-6}}.</ref> These public criticism sessions were often used to intimidate the peasants into obeying local officials and they often devolved into little more than public beatings.<ref>Thaxton 2008, p.&nbsp;212.</ref>
On the communes, experiments were conducted in order to find new methods of planting crops, efforts were made to construct new irrigation systems on a massive scale, and the communes were all encouraged to produce steel backyard furnaces as part of an effort to increase steel production. However, following the Anti-Rightist Campaign, Mao had instilled a mass distrust of intellectuals into China, and thus engineers often were not consulted with regard to the new irrigation systems and the wisdom of asking untrained peasants to produce good quality steel from scrap iron was not publicly questioned. Similarly, the experimentation with the crops did not produce results. In addition to this the Four Pests Campaign was launched, in which the peasants were called upon to destroy sparrows and other wild birds that ate crop seeds, in order to protect fields. Pest birds were shot down or scared away from landing until they dropped from exhaustion. This campaign resulted in an ecological disaster that saw an explosion of the vermin population, especially crop-eating insects, which was consequently not in danger of being killed by predators.
None of these new systems were working, but local leaders did not dare to state this, instead, they falsified reports so as not to be punished for failing to meet the quotas. In many cases they stated that they were greatly exceeding their quotas, and in turn, the Chinese state developed a completely false sense of success with regard to the commune system.<ref namehinton1984>{{Cite book | last Hinton | first William | author-link William H. Hinton | title Shenfan: The Continuing Revolution in a Chinese Village | publisher Vintage Books | location New York | year 1984 | pages [https://archive.org/details/shenfan00hint/page/236 236]–245 | isbn 978-0-394-72378-5 | url https://archive.org/details/shenfan00hint | url-access registration}}</ref>
All of this culminated in the Great Chinese Famine, which began in 1959, lasted 3 years, and saw an estimated 15 to 30 million Chinese people die.<ref>Holmes, Leslie. Communism: A Very Short Introduction'' (Oxford University Press 2009). {{ISBN|978-0-19-955154-5}}. p. 32 "Most estimates of the number of Chinese people who died range from 15 to 30 million."</ref> A combination of bad weather and the new, failed farming techniques that were introduced by the state led to massive shortages of food. By 1962, the Great Leap Forward was declared to be at an end.
In the late 1960s and early 1970s, Mao once again radically altered life in rural China with the launching of the Down to the Countryside Movement. As a response to the Great Chinese Famine, the Chinese President Liu Shaoqi began "sending down" urban youths to rural China in order to recover its population losses and alleviate overcrowding in the cities. However, Mao turned the practice into a political crusade, declaring that the sending down would strip the youth of any bourgeois tendencies by forcing them to learn from the unprivileged rural peasants. In reality, it was the Communist Party's attempt to reign in the Red Guards, who had become uncontrollable during the course of the Cultural Revolution. 10% of the 1970 urban population of China was sent out to remote rural villages, often in Inner Mongolia. The villages, which were still poorly recovering from the effects of the Great Chinese Famine, did not have the excess resources that were needed to support the newcomers. Furthermore, the so-called "sent-down youth" had no agricultural experience and as a result, they were unaccustomed to the harsh lifestyle that existed in the countryside, and their unskilled labor in the villages provided little benefit to the agricultural sector. As a result, many of the sent-down youth died in the countryside. The relocation of the youths was originally intended to be permanent, but by the end of the Cultural Revolution, the Communist Party relented and some of those who had the capacity to return to the cities were allowed to do so.<ref>{{Cite web|urlhttp://chineseposters.net/themes/up-to-the-mountains.php|titleUp to the mountains, down to the villages (1968)|websitechineseposters.net|access-date10 April 2019|archive-date28 April 2019|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190428210451/https://chineseposters.net/themes/up-to-the-mountains.php|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In imitation of Mao's policies, the Khmer Rouge of Cambodia (who were heavily funded and supported by the People's Republic of China) created their own version of the Great Leap Forward which was known as "Maha Lout Ploh". With the Great Leap Forward as its model, it had similarly disastrous effects, contributing to what is now known as the Cambodian genocide. As a part of the Maha Lout Ploh, the Khmer Rouge sought to create an entirely agrarian socialist society by forcibly relocating 100,000 people to move from Cambodia's cities into newly created communes. The Khmer Rouge leader, Pol Pot sought to "purify" the country by setting it back to "Year Zero", freeing it from "corrupting influences".<ref>{{cite news |lastTaylor |firstAdam |date7 August 2014 |titleWhy the world should not forget Khmer Rouge and the killing fields of Cambodia |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2014/08/07/why-the-world-should-not-forget-khmer-rouge-and-the-killing-fields-of-cambodia/ |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-date3 April 2020 }}</ref> Besides trying to completely de-urbanize Cambodia, ethnic minorities were slaughtered along with anyone else who was suspected of being a "reactionary" or a member of the "bourgeoisie", to the point that wearing glasses was seen as grounds for execution.<ref>{{cite news |date16 November 2018 |titleKhmer Rouge: Cambodia's years of brutality |urlhttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-10684399 |workBBC News |access-date3 April 2020 }}</ref> The killings were only brought to an end when Cambodia was invaded by the neighboring socialist nation of Vietnam, whose army toppled the Khmer Rouge.<ref>{{cite news |lastHersh |firstSeymour M. |date8 August 1979 |title2.25 Million Cambodians Are Said to Face Starvation |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/1979/08/08/archives/225-million-cambodians-are-said-to-face-starvation-plight-held.html |workThe New York Times |access-date3 April 2020 }}</ref> However, with Cambodia's entire society and economy in disarray, including its agricultural sector, the country still plunged into renewed famine due to vast food shortages. However, as international journalists began to report on the situation and send images of it out to the world, a massive international response was provoked, leading to one of the most concentrated relief efforts of its time.<ref>{{cite news |lastHawk |firstDavid |date14 July 1984 |titleCambodia: Famine, Fear And Fanaticism |urlhttps://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/entertainment/books/1984/07/15/cambodia-famine-fear-and-fanaticism/3108f639-cb06-42c7-b16c-769376123d38/ |newspaperThe Washington Post |access-date3 April 2020}}</ref>
Notable agrarian parties
{{Main|List of agrarian parties}}
Peasant parties first appeared across Eastern Europe between 1860 and 1910, when commercialized agriculture and world market forces disrupted traditional rural society, and the railway and growing literacy facilitated the work of roving organizers. Agrarian parties advocated land reforms to redistribute land on large estates among those who work it. They also wanted village cooperatives to keep the profit from crop sales in local hands and credit institutions to underwrite needed improvements. Many peasant parties were also nationalist parties because peasants often worked their land for the benefit of landlords of different ethnicity.
Peasant parties rarely had any power before World War I but some became influential in the interwar era, especially in Bulgaria and Czechoslovakia. For a while, in the 1920s and the 1930s, there was a Green International (International Agrarian Bureau) based on the peasant parties in Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Serbia. It functioned primarily as an information center that spread the ideas of agrarianism and combating socialism on the left and landlords on the right and never launched any significant activities.
Europe
Bulgaria
In Bulgaria, the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union (BZNS) was organized in 1899 to resist taxes and build cooperatives. BZNS came to power in 1919 and introduced many economic, social, and legal reforms. However, conservative forces crushed BZNS in a 1923 coup and assassinated its leader, Aleksandar Stamboliyski (1879–1923). BZNS was made into a communist puppet group until 1989, when it reorganized as a genuine party.
Czechoslovakia
In Czechoslovakia, the Republican Party of Agricultural and Smallholder People often shared power in parliament as a partner in the five-party pětka coalition. The party's leader, Antonín Švehla (1873–1933), was prime minister several times. It was consistently the strongest party, forming and dominating coalitions. It moved beyond its original agrarian base to reach middle-class voters. The party was banned by the National Front after the Second World War.<ref>Sharon Werning Rivera, "Historical cleavages or transition mode? Influences on the emerging party systems in Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia." Party Politics (1996) 2#2 : 177-208.</ref>
France
In France, the Hunting, Fishing, Nature, Tradition party is a moderate conservative, agrarian party, reaching a peak of 4.23% in the 2002 French presidential election. It would later on become affiliated to France's main conservative party, Union for a Popular Movement. More recently, the Resistons! movement of Jean Lassalle espoused agrarianism.
Hungary
In Hungary, the first major agrarian party, the small-holders party was founded in 1908. The party became part of the government in the 1920s but lost influence in the government. A new party, the Independent Smallholders, Agrarian Workers and Civic Party was established in 1930 with a more radical program representing larger scale land redistribution initiatives. They implemented this program together with the other coalition parties after WWII. However, after 1949 the party was outlawed when a one-party system was introduced. They became part of the government again 1990–1994, and 1998–2002 after which they lost political support. The ruling Fidesz party has an agrarian faction, and promotes agrarian interest since 2010 with the emphasis now placed on supporting larger family farms versus small-holders.
Ireland
In the late 19th century, the Irish National Land League aimed to abolish landlordism in Ireland and enable tenant farmers to own the land they worked on. The "Land War" of 1878–1909 led to the Irish Land Acts, ending absentee landlords and ground rent and redistributing land among peasant farmers.
Post-independence, the Farmers' Party operated in the Irish Free State from 1922, folding into the National Centre Party in 1932. It was mostly supported by wealthy farmers in the east of Ireland.
Clann na Talmhan (Family of the Land; also called the National Agricultural Party) was founded in 1938. They focused more on the poor smallholders of the west, supporting land reclamation, afforestation, social democracy and rates reform. They formed part of the governing coalition of the Government of the 13th Dáil and Government of the 15th Dáil. Economic improvement in the 1960s saw farmers vote for other parties and Clann na Talmhan disbanded in 1965.
Kazakhstan
In Kazakhstan, the Peasants' Union, originally a communist organization, was formed as one of first agrarian parties in independent Kazakhstan and would win four seats in the 1994 legislative election.<ref>{{Cite book |lastWilson |firstAndrew |titleVirtual Politics Faking Democracy in the Post-Soviet World |publisherYale University Press |year2005 |isbn0-300-09545-7 |page106}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastBuyers |firstLydia M. |titleCentral Asia in Focus Political and Economic Issues |publisherNova Science Publishers, Inc |year2003 |isbn1-59033-153-2 |publication-placeNew York |page83}}</ref> The Agrarian Party of Kazakhstan, led by Romin Madinov, was founded in 1999, which favored the privatization of agricultural land, developments towards rural infrastructure, as well as changes in the tax system in agrarian economy.<ref>{{Cite book |last1Kassymova |first1Didar |titleHistorical Dictionary of Kazakhstan |last2Kundakbayeva |first2Zhanat |last3Markus |first3Ustina |publisherThe Scarecrow Press |year2012 |isbn978-0-8108--6782-6 |page19}}</ref> The party would go on to win three Mäjilis seats in the 1999 legislative election and eventually unite with the Civic Party of Kazakhstan to form the pro-government Agrarian-Industrial Union of Workers (AIST) bloc that would be chaired by Madinov for the 2004 legislative election, with the AIST bloc winning 11 seats in the Mäjilis.<ref>{{Cite web |lastAlibekov |firstIbragim |date27 September 2004 |titleKazakhstan: Election results harden opposition |urlhttps://www.refworld.org/docid/46c58efd3c.html |access-date3 July 2023 |websiteRefworld |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date5 October 2004 |titleFinal Kazakh Election Results Announced |languageen |workRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |publisherReuters/AFP |urlhttps://www.rferl.org/a/1055161.html |access-date3 July 2023}}</ref> From there, the bloc remained short-lived as it would merge with the ruling Nur Otan party in 2006.<ref>{{Cite news |lastPannier |firstBruce |date22 December 2006 |titleRuling Party Gets Even Bigger |languageen |workRadio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |urlhttps://www.rferl.org/a/1073642.html |access-date=3 July 2023}}</ref>
Several other parties in Kazakhstan over the years have embraced agrarian policies in their programs in an effort to appeal towards a large rural Kazakh demographic base, which included Amanat, ADAL, and Respublica.<ref>{{Cite web |lastZhussupova |firstAiman |date9 December 2020 |titlePolitical Parties Present Their Platforms Ahead of Majilis Election |urlhttps://astanatimes.com/2020/12/political-parties-present-their-platforms-ahead-of-majilis-election/ |access-date3 July 2023 |websiteThe Astana Times |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastSatubaldina |firstAssel |date10 February 2023 |titleCloser Look at Kazakh Political Parties as They Prepare to Campaign |urlhttps://astanatimes.com/2023/02/closer-look-at-kazakh-political-parties-as-they-prepare-to-campaign/ |access-date3 July 2023 |websiteThe Astana Times |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |lastTzanov |firstMetodi |date14 March 2023 |titleKazakhstan: Ruling Amanat dominates campaign, remains clear favourite |urlhttps://tellimer.com/article/ruling-amanat-dominates-campaign-remains-clea |access-date3 July 2023 |websiteTellimer |languageen}}</ref>
Since late 2000s, the "Auyl" People's Democratic Patriotic Party remains the largest and most influential agrarian-oriented party in Kazakhstan, as its presidential candidate Jiguli Dairabaev had become the second-place frontrunner in the 2022 presidential election after sweeping 3.4% of the vote.<ref>{{Cite web |lastKumenov |firstAlmaz |date21 November 2022 |titleKazakhstan: Tokayev wins election with ease amid general apathy |urlhttps://eurasianet.org/kazakhstan-tokayev-wins-election-with-ease-amid-general-apathy |access-date3 July 2023 |websiteeurasianet.org}}</ref> In the 2023 legislative election, the Auyl party for the first time was represented the parliament after winning nine seats in the lower chamber Mäjilis.<ref>{{Cite web |lastTemirgaliyeva |firstArailym |date27 March 2023 |titleSix political parties admitted to Majilis |urlhttps://www.inform.kz/en/six-political-parties-admitted-to-majilis_a4049989 |access-date3 July 2023 |websiteKazinform |languageen}}</ref> The party raises rural issues in regard to decaying villages, rural development and the agro-industrial complex, the issues of social security of the rural population, and has consistently opposed the ongoing rural flight in Kazakhstan.<ref>{{Cite web |titleПартия туралы|urlhttps://auyl.kz/menu/2/ |access-date3 July 2023 |websiteauyl.kz |languagekk |archive-date20 March 2023 |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20230320162544/https://auyl.kz/menu/2/ |url-statusdead }}</ref>LatviaIn Latvia, the Union of Greens and Farmers is supportive of traditional small farms and perceives them as more environmentally friendly than large-scale farming: Nature is threatened by development, while small farms are threatened by large industrial-scale farms.LithuaniaIn Lithuania, the government led by the Lithuanian Farmers and Greens Union was in power between 2016 and 2020.Nordic countries
as their primary symbol]]
{{excerpt|Nordic agrarian parties}}{{Agrarianism in Poland}}
Poland
In Poland, the Polish People's Party (Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe, PSL) traces its tradition to an agrarian party in Austro-Hungarian-controlled Galician Poland. After the fall of the communist regime, PSL's biggest success came in 1993 elections, where it won 132 out of 460 parliamentary seats. Since then, PSL's support has steadily declined, until 2019, when they formed Polish Coalition with an anti-establishment, direct democracy Kukiz'15 party, and managed to get 8.5% of popular vote. Moreover, PSL tends to get much better results in local elections. In 2014 elections they have managed to get 23.88% of votes.
The right-wing Law and Justice party has also become supportive of agrarian policies in recent years and polls show that most of their support comes from rural areas.<ref>{{Cite web|date7 October 2019|titleChildren, pigs and cows — how PiS is winning the rural vote|urlhttps://www.politico.eu/article/polish-ruling-party-seeks-a-clean-sweep-in-the-countryside/|access-date3 February 2022|websitePolitico |languageen-US}}</ref> AGROunia resembles the features of agrarianism.
Romania
In Romania, older party parties from Transylvania, Moldavia, and Wallachia merged to become the National Peasants' Party (PNȚ) in 1926. Iuliu Maniu (1873–1953) was a prime minister with an agrarian cabinet from 1928 to 1930 and briefly in 1932–1933, but the Great Depression made proposed reforms impossible. The communist administration dissolved the party in 1947 (along with other historical parties such as the National Liberal Party), but it reformed in 1989 after they fell from power.
The reformed party, which also incorporated elements of Christian democracy in its ideology, governed Romania as part of the Romanian Democratic Convention (CDR) between 1996 and 2000.
Serbia
In Serbia, Nikola Pašić (1845–1926) and his People's Radical Party dominated Serbian politics after 1903. The party also monopolized power in Yugoslavia from 1918 to 1929. During the dictatorship of the 1930s, the prime minister was from that party.
Ukraine
In Ukraine, the Radical Party of Oleh Lyashko has promised to purify the country of oligarchs "with a pitchfork".<ref nameBBCUE14RPst>{{cite web |urlhttps://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-29739514|titleUkraine election: What to look for|lastWilson|firstAndrew|date24 October 2014|publisherBBC News}}</ref> The party advocates a number of traditional left-wing positions (a progressive tax structure, a ban on agricultural land sale and eliminating the illegal land market, a tenfold increase in budget spending on health, setting up primary health centres in every village)<ref nameradppUW>[http://ukrainianweek.com/Politics/121957 The Communist Party May Be on Its Last Legs, But Social Populism is Still Alive], The Ukrainian Week (23 October 2014)</ref> and mixes them with strong nationalist sentiments.<ref>{{cite news |lastHerszenhorn |firstDavid M. |date25 October 2014 |titleWith Stunts and Vigilante Escapades, a Populist Gains Ground in Ukraine |languageen-US |workThe New York Times |urlhttps://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/25/world/europe/with-stunts-and-vigilante-escapades-a-populist-gains-ground-in-ukraine.html |issn0362-4331}}</ref>
United Kingdom
{{Toryism |expanded=characteristics}}
In land law the heyday of English, Irish (and thus Welsh) agrarianism was {{circa|1500}} to 1603, led by the Tudor royal advisors, who sought to maintain a broad pool of agricultural commoners from which to draw military men, against the interests of larger landowners who sought enclosure (meaning complete private control of common land, over which by custom and common law lords of the manor always enjoyed minor rights). The heyday was eroded by hundreds of Acts of Parliament to expressly permit enclosure, chiefly from 1650 to the 1810s. Politicians standing strongly as reactionaries to this included the Levellers, those anti-industrialists (Luddites) going beyond opposing new weaving technology and, later, radicals such as William Cobbett.
A high level of net national or local self-sufficiency has a strong base in campaigns and movements. In the 19th century such empowered advocates included Peelites and most Conservatives. The 20th century saw the growth or start of influential non-governmental organisations, such as the National Farmers' Union of England and Wales, Campaign for Rural England, Friends of the Earth (EWNI) and of the England Wales, Scottish and Northern Irish political parties prefixed by and focussed on Green politics. The 21st century has seen decarbonisation already in electricity markets. Following protests and charitable lobbying local food has seen growing market share, sometimes backed by wording in public policy papers and manifestos. The UK has many sustainability-prioritising businesses, green charity campaigns, events and lobby groups ranging from espousing allotment gardens (hobby community farming) through to a clear policy of local food and/or self-sustainability models.
Oceania
Australia
Historian F.K. Crowley finds that:
{{blockquote|Australian farmers and their spokesman have always considered that life on the land is inherently more virtuous, as well as more healthy, more important and more productive, than life in the towns and cities....The farmers complained that something was wrong with an electoral system which produced parliamentarians who spent money beautifying vampire-cities instead of developing the interior.<ref>F.K. Crowley, Modern Australia in Documents: 1901 – 1939 (1973) pp. 77-I–78.</ref>}}
The National Party of Australia (formerly called the Country Party), from the 1920s to the 1970s, promulgated its version of agrarianism, which it called "countrymindedness". The goal was to enhance the status of the graziers (operators of big sheep stations) and small farmers and justified subsidies for them.<ref>Rae Wear, "Countrymindedness Revisited," (Australian Political Science Association, 1990) [http://apsa2000.anu.edu.au/confpapers/wear.rtf online edition ] {{webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20110723145257/http://apsa2000.anu.edu.au/confpapers/wear.rtf |date23 July 2011 }}</ref>
New Zealand
The New Zealand Liberal Party aggressively promoted agrarianism in its heyday (1891–1912). The landed gentry and aristocracy ruled Britain at this time. New Zealand never had an aristocracy but its wealthy landowners largely controlled politics before 1891. The Liberal Party set out to change that by a policy it called "populism." Richard Seddon had proclaimed the goal as early as 1884: "It is the rich and the poor; it is the wealthy and the landowners against the middle and labouring classes. That, Sir, shows the real political position of New Zealand."<ref>{{cite book |authorLeslie Lipson|titleThe Politics of Equality: New Zealand's Adventures in Democracy|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idoe8jAAAAMAAJ|year1948|publisherU. of Chicago Press}}</ref> The Liberal strategy was to create a large class of small landowning farmers who supported Liberal ideals. The Liberal government also established the basis of the later welfare state such as old age pensions and developed a system for settling industrial disputes, which was accepted by both employers and trade unions. In 1893, it extended voting rights to women, making New Zealand the first country in the world to do so.
To obtain land for farmers, the Liberal government from 1891 to 1911 purchased {{convert|3,100,000|acres|ha}} of Maori land. The government also purchased {{convert|1,300,000|acres|ha}} from large estate holders for subdivision and closer settlement by small farmers. The Advances to Settlers Act (1894) provided low-interest mortgages, and the agriculture department disseminated information on the best farming methods. The Liberals proclaimed success in forging an egalitarian, anti-monopoly land policy. The policy built up support for the Liberal Party in rural North Island electorates. By 1903, the Liberals were so dominant that there was no longer an organized opposition in Parliament.<ref>James Belich, Paradise Reforged: A history of the New Zealanders (2001) pp. 39–46</ref><ref>Tom Brooking, "'Busting Up' the Greatest Estate of All: Liberal Maori Land Policy, 1891–1911," New Zealand Journal of History (1992) 26#1 pp. 78–98 [http://www.nzjh.auckland.ac.nz/document.php?wid802&actionnull online]</ref>
North America
The United States and Canada both saw a rise of Agrarian-oriented parties in the early twentieth century as economic troubles motivated farming communities to become politically active. It has been proposed that different responses to agrarian protest largely determined the course of power generated by these newly energized rural factions. According to Sociologist Barry Eidlin:<blockquote>"In the United States, Democrats adopted a co-optive response to farmer and labor protest, incorporating these constituencies into the New Deal coalition. In Canada, both mainstream parties adopted a coercive response, leaving these constituencies politically excluded and available for an independent left coalition."<ref>{{Cite journal |lastEidlin |firstBarry |dateJune 2016 |titleWhy Is There No Labor Party in the United States? Political Articulation and the Canadian Comparison, 1932 to 1948 |urlhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/24756497 |journalAmerican Sociological Review |volume81 |issue3 |pages488–516 |doi10.1177/0003122416643758 |jstor24756497 |s2cid148406595 }}</ref></blockquote>These reactions may have helped determine the outcome of agrarian power and political associations in the US and Canada.
United States of America
Kansas
Economic desperation experienced by farmers across the state of Kansas in the nineteenth century spurred the creation of The People's Party in 1890, and soon-after would gain control of the governor's office in 1892. This party, consisting of a mix of Democrats, Socialists, Populists, and Fusionists, would find itself buckling from internal conflict regarding the unlimited coinage of silver. The Populists permanently lost power in 1898.<ref>{{Cite book |lastLee |firstAlton R. |titleWhen Sunflowers Bloomed Red: Kansas and the Rise of Socialism in America. |publisherUniversity of Nebraska Press |year2020 |page58}}</ref>
Oklahoma
Oklahoma farmers considered their political activity during the early twentieth century due to the outbreak of war, depressed crop prices, and an inhibited sense of progression towards owning their own farms. Tenancy had been reportedly as high as 55% in Oklahoma by 1910.<ref>{{Cite book |lastBisset |firstJim |titleAgrarian Socialism in America : Marx, Jefferson, and Jesus in the Oklahoma Countryside, 1904–1920 |publisherUniversity of Oklahoma Press |year1999 |pages11}}</ref> These pressures saw agrarian counties in Oklahoma supporting Socialist policies and politics, with the Socialist platform proposing a deeply agrarian-radical platform:<blockquote>...the platform proposed a "Renters and Farmer's Program" which was strongly agrarian radical in its insistence upon various measures to put land into "The hands of the actual tillers of the soil." Although it did not propose to nationalize privately owned land, it did offer numerous plans to enlarge the state's public domain, from which land would be rented at prevailing share rents to tenants until they had paid rent equal to the land's value. The tenant and his children would have the right of occupancy and use, but the 'title' would remind in the 'commonwealth', an arrangement that might be aptly termed 'Socialist fee simple'. They proposed to exempt from taxation all farm dwellings, animals, and improvements up to the value of $1,000. The State Board of Agriculture would encourage 'co-operative societies' of farmers to make plans f or the purchase of land, seed, tools, and for preparing and selling produce. In order to give farmers essential services at cost, the Socialists called for the creation of state banks and mortgage agencies, crop insurance, elevators, and warehouses.<ref name":0">{{Cite journal |lastBurbank |firstGavin |date1971 |titleAgrarian Radicals and Their Opponents: Political Conflict in Southern Oklahoma |journalThe Journal of American History |volume58 |issue1 |pages5–23 |doi10.2307/1890078 |jstor1890078 }}</ref></blockquote>This agrarian-backed Socialist party would win numerous offices, causing a panic within the local Democratic party. This agrarian-Socialist movement would be inhibited by voter suppression laws aimed at reducing the participation of voters of color, as well as national wartime policies intended to disrupt political elements considered subversive. This party would peak in power in 1914. Back-to-the-land movement Agrarianism is similar to but not identical with the back-to-the-land movement. Agrarianism concentrates on the fundamental goods of the earth, on communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society, and on simple living, even when the shift involves questioning the "progressive" character of some recent social and economic developments. Thus, agrarianism is not industrial farming, with its specialization on products and industrial scale.<ref>Jeffrey Carl Jacob, New Pioneers: The Back-to-the-Land Movement and the Search for a Sustainable Future (Penn State University Press. 1997)</ref>See also
{{Portal|Agropedia}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* Agrarian socialism
* Farmer–Labor Party, USA early 20th century
* Jeffersonian democracy
* Labour-Farmer Party, Japan 1920s
* Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party, USA early 20th century
* Nordic agrarian parties
* Yeoman, English farmers
{{div col end}}
References
{{Reflist|30em}}
Further reading
{{further reading cleanup|date=April 2020}}
{{refbegin|30em}}
Agrarian values
* Brass, Tom. Peasants, Populism and Postmodernism: The Return of the Agrarian Myth (2000)
* {{cite book|doi10.1163/9789004273948|titleClass, Culture and the Agrarian Myth|year2014|last1Brass|first1Tom|isbn9789004273948}}
* {{cite journal|jstor3743942|titleRomantic Agrarianism in Twentieth-Century America|journalAgricultural History|volume65|issue4|pages1–12|last1Danbom|first1David B.|year=1991}}
* {{cite journal|doi10.2307/1053268|jstor1053268|titleJohn Taylor: Economist of Southern Agrarianism|journalSouthern Economic Journal|volume11|issue3|pages255–268|year1945|last1Grampp|first1William D.}}
* {{cite journal|doi10.2307/2707018|jstor2707018|titleParrington and the Jeffersonian Tradition|journalJournal of the History of Ideas|volume2|issue4|pages391–400|year1941|last1Hofstadter|first1Richard}}
* Marx, Leo. The Machine in the Garden: Technology and the Pastoral Ideal in America (1964).
* Murphy, Paul V. The Rebuke of History: The Southern Agrarians and American Conservative Thought (2000)
* [http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/parrington/ Parrington, Vernon. Main Currents in American Thought (1927), 3-vol online] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20150317223336/http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/parrington/ |date17 March 2015 }}
* {{cite journal|doi10.1017/S0034670500004563|titleAgrarianism and the Jeffersonian Philosophy|journalThe Review of Politics|volume2|pages87–104|year1940|last1Quinn|first1Patrick F.|s2cid146298740 }}Primary sources* Sorokin, Pitirim A. et al., eds. A Systematic Source Book in Rural Sociology (3 vol. 1930) vol 1 pp.&nbsp;1–146 covers many major thinkers down to 1800 Europe * {{cite journal|doi10.1111/j.1475-6765.2004.00164.x|titleCleavages, competition and coalition-building: Agrarian parties and the European question in Western and East Central Europe|journalEuropean Journal of Political Research|volume43|issue4|pages523–546|year2004|last1Batory|first1Agnes|last2Sitter|first2Nick|doi-access=free}}
* Bell, John D. Peasants in Power: Alexander Stamboliski and the Bulgarian Agrarian National Union, 1899–1923(1923)
* Donnelly, James S. Captain Rock: The Irish Agrarian Rebellion of 1821–1824 (2009)
* Donnelly, James S. Irish Agrarian Rebellion, 1760–1800 (2006)
* Gross, Feliks, ed. European Ideologies: A Survey of 20th Century Political Ideas (1948) pp.&nbsp;391–481 [https://www.questia.com/read/8946552 online edition] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080916060851/http://www.questia.com/read/8946552 |date16 September 2008 }}, on Russia and Bulgaria
* Kubricht, Andrew Paul. "The Czech Agrarian Party, 1899–1914: a study of national and economic agitation in the Habsburg monarchy" (PhD thesis, Ohio State University Press, 1974)
* {{cite book|authorMerlan, Francesca|titleTracking Rural Change: Community, Policy and Technology in Australia, New Zealand and Europe|urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idIVtNqlUPwREC&pgPA60|year2009|publisherANU E Press|page60|isbn=9781921536533}}
* Oren, Nissan. Revolution Administered: Agrarianism and Communism in Bulgaria (1973), focus is post 1945
* Stefanov, Kristian. ''Between Ideological Loyalty and Political Adaptation: 'The Agrarian Question' in the Development of Bulgarian Social Democracy, 1891–1912, East European Politics, Societies and Cultures, Is. 4, 2023.
* {{cite book|doi10.7228/manchester/9780719076930.001.0001|titleIn the Wake of the Great Rebellion|year2008|last1Patterson|first1James G.|isbn9780719076930}}
* Roberts, Henry L. Rumania: Political Problems of an Agrarian State (1951).
* {{cite book|doi10.1017/CBO9780511562839|titleRebels and Rulers, 1500–1660|year1982|last1Zagorin|first1Perez|isbn9780521244732}}
North America
* {{cite journal|jstor3739767|titleThe Influence of Natural Rights and Physiocratic Doctrines on American Agrarian Thought during the Revolutionary Period|journalAgricultural History|volume21|issue1|pages13–23|last1Eisinger|first1Chester E.|year=1947}}
* {{cite journal|doi10.2307/1950410|jstor1950410|titleThe Agrarian Democracy of Thomas Jefferson|journalAmerican Political Science Review|volume40|issue4|pages657–681|year1946|last1Griswold|first1A. Whitney|s2cid=144145932 }}
* Goodwyn, Lawrence. The Populist Moment: A Short History of the Agrarian Revolt in America (1978), 1880s and 1890s in U.S.
* {{cite journal|doi10.2307/2707018|jstor2707018|titleParrington and the Jeffersonian Tradition|journalJournal of the History of Ideas|volume2|issue4|pages391–400|year1941|last1Hofstadter|first1Richard}}
* {{cite journal|doi10.1111/j.1540-5931.2010.00767.x|titleThe Countryside Triumphant: Jefferson's Ideal of Rural Superiority in Modern Superhero Mythology|journalThe Journal of Popular Culture|volume43|issue4|pages720–737|year2010|last1Johnson|first1=Jeffrey K.}}
* Lipset, Seymour Martin. Agrarian socialism: the Coöperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan (1950), 1930s–1940s
* McConnell, Grant. The decline of agrarian democracy(1953), 20th century U.S.
* Mark, Irving. Agrarian conflicts in colonial New York, 1711–1775 (1940)
* Robison, Dan Merritt. Bob Taylor and the agrarian revolt in Tennessee (1935)
* Stine, Harold E. ''The agrarian revolt in South Carolina;: Ben Tillman and the Farmers' Alliance (1974)
* Szatmary, David P. Shays' Rebellion: The Making of an Agrarian Insurrection (1984), 1787 in Massachusetts
* Woodward, C. Vann. Tom Watson: Agrarian Rebel'' (1938) [https://www.questia.com/library/book/tom-watson-agrarian-rebel-by-c-vann-woodward.jsp online edition] {{Webarchive|urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100121140455/http://www.questia.com/library/book/tom-watson-agrarian-rebel-by-c-vann-woodward.jsp |date21 January 2010 }}
* {{cite journal|doi10.2307/2191851|jstor2191851|titleTom Watson and the Negro in Agrarian Politics|journalThe Journal of Southern History|volume4|issue1|pages14–33|year1938|last1Woodward|first1C. Vann}}
Global South
* {{cite book|doi10.4324/9780203505663|titleLatin American Peasants|year2004|isbn9780203505663|last1Brass|first1Tom|editor1-firstTom|editor1-lastBrass}}
* {{cite journal|doi10.1017/S0022216X98005070|titleState Agrarianism versus Democratic Agrarianism: Adalberto Tejeda's Experiment in Veracruz, 1928–32|journalJournal of Latin American Studies|volume30|issue2|pages341–372|year1998|last1Ginzberg|first1Eitan|s2cid144631366 }}
* Handy, Jim. Revolution in the Countryside: Rural Conflict and Agrarian Reform in Guatemala, 1944–1954 (1994)
* {{cite book|doi10.7312/jaco90206|titleAgrarian Unrest in Southeast Asia|year1949|last1Jacoby|first1Erich H.|isbn9780231877589|hdl2027/mdp.39015021933091|urlhttp://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/231091}}
* {{cite journal|doi10.2307/2651812|jstor2651812|titleBringing the Peasants Back In: Agrarian Themes in the Construction and Corrosion of Statist Historiography in Rwanda|journalThe American Historical Review|volume105|issue3|pages832|year2000|last1Newbury|first1David|last2Newbury|first2Catharine}}
* Paige, Jeffery M. Agrarian revolution: social movements and export agriculture in the underdeveloped world (1978) 435 pages [https://www.amazon.com/Agrarian-Revolution-Jeffrey-M-Paige/dp/0029235502 excerpt and text search]
* Sanderson, Steven E. Agrarian populism and the Mexican state: the struggle for land in Sonora (1981)
* {{cite journal|doi10.1111/j.1471-0366.2012.00368.x|titleIllegal Evictions? Overwriting Possession and Orality with Law's Violence in Cambodia|journalJournal of Agrarian Change|volume13|issue4|pages520–546|year2013|last1Springer|first1Simon|bibcode2013JAgrC..13..520S }}
{{refend}}
External links
{{wiktionary}}
{{Simple living}}
{{Political ideologies}}
{{Political philosophy}}
{{Authority control}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrarianism | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.800016 |
1194 | Atomic | Atomic may refer to:
Of or relating to the atom, the smallest particle of a chemical element that retains its chemical properties
Atomic physics, the study of the atom
Atomic Age, also known as the "Atomic Era"
Atomic scale, distances comparable to the dimensions of an atom
Atom (order theory), in mathematics
Atomic (cocktail), a champagne cocktail
Atomic (magazine), an Australian computing and technology magazine
Atomic Skis, an Austrian ski producer
Music
Atomic (band), a Norwegian jazz quintet
Atomic (Lit album), 2001
Atomic (Mogwai album), 2016
Atomic, an album by Rockets, 1982
Atomic (EP), by , 2013
"Atomic" (song), by Blondie, 1979
"Atomic", a song by Tiger Army from Tiger Army III: Ghost Tigers Rise
See also
Atom (disambiguation)
Atomicity (database systems)
Atomism, philosophy about the basic building blocks of reality
Atomic City (disambiguation)
Atomic formula, a formula without subformulas
Atomic number, the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom
Atomic chess, a chess variant
Atomic coffee machine, a 1950s stovetop coffee machine
Atomic operation, in computer science
Atomic TV, a channel launched in 1997 in Poland
History of atomic theory
Nuclear power
Nuclear weapon
Nuclear (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.822334 |
1196 | Angle | {{Short description|Figure formed by two rays meeting at a common point}}
{{Distinguish|Angel}}
{{About|angles in geometry}}
on the Cartesian coordinate system]]
In Euclidean geometry, an angle or plane angle is the figure formed by two rays, called the sides of the angle, sharing a common endpoint, called the vertex of the angle.<ref>{{harvnb|Sidorov|2001|ignore-err=yes}}</ref>
Two intersecting curves may also define an angle, which is the angle of the rays lying tangent to the respective curves at their point of intersection. Angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes; these are called dihedral angles.
In any case, the resulting angle lies in a plane (spanned by the two rays or perpendicular to the line of plane-plane intersection).
The magnitude of an angle is called an angular measure or simply "angle". Two different angles may have the same measure, as in an isosceles triangle. "Angle" also denotes the angular sector, the infinite region of the plane bounded by the sides of an angle.<ref>{{Cite book |lastEvgrafov |firstM. A. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idN8-wDwAAQBAJ&dqangle+and+%2522angular+sector%2522+domain&pgPA126 |titleAnalytic Functions |date2019-09-18 |publisherCourier Dover Publications |isbn978-0-486-84366-7 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |lastPapadopoulos |firstAthanase |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idf6yZeVMqhNEC&dqangle+and+%2522angular+sector%2522+region&pgPA12 |titleStrasbourg Master Class on Geometry |date2012 |publisherEuropean Mathematical Society |isbn978-3-03719-105-7 |languageen}}</ref>{{efn|An angular sector can be constructed by the combination of two rotated half-planes, either their intersection or union (in the case of acute or obtuse angles, respectively).<ref>{{Cite book |lastD'Andrea |firstFrancesco |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idBszREAAAQBAJ&dqangle+and+%2522angular+sector%2522&pgPA68 |titleA Guide to Penrose Tilings |date2023-08-19 |publisherSpringer Nature |isbn978-3-031-28428-1 |languageen}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1Bulboacǎ |first1Teodor |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idr0miDwAAQBAJ&dqangle+and+%2522angular+sector%2522+half-planes&pgPT22 |titleComplex Analysis: Theory and Applications |last2Joshi |first2Santosh B. |last3Goswami |first3Pranay |date2019-07-08 |publisherWalter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG |isbn978-3-11-065803-3 |languageen}}</ref> It corresponds to a circular sector of infinite radius and a flat pencil of half-lines.<ref>{{Cite book |lastRedei |firstL. |urlhttps://books.google.com/books?idXMTSBQAAQBAJ&dqhalf-pencil+of+lines&pgPA45 |titleFoundation of Euclidean and Non-Euclidean Geometries according to F. Klein |date2014-07-15 |publisherElsevier |isbn978-1-4832-8270-1 |language=en}}</ref>}}
Angle of rotation is a measure conventionally defined as the ratio of a circular arc length to its radius, and may be a negative number. In the case of an ordinary angle, the arc is centered at the vertex and delimited by the sides. In the case of an angle of rotation, the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image after the rotation.
History and etymology
The word angle comes from the Latin word {{Lang|la|angulus}}, meaning "corner". Cognate words include the Greek {{lang|grc|ἀγκύλος}} ({{Lang|grc-la|ankylοs}}) meaning "crooked, curved" and the English word "ankle". Both are connected with the Proto-Indo-European root *ank-, meaning "to bend" or "bow".<ref>{{harvnb|Slocum|2007}}</ref>
<!--Note: ἀγκύλος rather than ἀνκύλος is correct; the γκ is a digraph pronounced [ŋk].-->
Euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other, in a plane, of two lines that meet each other and do not lie straight with respect to each other. According to the Neoplatonic metaphysician Proclus, an angle must be either a quality, a quantity, or a relationship. The first concept, angle as quality, was used by Eudemus of Rhodes, who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line; the second, angle as quantity, by Carpus of Antioch, who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines; Euclid adopted the third: angle as a relationship.<ref>{{harvnb|Chisholm|1911}}; {{harvnb|Heiberg|1908|pp177–178}}</ref><!-- This paragraph is quoted from EB1911, but its source seems to be Heath.-->Identifying anglesIn mathematical expressions, it is common to use Greek letters (<var>α</var>, <var>β</var>, <var>γ</var>, <var>θ</var>, <var>φ</var>,&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;) as variables denoting the size of some angle{{sfn|Aboughantous|2010|p18}} (the symbol {{math|π}} is typically not used for this purpose to avoid confusion with the constant denoted by that symbol). Lower case Roman letters (a,&nbsp;b,&nbsp;c,&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;.&nbsp;) are also used. In contexts where this is not confusing, an angle may be denoted by the upper case Roman letter denoting its vertex. See the figures in this article for examples.
The three defining points may also identify angles in geometric figures. For example, the angle with vertex A formed by the rays AB and AC (that is, the half-lines from point A through points B and C) is denoted {{math|∠BAC}} or <math>\widehat{\rm BAC}</math>. Where there is no risk of confusion, the angle may sometimes be referred to by a single vertex alone (in this case, "angle A").
In other ways, an angle denoted as, say, {{math|∠BAC}} might refer to any of four angles: the clockwise angle from B to C about A, the anticlockwise angle from B to C about A, the clockwise angle from C to B about A, or the anticlockwise angle from C to B about A, where the direction in which the angle is measured determines its sign (see {{section link|#Signed angles}}). However, in many geometrical situations, it is evident from the context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant, and in these cases, no ambiguity arises. Otherwise, to avoid ambiguity, specific conventions may be adopted so that, for instance, {{math|∠BAC}} always refers to the anticlockwise (positive) angle from B to C about A and {{math|∠CAB}} the anticlockwise (positive) angle from C to B about A.
Types{{anchor|Types of angles}}
{{Redirect|Oblique angle|the cinematographic technique|Dutch angle}}
Individual angles
There is some common terminology for angles, whose measure is always non-negative (see {{section link|#Signed angles}}):
* An angle equal to 0° or not turned is called a zero angle.{{sfn|Moser|1971|p=41}}
* An angle smaller than a right angle (less than 90°) is called an acute angle{{sfn|Godfrey|Siddons|1919|p=9}} ("acute" meaning "sharp").
* An angle equal to {{sfrac|4}}&nbsp;turn (90° or {{sfrac|{{math|π}}|2}} radians) is called a right angle. Two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal, orthogonal, or perpendicular.{{sfn|Moser|1971|p=71}}
* An angle larger than a right angle and smaller than a straight angle (between 90° and 180°) is called an obtuse angle{{sfn|Godfrey|Siddons|1919|p=9}} ("obtuse" meaning "blunt").
* An angle equal to {{sfrac|2}}&nbsp;turn (180° or {{math|π}} radians) is called a straight angle.{{sfn|Moser|1971|p=41}}
* An angle larger than a straight angle but less than 1&nbsp;turn (between 180° and 360°) is called a reflex angle.
* An angle equal to 1 turn (360° or 2{{math|π}} radians) is called a full angle, complete angle, round angle or perigon.
* An angle that is not a multiple of a right angle is called an oblique angle.
The names, intervals, and measuring units are shown in the table below:
{{Multiple image
|align=right
|direction=horizontal
|image1=Right angle.svg
|width1=111
|caption1=Right angle
|image2=Angle obtuse acute straight.svg
|width2=200
|caption2=Acute (<var>a</var>), obtuse (<var>b</var>), and straight (<var>c</var>) angles. The acute and obtuse angles are also known as oblique angles.
|image3=Reflex angle.svg
|width3=81
|caption3=Reflex angle
}}
{|class wikitable style"text-align:center;"
|style = "background:#f2f2f2; text-align:center;" | Name&nbsp;&nbsp;
|style = "width:3em;" | zero angle
|style = "width:3em;" | acute angle
|style = "width:3em;" | right angle
|style = "width:3em;" | obtuse angle
|style = "width:3em;" | straight angle
|style = "width:3em;" | reflex angle
|style = "width:3em;" | perigon
|-
! Unit !! colspan=10 | Interval
|-
|style = "background:#f2f2f2; text-align:center;" | turn&nbsp;&nbsp;
|style = "width:3em;" | {{nowrap|0 turn}}
|style = "width:3em;" | {{nowrap|(0, {{sfrac|1|4}}) turn}}
|style = "width:3em;" | {{nowrap|{{sfrac|1|4}} turn}}
|style = "width:3em;" | {{nowrap|({{sfrac|1|4}}, {{sfrac|1|2}}) turn}}
|style = "width:3em;" | {{nowrap|{{sfrac|1|2}} turn}}
|style = "width:3em;" | {{nowrap|({{sfrac|1|2}}, 1) turn}}
|style = "width:3em;" | {{nowrap|1 turn}}
|-
|style = "background:#f2f2f2; text-align:center;" | radian
| {{nowrap|0 rad}}
| {{nowrap|(0, {{sfrac|1|2}}{{pi}}) rad}}
| {{nowrap|{{sfrac|1|2}}{{pi}} rad}}
| {{nowrap|({{sfrac|1|2}}{{pi}}, {{pi}}) rad}}
| {{nowrap|{{pi}} rad}}
| {{nowrap|({{pi}}, 2{{pi}}) rad}}
| {{nowrap|2{{pi}} rad}}
|-
|style = "background:#f2f2f2; text-align:center;" | degree&nbsp;&nbsp;
|style = "width:3em;" | 0°
|style = "width:3em;" | (0,&nbsp;90)°
|style = "width:3em;" | 90°
|style = "width:3em;" | (90,&nbsp;180)°
|style = "width:3em;" | 180°
|style = "width:3em;" | (180,&nbsp;360)°
|style = "width:3em;" | 360°
|-
|style = "background:#f2f2f2; text-align:center;" | gon&nbsp;&nbsp;
|style = "width:3em;" | 0<sup>g</sup>
|style = "width:3em;" | (0,&nbsp;100)<sup>g</sup>
|style = "width:3em;" | 100<sup>g</sup>
|style = "width:3em;" | (100,&nbsp;200)<sup>g</sup>
|style = "width:3em;" | 200<sup>g</sup>
|style = "width:3em;" | (200,&nbsp;400)<sup>g</sup>
|style = "width:3em;" | 400<sup>g</sup>
|-
|}
Vertical and {{vanchor|adjacent}} angle pairs
are used here to show angle equality.]]
{{redirect-distinguish|Vertical angle|Zenith angle}}
When two straight lines intersect at a point, four angles are formed. Pairwise, these angles are named according to their location relative to each other.
{{bulleted list
| A pair of angles opposite each other, formed by two intersecting straight lines that form an "X"-like shape, are called vertical angles or opposite angles or vertically opposite angles. They are abbreviated as vert. opp. ∠s.<ref name"tb">{{harvnb|Wong|Wong|2009|pp161–163}}</ref>
{{pb}}
The equality of vertically opposite angles is called the vertical angle theorem. Eudemus of Rhodes attributed the proof to Thales of Miletus.<ref>{{cite book|authorEuclid|author-linkEuclid|titleThe Elements|title-linkEuclid's Elements}} Proposition I:13.</ref>{{sfn|Shute| Shirk|Porter|1960|pp25–27}} The proposition showed that since both of a pair of vertical angles are supplementary to both of the adjacent angles, the vertical angles are equal in measure. According to a historical note,{{sfn|Shute| Shirk|Porter|1960|pp25–27}} when Thales visited Egypt, he observed that whenever the Egyptians drew two intersecting lines, they would measure the vertical angles to make sure that they were equal. Thales concluded that one could prove that all vertical angles are equal if one accepted some general notions such as:
* All straight angles are equal.
* Equals added to equals are equal.
* Equals subtracted from equals are equal.
When two adjacent angles form a straight line, they are supplementary. Therefore, if we assume that the measure of angle A equals x, the measure of angle C would be {{nowrap|180° − x}}. Similarly, the measure of angle D would be {{nowrap|180° − x}}. Both angle C and angle D have measures equal to {{nowrap|180° − x}} and are congruent. Since angle B is supplementary to both angles C and D, either of these angle measures may be used to determine the measure of Angle B. Using the measure of either angle C or angle D, we find the measure of angle B to be {{nowrap|1180° − (180° − x) 180° − 180° + x = x}}. Therefore, both angle A and angle B have measures equal to x and are equal in measure.
| Adjacent angles, often abbreviated as adj. ∠s, are angles that share a common vertex and edge but do not share any interior points. In other words, they are angles side by side or adjacent, sharing an "arm". Adjacent angles which sum to a right angle, straight angle, or full angle are special and are respectively called complementary, supplementary, and explementary angles (see {{section link|#Combining angle pairs}} below).
}}
A transversal is a line that intersects a pair of (often parallel) lines and is associated with exterior angles, interior angles, alternate exterior angles, alternate interior angles, corresponding angles, and consecutive interior angles.{{sfn|Jacobs|1974|p255}}Combining angle pairs
{{anchor|Angle addition postulate}}The angle addition postulate states that if B is in the interior of angle AOC, then
<math display"block"> m\angle \mathrm{AOC} m\angle \mathrm{AOB} + m\angle \mathrm{BOC} </math>
I.e., the measure of the angle AOC is the sum of the measure of angle AOB and the measure of angle BOC.
Three special angle pairs involve the summation of angles:
{{anchor|complementary angle}}
{{bulleted list
| Complementary angles are angle pairs whose measures sum to one right angle ({{sfrac|4}} turn, 90°, or {{sfrac|{{math|π}}|2}} radians).<ref>{{Cite web|titleComplementary Angles|urlhttps://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/complementary-angles.html|access-date2020-08-17 | websitewww.mathsisfun.com}}</ref> If the two complementary angles are adjacent, their non-shared sides form a right angle. In Euclidean geometry, the two acute angles in a right triangle are complementary because the sum of internal angles of a triangle is 180 degrees, and the right angle accounts for 90 degrees.
{{pb}}
The adjective complementary is from the Latin complementum, associated with the verb complere, "to fill up". An acute angle is "filled up" by its complement to form a right angle.
{{pb}}
The difference between an angle and a right angle is termed the complement of the angle.<ref name="Chisholm 1911">{{harvnb|Chisholm|1911}}</ref>
{{pb}}
If angles A and B are complementary, the following relationships hold: <math display="block">
\begin{align}
& \sin^2A + \sin^2B 1 & & \cos^2A + \cos^2B 1 \\[3pt]
& \tan A \cot B & & \sec A \csc B
\end{align}</math>
{{pb}}
(The tangent of an angle equals the cotangent of its complement, and its secant equals the cosecant of its complement.)
{{pb}}
The prefix "co-" in the names of some trigonometric ratios refers to the word "complementary".
{{clear|right}}
| {{anchor|Linear pair of angles|Supplementary angle}}Two angles that sum to a straight angle ({{sfrac|2}} turn, 180°, or {{math|π}} radians) are called supplementary angles.<ref>{{Cite web|titleSupplementary Angles|urlhttps://www.mathsisfun.com/geometry/supplementary-angles.html|access-date2020-08-17 | websitewww.mathsisfun.com}}</ref>
{{pb}}
If the two supplementary angles are adjacent (i.e., have a common vertex and share just one side), their non-shared sides form a straight line. Such angles are called a linear pair of angles.{{sfn|Jacobs|1974|p=97}} However, supplementary angles do not have to be on the same line and can be separated in space. For example, adjacent angles of a parallelogram are supplementary, and opposite angles of a cyclic quadrilateral (one whose vertices all fall on a single circle) are supplementary.
{{pb}}
If a point P is exterior to a circle with center O, and if the tangent lines from P touch the circle at points T and Q, then ∠TPQ and ∠TOQ are supplementary.
{{pb}}
The sines of supplementary angles are equal. Their cosines and tangents (unless undefined) are equal in magnitude but have opposite signs.
{{pb}}
In Euclidean geometry, any sum of two angles in a triangle is supplementary to the third because the sum of the internal angles of a triangle is a straight angle.
{{clear|right}}
{{anchor|explementary angle}}
| Two angles that sum to a complete angle (1 turn, 360°, or 2{{math|π}} radians) are called explementary angles or conjugate angles.<ref>{{cite book |lastWillis |firstClarence Addison |year1922 |publisherBlakiston's Son |titlePlane Geometry |page8 |url=https://archive.org/details/planegeometryexp00willrich/page/8/ }}</ref>
{{pb}}
The difference between an angle and a complete angle is termed the explement of the angle or conjugate of an angle.
{{clear|right}}
}}
Polygon-related angles
* An angle that is part of a simple polygon is called an interior angle if it lies on the inside of that simple polygon. A simple concave polygon has at least one interior angle, that is, a reflex angle. {{pb}} <!-- --> In Euclidean geometry, the measures of the interior angles of a triangle add up to {{math|π}} radians, 180°, or {{sfrac|2}} turn; the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex quadrilateral add up to 2{{math|π}} radians, 360°, or 1 turn. In general, the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex polygon with n sides add up to (n&nbsp;−&nbsp;2){{math|π}}&nbsp;radians, or (n&nbsp;−&nbsp;2)180&nbsp;degrees, (n&nbsp;−&nbsp;2)2 right angles, or (n&nbsp;−&nbsp;2){{sfrac|1|2}}&nbsp;turn.
* The supplement of an interior angle is called an exterior angle; that is, an interior angle and an exterior angle form a linear pair of angles. There are two exterior angles at each vertex of the polygon, each determined by extending one of the two sides of the polygon that meet at the vertex; these two angles are vertical and hence are equal. An exterior angle measures the amount of rotation one must make at a vertex to trace the polygon.{{sfn|Henderson|Taimina|2005|p=104}} If the corresponding interior angle is a reflex angle, the exterior angle should be considered negative. Even in a non-simple polygon, it may be possible to define the exterior angle. Still, one will have to pick an orientation of the plane (or surface) to decide the sign of the exterior angle measure. {{pb}} <!--
--> In Euclidean geometry, the sum of the exterior angles of a simple convex polygon, if only one of the two exterior angles is assumed at each vertex, will be one full turn (360°). The exterior angle here could be called a supplementary exterior angle. Exterior angles are commonly used in Logo Turtle programs when drawing regular polygons.
* In a triangle, the bisectors of two exterior angles and the bisector of the other interior angle are concurrent (meet at a single point).<ref nameJohnson>Johnson, Roger A. Advanced Euclidean Geometry, Dover Publications, 2007.</ref>{{rp|p149}}
* In a triangle, three intersection points, each of an external angle bisector with the opposite extended side, are collinear.<ref nameJohnson/>{{rp|p149}}
* In a triangle, three intersection points, two between an interior angle bisector and the opposite side, and the third between the other exterior angle bisector and the opposite side extended are collinear.<ref nameJohnson/>{{rp|p149}}
* Some authors use the name exterior angle of a simple polygon to mean the explement exterior angle (not supplement!) of the interior angle.<ref>{{citation|editorD. Zwillinger|titleCRC Standard Mathematical Tables and Formulae|placeBoca Raton, FL|publisherCRC Press | year1995 | page 270}} as cited in {{MathWorld |urlnameExteriorAngle |titleExterior Angle}}</ref> This conflicts with the above usage.
Plane-related angles
* The angle between two planes (such as two adjacent faces of a polyhedron) is called a dihedral angle.<ref name="Chisholm 1911"/> It may be defined as the acute angle between two lines normal to the planes.
* The angle between a plane and an intersecting straight line is complementary to the angle between the intersecting line and the normal to the plane.
Measuring angles{{anchor|Measurement}}<!-- linked from Degree (angle) -->
{{see also|Angle measuring instrument}}
The size of a geometric angle is usually characterized by the magnitude of the smallest rotation that maps one of the rays into the other. Angles of the same size are said to be equal congruent or equal in measure.
In some contexts, such as identifying a point on a circle or describing the orientation of an object in two dimensions relative to a reference orientation, angles that differ by an exact multiple of a full turn are effectively equivalent. In other contexts, such as identifying a point on a spiral curve or describing an object's cumulative rotation in two dimensions relative to a reference orientation, angles that differ by a non-zero multiple of a full turn are not equivalent.
To measure an angle <var>θ</var>, a circular arc centered at the vertex of the angle is drawn, e.g., with a pair of compasses. The ratio of the length <var>s</var> of the arc by the radius <var>r</var> of the circle is the number of radians in the angle:<ref name"SIBrochure9thEd">{{citation |titleThe International System of Units (SI) |authorInternational Bureau of Weights and Measures |author-linkNew SI |date20 May 2019 |edition9th |isbn978-92-822-2272-0 |urlhttps://www.bipm.org/utils/common/pdf/si-brochure/SI-Brochure-9.pdf| archive-url https://web.archive.org/web/20211018184555/https://www.bipm.org/documents/20126/41483022/SI-Brochure-9.pdf/fcf090b2-04e6-88cc-1149-c3e029ad8232 |archive-date18 October 2021 |url-status=live}}</ref>
<math display"block"> \theta \frac{s}{r} \, \mathrm{rad}. </math>
Conventionally, in mathematics and the SI, the radian is treated as being equal to the dimensionless unit 1, thus being normally omitted.
The angle expressed by another angular unit may then be obtained by multiplying the angle by a suitable conversion constant of the form {{sfrac|k|2{{math|π}}}}, where k is the measure of a complete turn expressed in the chosen unit (for example, {{nowrap|1k 360°}} for degrees or 400 grad for gradians):
<math display"block"> \theta \frac{k}{2\pi} \cdot \frac{s}{r}. </math>
The value of {{math|θ}} thus defined is independent of the size of the circle: if the length of the radius is changed, then the arc length changes in the same proportion, so the ratio s/r is unaltered.{{refn|group"nb"|This approach requires, however, an additional proof that the measure of the angle does not change with changing radius {{math|r}}, in addition to the issue of "measurement units chosen". A smoother approach is to measure the angle by the length of the corresponding unit circle arc. Here "unit" can be chosen to be dimensionless in the sense that it is the real number 1 associated with the unit segment on the real line. See Radoslav M. Dimitrić, for instance.<ref name"Dimitric_2012"/>}}
Units
Throughout history, angles have been measured in various units. These are known as angular units, with the most contemporary units being the degree ( ° ), the radian (rad), and the gradian (grad), though many others have been used throughout history.<ref>{{Cite web|titleangular unit|urlhttps://www.thefreedictionary.com/angular+unit|access-date2020-08-31|websiteTheFreeDictionary.com}}</ref> Most units of angular measurement are defined such that one turn (i.e., the angle subtended by the circumference of a circle at its centre) is equal to n units, for some whole number n. Two exceptions are the radian (and its decimal submultiples) and the diameter part.
In the International System of Quantities, an angle is defined as a dimensionless quantity, and in particular, the radian unit is dimensionless. This convention impacts how angles are treated in dimensional analysis.
The following table lists some units used to represent angles.
{|class = "wikitable"
!Name !!Number in one turn!!In degrees !!Description
|-
|radian||{{math|2π}}||≈57°17′45″||The radian is determined by the circumference of a circle that is equal in length to the radius of the circle (n&nbsp;&nbsp;2{{pi}}&nbsp;&nbsp;6.283...). It is the angle subtended by an arc of a circle that has the same length as the circle's radius. The symbol for radian is rad. One turn is 2{{math|π}}&nbsp;radians, and one radian is {{sfrac|180°|{{pi}}}}, or about 57.2958 degrees. Often, particularly in mathematical texts, one radian is assumed to equal one, resulting in the unit rad being omitted. The radian is used in virtually all mathematical work beyond simple, practical geometry due, for example, to the pleasing and "natural" properties that the trigonometric functions display when their arguments are in radians. The radian is the (derived) unit of angular measurement in the SI.
|-
|degree ||360 ||1°|| The degree, denoted by a small superscript circle (°), is 1/360 of a turn, so one turn is 360°. One advantage of this old sexagesimal subunit is that many angles common in simple geometry are measured as a whole number of degrees. Fractions of a degree may be written in normal decimal notation (e.g., 3.5° for three and a half degrees), but the "minute" and "second" sexagesimal subunits of the "degree–minute–second" system (discussed next) are also in use, especially for geographical coordinates and in astronomy and ballistics (n&nbsp;=&nbsp;360)
|-
| arcminute||21,600 ||0°1′|| The minute of arc (or MOA, arcminute, or just minute) is {{sfrac|60}} of a degree {{sfrac|21,600}} turn. It is denoted by a single prime (&nbsp;′&nbsp;). For example, 3°&nbsp;30′ is equal to 3&nbsp;×&nbsp;60&nbsp;+&nbsp;30&nbsp;&nbsp;210 minutes or 3&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{sfrac|30|60}} 3.5 degrees. A mixed format with decimal fractions is sometimes used, e.g., 3°&nbsp;5.72′ 3&nbsp;+&nbsp;{{sfrac|5.72|60}} degrees. A nautical mile was historically defined as an arcminute along a great circle of the Earth. (n&nbsp;=&nbsp;21,600).
|-
| arcsecond||1,296,000 ||0°0′1″||The second of arc (or arcsecond, or just second) is {{sfrac|60}} of a minute of arc and {{sfrac|3600}} of a degree (n&nbsp;=&nbsp;1,296,000). It is denoted by a double prime (&nbsp;″&nbsp;). For example, 3°&nbsp;7′&nbsp;30″ is equal to 3 + {{sfrac|7|60}} + {{sfrac|30|3600}} degrees, or 3.125&nbsp;degrees. The arcsecond is the angle used to measure a parsec
|-
| grad||400 ||0°54′ || The grad, also called grade, gradian, or gon. It is a decimal subunit of the quadrant. A right angle is 100 grads. A kilometre was historically defined as a centi-grad of arc along a meridian of the Earth, so the kilometer is the decimal analog to the sexagesimal nautical mile (n&nbsp;=&nbsp;400). The grad is used mostly in triangulation and continental surveying.
|-
|turn||1||360° || The turn is the angle subtended by the circumference of a circle at its centre. A turn is equal to 2{{pi}} or {{tau}} (tau) radians.
|-
| hour angle || 24 || 15° || The astronomical hour angle is {{sfrac|24}}&nbsp;turn. As this system is amenable to measuring objects that cycle once per day (such as the relative position of stars), the sexagesimal subunits are called minute of time and second of time. These are distinct from, and 15 times larger than, minutes and seconds of arc. 1&nbsp;hour 15° {{sfrac|{{pi}}|12}}&nbsp;rad {{sfrac|6}}&nbsp;quad {{sfrac|24}}&nbsp;turn = {{sfrac|16|2|3}}&nbsp;grad.
|-
| (compass) point || 32 || 11°15′ || The point or wind, used in navigation, is {{sfrac|32}} of a turn. 1&nbsp;point {{sfrac|8}} of a right angle 11.25° = 12.5&nbsp;grad. Each point is subdivided into four quarter points, so one turn equals 128.
|-
| milliradian || {{math|2000π}} || ≈0.057° || The true milliradian is defined as a thousandth of a radian, which means that a rotation of one turn would equal exactly 2000π&nbsp;mrad (or approximately 6283.185&nbsp;mrad). Almost all scope sights for firearms are calibrated to this definition. In addition, three other related definitions are used for artillery and navigation, often called a 'mil', which are approximately equal to a milliradian. Under these three other definitions, one turn makes up for exactly 6000, 6300, or 6400 mils, spanning the range from 0.05625 to 0.06 degrees (3.375 to 3.6 minutes). In comparison, the milliradian is approximately 0.05729578 degrees (3.43775 minutes). One "NATO mil" is defined as {{sfrac|6400}} of a turn. Just like with the milliradian, each of the other definitions approximates the milliradian's useful property of subtensions, i.e. that the value of one milliradian approximately equals the angle subtended by a width of 1 meter as seen from 1&nbsp;km away ({{sfrac|2{{pi}}|6400}} = 0.0009817... ≈ {{sfrac|1000}}).
|-
|binary degree ||256||1°33′45″ || The binary degree, also known as the binary radian or brad or binary angular measurement (BAM).<ref name="ooPIC"/> The binary degree is used in computing so that an angle can be efficiently represented in a single byte (albeit to limited precision). Other measures of the angle used in computing may be based on dividing one whole turn into 2<sup>n</sup> equal parts for other values of n.
<ref name"Hargreaves_2010"/> It is {{sfrac|256}} of a turn.<ref name"ooPIC"/>
|-
|{{anchor|Multiples of π}}{{pi}} radian||2||180° || The multiples of {{pi}} radians (MUL{{pi}}) unit is implemented in the RPN scientific calculator WP&nbsp;43S.<ref name="Bonin_2016"/> See also: IEEE 754 recommended operations
|-
|quadrant||4||90°||One quadrant is a {{sfrac|4}}&nbsp;turn and also known as a right angle. The quadrant is the unit in Euclid's Elements. In German, the symbol <sup>∟</sup> has been used to denote a quadrant. 1 quad 90° {{sfrac|{{pi}}|2}}&nbsp;rad {{sfrac|4}} turn 100&nbsp;grad.
|-
|sextant||6||60°||The sextant was the unit used by the Babylonians,<ref name"Jeans_1947"/><ref name"Murnaghan_1946"/> The degree, minute of arc and second of arc are sexagesimal subunits of the Babylonian unit. It is straightforward to construct with ruler and compasses. It is the angle of the equilateral triangle or is {{sfrac|6}}&nbsp;turn. 1 Babylonian unit 60° {{pi}}/3&nbsp;rad ≈ 1.047197551&nbsp;rad.
|-
| hexacontade||60 ||6°||The hexacontade is a unit used by Eratosthenes. It equals 6°, so a whole turn was divided into 60 hexacontades.
|-
| pechus|| 144 to 180 || 2° to 2°30′ || The pechus was a Babylonian unit equal to about 2° or {{sfrac|2|1|2}}°.
|-
| diameter part || ≈376.991 || ≈0.95493° || The diameter part (occasionally used in Islamic mathematics) is {{sfrac|60}} radian. One "diameter part" is approximately 0.95493°. There are about 376.991 diameter parts per turn.
|-
| zam || 224 || ≈1.607° || In old Arabia, a turn was subdivided into 32 Akhnam, and each akhnam was subdivided into 7 zam so that a turn is 224 zam.
|}
Dimensional analysis
{{excerpt|Radian#Dimensional analysis}}
Signed angles <span class"anchor" id"Sign"></span><span class"anchor" id"Positive and negative angles"></span>
{{main|Angle of rotation}}
{{see also|Sign (mathematics)#Angles|Euclidean space#Angle}}
, angles on the unit circle count as positive in the counterclockwise direction, and negative in the clockwise direction.]]
It is frequently helpful to impose a convention that allows positive and negative angular values to represent orientations and/or rotations in opposite directions or "sense" relative to some reference.
In a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, an angle is typically defined by its two sides, with its vertex at the origin. The initial side is on the positive x-axis, while the other side or terminal side is defined by the measure from the initial side in radians, degrees, or turns, with positive angles representing rotations toward the positive y-axis and negative angles representing rotations toward the negative y-axis. When Cartesian coordinates are represented by standard position, defined by the x-axis rightward and the y-axis upward, positive rotations are anticlockwise, and negative cycles are clockwise.
In many contexts, an angle of −θ is effectively equivalent to an angle of "one full turn minus θ". For example, an orientation represented as −45° is effectively equal to an orientation defined as 360°&nbsp;−&nbsp;45° or 315°. Although the final position is the same, a physical rotation (movement) of −45° is not the same as a rotation of 315° (for example, the rotation of a person holding a broom resting on a dusty floor would leave visually different traces of swept regions on the floor).
In three-dimensional geometry, "clockwise" and "anticlockwise" have no absolute meaning, so the direction of positive and negative angles must be defined in terms of an orientation, which is typically determined by a normal vector passing through the angle's vertex and perpendicular to the plane in which the rays of the angle lie.
In navigation, bearings or azimuth are measured relative to north. By convention, viewed from above, bearing angles are positive clockwise, so a bearing of 45° corresponds to a north-east orientation. Negative bearings are not used in navigation, so a north-west orientation corresponds to a bearing of 315°.
Equivalent angles
* Angles that have the same measure (i.e., the same magnitude) are said to be equal or congruent. An angle is defined by its measure and is not dependent upon the lengths of the sides of the angle (e.g., all right angles are equal in measure).
* Two angles that share terminal sides, but differ in size by an integer multiple of a turn, are called coterminal angles.
* The reference angle (sometimes called related angle) for any angle θ in standard position is the positive acute angle between the terminal side of θ and the x-axis (positive or negative).<ref>{{cite web|urlhttp://www.mathwords.com/r/reference_angle.htm|titleMathwords: Reference Angle|websitewww.mathwords.com|access-date26 April 2018|url-statuslive|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20171023035017/http://www.mathwords.com/r/reference_angle.htm|archive-date23 October 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1McKeague |first1Charles P. |titleTrigonometry |date2008 |publisherThomson Brooks/Cole |locationBelmont, CA |isbn978-0495382607 |page110 |edition6th}}</ref> Procedurally, the magnitude of the reference angle for a given angle may determined by taking the angle's magnitude modulo {{sfrac|2}} turn, 180°, or {{math|π}} radians, then stopping if the angle is acute, otherwise taking the supplementary angle, 180° minus the reduced magnitude. For example, an angle of 30 degrees is already a reference angle, and an angle of 150 degrees also has a reference angle of 30 degrees (180° − 150°). Angles of 210° and 510° correspond to a reference angle of 30 degrees as well (210° mod 180° 30°, 510° mod 180° 150° whose supplementary angle is 30°).
Related quantities
For an angular unit, it is definitional that the angle addition postulate holds. Some quantities related to angles where the angle addition postulate does not hold include:
* The slope or gradient is equal to the tangent of the angle; a gradient is often expressed as a percentage. For very small values (less than 5%), the slope of a line is approximately the measure in radians of its angle with the horizontal direction.
* The spread between two lines is defined in rational geometry as the square of the sine of the angle between the lines. As the sine of an angle and the sine of its supplementary angle are the same, any angle of rotation that maps one of the lines into the other leads to the same value for the spread between the lines.
* Although done rarely, one can report the direct results of trigonometric functions, such as the sine of the angle.
Angles between curves
The angle between a line and a curve (mixed angle) or between two intersecting curves (curvilinear angle) is defined to be the angle between the tangents at the point of intersection. Various names (now rarely, if ever, used) have been given to particular cases:—amphicyrtic (Gr. {{lang|grc|ἀμφί}}, on both sides, κυρτός, convex) or cissoidal (Gr. κισσός, ivy), biconvex; xystroidal or sistroidal (Gr. ξυστρίς, a tool for scraping), concavo-convex; amphicoelic (Gr. κοίλη, a hollow) or angulus lunularis, biconcave.<ref>{{harvnb|Chisholm|1911}}; {{harvnb|Heiberg|1908|p178}}</ref><!-- Again, most of this paragraph is from EB1911, with Heath as its source. -->Bisecting and trisecting angles
{{Main article|Bisection#Angle bisector|Angle trisection}}
The ancient Greek mathematicians knew how to bisect an angle (divide it into two angles of equal measure) using only a compass and straightedge but could only trisect certain angles. In 1837, Pierre Wantzel showed that this construction could not be performed for most angles.
Dot product and generalisations{{anchor|Dot product}}
In the Euclidean space, the angle θ between two Euclidean vectors u and v is related to their dot product and their lengths by the formula
<math display"block"> \mathbf{u} \cdot \mathbf{v} \cos(\theta) \left\| \mathbf{u} \right\| \left\| \mathbf{v} \right\| .</math>
This formula supplies an easy method to find the angle between two planes (or curved surfaces) from their normal vectors and between skew lines from their vector equations.
Inner product
To define angles in an abstract real inner product space, we replace the Euclidean dot product ( · ) by the inner product <math> \langle \cdot , \cdot \rangle </math>, i.e.
<math display"block"> \langle \mathbf{u} , \mathbf{v} \rangle \cos(\theta)\ \left\| \mathbf{u} \right\| \left\| \mathbf{v} \right\| .</math>
In a complex inner product space, the expression for the cosine above may give non-real values, so it is replaced with
<math display"block"> \operatorname{Re} \left( \langle \mathbf{u} , \mathbf{v} \rangle \right) \cos(\theta) \left\| \mathbf{u} \right\| \left\| \mathbf{v} \right\| .</math>
or, more commonly, using the absolute value, with
<math display"block"> \left| \langle \mathbf{u} , \mathbf{v} \rangle \right| \left| \cos(\theta) \right| \left\| \mathbf{u} \right\| \left\| \mathbf{v} \right\| .</math>
The latter definition ignores the direction of the vectors. It thus describes the angle between one-dimensional subspaces <math>\operatorname{span}(\mathbf{u})</math> and <math>\operatorname{span}(\mathbf{v})</math> spanned by the vectors <math>\mathbf{u}</math> and <math>\mathbf{v}</math> correspondingly.
Angles between subspaces
The definition of the angle between one-dimensional subspaces <math>\operatorname{span}(\mathbf{u})</math> and <math>\operatorname{span}(\mathbf{v})</math> given by
<math display"block"> \left| \langle \mathbf{u} , \mathbf{v} \rangle \right| \left| \cos(\theta) \right| \left\| \mathbf{u} \right\| \left\| \mathbf{v} \right\| </math>
in a Hilbert space can be extended to subspaces of finite dimensions. Given two subspaces <math> \mathcal{U} </math>, <math> \mathcal{W} </math> with <math> \dim ( \mathcal{U}) :k \leq \dim ( \mathcal{W}) : l </math>, this leads to a definition of <math>k</math> angles called canonical or principal angles between subspaces.
Angles in Riemannian geometry
In Riemannian geometry, the metric tensor is used to define the angle between two tangents. Where U and V are tangent vectors and g<sub>ij</sub> are the components of the metric tensor G,
<math display="block">
\cos \theta = \frac{g_{ij} U^i V^j}{\sqrt{ \left| g_{ij} U^i U^j \right| \left| g_{ij} V^i V^j \right|}}.
</math>
Hyperbolic angle
A hyperbolic angle is an argument of a hyperbolic function just as the circular angle is the argument of a circular function. The comparison can be visualized as the size of the openings of a hyperbolic sector and a circular sector since the areas of these sectors correspond to the angle magnitudes in each case.<ref>Robert Baldwin Hayward (1892) [https://archive.org/details/algebraofcoplana00haywiala/page/n5/mode/2up The Algebra of Coplanar Vectors and Trigonometry], chapter six</ref> Unlike the circular angle, the hyperbolic angle is unbounded. When the circular and hyperbolic functions are viewed as infinite series in their angle argument, the circular ones are just alternating series forms of the hyperbolic functions. This comparison of the two series corresponding to functions of angles was described by Leonhard Euler in Introduction to the Analysis of the Infinite (1748).
Angles in geography and astronomy
In geography, the location of any point on the Earth can be identified using a geographic coordinate system. This system specifies the latitude and longitude of any location in terms of angles subtended at the center of the Earth, using the equator and (usually) the Greenwich meridian as references.
In astronomy, a given point on the celestial sphere (that is, the apparent position of an astronomical object) can be identified using any of several astronomical coordinate systems, where the references vary according to the particular system. Astronomers measure the angular separation of two stars by imagining two lines through the center of the Earth, each intersecting one of the stars. The angle between those lines and the angular separation between the two stars can be measured.
In both geography and astronomy, a sighting direction can be specified in terms of a vertical angle such as altitude /elevation with respect to the horizon as well as the azimuth with respect to north.
Astronomers also measure objects' apparent size as an angular diameter. For example, the full moon has an angular diameter of approximately 0.5° when viewed from Earth. One could say, "The Moon's diameter subtends an angle of half a degree." The small-angle formula can convert such an angular measurement into a distance/size ratio.
Other astronomical approximations include:
* 0.5° is the approximate diameter of the Sun and of the Moon as viewed from Earth.
* 1° is the approximate width of the little finger at arm's length.
* 10° is the approximate width of a closed fist at arm's length.
* 20° is the approximate width of a handspan at arm's length.
These measurements depend on the individual subject, and the above should be treated as rough rule of thumb approximations only.
In astronomy, right ascension and declination are usually measured in angular units, expressed in terms of time, based on a 24-hour day.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Unit !! Symbol !! Degrees !! Radians !! Turns !! Other
|-
! Hour
| h || 15° || {{frac|{{pi}}|12}} rad || {{frac|1|24}} turn ||
|-
! Minute
| m || 0°15′ || {{frac|{{pi}}|720}} rad ||{{frac|1|1,440}} turn || {{frac|1|60}} hour
|-
! Second
| s || 0°0′15″ || {{frac|{{pi}}|43200}} rad || {{frac|1|86,400}} turn || {{frac|1|60}} minute
|}
See also
{{div col |colwidth=22em}}
* Angle measuring instrument
* Angles between flats
* Angular statistics (mean, standard deviation)
* Angle bisector
* Angular acceleration
* Angular diameter
* Angular velocity
* Argument (complex analysis)
* Astrological aspect
* Central angle
* Clock angle problem
* Decimal degrees
* Dihedral angle
* Exterior angle theorem
* Golden angle
* Great circle distance
* Horn angle
* Inscribed angle
* Irrational angle
* Phase (waves)
* Protractor
* Solid angle
* Spherical angle
* Subtended angle
* Tangential angle
* Transcendent angle
* Trisection
* Zenith angle
{{div col end}}
Notes
{{Reflist|group="nb"}}
{{notelist}}
References
{{Reflist|refs<ref name"Jeans_1947">{{cite book |author-firstJames Hopwood |author-lastJeans |author-linkJames Hopwood Jeans |date1947 |titleThe Growth of Physical Science |publisherCUP Archive |page[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.210060/page/n25 7] |urlhttps://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.210060}}</ref>
<ref name"Murnaghan_1946">{{cite book |author-firstFrancis Dominic |author-lastMurnaghan |author-linkFrancis Dominic Murnaghan (mathematician) |date1946 |titleAnalytic Geometry |page=2}}</ref>
<ref name"Dimitric_2012">{{cite journal |titleOn Angles and Angle Measurements |author-firstRadoslav M. |author-lastDimitrić |journalThe Teaching of Mathematics |date2012 |volumeXV |number2 |pages133–140 |urlhttp://elib.mi.sanu.ac.rs/files/journals/tm/29/tm1525.pdf |access-date2019-08-06 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190117195213/http://elib.mi.sanu.ac.rs/files/journals/tm/29/tm1525.pdf |archive-date2019-01-17}}</ref>
<ref name"ooPIC">{{cite web |titleooPIC Programmer's Guide - Chapter 15: URCP |workooPIC Manual & Technical Specifications - ooPIC Compiler Ver 6.0 |orig-year1997 |date2007 |publisherSavage Innovations, LLC |urlhttp://www.oopic.com/pgchap15.htm |access-date2019-08-05 |url-statusdead |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20080628051746/http://www.oopic.com/pgchap15.htm |archive-date=2008-06-28}}</ref>
<ref name"Hargreaves_2010">{{cite web |titleAngles, integers, and modulo arithmetic |author-firstShawn |author-lastHargreaves |author-link:pl:Shawn Hargreaves |publisherblogs.msdn.com |urlhttp://blogs.msdn.com/shawnhar/archive/2010/01/04/angles-integers-and-modulo-arithmetic.aspx |access-date2019-08-05 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190630223817/http://www.shawnhargreaves.com/blogindex.html |archive-date=2019-06-30}}</ref>
<ref name"Bonin_2016">{{cite web |titleRE: WP-32S in 2016? |date2016-01-11 |author-firstWalter |author-lastBonin |workHP Museum |urlhttps://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-5427-post-48957.html#pid48957 |access-date2019-08-05 |url-statuslive |archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20190806141349/https://www.hpmuseum.org/forum/thread-5427-post-48957.html |archive-date=2019-08-06}}</ref>
}}
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* {{cite journal |last1Romain |first1Jacques E. |titleAngle as a fourth fundamental quantity |journalJournal of Research of the National Bureau of Standards Section B |dateJuly 1962 |volume66B |issue3 |pages97 |doi10.6028/jres.066B.012 |doi-accessfree}}
* {{SpringerEOM|modecs2 |lastSidorov |firstL. A. |date2001 |idAngle&oldid13323 |title=Angle}}
* {{citation|lastSlocum|firstJonathan|date2007|urlhttp://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/ielex/X/P0089.html|titlePreliminary Indo-European lexicon&nbsp;— Pokorny PIE data|access-date2 Feb 2010|publisherUniversity of Texas research department: linguistics research center|archive-date27 June 2010|archive-urlhttps://web.archive.org/web/20100627012240/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/ielex/X/P0089.html|url-statusdead}}
* {{citation |last1Shute |first1William G. |last2Shirk |first2William W. |last3Porter |first3George F. |date1960 |titlePlane and Solid Geometry |publisherAmerican Book Company |pages25–27}}
* {{cite journal |last1Torrens |first1A B |titleOn Angles and Angular Quantities |journalMetrologia |date1 January 1986 |volume22 |issue1 |pages1–7 |doi10.1088/0026-1394/22/1/002 |bibcode1986Metro..22....1T |s2cid=250801509}}
* {{citation |last1Wong |first1Tak-wah |last2Wong |first2Ming-sim |date2009 |chapterAngles in Intersecting and Parallel Lines |titleNew Century Mathematics |locationHong Kong |publisherOxford University Press |edition1 |volume1B |pages161–163 |isbn=978-0-19-800177-5}}
{{EB1911 |wstitleAngle |volume2 |page14 |modecs2}}
External links
{{Commons category|Angles (geometry)}}
{{Wikibooks|Geometry|Unified Angles}}
* {{cite EB9 |wstitleAngle |volume2 |pages29–30 |modecs2|short=x }}
{{Authority control}} | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.886650 |
1197 | Asa | Asa may refer to:
People and fictional characters
Asa (given name), a given name, including a list of people and fictional characters so named
Asa people, an ethnic group based in Tanzania
Aṣa, Nigerian-French singer, songwriter, and recording artist Bukola Elemide (born 1982)
Asa (rapper), Finnish rapper Matti Salo (born 1980)
Biblical and mythological figures
Asa of Judah, third king of the Kingdom of Judah and the fifth king of the House of David
Ása or Æsir, Norse gods
Places
Asa, Hardoi Uttar Pradesh, India, a village
Asu, South Khorasan, Iran, also spelled Asa, a village
Asa, Kwara State, Nigeria, a local government area
Asa River (Japan), a tributary of the Tama River in Tokyo, Japan
Asa (Kazakhstan), a river
Asa River (Venezuela), a river in Venezuela
Other uses
Acrylonitrile styrene acrylate, acrylic styrene acrylonitrile, an amorphous thermoplastic
Asa (album), the sixth studio album by the German Viking metal band Falkenbach
Asa (raga), a peculiar musical raga in Gurmat Sangeet tradition
ASA carriage control characters, simple printing command characters used to control the movement of paper through line printers
Asa language, spoken by the Asa people of Tanzania
Asa Station, a railway station in San'yō-Onoda, Yamaguchi, Japan
Asa (railway station), Jambyl Region, Kazakhstan
Naboot, also called asa, a quarterstaff constructed of palm wood or rattan
Asha, romanized as aṣ̌a, a Zoroastrian concept
"Asa", a song by Kitt Wakeley featuring Starr Parodi from An Adoption Story, 2022
“Asa”, 2024 single by Snazzy the Optimist
See also
ASA (disambiguation)
Åsa (disambiguation)
Aasa (disambiguation)
Asia (disambiguation)
Aza (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa | 2025-04-05T18:25:34.893280 |
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