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Impact agendas still threaten research autonomy
The Covid-19 pandemic has highlighted how private funders can work with academic research institutions to bring products like vaccines and testing devices to market quickly.
This was widely celebrated and called for research to become even more socially and economically effective in the future. In addition, the UK’s second Research Excellence Framework (REF), which includes impact as one of its criteria, will no doubt show just how effective research has already become when it presents its results next month.
But despite all the euphoria, we would do well to remember an old warning about the influence of private sector funding on academic research
Proponents of the impact agenda — which has more or less been adopted by funders around the world over the past decade — argue that it leads to targeted research that benefits both the economy and the well-being of society. It can also use private sources of funding for collaborative projects, as researchers are pushed to work closely with private sector and philanthropic organizations.
The requirement that research reflect monetary and societal benefits is perfectly reasonable. But it should not become a shibboleth that distracts from the main purpose of university research. For example, there are entire branches of science such as astronomy or paleontology that offer profound knowledge, but for which one cannot fathom any possible monetary benefits. We must be extremely careful that the Impact Agenda does not undermine their funding (their inclusion in broader ‘assessment units’ in the REF helps mitigate this risk, but the problem remains).
Moreover, what happens when research stakeholders are primarily driven by a desire not so much for social welfare as for profit or the advancement of a particular agenda?
This is a particular danger in strategic areas such as medicine, defense and information technology. It is well known, for example, that the defense industries that countries have built for their legitimate national defense and security paradoxically need conflict to sustain themselves. This is an example where the monetary interest of companies does not necessarily correlate with the societal interest; For a major investment in new military technology to pay off, defense contractors must do whatever it takes to stimulate demand—which they need conflict to do. Fortunately, universities are rarely used for defense research due to their excessive secrecy, but it does happen (in these cases, REF case study viewing is limited to jury members).
On the other hand, medical research is an important source of private funding for universities. And medical companies are also notorious for using their influence over healthcare systems and governments to expand markets for their products. The veneer of academic seriousness only supports these efforts – which in turn does not always have to be in the public interest. Although the vaccine development effort has been claimed to be a triumph (and certainly a lucrative one for many of the companies involved), there are many examples where products that are ineffective or downright harmful have been adopted by health systems.
The risks of research corruption are particularly high in the case of prestigious universities, in which the major business organizations invest the most. These organizations don’t spend big bucks on research areas that don’t pay off. Companies select areas that promise a financial return and accordingly exert their influence on the experts and scientists in the renowned academic institutions.
Furthermore, the typical dominance of research by a relatively small number of companies makes bias all the more likely. For this reason, the formation of networks of academic research institutions, all funded by the same private organisations, should be strongly discouraged, particularly in the strategic research areas identified by the government. And any private funding and involvement in research must be rigorously scrutinized to ensure academic institutions do not become dependent on private donors.
If decisions about public research funding have to be based on economic and social effects, then we should at least ensure that cooperation with small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and new start-ups is given more weight than with mega-corporations and “philanthropic societies” that run by business tycoons. Strict objective criteria must be incorporated to assess potential conflicts of interest and negative societal impacts when a large corporation is a significant financier.
Undermining academic research autonomy will ultimately undermine the credibility of academic research and researchers. Furthermore, when academic research becomes a business and academic researchers become businessmen, it is not just the university and its core departments that are affected; it can result in great harm to society as a whole.
As good as next month’s impact case studies may look, the main driver of academic research must remain the creation of ethical knowledge and its wider dissemination for the benefit of society – not greed for profit and furthering the agendas of influential private funders.
Tahir H Shah is Advisor and Professor of Advanced Materials and Technical Textiles at the National Textile University in Faisalabad, Pakistan, and Fellow of the UK’s Royal Society of Chemistry and Textile Institute. | https://knptfitness.com/2022/05/01/impact-agendas-still-threaten-research-autonomy/ |
The College of the Arts at the University of Houston seeks a visionary Director and Chief Curator for its Blaffer Art Museum. The successful candidate must be a gifted curator and an experienced manager, capable of orchestrating exceptional exhibitions, public programs, and educational experiences while attracting funding and other support from the Houston community as well as the broader cultural and philanthropic communities.
The exhibitions and programs of the Blaffer Art Museum engage an international roster of important contemporary artists that place the museum firmly at the core of a global dialogue on the arts and establishes the University of Houston and the city it serves as an important cultural incubator and destination.
A premier non-collecting institution, Blaffer fosters engagement and exchange among the students, artists and scholars of the University of Houston’s School of Art, as well as a diverse audience of both university and community members.
The Director will articulate a curatorial vision for the exhibition of contemporary art as well as innovative programs and interdisciplinary exploration manifested in compelling public and academic exhibitions. The Director will have an international perspective and draw on strong relationships in the contemporary art world to continue to advance the reputation of the Blaffer Art Museum as a vanguard institution for the exhibition of important contemporary voices.
Responsibilities
1. As Chief Curator, develop and implement a unique and independent curatorial vision that distinguishes the Blaffer Art Museum from other contemporary and university art museums, including other contemporary museums in the city of Houston
2.As Museum Director, Manage the operational and administrative duties for the Blaffer Art Museum in an efficient and effective manner in coordination with the Dean of the College of the Arts
3. As an Academic Administrator in the University of Houston community, serve as the Blaffer Art Museum’s chief liaison within the university and the global academic community, ensuring that the museum’s impact is felt campus-wide, locally, nationally, and internationally
Candidate profile
The successful candidate will possess at least a master’s degree in art history, studio art, or other relevant field or research area.
The candidate must have museum experience in the contemporary art world including direct experience with curatorial practice and exhibition planning, education programming, operations, fundraising, public relations or marketing, and budget management. The candidate must have management experience based on a collaborative work and team-building style capable of engaging a broad range of constituencies.
The candidate will have demonstrated excellent communication and presentation skills and ability to implement use of new communication technologies. He or she will have an international perspective with a contemporary art specialty. He or she will have a solid track record of curating well-received exhibitions of both public and academic shows and will possess the ability to establish credibility with the faculty and relate intellectually with a wide range of disciplines. He or she will have to travel on behalf of the art museum. Experience in an academic environment is preferred, but not necessary.
The University of Houston
The University of Houston is located in the heart of the city of Houston, a thriving arts metropolis for the twenty-first century. With one of the most diverse student bodies in the nation, the University of Houston seeks candidates who will contribute creatively to the University’s multicultural environment. The University of Houston is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action institution. Minorities, women, veterans and persons with disabilities are encouraged to apply. Additionally, the University prohibits discrimination in employment on the basis of sexual orientation, gender identity or gender expression. The University of Houston is responsive to the needs of dual career couples.
To apply, please go to the UH Jobs Portal
For any further questions about the job description and the timeline of the search, please contact the person below. | https://www.artandeducation.net/announcements/105172/seeking-director |
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Projects
Curatorial Leadership in Collections
About
Curatorial Leadership in Collections (CLiC) is a new project developed by SCAN and Outset Scotland which supports and develops curatorial ambition within Scotland’s collecting institutions. The project brings together curators and directors from eight collecting institutions across the Scottish sector including key independent, university, local authority and national collections.
CLiC aims to strengthen a curator’s leadership role in activating public collections for contemporary audiences, and in building imaginative public, commercial and philanthropic partnerships. Taking place over 18 months, the eight museum partners will engage in curatorial research visits, advocacy forums and workshops. They will be supported to work individually and collectively to advocate for enhanced investment and to promote fresh thinking around partnerships.
Museum Partners
The eight museum partners are:
Gallery of Modern Art Glasgow
Katie Bruce, Producer/ Curator
Glasgow Women’s Library
Adele Patrick, Lifelong Learning and Creative Development Manager
Hunterian Art Gallery
Dominic Paterson, Lecturer in History of Art, Curator of Contemporary Art
The McManus
Anna Robertson, Fine and Applied Art Team Leader
Paisley Museum and Art Galleries
Andrea Kusel, Curator of Art
Pier Arts Centre
Neil Firth, Director
Scottish Maritime Museum
Fiona Carmichael, Curator of Art
University of Edinburgh
Neil Lebeter, Art Collections Curator/ Deputy Head of Museums
Curatorial Leadership in Collections is delivered by SCAN, with Kirstie Skinner Director of Outset Scotland as lead consultant, and Rachael Browning Senior Programmes Manager at Art Fund as adviser.
Curatorial Leadership in Collections is made possible through the generous support of Creative Scotland, Art Fund, Outset Scotland and Museums Galleries Scotland. | https://sca-net.org/projects/view/curatorial-leadership-in-collections |
The LSS specialist position is a hands-on working manager and will oversee all aspects of aquarium life support systems and related components; automated controls and monitoring equipment; and related maintenance and repair. Develop and implement aquarium life support, logs and water quality standards and procedures in accordance with industry best practices, safety protocols, standards and guidelines established by Maui Ocean Center, governing agencies and regulatory/accrediting bodies. Also responsible for the water quality regulatory requirements. This person will work very closely with the head Curator and Operations Manager.
Essential Functions
- Demonstrate knowledge of, and supports Maui Ocean Center’s Mission, Vision, Value Statements, standards, policies and procedures, operating instructions, standards, and the code of behavior
- Creates and optimizes LSS procedures, manuals, SOP’s, and policies that will ensure the creation of the facility institutional memory
- Ensure clear communications and maintain good relationships within and across Curatorial and Operations in order to support overall organizational goals
- Use personal judgment and initiative to develop effective and constructive solutions to challenges and obstacles to implement policy and procedures
AREAS OF RESPONSIBILITY
- Optimize and maintain inventory of critical pumps, parts, pipes, other essential materials
- Provide training for the Operations and Curatorial team members when and as needed
- The LSS Specialist must be a team player whose enthusiasm and dedication to Maui Ocean Center is an example for the entire team
- Attend internal departmental meetings and external conferences. Work collaboratively with Curatorial and Operations Teams on any special projects
- Strong problem solving and group work leadership skills
- Ability to interact with people of all ages and able to work independently and as part of a team
- Effective oral and written communication skills including proper use of communication tools and technologies
- Ability to work flexible hours including evening, holiday and weekend requirements.
- Establish annual goals and standards of performance for fiscal and programmatic operations relating to LSS
REQUIREMENTS
Education
- Bachelor’s degree (B.A. or B.S.) from an accredited four-year college or university; 3-6 years of direct operational experience or equivalent combination of education and experience
Experience
- Ability to lift minimum 70 lbs.
- Ability to work a flexible schedule, which includes weekends, evenings and/or holidays as needed
- Commitment to the mission of Maui Ocean Center and its core Conservation and Environmental values
- Excellent organizational skills with the ability to balance and prioritize multiple tasks and requests and meet deadlines in a professional manner
- Strong interpersonal and communication skills
- Strong working knowledge of large pump and life support systems
- Exceptional problem solving, decision making and organizational skills
- Demonstrates analytical, planning and leadership skills.
- Demonstrates flexibility and composure in fast-paced environment.
- Valid Hawaii State Driver’s License Required
- Strong computer skills with proficiency using Microsoft Office (e.g. Word, Excel, PowerPoint and Outlook).
- Experience and understanding on SCADA systems
- Knowledge of database systems, research tools and electronic sources available through the internet required
- Experience and knowledge of water quality monitoring and compliance
- Knowledge of Hawaiian marine life preferred
- AALSO Life Support certified level II preferred
Please include your resume and cover letter. | https://mauioceancenter.com/jobs/lss-specialist/ |
Developing new kinds of cultural institutions also means developing new vocabularies.
On March 23, critic and curator Maurice Berger died of complications related to the coronavirus. The following week was an opportunity to re-read his 1990 essay, “Are Art Museums Racist?”
At the time, less than three weeks into New York City’s stay-at-home order, we at Independent Curators International (ICI) were seeking a global understanding of the impact of the pandemic by reaching out to recent and current collaborators from all 50 US states, Washington, DC, Puerto Rico, and 70 countries around the world. From the 1,500 curators and artists we contacted, we compiled scores of impressions coalescing around a small number of consistent concerns.
We learned, for example, that many independent curators saw a number of core issues increasingly shaping their thinking and practice—issues which, far from being new, became louder and more urgent amid the pandemic. They included labor conditions, migration, xenophobia, and racism.
Change begins with awareness of the problem, they say. But Berger found that museums were broadly unable to meaningfully present works by African American artists 30 years ago. And just five years ago, a Mellon Foundation study of the US museum field found that only 16 percent of specialized and leadership positions (such as curators, conservators, educators, and directors) were held by people of color.
Awareness of systemic over-representation of whiteness in US cultural institutions—that is to say, awareness of systemic racism—has grown since the Mellon report, and a number of subsequent studies have shed even more light on the problem. Among them, the CreateNYC Culture Plan, issued by New York City’s Department of Cultural Affairs in 2017, offered a damning verdict on one corner of the cultural field: “The whitest job in arts and culture? Curator.”
With a new awareness of the issue, focused on the curatorial field and backed by metrics, many arts organizations across the country took steps to address a “diversity problem” in their midst. Their efforts were backed by the leadership (and power of the purse) of several large foundations, such as Mellon and the Ford foundations, and by local governmental bodies, including New York City’s Department of Cultural Affairs.
Across the field, an emphasis took hold on the need to diversify staff and boards, so that they may be more representative of their communities, or the country’s demographics. At several museums, priorities in hiring changed in order to diversify the curatorial ranks. Other institutions sought to address an educational system that has kept people of color out of the academic training pipeline for curators, and to invest in the future through scholarships and fellowship opportunities that will in time diversify applicants pools.
These have been important steps in the right direction. But is it enough?
This is a question that has occupied us at ICI for most of the last decade, and the question of over-representation in the field has been core to our programs. Our approaches have evolved over time, and are now increasingly driven by the perspectives of curators within our own networks: out of the 136 US-based professionals who participated in ICI’s Curatorial Intensive (our professional development program for emerging curators) since 2010, less than 40 percent identify as white. But how could the diversity of our network be reconciled with the realities of a field that remained overwhelmingly white? What were the obstacles to change?
There are many models of social change, and one that I find particularly useful comes from 12-step recovery programs, the Three A’s: Awareness, Acceptance, and Action. What is particularly useful about this three-part method is the suggestion that for change to be meaningful, we cannot simply rush to action to remedy a problem we have been made aware of. We need to accept our own relationship to the problem.
Let’s begin with curatorial work, which is profoundly discriminatory by nature. Curators decide whether to include or exclude artists and artworks from exhibitions and publications, and from art history and collective memory. It’s worth considering and accepting this part of the role.
In doing so, we understand that the power to make these decisions is bestowed upon curators by their peers, whose respect they earn. Following this logic, we begin to see a feudal system, where curators are recognized as the guardians of the archive, the scribes of art history’s first draft, the arbiters of taste, only as long as their work validates the field that empowered them. And in the US, the field that empowers curators for as long as they validate it—the world behind the gatekeepers—is dominated by Euro-American art history and ideology. It is a world buoyed by 20th-century nationalist pride; centered on museums rooted in the 19th century and the colonial era; that claims a genealogy going back to the white marbles of Ancient Greece, almost halfway across the world.
The curatorial rank and file should reflect the country we live in, and so should the field that validates them. Beyond reviewing hiring policies, institutions must decide whether they are ready to make space for another narrative, and to value and fully empower different forms of knowledge. Are they ready to shift their relationships to the white art history embodied in their collections by ceding its assumed dominance?
Are institutions ready to shift their high-entrance-fee admissions policies that disproportionately exclude people of color? Indeed, as museums are considering a near-future with limited attendance due to COVID-19, and a resulting decrease in admission income, will they take up the opportunity to reinvent themselves as truly inclusive civic institutions with free admission? At ICI, we have learned from the experience of colleagues in art spaces that adopted a free admission policy, as they described an immediate shift in their audience becoming not only larger, but also more diverse. And a larger more diverse audience in turn came to expect more diverse and representative exhibitions and programs, prompting a reshaping of the curatorial role and who could fill it.
Working internationally, we have also learned to use important tools to better shift our own organization. We learned to rethink our knowledge structures: once we discarded the notion of a curatorial curriculum or an art-historical canon—exclusionary by definition and almost always strengthening the dominance of Euro-American art history—collaboration and horizontal models of knowledge-sharing became our working modes.
We also learned that some of our vocabulary is exclusionary. One of the most potent changes we’ve made was to the working definitions we use. The word “curator” is exclusionary. Redefine it. We adopted a definition of curators as “arts community leaders and organizers,” a term we came to understand with Miranda Lash, curator of contemporary art at the Speed Art Museum in Louisville, Kentucky. The term “contemporary art” is exclusionary too. Redefine it. This was an approach we owe to Shuddhabrata Sengupta of Raqs Media Collective, who suggested that in considering art, we take the largest, most encompassing possible definition.
What we learned from our colleagues around the world and around the country, often outside of the main art centers, we applied to our day-to-day work. Institutions can do the same. One change to the system may not be enough; but coupled with other adjustments across the institutional structure, it can have an exponential impact. With awareness and acceptance, institutions will have a chance not only to diversify their staffs, but also their power structures, their work, their audience, and ultimately their civic mandate.
This has been a guiding principle of ICI’s Curatorial Forum, organized with EXPO Chicago every September since 2016, which convenes 40 US curators to generate conversations about the civic responsibilities of museums, topics of accessibility, regionalism, and race and representation. This fall, we will organize a version of the Forum that will build upon past sessions focused on racial equity and how museums can reach a level of awareness and acceptance from within the institution, together with all their stakeholders.
The task of institutional change isn’t small. However, not far from the museum’s doors, independent curators of diverse ethnic, racial, and socio-economic backgrounds have already been rethinking their relationships to the dominant arts and culture field, its preferred language, canon, and the ideology it promotes. They have developed ways to serve artists first, operate independently of the market, and represent a multiplicity of voices and practices that complicate, rather than consolidate prevailing versions of art history. They are creating more than exhibitions—they are shaping different realities through research, publishing, and organizing.
Many people in this new generation of independent curators have found opportunities to present their work in supportive regional and culturally specific museums, while others have created their own digital and physical spaces and founded and/or led art initiatives and small organizations. In taking charge of creating new models for smaller institutions, they have helped define a more inclusive context for art production and presentation, and a more direct relationship to artists than many of the larger institutions and museums, which are slower to adopt change. While these initiatives are not meant to replace the museum, they contribute to shifting the expectations that the curatorial field and art audiences alike will have of their larger cultural institutions.
It is our hope that, in addition to structural change in arts and cultural institutions, this time will prompt the country’s philanthropic field to more fully support independent curatorial voices through direct research, exhibitions and project grants, and to drastically increase the funding of curator-led arts initiatives and small organizations that have shown to be more resilient, responsive, and committed to racial equity through the crisis.
At this time of national crisis, when so many institutions are closed to the public and struggling to articulate their support of people of color, our belief in the need to empower and sustain an already diverse and dynamic independent curatorial field is only heightened.
Renaud Proch is the executive and artistic director of Independent Curators International.
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Want to stay ahead of the art world? Subscribe to our newsletter to get the breaking news, eye-opening interviews, and incisive critical takes that drive the conversation forward. | https://news.artnet.com/opinion/renaud-proch-ici-changing-museums-1889284 |
The following is a guest post by Jefferson Bailey, Fellow at the Library of Congress’s Office of Strategic Initiatives.
The Humanities and Technology Camp, or THATCamp, is a model for holding low-cost, collaborative “unconferences” at which professionals from a range of different communities can share tools, knowledge, and ideas to support the relationship between the humanities and technology. One outcome of the flexible THATCamp model has been the variety of THATCamps, from thematic events like the upcoming THATCamp Theory to location-specific ones like THATCamp Caribbean (sign me up, please). A few weeks ago, I was able to attend the first museum-focused event, THATCamp Museums NYC, which was organized by Kimon Keramidas and students and staff of the Bard Graduate Center on Manhattan’s Upper West Side.
The first day consisted of nine workshops on museum-related tools and projects, including one we conducted on Viewshare, our free, open-source tool for building dynamic, interactive interfaces to digital cultural heritage collections. Other workshops demonstrated Omeka , Smarthistory.org , TourML and TAP, and other tools and projects to expand the accessibility and appeal of museums and their collections. The full THATCamp Museums NYC schedule can be seen online.
The following two days featured an eclectic mix of sessions in which campers participated in free-flowing conversations about the intersection of technology and museums and included discussion of additional tools and initiatives, such as the OSCI Toolkit and BGC and NYPL’s collaborative Visualizing Nineteenth Century New York project. Other sessions worked to build tablet apps for museums and to better understand the role of digital imaging and online exhibitions. Notes from a number of the sessions are available online . There were over two dozen sessions total, but of the ones I attended, a number of themes emerged:
Initiatives go locative: Geolocation will play an increasingly large part in the way that museums implement technology to support their overall mission. Online geolocation interfaces like Viewshare offer a unified entry point to distributed collections and location-based mobile apps such as TourML help patrons navigate a museum’s physical space by providing additional information about nearby objects and exhibits. Other tools could allow patrons to create a personalized pathway through a museum based on preferences about object type, period, or other characteristics. Locative data matched with existing descriptive and contextual data has the potential to create new ways for patrons to interact, both online and on-site, with museum collections.
Flexible organizational structures: Museums are still working to find the best way to situate technology resources organizationally. Relatively recent efforts such as NYPL Labs or the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s Digital Media department are indicative of efforts to centralize digital services within the organization and enhance their exposure to other units. Other flexible organization ideas, such as cross-department working groups or detailing tech staff to curatorial units can continue to strengthen the relationship between technology departments and those focusing on traditional museum services.
Iterative project models need to become iterative program models: The iterative workflow that often drives web projects needs to be applied programmatically to the use of technology across museums. Large-scale or exhibition-dependent implementations of online tools will be difficult to maintain in the current budget climate and may crowd out more nimble, patron-driven projects. As digital services and patron expectations evolve, museums will need to remain flexible and iterative towards their use of technology.
Magnifying curatorial expertise: The role of the “curator” has been besieged lately by the terms appropriation by those outside the museum community. Within museums, however, the curatorial expertise is recognized as fundamental to giving meaning and import to collections. But museums are still understanding how best to utilize curatorial expertise online. Emerging technologies offer the potential to develop novel ways to connect curators and patrons and to provide innovative ways of experiencing and interpreting collections.
Sustained advocacy: Technology can often seem a disruptive force; this means that adopting digital tools and emerging technologies requires a special attention to advocacy. Remaining engaged with patrons, co-workers, administrators, and colleagues in the professional community can help employees articulate a strong, sustained message that advocates for the benefits of technology in museums. Events like THATCamp help foster a discussion of how best to formulate that message.
Many of these themes manifest the “space versus place” tension underlying the relationship between technology and museums. While the access, linkage, and connectivity possible in the online space provides an exciting new means by which to interact with patrons, enhance collections, and build upon the knowledge of curators, computer screens, networks, and online exhibits cannot replace the unique, visceral experience of seeing works of art in person – the thrill and power of the “place-ness” of museums. THATCamp Museums NYC offered a convivial, informal format for participants both to explore those differences and to collaborate on how best to bridge them in order to improve the overall museum experience. | https://blogs.loc.gov/thesignal/2012/06/notes-from-thatcamp-museums-nyc/ |
What Are Foundations For?
With Responses From
Mar 1, 2013
3 Min read time
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The Power and Influence of Grantors
Rob Reich rightly draws attention to the potential dark side of private philanthropic foundations. We should always be wary when institutions evade accountability, especially when they trade in important resources. At the same time, as Reich persuasively argues, private foundations’ independence from oversight can also enable exploration of paths not taken by their more accountable institutional counterparts.
Reich emphasizes that private foundations may promote pluralism by providing a protected outlet for minority perspectives. These foundations may concentrate upon needs neglected by large-scale majoritarian enterprises and engage in long-term experiments that impatient election and shareholder cycles may not tolerate. Moreover, from a democratic point of view, offering a protected avenue for minority positions (albeit primarily those of the wealthy) to be implemented, and not merely voiced, provides some salutary ballast to our non-proportionate, winner-take-all brand of democratic rule. Although private foundations’ tax-exempt status is not strictly necessary for their independence, it sends a concrete message that these contributions are socially valued as diverse forms of philanthropy.
Once minority perspectives are so empowered, private foundations may also play an important role in buttressing (valid) majority perspectives. For example, if the Gates Foundation pursues a critical alternative to the government position on teacher testing, but the government’s position turns out to be right, that fact may be more apparent when independent actors test and defend both sides. Thus, the autonomy of private foundations may have epistemic value not merely as a counterpoint to “government orthodoxy,” but also as a check on other private foundations and as a source of independent confirmation of the merits of the majority’s position.
Despite these virtues, Reich understandably worries that private foundations permit substantial resources to be saved and spent over generations without meaningful transparency or responsiveness, running counter to our democratic instincts. Although these features may contribute to private foundations’ independence, they may also cloak abuses and offer cover to indulgent projects. I might add the following variation on that concern.
When universities rely on foundations, they risk yielding to their funders’ judgments.
Most private foundations do not work in isolation and do not implement charitable projects directly. Most are “non-operating” foundations that give grants to other worthy institutions, including universities and governments. Sometimes their beneficence takes the form of a more involved partnership rather than a routine donation. These connections should spark caution, alongside gratitude, about whether these partnerships may compromise recipients’ independence and governance procedures.
Take universities, for example. The more universities must rely on private foundations for funding, the greater the hazard that the kind of judgment and accountability distinctive of the university will yield to the judgment and accountability practices of private foundations. Rather than making curriculum, hiring, and other programmatic decisions solely based on academic criteria and principles of faculty governance, universities may subtly or overtly defer to the preferences of private foundations and other donors. So the concern is not merely that private foundations have a non-transparent, non-accountable structure, but that these features may be contagious when private foundations interact with other sorts of institutions. Valuable forms of decision-making may be compromised to court the private foundation. These interactions may magnify the power of the foundation and diminish the vitality of other responsive forms of governance.
These hazards are not new or unique to private foundations. But their rise, the rise of public-private partnerships, and the greater neediness of public institutions for such partnerships make those hazards more urgent. In response, we might tinker with the structure of the private foundation, tying preferred tax treatment to modest measures of accountability and responsiveness. We could borrow from the model of public charities that must demonstrate significant public support to maintain their tax classification. Asking private foundations to garner just a small degree of public support and to introduce a minimal measure of diversity on their boards might introduce a sliver of accountability and transparency without jeopardizing their independence and long-term vision.
We should also work harder to protect recipient institutions from excessive donor influence. This aim figures among the myriad reasons why we should restore robust funding to state institutions. In addition, institutions that partner with private foundations should establish stronger firewalls between fundraising activities and institutional decisions by, for instance, barring donors from decision-making boards, explicitly discouraging donor expectations of direct or indirect forms of control, and demanding broad institutional support both for the project funded and for the relationship with the donors. All of these would reduce donor pressure on institutional leadership and decision-making. However valuable the independent perspectives of private foundations, they should not be allowed to infiltrate other institutions whose distinctive methods of governance provide epistemic and democratic virtues of their own.
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MISSION: The Nantucket Historical Association preserves and interprets the history of Nantucket through its programs, collections, and properties, in order to promote the island's significance and foster an appreciation of it among all audiences.
VISION:The Nantucket Historical Association celebrates Nantucket's unique place in American history and strives to fulfill their role as stewards of this heritage. By presenting transformative experiences, furthering scholarship, deepening our collections, and preserving our historic properties, the NHA aspires to be a standard-bearer among our peers
The Nantucket Historical Association (NHA) is a nonprofit cultural organization formed in 1894. Its mission is to tell the inspiring stories of Nantucket through its collections, programs, exhibitions, and properties. A membership organization with approximately 3,000 members, the NHA supports a year-round staff of 17 full-time employees and 30 additional part-time seasonal positions, making it one of the larger employers on the island.
One of the most visible ways in which the NHA accomplishes its mission is through historic preservation. For more than 125 years it has focused funds and efforts on preserving some of the most important and recognized structures on Nantucket and making them inclusive and accessible to the public. With the success of this project, all of its pre-civil war properties will be operated and programmed by the NHA. The NHA is owner and steward of 12 antebellum historic properties, two early 20th-century historically important properties (Greater Light and the Research Library), four other sites, plus a modern collection storage center and apartment complex. In 2006, the NHA opened a state-of-the-art exhibition and interpretation center appurtenant to the last remaining spermaceti candle factory in the world.
The NHA helps define Nantucket and Nantucketers' place in history. Through its mission, it strengthens teaching the humanities in the island's schools, it facilitates basic research to
original scholarship, and through its programs and events, provides year-round residents and visitors with unique opportunities for personal fulfillment, thus improving the quality of their civic lives.
The NHA's important collections of 30,000 artifacts represent most aspects of Nantucket's history. The Research Library is a special collections repository of primary resources focusing on Nantucket history, housing 5,000 volumes and 60,000 photographs, as well as rare manuscript documents. A multi-phased and multiyear initiative is underway to digitize 100 percent of the collection.
In 2007, the NHA achieved accreditation by the American Alliance of Museums and in 2017, received coveted reaccreditation. In 2018, the NHA was accepted into the Massachusetts Cultural Council's Gateway program and in 2015 and 2016, the NHA was a finalist for the Institute of Museum and Library Services National Medal. The NHA was among five island institutions to advocate for downtown to receive a Cultural District designation from the Massachusetts Cultural Council. Additionally, the NHA partners with over 50 local and regional nonprofit organizations, schools, and colleges in collaborative efforts to deliver a comprehensive suite of educational programs.
Open 11 months of the year, the NHA offers a comprehensive suite of programs for island residents, including free access in the winter and spring. The NHA projects 110,000 visitors for 2021, a record high number. This does not include the tens of thousands of residents and visitors who enjoy the historic sites throughout the year without paying for access to the interiors
With an endowment of nearly $30 million, the NHA is governed by a 30-member Board of Directors. The 2021 annual operating budget is $5.4 million which is supported by 37 percent in contributed income, 50 percent in earned income, and 13 percent from proceeds from the endowment. Approximately $1 million (or 19 percent) is dedicated annually to capital expenditure and preventive maintenance of the portfolio of properties.
THE POSITION
The Executive Director of the Nantucket Historical Association will be a visionary leader, change agent, and big thinker who will provide stewardship and direction for NHA's collections, historic properties, and venues. The Executive Director will serve as a trusted "keeper" of the island's history and legacy, ensuring that the NHA tells the story of all of Nantucket not just the whaling stories.
The Executive Director will engender a sense of trust and respect, and demonstrate a commitment to outreach, engagement, and programming across the many communities the NHA serves, and those it needs to serve better. The Executive Director will attract and engage new audiences in ways that reflect the richness and diversity of the association's holdings, including craft and decorative arts, the stories they tell old and new and how NHA defines itself within contemporary society.
The Executive Director will provide day-to-day management and have oversight over all programmatic, educational, and operational functions. Serving as chief fundraiser and spokesperson, this person will assume a highly visible and external role, and take a lead in donor identification and cultivation.
Overseeing the efforts of a highly engaged and dedicated team, the Executive Director will create and nurture an aspirational and highly collaborative culture that brings out the best in each person. They must generate and give voice to new ideas, as well as empower and support others to implement them.
PRIORITIES AND ONGOING RESPONSIBILITIES
The Executive Director will give priority to and have responsibility for the following:
- Review and build upon the NHA's current strategic plan, and as a result, adopt and champion a well-articulated vision for the institution going forward; spearhead growth, set priorities, and allocate the resources necessary to achieve NHA's performance goals and expectations;
- Expand the reach, impact, and frequency of the museum's exhibitions and educational programs; oversee interpretation; ensure the integration and balance of curatorial, programmatic, and educational objectives; leverage the museum's assets, collections, and broad reach to increase visitorship, and create new and enduring partnerships within the local school community;
- Nurture the intellectual life of the museum; embrace and maintain its ongoing commitment to scholarship and research which explores and embraces a contemporary narrative of Nantucket's residents and their contributions, past and present;
- Actively seek the highest and best uses for the NHA's historic properties and galleries; address property acquisition and deaccessioning questions/discussions in a forthright manner; present and execute a coherent plan for the expansion of the Whaling Museum; position the NHA as a model institution in its response to rising sea levels and climate change concerns;
- Develop strong and collaborative relationships with the President and other Board members; find ways to bring forth their best ideas and efforts; manage expectations, strengthen communications, and keep Board members well informed and up to date on the NHA's institutional and fiscal standing;
- As chief fundraiser, quickly solidify the NHA's base of support; identify and cultivate new donors; grow the endowment and increase annual giving; clearly demonstrate an appreciation for the NHA members and volunteers, and ensure they are recognized and valued for their support;
- Provide appropriate leadership and direction to all staff members; ensure that well-defined goals, clear responsibilities, and levels of accountability are in place to achieve excellence at all levels within the organization;
- Thoroughly understand the museum's collections and archives; provide for their long-term stewardship, growth, and accountability; work closely with the Friends of NHA group in their effort to expand and elevate the NHA's collections;
- Elevate the NHA's use of technology in all aspects of operations, exhibitions, and programming; provide leadership for major projects including ongoing collection digitization efforts; enhance the museum's use of social media as a tool for marketing, museum education, and community engagement.
IDEAL EXPERIENCE AND QUALIFICATIONS
The Executive Director strongly believes in the mission of the Nantucket Historical Association, and will also be or have the following experience and qualifications:
- A proven track record leading a significantly complex nonprofit institution, ideally within a museum, historic home, or something comparable; experience aligning strategic planning with institutional capacity and fiscal resources; able to set goals and objectives and course correct as necessary; financial acumen with the ability to oversee the budget of a nonprofit institution;
- Curatorial leadership experience with demonstrated interest and enthusiasm for American history; a commitment to the preservation, exhibition, and best use of the NHA's collections and properties in scholarly research, exhibition, educational programming; able to leverage professional connections in the museum world to attract interesting partnerships and collaborations;
- A persuasive and accomplished fundraiser, with strong external relations, communications, and public relations skills; campaign experience a plus; successful results in identifying, cultivating, and soliciting individual donors; able to connect with untapped philanthropic resources, potential partnerships, and revenue-generating opportunities;
- A proven track record of effective and respected management; success in building and retaining staff with the strength to engage, inspire, and unite others to new levels of effectiveness, transparency, and programmatic impact; able to breakdown silos and to delegate, handle, and prioritize multiple activities and responsibilities with clarity and confidence and manage effectively in all directions;
- Conversant in the use of technology and digital media in promoting an institution, reaching diverse audiences, and creating an innovative and engaging social media platform;
- A willingness to actively participate in the cultural and civic life of the island and integrate the museum's exhibitions and activities with the island's other cultural resources;
- Experience leading and managing a highly complex physical plant, with multiple historic properties, and an understanding and/or appreciation of building preservation and maintenance is a plus;
- Superior communication and presentation skills that are effective with a range of audiences including volunteers, staff, business and community leaders, the media, and the general public;
- Eager to live in Nantucket; be embedded in the community (housing for the Executive Director is provided by the NHA).
PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS
The ideal candidate will demonstrate a high degree of social and emotional intelligence, and will also have or be the following:
- An entrepreneurial and outward-facing servant leader; one who will inspire and instill in others a sense of trust, confidence, energy, good feeling, and collaboration; someone who is viewed and respected as an advocate for the NHA and its potential;
- A strong work ethic; able to manage multiple priorities and engagement strategies without getting ahead of what has been established as priority; a willingness to ask tough questions and make difficult decisions when necessary; able to maintain perspective and balance;
- A good listener and communicator who can affect and manage change and prioritize resources, with conciliatory skills and the ability to bring clarity to plans and activities; a willingness to see and embrace challenges;
- A proven commitment to the importance of diversity, equity, inclusion, and access to the success of the NHA;
- Respect for Nantucket's island culture; possessing a well-balanced local perspective or a willingness to develop one, with an appreciation and understanding of island living and the cadence of the seasons; maintaining on all fronts a sense of continuity, good humor, thoughtfulness, and common purpose.
For more information on the NHA, please visit https://nha.org/.
Nantucket Historical Association is an equal opportunity employer.
Applications, including cover letters and resumes, and nominations should be sent to Mark Tarnacki at [email protected]. | https://www.phillipsoppenheim.com/po/arts-media-culture/nantucket-historical-association/executive-director-nantucket-ma/147/ |
Doctoral research on recent developments in museological practices by “critical” curators, interventionist artists, and personnel initiatives, focusing on ‘queering’ as an entrance point to broader intersectional issues; resulting in a report on the ‘Queer Baseline’ (to be launched in 2020), a popular and scholarly article, and a dissertation.
- Duration
- 2020 - 2025
- Funding
- NWO Smart Culture Grant
The project ‘Queering the Museum’ explores contemporary LGBT+ curatorial and artistic interventions into the Dutch, German and English museums. It compares how in-house and guest curators revisit the exclusive model of museum conventions and reimagine alternative curatorial and collecting practices. Moreover, the project investigates multiple forms of sexism, racism and colonialism in museums, and how contemporary artists visualize and mediate such power relations through performances and installations. Interpreting curators and artists as the ‘critical visitor’, this project raises questions about processes of categorization and selection within museum collections and exhibitions, about inclusions and exclusions of queer histories, and regarding the intersection between sexual and racial marginalization. Conversing with intersectional feminist and queer theory, this project asks in what ways these curatorial, artistic and collective initiatives question the intersecting exclusions and inequalities within heritage institutions. These inquiries also point to the broader debate on the social role of the museum in contemporary society. | https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/en/research/research-projects/humanities/queering-the-museum |
The Museums Association report on its Collections 2030 research project sets out a series of recommendations that aim to create a culture change and will allow institutions to bring their collections to new audiences.
Last month, the Museums Association (MA) published the final report for Collections 2030, its ambitious, year-long research project looking at the purpose, use and management of the UK’s museum collections.
Its publication comes at a timely moment. Just before it was released, Leicester City Council’s museum service announced that it was making its curatorial team redundant in order to focus its shrinking resources on engaging audiences with its collections – a decision that has attracted national headlines and been both condemned and defended by museum professionals.
The decision has brought into perspective the challenges that many collections face following a decade of austerity, and has sparked an at-times-heated debate about priorities in collections work, and the status of specialist curatorial expertise.
Empowering Collections reflects many of these issues and intends to offer a way to move some long-standing debates forward. “A lot of alarm about the status of curators and curatorial knowledge has emerged in the past few weeks, and that’s something we’ve examined in the research,” says Alistair Brown, the MA’s policy officer and author of the report.
“People are recognising that the resources to operate on that model aren’t there any more and we need to find new ways forward. On the one hand, we need to advocate for curatorial knowledge, but on the other, we need to change how we work.”
Among the main challenges cited by respondents is a culture in museums whereby “work with collections and work with audiences often occurs in silos”. There are also growing fears about the loss of collections resources and skilled museum staff, as a result of the funding cuts.
Another issue that emerged strongly from the research is a tendency among staff to put a premium on “the basics”, such as documentation and preservation, limiting their ability to ensure that collections are seen and understood by the public.
The research found that this is often done to meet what are perceived as inflexible sector standards, including the Accreditation scheme and the MA’s Code of Ethics – even though both were recently reviewed to make them more flexible and audience focused.
Strategic approach
Other difficulties set out in the report include ensuring collections are made relevant to growing and diverse audiences, and taking a less piecemeal, and more strategic, approach to improving the digital accessibility of collections. Many of those consulted were also concerned about the size and management of collections, with problems such as overflowing storage and limited staffing and resources leaving many collections “in a state of stasis or even decay”.
To address these challenges, the report sets out three strategic aims: that collections should be empowering, relevant and dynamic. One clear theme that runs through the report is the need for museums to relinquish some control – both within the organisation and externally – over how collections are used and managed.
“Changing the collections culture to be more open and democratic is something that came out really strongly,” says Brown. It’s not a new idea – the move towards co-curation, co-production and participation has been growing for several years – but the research demonstrates how strongly it is felt across the sector.
Stronger communities
The first aim, empowering collections, explores their potential to give people the “insight and tools they need to design solutions to contemporary problems, challenge injustice and create stronger communities”, particularly in this era of stark social and political divisions. The report calls on museums to not just democratise their collections, but also to engage with criticism that has been levelled at historic collections practices.
The report recommends a culture change in museums and collections practice to achieve this, urging museums to “expand on the idea of basic collections work”, and to prioritise projects that are “use-led” and involve high levels of participation with museum users and communities.
Instead of viewing curatorial work and audience engagement as two separate branches, the report advocates creating more fluid internal structures in museums to enable “all staff to work with collections and communities and to share their expertise in both areas” – a particularly pertinent point bearing in mind the current discussion about Leicester’s museums.
Further points of action include regularly consulting audiences on how collections are researched, presented and used, and ensuring a diversified workforce. The report recommends a proactive approach to the democratisation and decolonisation of collections – the latter, in particular, is identified as an issue that is rapidly moving up museum agendas.
“One practical area that we can address in the coming years is changing the content, tone and terminology of the colonial histories that some collections reflect,” says one respondent. “We will need to undertake provenance research, conduct collaborative research with source communities and to consider how we can support a more diverse range of voices in our curatorial decisions.”
The second aim outlines how museums need “new and critical public reinterpretations of collections and to think imaginatively about how to broaden the range of people to whom collections can be meaningful”. It advocates carrying out research to understand what the public wants from collections, so that museums can better respond to those expectations, as well as conducting strategic collecting in partnership with communities and with other museums.
Increased accessibility
Online collections are another area in which a more strategic approach is required, according to the report. Not only should museums make collections more digitally accessible, but museums are advised to take a proactive approach to collecting “born digital” material and engaging with audiences online: “Museums need to create and curate online collections content in a way that speaks the language of the internet and recognises the different cultures and subcultures that exist online.”
The report recommends that the sector should develop an online tool to improve the sharing of collection information between museums.
The report also highlights the importance of embedding the legacy of project work into museums, advocating to funders that collections projects should have a longer life-span to enable this.
The third aim, dynamic collections, looks at some of the steps that need to be taken in terms of collections management to ensure museums can account for the material they hold and its provenance.
To achieve this, the report advocates the development of partnerships and knowledge sharing, and proposes that part of the solution to the loss of subject specialist expertise over the past decade should be the “increasing use of and investment in networks of subject specialists within museums, as well as increasing the participation of non-museum groups – universities, volunteers, societies, private collectors and community groups – in collections work”.
Research shows that disposal remains a tricky topic. It also shows a desire among collections staff for more training and funding for collections rationalisation, which respondents say they lack the confidence and resources to address, as well as shared storage solutions. “The sector as a whole should reduce the shame factor of disposal,” says one respondent. “It should be that organisations feel supported when they are doing this, rather than the fear that they will do it wrong and be criticised.”
The MA plans to share the report’s recommendations with museums, funders and sector bodies across the UK. It has established a reference group of stakeholder organisations and plans to work closely with policy-makers and governments to bring about the strategic investment to turn the recommendations into actions.
The research process has shown that it is “a time of huge challenge and great opportunity” for collections, says Steve Miller, the head of Norfolk Museums, who sat on the project’s steering group. “We can only make a difference to the communities we serve if they feel as passionately about our collections as we do – and that means we may need to change our own relationship with our collections and how we approach the business of collecting,” he says.
“The Collections 2030 work shows that the sector is willing to innovate in how we work with collections. More importantly, the report gives some vital direction about how we can use collections to achieve our shared vision over the next decade.”
Museums need collections to be:
- Empowering: using collections to bring communities together, promote health and wellbeing, explore issues of place and identity, and equip people with the facts and understanding relevant to contemporary issues
- Relevant: working with users and stakeholders to better understand how collections can be relevant to diverse audiences
- Dynamic: ensuring collections are well -managed, understood, rationalised and accessible to audiences in person and online.
We hope Collections 2030 will be a turning point for museums
The Collections 2030 consultation has been a truly collaborative process. We have spoken to more than 1,000 people from across the UK museum sector, as well as representatives from academia, volunteers and user groups, to find out what the ambitions are for museum collections in the next decade.
The result is a set of recommendations to museums, funders and governments that we think can bring about a culture change and take the sector forward.
Museums need to seize the chance to make their collections relevant to growing audiences by engaging with contemporary debates, understanding their communities and building effective online curation.
We also want museums to be able to manage their collections more intelligently – with strategic plans that allow for substantial disposal of collections, as well as more integrated and tech-driven storage.
The past decade has been difficult, as funding has declined and the existing model of managing collections has suffered. I hope Collections 2030 will be a turning point, and will allow museums to bring their collections to diverse new audiences. | https://camd.org.au/uk-ma-launches-empowering-collections/ |
Welcome! Whether working in the offices, on curatorial projects or assisting with special events, interns play a vital role in fulfilling this mission.
Interns are an invaluable resource in that they not only work to ensure ICA’s stability and future growth, but enrich the arts community at large. The hours are flexible. For those who are available in the evenings and on weekends only, possible opportunities include Education and Special Events. (Please see below for descriptions.) All others require availability Monday-Friday between 9-6.
APPLICATION PROCESS AND REQUIREMENTS
Applications must include your application form, a resume and a letter detailing your interest in a department. Internships are usually 8-10 hours per week and are unpaid. Penn students eligible for the Work-Study program should indicate so on their cover letter. Candidates must have excellent organizational skills, be detail oriented and have strong computer skills.
The application deadline for fall internships is September 1. Applications and any questions can be sent to [email protected] and should include “Internship Application” in the subject line.
Deadlines for internship applications:
Fall: September 1
Spring: December 15
Summer: April 1
Development
An ideal position for students interested in a career in museum management. Development is responsible for raising a significant part of the museum’s budget and interns assist with many aspects of development and fundraising, including grants, membership, and special events. Interns assist in researching and compiling materials required for funding requests and grant reports; maintaining annual giving, membership renewal and new member solicitation information; coordination of opening receptions and special events.
Programming
The Programming department at ICA organizes and oversees all of the museum’s public programming. As part of the Curatorial department, the Programming team also works on exhibitions throughout the year, including the Excursus series. Programming interns will gain experience by assisting the department with a variety of tasks including coordinating public events, research, archival work and liaising with artists. Must be available on Wednesday evenings.
Marketing and Communications
The Marketing and Communications department at ICA expands the public awareness of the museum through media releases, exhibitions cards, social media, strategic ad placement, and community collaborations. The intern will organize, scan, and create bibliographies of press clippings and conduct searches for news items related to the ICA, update press contact lists, research new media outlets specific to current and upcoming exhibitions, assist with manning information tables at campus events, and manage press photo shoots in the galleries. Intern will work on special projects relating to the museum’s archive and website in preparation for our 50th Anniversary in 2013. Ability to meet deadlines, strong attention to detail, and interest in media, communications, and art history preferred.
Documentation and Program Technician
Intern will support ICA’s Programming department by assisting in the setup of live sound and video as well as audio and video capture devices. Student will have to the opportunity to follow a live performance capture through post-production and editing as needed. Student will also provide support when needed for ICA’s Programming department and special events. Must be able to work independently, possess excellent organizational skills, and be flexible and comfortable in a fast paced environment. Interest and background in contemporary art and familiarity with Final Cut Pro and other video editing experience a plus. Some evening or weekend hours may be required.
Curatorial
The Curatorial department at ICA researches and organizes upcoming exhibitions; produces exhibition catalogues; manages the travel of exhibitions; and collaborates with other departments on developing public programming and press materials. Curatorial interns will gain valuable experience with the workings of a contemporary art institution by assisting the department with a variety of tasks that include: research exhibition themes and artist’s bibliographies; maintain curatorial databases and archives; sending out exhibition publications; assisting with artist submissions; managing ICA’s library; and responding to inquiries about past exhibitions. Experience with Photoshop a plus.
About Institute of Contemporary Art
We believe in the power of art and artists to inform + inspire. ICA is free for all to engage + connect with the art of our time. | https://serviceinternships.com/job/ica-internship-program/ |
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Dia Art Foundation seeks a Curatorial Assistant based in its New York City office. The Curatorial Assistant will report to the Manager of Exhibitions and work closely with the curatorial staff to provide a broad range of administrative assistance as well as exhibition- and program-related support. This is a full-time, administrative support role anticipated for a 3-year period.
Dia is committed to advancing, realizing, and preserving the vision of extraordinary artists. A nonprofit founded in 1974, Dia collects the work of some of the most renowned artists of the last half-century, presents long-term, site-specific projects, executes new commissions, and produces scholarly publications related to its exhibitions and collection.
Administrative assistance responsibilities include:
- Manage daily administrative functions for the department including responding to general inquiries, drafting correspondence, handling mail, maintaining travel budgets, and submitting invoices for payment
- Maintain departmental meeting schedule and adjust as needed due to staff travel
- Prepare agendas for key departmental and interdepartmental meetings and take notes at those meetings
- Prepare materials for quarterly board meetings; coordinate with the director’s office to gather agenda items and assemble slide presentations; and support the curatorial department with other board materials
- Support two curators with expenses and travel coordination; compile American Express receipts and charges for the department; and submit reports to Finance on a monthly basis
- Maintain regular contact with the Development department and utilize Altru to update and maintain lists of curatorial contacts and Dia collection artists
- Maintain regular contact with the Publications department about Dia’s print and digital materials schedule; coordinate communication and delivery of curatorial copy to Publications as needed; and draft copy, including biannual e-flux and other informational material according to production schedule
- Organize artists’ and other guests’ travel, accommodation, per diem, and honoraria; oversee calendar of guests in Dia’s SoHo apartment and facilitate cleanings as needed
- Maintain files of curatorial materials such as images and texts
- Work closely with the Archivist to maintain the curatorial archive and library
- Work closely with the IT department and facilitate information needed for technology and software migrations
- Oversee mailing of Dia publications
Exhibition coordination responsibilities include:
- Work with the Senior Registrar to oversee and maintain all loan paperwork and related correspondence for long-term loans to and from the collection, as well as for the exhibition program as needed
- Research exhibitions, commissions, and artists, and assist with the development of materials intended for the general public, including brochures, calendars, checklists, floor plans, gallery laminates, invitations, and other printed matter and web content
Program organization responsibilities include:
- Serve as Curatorial’s first point of contact at Dia and facilitate interdepartmental communications relating to Dia’s program across sites
- Support curators with logistics surrounding visiting artists, including travel coordination, itineraries, and the preparation and submission of international visas
- Coordinate execution of contracts, letters of agreement, and payment for those involved in Dia’s curatorial programs, including public programs
- Occasionally assist with public programs, development-related events, and exhibition openings at various Dia sites
Qualifications:
- Bachelor’s degree in Art History or related discipline required
- Prior related work or internship experience, preferably in a museum environment, is required
- Must have administrative experience and be organized and detail oriented
- Must have a diplomatic and professional demeanor and possess excellent oral and written communication skills and strong research abilities
- Proficiency with Microsoft Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Outlook are essential
- Demonstrate initiative and have the ability to handle a variety of tasks and projects simultaneously
- Able to travel between Dia’s New York City and Beacon offices on occasion; transportation costs covered by Dia
To apply, e-mail a letter of interest and resume to [email protected] with “Curatorial Assistant” as the subject heading.
Dia provides a competitive salary and a generous benefits package including health, life, and disability insurance plans and a 401(k) plan with company match. Paid time‐off benefits include three weeks of vacation, ten days of sick leave, and twelve holidays. Additionally, staff ID badges gain reduced or free admission to most American museums and arts organizations.
Dia is an equal opportunity employer. | https://diaart.org/about/employment-internships-and-opportunities/curatorial-assistant-3-year-term/page/1 |
Policy review procedure: The collections development policy will be published and reviewed from time to time, at least once every five years.
This Policy supersedes and cancels all earlier and existing policies, practices and customs.
Date at which this policy is due for review: no later than 5 July 2023
Arts Council England (ACE) will be notified of any changes to the collections development policy, and the implications of any such changes for the future of existing collections.
1. Scope and responsibilities
This Policy covers those objects in the Primary Collection, as well as those in the Reference Archive and Photographic Collections, and forms part of the National Portrait Gallery’s Collections Management framework which consists of:
- Collections Information and Access Policy
- Collections Care and Conservation Policy
- this Collections Development Policy
This is in compliance with the published Accreditation Guidance provided by Arts Council England, the delivery body for Accreditation in the United Kingdom.
This Policy should be read in conjunction with the above framework and the Gallery’s Collections Due Diligence Policy.
The main Library and Archive collections are covered by the Archive Service Accreditation Standard, managed by The National Archives.
Director responsible for mapping and directing Collections Development in dialogue with the Chief Curator.
Chief Curator responsible for maintaining an overview of Collections Development, in dialogue with the Curatorial team.
Curatorial Team responsible for advising on the collecting undertaken within their particular period or media (i.e. photographical collections).
Director of Exhibitions and Collections responsible for providing a strategic overview of Collections Development in relation to Exhibitions and Collections.
Head of Collections Services responsible for providing Collections Management support as required to enable the development of the Collection and managing the Gallery’s relationship with Arts Council England.
Acquisitions & Displays Registrar responsible for providing Registration support as required to enable the development of the Collection.
Senior Archive and Library Manager responsible for providing strategic overview of library, archive and reference collections, and Archive Service Accreditation.
Intellectual Property Officer to be involved in any discussions regarding copyright and Intellectual Property
2. Introduction
2.1
The National Portrait Gallery is the national museum responsible for the history of British Portraiture. The overall aims of the Gallery, derived from the Museums and Galleries Act 1992, are:
- To promote through the medium of portraits the appreciation and understanding of the men and women who have made and are making British history and culture.
- To promote the appreciation and understanding of portraiture in all media.
2.2
The Trustees will ensure that both acquisition and disposal are carried out openly and with transparency. It will also ensure, through its collecting activity and Corporate Plan, that the Gallery retains its status as the institution for the study and enjoyment of both portraits and portraiture.
2.3
By definition, the Gallery has a long-term purpose and holds collections in trust for the benefit of the public in relation to its stated objectives. The Trustees therefore accept the principle that sound curatorial reasons must be established before consideration is given to any acquisition to the Collection, or the disposal of any items in the Gallery's Collection.
2.4
Acquisitions outside the current stated policy will only be made in exceptional circumstances, and then only after proper consideration by the Director and the Trustees, having regard to the interests of other museums and galleries.
2.5
The Gallery recognises its responsibility, when acquiring additions to its collections, to ensure that care of collections, documentation arrangements and use of collections will meet the requirements of the Museum Accreditation Standard. This includes using SPECTRUM primary procedures for collections management. It will take into account limitations on collecting imposed by such factors as staffing, storage and care of collection arrangements.
2.6
The Gallery will undertake due diligence and make every effort not to acquire, whether by purchase, gift, bequest or exchange, any object or specimen unless the Trustees or Director is satisfied that the Gallery can acquire a valid title to the item in question.
2.7
When considering a potential acquisition due account is taken of the Gallery's responsibility to ensure adequate conservation, documentation and to take into account limitations imposed by such factors as staffing, storage, conservation resources, display space and long term maintenance costs associated with non-traditional media. Due account is also taken of the collecting policies of other museums, both national and non-national, in order to avoid unnecessary duplication and waste of public resources (see section 8).
2.8
The Gallery does not acquire any object unless the Trustees are satisfied that it can acquire good title to the object in question, and that it has not been acquired in, or exported from, its country of origin (or any intermediate country in which it may have been legally owned) in violation of that country's laws. (For the purposes of this paragraph ‘country of origin’ includes the United Kingdom).
2.9
Authority to collect and dispose of property, including Gallery objects, is derived from the Museums and Galleries Act 1992. Under the terms of the of the Act the Trustees maintain ‘a collection of portraits in all media of the most eminent persons in British history, of other works of art relevant to portraiture and of documents relating to those portraits and other works of art’.
2.10
In exceptional cases, disposal may be by sale and the procedures outlined below will be followed. In this case the Trustees will not undertake disposal unless it can be demonstrated that all the following exceptional circumstances are met in full:
- the disposal will significantly improve the long-term public benefit derived from the remaining collection
- the disposal will not be undertaken to generate short-term revenue (for example to meet a budget deficit)
- the disposal will be undertaken as a last resort after other sources of funding have been thoroughly explored
- extensive prior consultation with sector bodies has been undertaken
- the item under consideration lies outside the Gallery's established core collection
2.11
In addition, the Gallery will not normally accept items for the Collection if:
- they are, or are likely to become, physically dangerous and/ or a health and safety hazard or a hazard to other objects within the Collection
- they are beyond the means of the Gallery to conserve, store, document or make accessible to an adequate standard
- they are accompanied by unduly restrictive conditions
- they duplicate existing Collection items or open up new avenues for collecting not covered by this Policy.
3. History of the Collection
3.1
The National Portrait Gallery, the first such gallery of its kind when it was formally established on 2 December 1856, is the national museum responsible for celebrating the leading figures in British history and the history of British Portraiture.
3.2
The Gallery acquires portraits from the life in all media, whether by purchase, bequest, transfer, acceptance in lieu, allocation or gift, of the most nationally-significant persons in British history from the earliest times to the present day. The concept of a Primary Collection of paintings, sculpture, miniatures and a Reference Collection or study collection of prints was established immediately following the Gallery's foundation in 1856 and then later reflected in the Museums and Galleries Act 1992. The collections fulfil the enduring function:
- to act as a national focus for the study and understanding of portraits and portraiture.
3.3
In the early 1960s photographs were formally added to the Collection and in 1969 the Gallery began to collect living sitters, representing a move towards contemporary representations of portraiture. Since 1980 the Gallery has hosted an annual portrait prize exhibition, which is currently sponsored by BP, and has regularly commissioned portraits in all media that represent living sitters. These, like all other works in the Primary Collection, are selected by the Trustees.
4. An overview of existing Collections
4.1
The Primary Collection of paintings, sculpture, miniatures, drawings, prints, photographs, silhouettes and mixed/new media works contains some 12,597 portraits of the most famous people in British history. Of these, 4109 are paintings, sculptures and miniatures, approaching 60% of which are regularly displayed at the Gallery or elsewhere on loan. In addition, there are some 8,471 works on paper, shown on a rotating basis of about 120 items a year to avoid excessive light exposure and thus to minimise deterioration and fading.
The Reference Collection contains portraits, predominantly printed portraits and a smaller collection of drawings and sketchbooks, together with silhouettes and caricatures, which have been acquired primarily for research and documentary purposes and to provide a supplementary context for the Gallery’s Primary Collection. The Reference Collection is primarily housed in the Heinz Archive & Library and contains approximately 85,000 works on paper, 2,500 drawings, 75 paintings and 140 sculptures, and a small but growing collection of popular ceramics. This unique national resource allows the Gallery to collect beyond the acquisition criteria for the main Collection, and are drawn upon for display purposes as well as supporting learning activities and research into portraiture at the Gallery.
The Heinz Archive and Library also contains 40,000 books and manages the Gallery’s Records and Collected Archives.
The Contemporary Portrait Collection, which used to be standalone, is now part of the Primary and Reference Collections.
The Gallery also holds an important Photographs Collection which spans both the Primary and Reference Collections; it comprises more than 250,000 original photographic images of which at least 130,000 are original negatives. They date from the 1840s to the present day.
4.2
Today the Gallery’s Collection is among the largest and most prestigious collections of portraits in the world in all media. Highlights include the 'Chandos' portrait of William Shakespeare (NPG 1), which was given by one of the founding trustees, Lord Ellesmere, and was the first picture to enter the Gallery's Collection. Other major holdings include the Gallery's earliest work in the Collection; the 1505 portrait of King Henry VII (NPG 416); and the pencil and watercolour sketch of Jane Austen (NPG 3630). Other significant works include Ellen Terry (‘Choosing’) (NPG 5048), by George Frederick Watts; as well as the only surviving group portrait of the Brontë sisters (NPG 1725). The Collection also contains work in new and time-based media from Noble & Webster’s silhouette portrait of Isabella Blow made up of taxidermy birds and other animals (NPG 6872) to Julian Opie’s self-portrait (NPG 6830) and Sam Taylor Johnson’s video portrait of David Beckham (NPG 6661).
4.3
The Collection has been displayed at St Martin's Place since 1896. Before then the Gallery occupied other premises in Westminster, South Kensington and Bethnal Green. The present building, designed by Ewan Christian, was the gift of William Henry Alexander. An extension was built in the 1930s from funds provided by Sir Joseph (later Lord) Duveen. 1993 saw the opening of a permanent home in Orange Street for the Gallery's archive and library, funded by the Drue Heinz Foundation, together with new offices and a conservation studio. The most recent addition was the Ondaatje Wing in 2000, providing additional gallery space, improved visitor facilities and a new lecture theatre, funded by Sir Christopher Ondaatje, the Heritage Lottery Fund and several donors. In 2004, the refurbished Regency display in the Weldon Galleries completed a ten year programme of buildings renewal. In 2011 the Gallery entered into a long-term partnership with the Tate to house its stored collections in world-class facilities in South London. In recent years the conservation studios and art handling office have been upgraded at the Gallery.
4.4
The Gallery has ongoing national partnerships with Montacute House in Somerset and Beningbrough Hall in Yorkshire (both National Trust properties). Regular partnership working also takes place with some museums, e.g. Tyne & Wear Archives & Museums, and there are ongoing loan and display arrangements with other galleries and historic houses.
5. Themes and priorities for future collecting
5.1
The National Portrait Gallery takes the lead in acquiring portraits of national significance, based on the principal of the authenticity of the likeness of the sitter. The principal focus of collecting remains the representation of relevant sitters produced in their lifetime, rather than the work of individual artists or in a specific media.
5.2
A key area of collection development is 20th and 21st century portraiture in all media. The Gallery is particularly interested to acquire works which reflect the diversity of British history and culture and highlight achievement in a wide range of different fields, from sporting success, entertainment, science, the arts, business, politics and intellectual life. The Gallery’s collecting ambitions include a desire to reflect and respond to social and technological changes and it continues to explore the acquisition and commission of portraits in non-traditional media.
5.3
The Gallery will also continue to collect rare vintage photographic material and modern and contemporary photographs allowing the development of national resource representing individuals who have contributed to British national life and where relevant popular culture.
As a world class research centre for the study of portraiture, the Gallery is also keen to continue to selectively acquire archival material that elucidates artistic practice in relation to British portraiture in all periods and all media, including artist’s sketchbooks and workshop documentation and to maintain a library resource to support the research needs at the Gallery.
5.4
The Gallery regularly acquires important works for the historic collection where there are key gaps in our holdings, particularly in the representation of women and BAME sitters. Portraits that enhance the understanding of the practice of portraiture across time and provide insights into production methods, media, patronage, display and appreciation of British sitters are also selectively acquired. This type of material includes caricature, printed imagery, cartoons, and works in specific or unique media which serve to document the development of artistic practices.
5.5
In general, for acquisitions requiring additional, internal or external fundraising, the focus shall be on:
a. Works currently on long term loan to the Gallery that are offered for sale by the lender.
b. Works depicting sitters of significance as defined by this Policy, who are currently not represented in the Primary or Reference Collection.
c. Works depicting currently under-represented groups including female sitters or sitters from cultural, social or ethnic backgrounds who meet the existing criteria of this Policy and who are not currently represented in the Primary Collection.
d. Works that meet the criteria as laid out in this Policy that have the capacity for a transformational impact in significantly increasing audience engagement or would be required for display within the exhibition or display programme.
e. Works created in an under-represented medium or technique.
5.6
These criteria above do not indicate that all works meeting these criteria will be acquired, nor do they imply that all works falling outside these criteria shall be routinely rejected, particularly where items are part funded.
6. Themes and priorities for rationalisation and dispersal
6.1
The Gallery recognises that the principles on which priorities for rationalisation and disposal are determined will be through a formal review process that identifies which collections are included and excluded from the review. The outcome of review and any subsequent rationalisation will not reduce the quality or significance of the Collection and will result in a more useable, well-managed Collection.
6.2
The procedures used will meet professional standards. The process will be documented, open and transparent. There will be clear communication with key stakeholders about the outcomes and the process.
6.3
- As laid down in the Museums and Galleries Act 1992, the Trustees may dispose of an object, by way of transfer, sale, exchange or gift:
- where the object is transferred to another national museum or institution listed in Schedule 5 Part 1 of the Act or other accredited museums.
- where the object is a duplicate of another object which they own or where the Gallery’s collection of a specific sitter includes multiple portraits.
- where the identification of a portrait formerly accepted by the Gallery has been universally discredited and the portrait is no longer considered by both Gallery Curators and external scholars to represent a particular British sitter.
- where the object has become useless by reason of damage, physical deterioration, or infestation by destructive organisms (in which case the means of disposal can include destruction).
6.4
This notwithstanding, there is a strong presumption against disposal and the Gallery will not undertake disposal motivated principally by financial reasons.
7. Legal and ethical framework for acquisition and disposal of items
7.1
The Gallery recognises its responsibility to work within the parameters of the Museum Association Code of Ethics when considering acquisition and disposal of items.
8. Collecting policies of other institutions
8.1
The Gallery will take account of the collecting policies of other museums, libraries and archives collecting in the same or related areas or subject fields. It will consult with these organisations where conflicts of interest may arise or to define areas of specialisms, in order to avoid unnecessary duplication and waste of resources. The Gallery will avoid competing knowingly at auction with any other publicly funded museum, gallery, library or archive.
8.2
Specific reference is made to the following institutions:
- British Library
- British Museum
- Imperial War Museums
- National Army Museum, London
- National Gallery of Ireland
- National Museums Scotland
- Tate
- The National Gallery, London
- The Royal Academy of Arts
- The Royal Collection
- The Scottish National Portrait Gallery
- The V&A Museum
8.3
The Gallery may, on occasion, enter into joint-acquisition agreements with other interested parties. Any such agreements will clearly set out the terms of acquisition, including but not limited to the purchase price; conservation; insurance and other practical arrangements around the long-term care of the object(s) in question.
9. Acquisition Process
9.1
All offers to the Primary and Reference Collections must meet the terms of this Policy.
9.2
Acquisitions for the Primary Collection, agreed first at a monthly Curatorial Meeting chaired by the Director, are subject to the formal approval of the Trustees which meets four times a year. Trustees have the right of veto on the acquisition of Primary Collection works.
9.3
Acquisitions for the Reference Collection are delegated to the Director and are formally approved by the monthly Curatorial Meeting.
9.4
For bids at auction the Chair of the Trustee Board will authorise a bid to an agreed level on behalf of the Board.
9.5
Each offer, whether for the Primary or Reference Collection, is considered on a case by case basis, taking into account eligibility and suitability for the Collection, quality, authenticity, historic importance, value to the Gallery and current resources. Any recommendations for the long-term care of a potential item shall be considered.
The principle for the inclusion of a portrait in the Collection is that a person represented should have made, or be making, a substantial contribution to British history or culture. The subject of a portrait acquired for the Collection must either be important in his or her field, be a person whose achievements, influence and reputation set him or her apart as an individual of public interest, or illuminate British history and culture in a significant way. The Gallery places particular importance on attempting to ensure that, within these essential criteria, the selection of sitters takes account of social and cultural diversity and that a broad range of fields of endeavours are considered.
9.6
The Gallery’s second objective in building its collections is to acquire portraits that enable research into, and an appreciation of, the history of portraiture, including significant and representative examples of portrait types and the work of exceptional portrait artists.
9.7
All items donated to or purchased by the Trustees become the absolute property of the Trustees, whether formally accessioned or not. Every effort will be made to acquire the intellectual property rights (where these still exist) in items at the time of acquisition. The inability to achieve this, particularly if caused by undue complexities and/ or disputes among the owners or alleged owners of the rights, may result in the acquisition process being terminated.
9.8
The Trustees reserves the right to require a 'dowry' of money, staff or premises (or any combination thereof) as a condition of accepting any item or items for the Collection.
9.9
In pursuant of this Policy, the Trustees seek to make best use of all other available funding sources including Members, Patrons, the Portrait Trust, the Portrait Fund, the Art Fund, the National Heritage Memorial Fund, the Heritage Lottery Fund and any other sources of funding which from time to time may become available.
9.10
In the interests of propriety, items will never be purchased for the Collection from serving Members of the Trustees, serving members of the Gallery staff, volunteers, trainees, interns, contractors, or partners or business associates of any of the above. A period of seven years will run from the date that a person ceases to be in any of the above categories before the Gallery will consider purchasing items from them.
9.11
The Gallery will maintain acquisition and catalogue documentation that includes a work’s inventory number (accession or temporary receipt number), legal status of the work, activity and history of the object within the Gallery (e.g., transfer of stewardship between departments and a record of movement of the work), loan and exhibition history, provenance, copyright agreement and credit line at the time of acquisition.
The Gallery maintains an emergency plan which is reviewed yearly; it sits alongside other business continuity and evacuation procedures. This plan is designed to move the Collection to a safe place in the event of an emergency and undertake remedial action as appropriate. All relevant staff receive training as part of their induction and refresher training is provided as required.
9.12
All paperwork, including that of disposal, will be stored in accordance with the Gallery’s Data Protection Policy and relevant legislation.
9.13
The Gallery recognises the challenges of acquiring and preserving non-traditional media over a long period of time.
The Gallery will acquire and maintain New Media works in their original ‘period’ format. Works will be displayed as they were originally installed for as long as the equipment is available.
The acquisition of works with high rates of degradation or deterioration will be considered on a case-by-case basis with due regard to long-term preservation considerations and the overall public benefit. No such work will be acquired if it endangers other collections held by the Gallery.
The Gallery recognises the complex composition of time-based and other forms of digital media, namely the requirement to periodically replace obsolete hardware and software components of the work. This will always be done, wherever possible, in collaboration with the original artist’s studio, so that the ‘form’ of the original work of art can be preserved for as long as possible. Where this is not possible, best judgement shall apply based on the current technology and funds available at the time.
Obsolete hardware or software components of such works of art, which cannot be fixed or reused, shall be disposed of in line with section 23 of this Policy. However, this shall not require Trustee approval as the component will be replaced, wherever possible, with a suitable alternative. Such approval on the disposal and/or replacement will be sought from the Curatorial Meeting and shall comply with the other relevant disposal terms of this Policy.
10. Acquisition Criteria for the Primary Collection
10.1
The Gallery collects portraiture for the Primary Collection in all media including paintings, drawings, miniatures, engravings, artist’s prints, sculpture, photographs, photographic negatives, film, digital works and new media, as well as works of mixed media. As laid down in the Museums and Galleries Act 1992 the Trustees acquire, whether by purchase, gift, bequest, commission and transfer, portraits of the most significant persons in British history in all media as well as portraits and other objects of particular importance to the study of British portraiture.
The criteria for acquisition have evolved from those laid down at the Trustees' second meeting on 16th February 1857 where it was stated that it should be 'the rule... to look to the celebrity of the person represented' in the first place; and that Trustees shall 'attempt to estimate’ the ‘significance of the sitter’s achievements without any bias to any political or religious party. Nor will they consider great faults and errors, even though admitted on all sides, as any sufficient ground for excluding any portrait which may be valuable as illustrating the…history of the country'.
10.2
It has been a central concern of the Trustees since the foundation of the Gallery that the portraits acquired should in some way be authentic records of the sitter’s appearance and that the portraits should, wherever possible, be undertaken from life. In particular, the Gallery places considerable importance on original art works created during the lifetime of the sitter; it gives lower priority to later copies of historic portraits, except:
a. Where no other portrait of an important sitter is available;
b. Where the copy in a significant way illuminates or adds to the appreciation of the portraiture of an individual or the practice of portraiture;
c. Where a copy is accepted as part of a larger collection to maintain the unity of that collection;
d. Where the copy is an autograph replica by the original artist.
10.3
The Gallery recognises that the practice of some artists involves working indirectly (for example from photographs or secondary sources), as well as directly from the life. The Gallery will also have regard to the importance of the image, the identification and significance of the artist, and the value of the portrait to the Gallery's educational and interpretative work in the appreciation and understanding of portraiture.
11. Acquisition Criteria for the Photographs Collection and Reference Collection (including archival holdings)
11.1
The Gallery acquires works for the Photographs Collection in order to expand the representation of significant sitters since the advent of photography. Acquisitions for the Photographs Collection follows the general principle of collecting portraits of men and women who have contributed, or are contributing to, British history and culture. The range of sitters selected is wider than those acquired for the Primary Collection (where sitters are determined by the Trustees). The Photographs Collection also acquires portraits and other objects of particular importance to the study of British portraiture, including the work of significant portrait photographers.
11.2
The Gallery may chose to photograph groups or a set of people, outstanding in a particular field (examples could include restaurateurs and chefs, gardeners and horticulturalists, leaders in the telecommunication field etc.). The Gallery will usually select the sitters and photographer.
The Gallery may also purchase individual contemporary portrait photographs where a compelling image is deemed to represent an important individual well.
The Gallery may also acquire sets of photographs, offered by gift, bequest or other means, where the persons concerned or the quality of the photographer make the set of outstanding interest to the national collection.
11.3
The Gallery acquires works for the Reference Collection (usually works on paper, albums and documentary material) in order to preserve primary and secondary visual sources relating to the history of portraiture. The Gallery is guided by the 'Code of Practice on Archives for Museums and Galleries in the United Kingdom' (3rd ed., 2002) when acquiring archival material.
11.4
The Gallery does acquire photographs of portraits, but does not collect studies relating to portraits in the Collection except where they are particularly illuminating of the process of portraiture or the Gallery’s understanding of a particular portrait.
11.5
On occasion works from the Reference Archive or Photographs Collection may be transferred to the Primary Collection on the advice of Gallery Curatorial staff and when approved by the Trustees.
12. Medal Collections
In collecting medallic portraits, the Gallery’s first consideration will be the importance of the sitter. Medals will normally be collected for the following reasons:
a. when a medal is the best or only way of representing a sitter;
b. when a medal is a particularly appropriate way to represent a sitter, e.g. where any other medium, such as an oil portrait, would not meet the overall themes of the display or exhibition;
c. when a medal is of exceptional aesthetic, iconographic or historical significance.
13. Commissioning Process
13.1
Curators and Trustees each prepare a list of potential sitters for further discussion at one of the quarterly Trustee meetings. The selection takes into account under-represented areas of the Collection. Once the commission is agreed the Director writes to the potential sitter. The Gallery will then select a shortlist of artists which are discussed with the sitter.
13.2
Once the artist is agreed a preliminary meeting is arranged with the sitter and artist usually at the Gallery. At this stage the issue of rights are discussed with the artist and a draft agreement shown to them. On completion of the portrait it is viewed by the Director and Contemporary Curator and then taken to a Curatorial Meeting for approval before being taken forward to the Trustees. Once approved by the Trustees a final agreement assigning all rights to the Gallery, aside from moral rights, will be signed by the artist.
13.3
Commissions proceed as staff time and resources allow; they are generally funded from the Gallery’s acquisitions budget or external funding bodies. A £5000 commission, funded by BP, is awarded to the first prize winner of the annual BP Award.
14. Human Remains
14.1
Should human remains form any component of an artwork for potential acquisition, the Gallery will follow the DCMS guidelines, ‘Guidance for the care of human remains in museums’, issued in 2005. Should these remains prove to be less than 100 years old, the Gallery will obtain the necessary license under the Human Tissue Act, 2004, and any subordinate legislation from time to time in force.
15. Biological and geological material
15.1
The Gallery will not knowingly acquire by any direct or indirect means any object including an animal specimen that has been collected, sold, or otherwise transferred in contravention of any national or international wildlife protection or natural history law or treaty of the United Kingdom or any other country, unless with the express consent of an appropriate external authority.
16. Spoliation
16.1
The Gallery will be guided by the Holocaust Return of Cultural Objects Act (2009), which requires public collections to undertake provenance research during the period 1933-45 and make this information publically available on its website. The Gallery is also guided by Spoliation of Works of Art during the Holocaust and World War II period: Statement of Principles and Proposed Actions, issued by the National Museum Directors' Conference in 1998, and its 2016 renewal. The Gallery will also be guided by its own Collections Due Diligence Policy.
16.2
Should works in the Collection be subject to an enquiry or claim, the Gallery will follow the practices established by the Department of Digital, Culture, Media and Sport to extend research, make information available and, if appropriate, refer the case to the Spoliation Advisory Panel. The current status of spoliation research into the Collection is on the Gallery’s website.
17. Illicit Trade
17.1
In accordance with the provisions of the UNESCO 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, which the UK ratified with effect from 1 November 2002, and the Dealing in Cultural Objects (Offences) Act 2003, the Gallery will reject any items that have been illicitly traded. The Trustees will be guided by the guidance on the responsible acquisition of cultural property issued by the Department for Culture, Media and Sport in 2005.
18. Archaeological material
18.1
The Gallery does not intend to acquire any archaeological material in the future.
19. Exceptions
19.1
Any exceptions to the above clauses will only be because the Gallery is either:
- acting as an externally approved repository of last resort for material of local (UK) origin; or
- acting with the permission of authorities with the requisite jurisdiction in the country of origin.
19.2
In these cases the Gallery will be open and transparent in the way it makes decisions and will act only with the express consent of an appropriate outside authority. The Gallery will document when these exceptions occur.
20. The Repatriation and Restitution of objects and human remains
20.1
The Trustees, acting on the advice of the Chief Curator, if any, may take a decision to return human remains (unless covered by the ‘Guidance for the care of human remains in museums’ issued by DCMS in 2005), objects or specimens to a country or people of origin. The Gallery will take such decisions on a case-by-case basis; within its legal position and taking into account all ethical implications and available guidance. This will mean that the procedures described in 20.1 – 20.5 will be followed but the remaining procedures are not appropriate.
21. Disposal
21.1
All disposals will be undertaken with reference to the terms of this Policy and the SPECTRUM Primary Procedures on disposal. The procedures below apply to both accessioned and unaccessioned material.
21.2
The Trustees will confirm that they are legally free to dispose of an item. The Head of Collections Services shall confirm this in writing before any further steps are taken. Agreements on disposal made with donors will also be taken into account. Cases where the donor has implied or expressed preference against disposal will be considered.
21.3
When disposal is motivated by curatorial reasons the procedures outlined below will be followed and the method of disposal may be by gift, sale, exchange or as a last resort - destruction.
21.4
The Curatorial Meeting will firstly recommend objects for disposal to the Director (except in cases outlined in 9.13 and 22.7). The decision to dispose of material from the Collection by any means will be taken by the Trustees only after full consideration of the reasons for disposal.
The Director, acting on advice from the Chief Curator and other colleagues as appropriate, shall outline the case to the Trustees; it shall not be on the basis of a curator acting alone. No fewer than ten Trustees must vote in favour of a recommendation on the proposed item(s) for de-accessioning, and to approve the recommended mode of disposal.
Other factors including public benefit, the implications for the Gallery's collections and collections held by galleries and other organisations collecting the same material or in related fields will be considered. Expert advice will be obtained when required and the views of all relevant stakeholders (including artists, donors, funding bodies, researchers, the Charity Commission, local and source communities, sitters, benefactors and others served by the Gallery) will also be sought.
21.5
When disposal of a museum object is being considered, the Gallery will establish if it was acquired with the aid of an external funding organisation. In such cases, any conditions attached to the original grant will be followed. This may include repayment of the original grant and a proportion of the proceeds if the item is disposed of by sale.
21.6
Once the decision to dispose of material in the Collection has been taken, priority will be given to retaining it within the public domain, unless it is to be destroyed. It will therefore be offered in the first instance, by transfer, gift, exchange or sale, directly to other Accredited Museums/Galleries or to institutions listed in Schedule 5 of the Museums and Galleries Act 1992. If the material is not acquired directly as a transfer, gift, and exchange or for sale, then the museum/gallery community at large will be advised of the intention to dispose of the material, normally through a notice on the MA's Find an Object web listing service; an announcement in the Museums Association's Museums Journal, and in other specialist journals where appropriate.
21.7
The announcement will indicate the number and nature of objects involved, and the basis on which the material will be transferred to another institution. Preference will be given to expressions of interest from other Accredited Museums/Galleries. A period of at least two months will be allowed for an interest in acquiring the material to be expressed. At the end of this period, if no expressions of interest have been received, the Gallery may consider disposing of the material elsewhere giving priority to organisations in the public domain.
21.8
Full records will be kept of all decisions on disposals and the material involved, including photographs where possible. Proper arrangements will be made for the preservation and/or transfer, as appropriate, of the documentation relating to the items concerned, including photographic records where practicable, in accordance with SPECTRUM Procedures on deaccession and disposal and the Museums Association’s Code of Ethics. The Gallery will retain copies of the acquisition documentation and the original documents will be passed to the new owner together with transfer of title documentation.
21.9
All items disposed of shall be recorded in the Gallery’s Annual Accounts.
21.10
The Gallery will only dispose of a work by sale or destruction in exceptional circumstances. (see section 23) This form of disposal would only be authorised by the Trustees on the written advice of the Gallery Curator responsible, the Chief Curator and one external advisor with art historical knowledge of the field.
In the cases of disposal by sale, any monies received by the Trustees from such disposals, less any grants repayable to an external funding organisation, will be applied to the purchase of objects for the Collection as laid down in the Museums and Galleries Act 1992. The proceeds of a sale will be ring-fenced so it can be demonstrated that they are spent as required by the Museums and Galleries Act 1992.
21.11
Serving Trustees, Honorary Officers, serving members of the Gallery Staff, Gallery volunteers, trainees, interns, contractors (unless on behalf of new owner or for secure destruction) or partners or business associates of any of the above will not be permitted to acquire, by purchase or otherwise, objects that have been de-accessioned or otherwise disposed of (if not formally accessioned) directly from the Gallery collections.
22. Disposal by exchange or other means
22.1
The nature of disposal by exchange means that the Gallery will not necessarily be in a position to exchange the material with another Accredited museum. The Trustees will therefore ensure that issues relating to accountability and impartiality are carefully considered to avoid undue influence on its decision-making process.
22.2
In cases where the Trustees wish for sound curatorial reasons to exchange material directly with Accredited or non-Accredited museums, with other organisations or with individuals, the procedures in paragraphs 20.2 to 20.6 will apply.
22.3
If the exchange is proposed to be made with a specific Accredited museum, other Accredited museums which collect in the same or related areas will be directly notified of the proposal and their comments will be requested.
22.4
If the exchange is proposed with a non-Accredited museum, with another type of organisation or with an individual, the museum will place a notice on the MA’s Find an Object web listing service, or make an announcement in the Museums Association’s Museums Journal or in other specialist publications and websites (if appropriate).
22.5
Both the notification and announcement must provide information on the number and nature of the specimens or objects involved both in the museum’s collection and those intended to be acquired in exchange. A period of at least two months must be allowed for comments to be received. At the end of this period, the Trustees must consider the comments before a final decision on the exchange is made.
22.6
If a work is to be returned to or exchanged with an original donor, a successful claimant(s) to legal title or funding organisation in accordance with any agreement, or if an exchange, which is judged by the Trustees to provide the greatest public benefit, is to be with another museum, organisation or individual, the Gallery will uphold its duty to openness and transparency and will make public any disposal decision made by the Trustees. This will be achieved by recording such action in the Gallery’s Annual Accounts.
22.7
When other components of the Gallery's works of art are replaced to ensure they are cared for to the best possible standard, such as historic components of frames etc., they shall be retained or reused wherever possible, not only for research purposes but also as an integral part of the object's history. However if the Gallery should decide that such components are disposed of, this shall be done in line with the Gallery's conservation recommendations and the other relevant disposal terms of this Policy. This shall not require Trustee approval and such approval on the disposal and replacement will be sought, where applicable, from the relevant curator. Trustees are informed, as appropriate, of all major conservation work carried out on the Collection.
23. Disposal by destruction
23.1
If it is not possible to dispose of an object through transfer or sale, the Trustees may decide to destroy it.
23.2
It is acceptable to destroy material of low intrinsic significance (duplicate mass-produced articles or common specimens which lack significant provenance) where no alternative method of disposal can be found.
23.3
Destruction is also an acceptable method of disposal in cases where an object is in extremely poor condition, has high associated health and safety risks or is part of an approved destructive testing request identified in the Gallery’s research policy.
23.4
Where necessary, specialist advice will be sought to establish the appropriate method of destruction. Health and Safety risk assessments will be carried out by the Head of Collections Services.
23.5
The destruction of objects will be witnessed by an appropriate member of staff. In circumstances where this is not possible, e.g. the destruction of controlled substances, a police certificate will be obtained and kept with the paperwork. | https://www.npg.org.uk/about/corporate/gallery-policies/collections-development-policy |
The exhibition projects produced by digitalcraft.org, an independent curatorial team, aim to investigate selected topics of our current digital culture reflecting them critically. The projects are being exhibited mainly within institutional settings where digital art and culture generally speaking is still not being perceived sufficiently. Ultimately these projects are not mere (media-) art exhibitions. Rather, the digitalcraft.org team has set itself the task of carrying out projects that contribute augmenting the general understanding towards contemporary expressions of media enhanced culture in order to permit a potential audience to perceive its social, political if not ethical connotations and to form an own differentiated view. In this case art - or better, the arts - are treated as just one of the differentiated subsystems of society, alongside politics, economics and the natural sciences, which as a whole constitute society.
Digitalcraft.org's activities mainly serve to try out possible (new) models of exerting cultural influence.
One of the assumptions in this respect is that an exhibition is seen as a medium that cannot be neutral towards the information that it encodes and conveys. The use of media constitutes meanings per se. Attention should therefore be drawn to its structure, especially in the specific case of an exhibition, which in turn results in extended opportunities for managing meaning. In concrete terms digitalcraft.org strives not merely to develop art exhibitions following the traditional parameters as to design spaces in which specific topics are being deconstructed and reconstructed in public in order to provide a contextualized interpretation and to create a new structure of meaning.
The challenge lies in attempting two things at the same time. One is to create conditions that allow visitors to consider information and knowledge at the greatest possible number of different levels - in the tradition of enlightenment, as it were. The other is to stimulate discussion that, going beyond the purely specialist sphere, dares to aim at forming opinions according to both political and ethical criteria.
As an example, let us consider the current debate on security policy, with issues such as electronic surveillance in public and semi-public spaces, the introduction of biometric data in connection with ID cards, and the use of RFID technology to give uninterrupted control over the logistics of retail goods. The debate is primarily restricted to politicians and experts in the area of so-called security, each of whom focuses closely on the own particular point of view. In the social and cultural sphere, these developments have not yet been addressed on a larger scale. The amazingly weak reaction of the general public varies between vague fear and indifference. This fact might indicate that among other motives the lack of in depth public information and debate as well as the lack of an overview on a rather complex topic might have provoked a general state of indecisiveness towards an issue that is of such crucial interest to our democratic system.
Yet it is precisely these matters that constitute the challenge faced by culture, which can no longer regard technology as a tool alone, but as a carrier of cultural content and social change. Technical achievements have had and will have a strong impact on all aspects of society, whether on the private or public life. These changes do confront the individual with ethical questions and actually do demand also political decisions of him.
Within contemporary society the active shaping of technology is itself becoming a power factor. Decisions on the forms that technologies, their application and the related juridical framework will take are often left up to technocratic, political elites or parties with commercial interest. Biometric passports are just one current example of this. The control of genetic technology and the development of global computer networks are also throwing up numerous questions, which have yet to be answered.
The interrelations involved are often too complex for individual person to be able to exert influence as knowledgeable and thus politically mature citizens, let alone to shape them and decide upon them. So how can they be empowered to acquire knowledge and gain an overall picture? How do individuals become qualified and competent to act as citizens who, thanks to their understanding of matters, are able to influence decisions on them? Only the committed individual, according to the existentialist philosopher and political activist Jean-Paul Sartre, can "bring it about that nobody can ignore the world and nobody in it can call himself innocent". Sartre's central conviction is that the person who is free from (or abandoned by) supernatural ordinance must bear not only the responsibility for his own existence, but also for others, in other words, for his social and political environment - the idea of the "homme engag�" (J.P. Sartre, L'Existencialisme est un Humanisme).
Against a background of this nature, a curator, too, can take on the role of a "homme engag�" when he observes, researches and publicly comments upon contemporary art and contemporary culture. His task could consist of putting visions and opinions up for debate. He can arrange for a large number of specific disciplines to encounter each other and enter into dialogue in the sphere of art as well, since specialist expertise alone is only visionary under certain conditions. Seen in these terms the curator might act as a sort of moderator who selects various aspects and points of view to a specific topic and finds a language in which to transfer the diverse expert's knowledge to a broader audience.
As a moderator the curator has to choose between taking a more neutral position or to adopt a subjective standpoint - formulating an own curatorial statement. The latter can be articulated primarily through the choice of themes itself, through the selection of contributions taking a stand already during the activity of pre-selection of contents and secondly through the arrangement of contents in space. The curatorial activity demands formal solutions for the displaying of work playing a decisive role in determining the significance of the exhibited 'objects'. From the 'Wunderkammer' to the 'White Cube' the history of curation has developed a vast range of possibilities for creating a meta-textual level of meaning.
Looked at in formal terms, digitalcraft.org experiments deliberately with the 'code' of exhibitions and its stylistic and curatorial elements. A strong influence is given by Harald Szeemann's work whose aim consisted in revealing correspondences between works independently from which period, culture or conventional stylistic context. Szeemann abandoned the classical classification standards to look for possible connections between the objects and works. The ponderate employ of light, space, colors or more generally the exhibition design also represented a key element in creating a 'language' to vehicle his views.
Using a structural analysis of the "I love you" exhibition, I would like to present, in outline, several curatorial methods that digitalcraft.org employs, and subject them to public debate.
This exhibition has been shown in four different places to date. The first version of "I love you" was originally conceived in 2002 for the Museum of Applied Art in Frankfurt. It was adapted in 2003 for the transmediale.03 media festival in Berlin and again in 2004, with the title "I love you" [rev.eng], for the Watson Institute for International Studies at Brown University and for the Museum of Communication in Copenhagen. The original concept was continuously and systematically revised in terms of content and was adapted (in its design as well) to suit the contexts and the conditions prevailing at each location. At the Institute for International Studies, for example, students are mainly concerned with international politics. Therefore the exhibition was campaigned by a symposium, which focused on global risks of interconnectivity and new forms of global governance. At Copenhagen's Museum of Communication, in contrast, attention was focused not only on the artistic work but also on the network strategies as communication systems.
In case of the "I love you" exhibition digitalcraft.org aimed to enable visitors to gain a broad understanding of the phenomenon of computer viruses, approaching it from different angles trying to give an idea about the many layered interrelations. The project subjects the term "computer virus" to lexical analysis and shows it in its technological, social and political - as well as artistic and literary - aspects.
The historical background of computer viruses, the technical background to understand their functioning, correlations with experimental literature (code as a language), selected art works dedicated to the topic of computer viruses, the context of hacker culture and its political, social and economical implications.
For instance, few visitors knew that historically the programming of viruses originated in an academic debate about artificial life and that in some cases it had required and resulted in highly advanced programming techniques; neither did they know that computer viruses can boast a history of over forty years.
by analogy with a museum collection - in the installation "In the zoo"; by visualizing the causes of viruses - through a terminal devoted to so-called 'payloads'; by mapping and visualizing the global spreading of viruses - in the interactive installation "Virus Mapping Tool"; and by a 'do it yourself' approach through installation "Virus Lab".
The installation titled "In the Zoo" involved two terminals. One of them contained a collection of pre-selected, executable computer viruses and worms. For each of these, digitalcraft.org designed a dedicated virtual PC to provide a secure environment for infection. The terminals thus constituted a practice area, in which the audience was explicitly invited to launch the viruses. Further a step-by-step guide with further information for every displayed virus was developed as additional didactical aid. The second terminal functioned as a log file reader, visualizing the traffic induced by the virus in the operating system.
Payloads are actions performed by viruses in an infected computer system. Not all viruses carry payloads. Payloads range from harmless text, image or sound messages, which may be displayed on the monitor, to extremely destructive actions that delete the entire hard disk. The curatorial team researched and presented a selection of visual payloads, which got 'recorded' directly from infected computers and then edited to create a long video projection.
digitalcraft.org designed the so-called "Virus Mapping Tool", which mapped and visualized the outbreaks of a range of selected viruses as they spread around world. Inspired by the aesthetics of games, digitalcraft.org programmed an interactive environment that allowed visitors, by operating a joystick, to experience the otherwise invisible processes involved in a global virus outbreak. For the creation of this installation, our team collaborated with the internet security company Symantec who provided a broad range of data about the national origins of viruses, their behaviour during spreading processes, their activity time spans and spreading cycles, and the rapidity and frequency of their actions. This data was been cross-linked with data like web population statistics, traffic patterns and security information, which then were inserted as a whole in a navigable world map.
The "Virus Lab" terminal contained a collection of eight 'Virus Construction Kits' (VCK) like the ones freely available in the Internet. This type of software provides an interface that allows the user to generate different kinds of viruses, such as Visual Basic worms, macro-viruses and Trojans, without needing knowledge of programming - simply by assembling pre-programmed code modules. By examining (reverse engineering) the viral code produced by the VCK software, programmers actually learn about the way virus work. Visitors were invited to play with the programmes. As the terminal was not connected to the internet, launching the assembled virus was strictly limited to the installation's environment.
A further topic of the exhibition was that of program code as language. Comparisons between traditional poetry and contemporary code poetry were drawn. A historic line from the Carmina Figurata of antiquity and the Middle Ages, via the concrete poetry of the 19th and 20th century, to modern poets to contemporary code writers and so-called code poets helped visualising concrete analogies between similar textual approaches. The curatorial intention lied in investigating possible correspondences between historic literary experiments with certain phenomena of current source code production.
Moreover, the exhibition examined the influence viral code and its anarchic dispersion structures had on the artistic production and therefore functioning as a source of artistic inspiration. Artists such as 010.ORG and epidemiC presented the computer virus "biennale.py", which, as well as being a self-reproducing program, is one of the first "art-viruses" to have been declared a social work of art. The work "The Lovers", by the British artist Sneha Solankis, uses two mutually infected computers to create an analogy of distorted communication between two lovers.
"I love you" [...but do you know what love really means?]' by the artist Caleb Waldorf is an installation video montage that reflects how the media portray the phenomenon of viruses and how governments and corporate entities react to the increasing threat of cyber terrorism. And finally the source code reading of the "I love you" computer virus made by the Italian media philosopher Franco Berardo evoked correlations between acoustic and textual experiments performed by Kurt Schwitters' in his public DADA readings.
A further focus of the exhibition addressed the motives of the hacker scene, in itself extremely heterogeneous. Questions of an ethical, social or political nature inevitably arose as part of the exhibition. What is a copyleft production? What is the thought behind the Open Source movement? What are the dynamics and the intentions of for example Denial-of-Service Sever attacks?
The exhibition presented a series of interviews lead in the internet with well-known virus-writers, which seen as a general study revealed a more differentiated picture than what is commonly propagated.
Also on display was "The Hacker's Manifesto" by The Mentor, written in 1986 is a historic document and probably the most famous essay about what it is like to be a hacker.
The exhibition gave a exceptional insight into the culture of hackers, by using a broad spectrum of film material created in the scene itself, such as "Freedom Downtime" by the New York hacker community 2600, "Hippies from Hell", by the Dutch director Ine Poppe, "TheBroken" by New York double_d, "Hippies from Hell" by Stig S�rensen made for the University of Troms� and "Unauthorized Access" by Annaliza Savage.
digitalcraft.org posed all participants, corporate as well as hackers the question about the reciprocal influence that in some way connects the hacker scene and the security companies: who needs whom and why? At what point do economic interests play a part? Which firms are targeted for attack by hackers and why? Representants of internationally leading companies in the field of internet security like Symantec and Trend Micro were invited to engage in a moderated public debate with code writers and hackers using the museum context as a neutral platform of encounter.
The core consideration characterizing digitalcraft's approach sees exhibitions as well as museum collections in general as democratic (versus elitist) acts of aesthetic and intellectual statement with a high degree of educational effect. They contribute in creating the collective memory of a society and at the same time carry the responsibility of generating a "sense of historical place and meaning", as Bruce Sterling expressed it.
The consideration is based on the idea that exhibitions are strategic systems of representation. Depending on their content (subject of the exhibition), their context (the specificity of the given political environment, the historical context and the institution or site at which the project is shown) and their authors (artists and contributors of content), exhibitions create their own web of significance using a variety of stylistic elements. The assumption therefore lies in the fact that there is a communication established between the curatorial team (who creates a coded system) and the audience (who knows how to de-code, how to read the underlying intentions).
The spatial relation in which the single elements of the exhibition are put to each other and which reveal the curatorial assumptions play a key role. Therefore the aesthetics (site-specific and work-specific) along with the exhibition design and architecture helps creating a visual code as well as a meta-text between the works which is essential to explicit the curatorial notions. Some elements for example are the wall colouring (psychologically meaningful), the lighting (narrative element that adds dramatic emphasis) or the creation of spatial situations which bear specific connotations (e.g. white cube, black box, Wunderkammer Style or Petersburger hanging, in public site, in institutional site, indoors, outdoors). Furthermore a broad didactic concept which involves various levels of complexity in contents as well as different support media (guided tours, wall texts and labelling, interactive terminals, catalogues,...) contribute to meet the single visitor's desire for deeper understanding.
digitalcraft.org experiments with the use of different methods of exhibition design, the rhetorical elements of curation, so to speak, testing diverse approaches for each project. These can be applied intentionally to create an aesthetic code, which helps adding a further level of communication. This sort of 'meta level' might enhance a sensory level of experience, a rather associative and less verbal level, which in connection with works that often have a highly conceptual quality and therefore primarily addresses the intellect, seems to be of crucial importance.
If we consider the exhibition to be a medium of communication that generates a coded structure of meaning, one that the audience needs to decode according to its personal cultural background, we could say that the task of a curator, consists not merely of selecting objects and putting them on display, but that in presenting them he/she deliberately creates relationships of sense and meaning, thus formulating a curatorial statement. The audience's ability of decoding these statements is strongly related to its level of 'connaisseur-ship'. It therefore is the curator's assignment to function not simple as a researcher but as a mediator and to provide the viewer with tools that will help the latter to undertake this deciphering. This means that he/she has to empower others to acquire relevant knowledge. Within this line of argument it also is the curator's task to openly formulate his/her standpoint and underlying ideas therefore putting them at public debate.
digitalcraft.org's work strategy arises from a critical tradition that considers cultural and technological processes as inextricably linked.
In the Sixties, Carlo Giulio Argan (Italian historian and art critic, Turin 1909 - Rome 1992) published his work on the concept of reality in contemporary art. One of his fundamental conclusions is that art creates an independent reality. In order to perceive and understand it and its full implications, it has to be examined in the relevant historical context. C. G. Argan thus proposes a kind of art history and art criticism that does not act in isolation from all other aspects of society, rather one which takes into account as broad as possible, multi-disciplinary basis for its conjectures; in concrete terms, this means that art cannot be understood if one does not know the spiritual, religious, political, prevailing economic and social conditions of the epoch in which the work was created.
digitalcraft.org's curatorial approach might be seen as a continuation of Argan's postulates, in the sense that in conceiving exhibition projects it does not comply with presenting and introducing individual works of art in isolation from their respective contexts, but tries instead to show them in - and above all, against - their social backgrounds. What the digitalcraft team is trying to achieve in doing so is to convey a more broadly defined understanding of artistic intentions; one that does not explain works and their origins in terms of art history, but rather presents the ideas and attitudes inherent in them.
Further, as earlier mentioned, our work draws a number of parallels to the considerations made by the curators Rudy Fuchs and Harald Szeemann.
Their concept of 'laboratory' in opposition to the finished work of art as well as the idea of 'ahistorical' exhibitions are a fundamental starting point from which digitalcraft.org further investigates the possibilities offered by the exhibition as a medium. There is an established tradition of art critique applying a mode of analysis to the production of artwork, emphasising the process rather than the end product. Szeemann for example experimented largely with the idea of exhibiting the work understood as a process and not so much as 'object of art' like he did in the exhibition "When Attitudes Become Form" at the Kunsthalle Bern in 1969. The exhibition's innovation was to ignore all categories and to refuse to arrange and clarify according to the art genres like Minimal Art, Arte Povera, Anti-Form, Conceptual Art.
Szeemann's and Fuchs' intent was to reveal correspondences between works from different epochs and styles as well as from different disciplines and contexts. Szeemann suggested leaving behind the evolutionary view of art history and searching instead for the essence of a work of art, for its timeless dimension (e.g. exhibition "A-Historische Klanken", Museum Boymans-van Beuningen, Rotterdam, 1988). With his next project called "Happening & Fluxus" he pushed even further the event character of contemporary art. He started to exhibit also filed documents of happenings which had taken place only over a very limited amount of time. Szeemann took some of these ideas into his curatorial work for Documenta 5, where he had to come to terms with the difficulties of inserting his anti-institutional extrapolations of art into an institutionalized mass gathering.
Rudy Fuchs proposed the idea that classification in terms of style had become irrelevant, since style could no longer be the only criteria for evaluating the content, the position or the relevance of a work of art. As art began to be expressed in all sorts of media, materials and forms, style lost its claim to be the key to a work. Nevertheless, as curator of the Documenta 7, he decided to react towards Szeemann's Documenta 5 concept which focused on the time specific event character of art by remuseifying the exhibition site. On the one hand side he used the strong material and symbolic character of the Friedericianum as platform to emphasize the art work, but on the other side he managed to keep his critical distance towards the institution by defining the exhibition as a temporary 'in situ' event.
Szeemann further reflected on the role of museums as places which ought to protect art, because (and this is how Szeemann defines art) it is fragile and represents an alternative to everything in our society that is geared to consumption and reproduction (in: Archis 3 1988. "Vraaggesprek met Harald Szeemann"). Museums, in his opinion, are institutions that play a fundamental role in determining the significance of work of art. In the Seventies, Szeemann experimented with the function of museums, attempting to use them as platforms on which social contradictions could be made visible. On the one hand, he freed art from being restricted to museums, on the other hand he brought museums back into contact with the world outside. Considerations such as these stand in the tradition of Andr� Malraux's "Mus�e Imaginaire" and its historic continuation, Marcel Duchamps' "La Boite en Valise").
In the context of a rapidly changing communication and knowledge society, in which technological, scientific and social changes are happening at breathtaking speed, the role of artists and cultural operators can still be of crucial relevance to the general orientation of collective visions. Questions such as where our society is heading, who we still are and who we shall be, questions about our identity and questions about conceivable future scenarios are still of social - as well as individual - interest. I would like to plead for the original utopian force of the arts (consciously spoken of in the plural) in investigating existential matters, transcending art historians' classifications and market-driven strategies.
Without considering here the many causes of museums' loss of relevance in respect of their social role, I think that we can recognise a gradual change of awareness and a new attitude to self-legitimation in their work. Institutions are rising to the challenge by experimenting with event-driven concepts, mass-audience mammoth exhibition projects and edutainment for all ages, to name but a few.
Museums historically do have the purpose to preserve and present historical objects, fulfilling their function as part of a cultural memory, but in the society of information they find themselves facing an entirely new set of questions, regarding the culture of new media and internet.
Although digital technology has had a strong impact on all sectors of contemporary society, both in the public and in the private domains, neither the general public nor cultural institutions have yet developed a broad acceptance of current media art production as an equally valid form of artistic expression.
On can speculate whether this is because technology is only ever seen as a tool and not as a vehicle of cultural content, or whether those in the media art scene stick too closely to their disciplines and work too hermetically. A further explanation might be that the enormous flood of information to which we are subjected has created such a high degree of apparent complexity that it is nearly impossible for the average person to grasp all the factors and relationships determining political, economical, social and cultural reality today.
In the field of (media) art, curators can bridge the gaps that often separate different specialisms, bringing together a wide range of expert knowledge. They can play the part of intermediaries and moderators, or function as 'translators', or catalysts, between experts (such as artists and academics), the public and even museum institutions; they can contribute in creating knowledge and meaning and they can engage in ethical evaluations and debates. How? By making meaningful selections of themes and artists, by establishing correlations and interdependencies between discourses and by creating experiences that are visual (aesthetic) as well as intellectual in physical space.
It is fundamental principal for digitalcraft.org that we see our task as that of a mediator, functioning as a bridge between individual expert discourses and a participative public. We have found this task to be quite challenging, since it has to be performed anew each time, for every project, in accordance with the context and the content concerned. There are different kinds of communication; different levels of complexity have to be offered. digitalcraft.org recons its work to be a constant process of experimentation with tasks of this sort as to optimize the results. For this reason, we are searching intensively for exchanges of views and cooperation with colleagues, experts and institutions and are convinced that this event and publication will contribute to the further exchange of thoughts. | http://digitalcraft.org/index.php?artikel_id=552 |
Interested applicants should send a cover letter, résumé/CV, and contact information for three professional references to [email protected].
Job Description:
|Position:||Chief Registrar|
|Reports to:||Chief Curator & Director for Curatorial Affairs|
|Job Classification:||Full-Time, Non-Exempt|
|Date Written:||September 17, 2021|
Description:
Reporting to the Chief Curator & Director of Curatorial Affairs, the Chief Registrar plays a key role in overseeing Telfair Museum’s 7,000+ object collection and art-related operations in its three sites. In addition, the position oversees the policies and procedures for the permanent collection and loans and is charged with the care, preservation, and risk management of the Museum’s collections, ensuring that the collections are available for current and future visitors.
The Chief Registrar oversees the installation schedule relating to art movements and staffing related to exhibitions and installations. This position oversees the Registrars and works in close collaboration with the Preparators, organizing the work schedule for the team. The installation and work schedules are coordinated with the overall Exhibition Schedule and budget, overseen by the Chief Curator & Director of Curatorial Affairs. This position will work closely with the Chief Curator on forward planning, forecasting, and management of resources.
The Chief Registrar works in close collaboration with the Chief Curator and Curatorial staff to realize exhibitions and installations of works from the collection, as well as loan and touring exhibitions, including the securing of loans and the coordination of venues and tours. This position serves as the principal contact for internal and external colleagues on loan procedures, insurance, and government indemnities, contracts, and lender negotiations. The Chief Registrar also serves as a visible and public-facing representative of the Museum to external constituencies.
Essential Duties and Responsibilities:
Management-staff, resources, budgets
- Has primary oversight and care for the collection of Telfair Museums.
- Oversees, supervises, mentors, and trains Registrar staff.
- Working in close collaboration with Chief Curator and Preparators, the Chief Registrar plans, coordinates, and schedules collection rotations, installations, and exhibitions.
- Prepares the master installation schedule relating to art movements and shipping for exhibitions.
- Prepares exhibitions and collections related budgets, working in close collaboration with Chief Curator.
- Monitors the ordering and purchasing of supplies for storage and conservation of permanent collection.
Collection Care
- Oversees the management, preservation, and storage of the collection(s), as well as accessioning of acquisitions, including gift documents, IRS forms, and appraisals from donors. Supervises accessioning process, including recording object information, photographing objects, proper housing for objects, and conducting annual inventories.
- Negotiates and arranges fine arts insurance policies for the permanent collection and long-term loans; processes claims, and supervises risk management for all museum buildings.
- Oversees long-term loan partnerships (incoming and outgoing loans); conducts annual condition reporting and processes loan renewal documentation.
- Evaluates works in need of conservation treatment, recommends and initiates opportunities for remedy.
- Supervises the management of the collections database (TMS) and works with staff to ensure data standardization.
- Sets institutional strategies for digital asset management, ensuring best practices and the implementation of current technologies.
- Prepares list of acquisitions for annual report and registrar’s report of acquisitions for auditors.
Exhibition Planning
- Works with Chief Curator and Curator(s) to plan, develop, and manage loan exhibitions from the conceptual stage to execution, including contracts, loans, insurance, transport, installation, condition reporting, tours, insurance, and storage, as needed.
- Collaborates with Curator and Preparators in the planning, scheduling, and production of exhibitions, including crew management, assembly of materials, construction, and installations.
- In close coordination with Chief Curator and exhibition curator(s), develops initial exhibition budget for planning purposes. Regularly updates, forecasts, and monitors expenses, ensuring performance to budget.
- In close coordination with Chief Curator and exhibition curator(s), drafts and reviews contractual agreements with lenders and participating institutions. Negotiates terms of the contracts and monitors compliance of agreements and payment schedules.
- Assesses lender requirements and fees for loans and negotiates terms in the best interest of the Museum in consultation with appropriate staff. Communicates terms and special requirements of loans to appropriate staff and staff of participating institutions and monitors compliance with such terms and conditions.
- Responsible for securing U.S. Government Indemnity or other insurance for the Museum and its partners or lenders.
Other Responsibilities:
Supervisory Responsibilities
- Supervises Associate Registrar, Rights and Reproduction Assistant Registrar, Preparators, Curatorial Intern, and curatorial contract workers. Carry out supervisory responsibilities in accordance with the organization’s policies and applicable laws. Responsibilities include interviewing, hiring, and training employees; planning, assigning, and directing work; appraising performance and conducting annual performance reviews of direct reports; rewarding and disciplining employees; addressing complaints and resolving problems. Requires skills in diplomacy, negotiation and communication with staff and external parties (lenders, donors, etc).
Skills and Attributes:
- Superior communication and presentation skills.
- Superior writing skills on a scholarly and academic level.
- Demonstrated knowledge and application of best practices and procedures for art handling, installation, storage, condition reporting, preservation, and basic conservation.
- Demonstrated ability to perform long-range planning while retaining nimbleness; flexibility within a fast-paced and changing environment; effective work under pressure amidst shifting priorities; problem-solving and analytical thinking.
- Demonstrated ability to work as a team leader and as part of a team while supervising staff and coordinating with peers; ability to set and accomplish goals and to meet deadlines by effectively prioritizing; ability to work independently and collaboratively in a team-oriented environment.
- A collegial, collaborative disposition, and ease of inter-personal communication.
Practical writing skills; proficiency in collections management database software, email, word processing and spreadsheet software, Microsoft Office, Outlook, Word and Excel.
- Familiarity with NAGPRA, AAMD guidelines, and archiving methods and practices.
Qualifications:
- B. A. or M.A. in art history, museum studies, or related discipline.
- Eight to ten years of experience in museum registration, collections, and exhibition management.
Physical Requirements:
- Ability to perform various functions such as standing, sitting, walking across uneven surfaces, climbing stairs, lifting, seeing in varying light conditions, and participating in some physical activities.
Salary and Benefits:
- Telfair Museums offers a competitive salary and excellent benefits. Relocation expenses will be covered by Telfair Museums.
Please provide the following as part of your application:
- Complete resume, references including salary expectations.
- A cover letter addressing both your interest in Telfair Museums and your qualifications for this position.
Application:
- Indicate “Chief Registrar” on the subject line of the email or in the body of the cover letter.
- Applications in electronic format preferred, and accepted at [email protected].
- Mailed applications: Telfair Museums, Attn: HR, PO Box 10081, Savannah, GA 31412
- Application review will begin on October 8, 2021.
SUMMARY
Telfair Museums offers compelling expressions of visual culture — embracing three unique buildings and three distinct collections that bridge three centuries of art and architecture. The Museum develops awareness, understanding, and appreciation of the arts and serves as a dynamic cultural center connecting people of all ages and backgrounds.
Telfair Museums is the oldest public art museum in the South, founded in 1883 through the bequest of prominent local philanthropist Mary Telfair, who left her home and its furnishings to the Georgia Historical Society to be opened as a museum. Today, Telfair Museums consists of three unique buildings: Telfair Academy and the Owens-Thomas House & Slave Quarters, two National Historic Landmark sites built in the early 19th century, and the contemporary Jepson Center for the Arts.
Designed in the Regency style by English architect William Jay, the Telfair Academy houses 19th- and 20th-century American and European art, including paintings, works on paper, sculpture, and decorative arts. Highlights include fine examples of American Impressionism and Ashcan School Realism, with major paintings by Childe Hassam, Frederick Frieseke, Gari Melchers, Robert Henri, George Bellows, and George Luks. The Telfair Academy is also home to Sylvia Shaw Judson’s iconic Bird Girl statue, made famous in the Jack Leigh photograph on the dust jacket of Midnight in the Garden of Good and Evil.
The Owens-Thomas House & Slave Quarters is considered one of the finest examples of English Regency architecture in the country. In addition to the historic house museum and decorative art ranging from the late 18th to the early 19th century, the site includes rare intact urban slave quarters and a lovely parterre garden. The site underwent an award-winning reinterpretation in 2018, providing audiences with a broader understanding of how slavery impacted urban life in and beyond the home.
The Jepson Center, designed by acclaimed architect Moshe Safdie, is devoted to temporary exhibitions and today’s art and home to the Telfair’s Kirk Varnedoe Collection, a cornerstone of the Museum’s contemporary holdings. The collection features works on paper by some of the most pivotal artists of the past 50 years, including Jasper Johns, Chuck Close, Roy Lichtenstein, Jeff Koons, Robert Rauschenberg, Frank Stella, and Richard Avedon. Other contemporary artists include Carrie Mae Weems, Helen Levitt, Sam Gilliam, James Brooks, and many notable Georgia artists.
Telfair Museums’ permanent collection of paintings, works on paper, photography, sculpture, and decorative arts contains over 7,000 objects from America, Europe, and Asia, dating primarily from the 18th to 20th centuries. Telfair provides a range of educational initiatives, including youth and family programming, school tour programs, preplanned field trips for Savannah-Chatham County Public Schools fourth and eighth graders, youth classes, and summer camps. Telfair offers adults a variety of virtual and on-ground classes and workshops, ranging from drawing and painting classes with established local artists to workshops related to current exhibitions and exhibition opening lectures. Telfair (www.telfair.org) welcomes approximately 225,000 visitors each year. | https://www.telfair.org/about/job-opportunities/chief-registrar/ |
Your Art Here (YAH) is seeking qualified and motivated individuals for the Curatorial Committee which will be responsible for the content and programming related to the mission of YAH. Applicants should be well-versed in the history and current state of visual arts, and be experienced in creating, writing about, or curating art of a public, or community-based nature. Positions are unpaid, and the terms are one-year, renewable, and begin as soon as possible.
Curatorial Committee members are responsible for curating and contextualizing YAH projects with both the local community and international art world in mind, as well as responsible at the operational level for YAH projects. An ideal candidate would have experience creating, curating, or writing about public art, and must have the ability to help artists lift and hang billboards. Knowledge of the Adobe Creative Suite software is a plus. Duties are shared between the Curatorial Committee members and are as follows:
- Work with other Curatorial Committee members, artists and organizations to curate and install artworks on the three YAH billboards.
- Develop and execute creative projects in collaboration with the Curatorial Committee.
- Write curatorial statements and press announcements to contextualize ongoing YAH projects for audiences both local and global, within and outside of the art world.
- Maintain the Facebook and Twitter pages.
- Develop a budget and seek funding for YAH projects through grants, donations, art auctions, retail, etc.
- Use digital tools (Photoshop, etc.) to represent YAH projects in print and onscreen (the website, social media, etc.)
- Maintain the yourarthere.org website.
- Assist artists and organizations in preparing images for billboards.
- Work with artists and organizations to ensure billboards are printed and hung correctly.
- Hang billboards with assistance of the Curatorial Committee members and volunteers. | https://yourarthere.org/2013/10/call-for-your-art-here-curatorial-committee/ |
Generalizability is the extent to which research findings from your sample population can be applicable to a larger population. There are many best practices for ensuring generalizability. Two of those are making sure the sample is as much like the population as possible and making sure that the sample size is large enough to mitigate the chance of differences within the population. For this Discussion, read the case study titled “Social Work Research: Program Evaluation” and consider how the particular study results can be generalizable.
Post your explanation of who the sample is. Also explain steps researchers took to ensure generalizability. Be sure to discuss how the study results could possibly be generalizable. Please use the resources to support your answer.
Melissa Armstrong RE: Discussion 2 – Week 5COLLAPSE
The Video
The pre-test/post-test was another research method that contributed to the validity of the research. Pre-test showed where the participants stood at the beginning of the research, and the post-test measured the progress that was made by the end of the research. I do not believe that attrition was considered initially. The social workers in the video were too confused about their next set of actions after they were forced to drop Mr. Hernandez (Laureate Education, 2013). Attrition, only then, became a factor. Attrition is a strong potential in a research study and must be considered in advance.
Research Method
The research method that I would recommend is a quasi-experimental design. Quasi-experimental design is an empirical interventional study used to estimate the causal impact of an intervention on a target population without random assignment (Yegidis, Weinbach & Myers, 2018). Funding depends on the validity of the research study. The more effective this program is to individuals and families, the more funding the program will receive. Due to the topic of the group and the reason for the research study, internal validity does not need to be manipulated. Attrition affects the effectiveness of the study which is the determining factor of funding.
Measurement over Time
The study should involve measurement over time. Measurement over time offers stability and validity to the research, making the conclusion concrete. There would be a control group. A control group is compared to the experimental group but does not receive the test variable. This research method is used to find answers within the experiment. This method accounts for the reliability of the research as well.
Research Design
In this group research design that I imagine, two groups will be measured. This research method will measure the control group which will be the individuals that have not met the attendance requirements and then the experimental group, which will be the individuals that have successfully completed the program. This research method will measure the effectiveness of the program in terms of reduction of undesired behaviors and attrition for the group that was partially observed.
Limitations
Limitations in terms of generalizability and internal validity that I anticipate based on the research plan that I envision include many individuals that will not complete the program or not be available for post-testing. This alters the validity of the study as well as the conclusion.
Attrition
Pertaining to the client drop out, I can tell the social worker that attrition is inevitable and should be expected and accounted for early in the research process. Individuals not completing the research study or not being available for a post-test is an often occurrence and should be expected by the researcher. Adding attrition into the results is beneficial to the study by helping to maintain stability.
No Control Group
If there is no control group, the research design that could answer the question, “is this parent training class effective in reducing abusive parenting practices,” is the pre-experimental design. The pre-experimental design studies a single group meaning no control group nor comparison involved in this research design (Yegidis, Weinbach & Myers, 2018).
Thoughts…1
Attrition would certainly impact the external validity of a study — would it impact the study’s internal validity as well
Comments are closed. | https://premiumessaywriters.com/generalizability-is-the-extent-to-which-research-findings-from-your-sample-population-can-be-applicable-to-a-larger-population/ |
This document describes a general format for lab reports that you can adapt as needed. Worse yet, each professor wants something a little different. Regardless of variations, however, the goal of lab reports remains the same: document your findings and communicate their significance.
Read the following scenarios and answer the questions based on the scientific method. All calculations to be used to analyze the data Now you are ready to construct your data table! Always sketch a rough draft of your data table first. Dependent variable B. Teaching about variables or the scientific method? This FREE, printable, reproducible worksheet answer key included can help with independent, dependent, and control variables! This worksheet is a designed as practice identifying variables, although it may be used as an introduction or homework.
Control group , the standard to which comparisons are made in an experiment. Many experiments are designed to include a control group and one or more experimental groups; in fact, some scholars reserve the term experiment for study designs that include a control group. Ideally, the control group and the experimental groups are identical in every way except that the experimental groups are subjected to treatments or interventions believed to have an effect on the outcome of interest while the control group is not. Indeed, only in the presence of a control group can a researcher determine whether a treatment under investigation truly has a significant effect on an experimental group, and the possibility of making an erroneous conclusion is reduced. See also scientific method.
The scientific method is an empirical method of acquiring knowledge that has characterized the development of science since at least the 17th century. It involves careful observation , applying rigorous skepticism about what is observed, given that cognitive assumptions can distort how one interprets the observation. It involves formulating hypotheses , via induction , based on such observations; experimental and measurement-based testing of deductions drawn from the hypotheses; and refinement or elimination of the hypotheses based on the experimental findings. These are principles of the scientific method, as distinguished from a definitive series of steps applicable to all scientific enterprises. Though diverse models for the scientific method are available, there is in general a continuous process that includes observations about the natural world. People are naturally inquisitive, so they often come up with questions about things they see or hear, and they often develop ideas or hypotheses about why things are the way they are. The best hypotheses lead to predictions that can be tested in various ways.
Experimental research is the most familiar type of research design for individuals in the physical sciences and a host of other fields. This is mainly because experimental research is a classical scientific experiment, similar to those performed in high school science classes. Imagine taking 2 samples of the same plant and exposing one of them to sunlight, while the other is kept away from sunlight. Let the plant exposed to sunlight be called sample A, while the latter is called sample B. If after the duration of the research, we find out that sample A grows and sample B dies, even though they are both regularly wetted and given the same treatment. Therefore, we can conclude that sunlight will aid growth in all similar plants.
The term experiment is defined as the systematic procedure carried out under controlled conditions in order to discover an unknown effect, to test or establish a hypothesis, or to illustrate a known effect. When analyzing a process, experiments are often used to evaluate which process inputs have a significant impact on the process output, and what the target level of those inputs should be to achieve a desired result output. Experiments can be designed in many different ways to collect this information. Experimental design can be used at the point of greatest leverage to reduce design costs by speeding up the design process, reducing late engineering design changes, and reducing product material and labor complexity. Designed Experiments are also powerful tools to achieve manufacturing cost savings by minimizing process variation and reducing rework, scrap, and the need for inspection.
Use the scientific method to formulate a hypothesis and design an experiment investigating aspects of enzyme any pre-lab requirements before each part.
An experiment is a procedure carried out to support, refute, or validate a hypothesis. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs when a particular factor is manipulated.
How do researchers investigate psychological phenomena? They utilize a process known as the scientific method to study different aspects of how people think and behave. This process not only allows scientists to investigate and understand different psychological phenomena, but it also provides researchers and others a way to share and discuss the results of their studies.
Scientific Method Worksheets Pdf. Intermediate Algebra Skill. Introduction to experimental design.
Published on December 3, by Rebecca Bevans. Revised on March 8, An experiment is a type of research method in which you manipulate one or more independent variables and measure their effect on one or more dependent variables. Experimental design means creating a set of procedures to test a hypothesis. A good experimental design requires a strong understanding of the system you are studying. By first considering the variables and how they are related Step 1 , you can make predictions that are specific and testable Step 2.
Then we can study them and see if our hypothesis was correct. For our sample experiment, we compare the loss in weight of each bread slice.
Он, как обычно, записал имена жертв. Контакты на кончиках пальцев замкнулись, и на линзах очков, подобно бестелесным духам, замелькали буквы. ОБЪЕКТ: РОСИО ЕВА ГРАНАДА - ЛИКВИДИРОВАНА ОБЪЕКТ: ГАНС ХУБЕР - ЛИКВИДИРОВАН Тремя этажами ниже Дэвид Беккер заплатил по счету и со стаканом в руке направился через холл на открытую террасу гостиницы. - Туда и обратно, - пробормотал. Все складывалось совсем не так, как он рассчитывал.
Стратмор нередко пользовался этой привилегией: он предпочитал творить свое волшебство в уединении. - Коммандер, - все же возразила она, - это слишком крупная неприятность, и с ней не стоит оставаться наедине. Вам следовало бы привлечь кого-то .
8. Reading Journal Articles Exercise — Assefi and Gary (). Design a research study to answer one of the research questions below. Then answer the For that article try to identify as many “scientific method details” about the research. | https://tapnetwork2015.org/and-pdf/193-scientific-method-and-experimental-design-lab-8-answer-key-pdf-197-913.php |
Selltiz & Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (1962) defined research design as an arrangement of factors for collecting and analysing data in a way that focuses on combining importance of the research purpose with the economies involved in the procedure. Essentially, research design entails a list of the activities that the researcher will do (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2007). That is the manner they will frame the hypothesis, its operational consequences, and the approach to the analysis of data. To fully understand research design, it is vital to investigate the features and concepts of research design and the types of research design.
Features and Concepts of Research Design
Features
There are important features of a research design. That is, it is, usually, a constitution of the plan by identifying both the form and source of data that would be necessary to deal with the research problem and also the strategy on the data collection methods to be used (Bryman, 2008). In addition, research design indicates the estimated period of the project and the budget that would be sufficient to conduct the study.
Concepts
In order to understand research design and its applications, it is vital to investigate important concepts associated with it.
One important concept is that of dependent and independent variables. The meaning of a variable is simply a magnitude that varies. Bryman (2008) argues that variables may be continuous or discontinuous, and the latter is expressed as integers. Dependent variables are magnitudes whose changes depend on the changes on other variables. Contrarily, those that do not depend on the changes in other variables are known as independent variables.
Control is another important concept. Control is a concept that is used when a research is seeking to reduce the effects of extraneous independent variables. Extraneous independent variables affect the dependent variable in a study, but they have no direct relationship to the study (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2007). In these cases, whereby extraneous variables affect the dependent variable, the relationship between the independent and dependent variables is said to be confounded.
Elsewhere, research hypothesis is a prediction or an assumption that is adopted by a researcher, in most cases, though the use of defined scientific methods.
Next there is the non-experimental and experimental testing research. Researchers are, mostly, concerned with conducting a research to test a given research hypothesis. Two types of such studies include; experimental and non-experimental (Hanson, Creswell, Clark, Petska & Creswell, 2005). When there is manipulation of the independent variable, it is experimental. On the converse, if there is no manipulation of the variable, then it is non-experimental.
There are groups involved in the research process, which can be divided into two groups; experimental and control groups. Control groups are those groups that are exposed to the normal conditions. On the other hand, experimental group is usually exposed to specific conditions that are new.
Lastly, there is the concept of treatments. Treatments are the different factors and conditions that both the control and experimental groups are subjected to. A good example of these is a study of the response of varying advertisement mediums. Then the advertisement mediums would be the treatments.
Types of Research Design
Research (Luevitoonvechkit, 2010) indicates that there is no consistency in the classification or grouping of research designs. While there are researchers that concentrate their efforts on addressing the question of the study, there are others that classify them depending on the data collection methods applied (Luevitoonvechkit, 2010). There is the need to have a class that is broad enough to include many designs. To this effect, the types of research design discussed in this paper are experimental, non-experimental, and quasi research designs.
Experimental
Experimental design is one of the research designs. In this case, two groups of persons are derived from one population. The two groups will be subjected to different conditions. The first group, which is the experimental group, will be subjected to the special conditions while the second, control group, will be subjected into the normal conditions. The basic assumption of this design is that individuals from one population have similar traits (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2007). Essentially, any difference that is observed between the two ought to have been caused by the new parameters introduced into the study and subjected to the experimental group.
Non-Experimental Design
Non- experimental design is an opposite of the experimental design as the name suggests. That is, there is no comparison of two groups of individuals. Contrary to this, the design focuses on understanding the effects that certain conditions will have on a population under a study. Mostly, the design will also provide information that facilitates the understanding of the processes, contexts and events (Onwuegbuzie & Collins, 2007). In addition, it will provide an explanation of the results that have been observed from the proceedings. An example of this kind of design is the case study research design.
Quasi Experimental
There are some similarities between quasi design and experimental design. Still, in this case, there is no random delegation of individuals to various groups (Hanson et al., 2008). Instead of a control group, present in the experimental design, the researcher in this case will develop a comparison group, which, despite its similarity to the control group, is not an equivalent. An example of such design is instrumental variables, propensity score matching, and regression discontinuity.
Conclusion
A research goes through a process before successful completion. An integral part of the process is the research design. The research design is important since it gives the researcher an insight into the means of conducting the study. The features, concepts, and types of design are important in this regards. The features are indicative of the constitution of a research design while the concepts indicate the important elements to consider in a design as they are common. Lastly, there are the types of research design, which are divided broadly into three categories that encompass many sub-categories. This includes: experimental, non-experimental, and quasi research designs. Understanding the three facilitates the research to choose among them the best approach to use.
References
Bryman, A. (2008). Social Research Methods. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hanson, W. E., Creswell, J. W., Clark, V. L. P., Petska, K. S. & Creswell, J. D. (2005). Mixed Methods Research Designs in counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 52 (2), p. 224.
Luevitoonvechkit, S. (2010). Types of research design. Buddhachinaraj Medical Journal, 24 (3), pp. 369–380.
Onwuegbuzie, A. J. & Collins, K. M. (2007). A typology of mixed methods, sampling designs in social science research. Qualitative Report, 12 (2), pp. 281–316.
Selltiz, C. & Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (1962). Research Methods in Social Relations. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Wiston. | https://www.ukbestessays.com/blogs/research-design/ |
Research Design is a protocol that determines and influences the condition with ground rules for collection and analysis of data.
An appropriate research design is a prerequisite for a valid study
Proposal for research
A carefully made proposal helps in
- Efficient planning of research protocol
- Clearly communicating objectives of research and researcher
- Providing predetermined parameters for evaluating outcomes of study
- Providing researcher with transparent guidelines to conduct study
- Setting a time limit to conclude the process of study
Selection of the topic for study has to be based on certain criteria.
Priority health problems of the country / community – These are the issues that are listed by an authority like World Health Organisation, Government of India or a locally active health watch group that could be a non governmental organisation or a condition that you encounter very frequently in practice.
Appropriateness of the topic in homeopathic context – The topic selected should be relevant for treatment with homeopathy.
Professional development of the learner – The topic selected should provide sufficient scope for the research scholar to grow as an individual and professional.
Before you select the topic for research, deliberate on its importance in your own thinking, then consult your peer group, guide / supervisor and some learned people from outside your discipline
Infra structure for designing a research
- Infrastructure to carry out study – Such an infrastructure should be available in the institute where the study is being done.
- Competent resource person to guide through study – the guide should be sufficiently competent to review the research work and provide support to conduct the study. However, in case of interdisciplinary research, a co-guide from the parallel field may be co-opted to validate the study.
- Sufficient human resources – Like the required kind of patients, paramedical staff, etc
- Adequate financial resources – Some of clinical trials may require expensive pre and post study tests.
- Satisfactory library and referencing resources
First Step – Hypothesis:
Research is essentially a process that enables testing of hypothesis
Hypothesis is a statement that intends to establish a positive relationship, negative relationship or a non-relationship among the variables.
Hypothesis testing is made on the basis of a study design and the further interpretation and projection of results obtained from the study are based on certain biostatistical tests. A research scholar needs to have adequate understanding of study designing and working understanding of biostatistics.
Once you are convinced that a study is justified and feasible, you need to state the null hypothesis and in case the study is planned as experimental study, the experimental hypothesis.
For example, in a study aimed at recording Socio-Economic Status of population attending homeopathic consultation in urban health centre, and considering the popular myth that lower Socio-Economic group does not patronise homeopathy, null hypothesis would be that ‘there is no Socio-Economic criterion for the people attending homeopathic consultation in urban health centre’. Experimental hypothesis would state that ‘population of lower Socio-Economic Group of population doesn’t attend homeopathic consultation in urban health centre’.
Second – Pilot Study:
To assess whether you have sufficient infrastructure, financial support and necessary human resources including appropriate and sufficient sample to carryout research.
Types of Research
1. Descriptive and Analytical
Descriptive research is concerned with describing a state or issue as it exists. This research is useful to describe frequency of diseases among geographic, gender, socio-economic, occupational groups. Research methods like survey are useful in such cases. Descriptive research doesn’t have control over the variables.
Analytical research makes use of the data that is already available and analyses these to evaluate and make discoveries.
2. Fundamental or applied research
Fundamental research is concerned with developing theories and making generalisations. It may imply generating evidence for principles such as Homeopathic Pathogenetic Trials, Drug Dynamisation, etc.
Applied research is application of fundamental principles to evaluate their practicality or to find solutions through the laws of basic sciences. It implies discovering application of existing principles.
3. Qualitative or quantitative research
Qualitative research deals with phenomena that can be expressed in terms of features or attributes. Quantitative research deals with measurement of quantity or volume.
4. Conceptual or experimental research
Conceptual research is concerned with abstract ideas. It is more in tune with studies based on philosophy.
Experimental research on the other hand deals with studies that are dependent on experience and observation. Conceptual research may be opinion based, while experimental research is evidence based.
Designs of study
Next phase of program is to identify which type of study is more appropriate for the research question and indicate how data will be collected and which statistical test will be used to analyse data.
There are two broad research designs – experimental and correlational
Experimental design is the one where variables can be clearly categorised as dependent and independent.
Correlational design there is neither dependent nor independent variable; each of the variables has some sort of affinity without being influential on each other.
The type of study where same group of subjects is used is called as Same Subject Design.
More than one group of subjects is involved, such study is referred to as Different Subject Design.
Same Subject Design is the one where the entire group of subjects is influenced by one independent or experimental variable at a time, followed by the second independent or experimental variable.
Different Subject Design is the one where each of different groups of subjects is simultaneously subjected to one independent / experimental variable at a time to assess their reaction .
Types of Study
A. Descriptive
1. Co-relational
a. Case studies
b. Case reports
2. Case series
3. Cross sectional surveys
B. Analytical
1. Observational studies
a. Case-control study
b. Cohort study
i. Prospective cohort study
ii. Retrospective cohort (trohoc) study
2. Interventional / Experimental studies
a. Randomised clinical trial
Case series are based reports of series of cases of a particular condition. A series of treated cases of a particular condition may also be used in case series. There is no necessity to have a control group, as it is only an observational study.
Cross-sectional studies consist of data collection from a cross section of population. The cross section selected may be entire population at a specified time (prevalence study) or a specified population over a period of time. These are useful to investigate disease trends over a period of time, to plan for health services, etc. These studies are comparatively economical.
Case control studies are conducted to assess whether exposure to a certain risk factor has caused a disease in a population. These are retrospective, interventionist studies and are also called as trohoc studies (the reverse form of cohort).
Case control studies involve gathering a number of subjects who have the clinical condition and a comparable number of subjects who do not have that clinical condition.
The advantage of case control studies is that they are faster and economical as compared to cohort studies. They are also suitable to investigate for rare forms of diseases.
The disadvantage is that they may not be accurate as the time gap of exposure and disease development.
Cohort studies are used to investigate disease causation or to estimate what are the risk factors for a disease. A number of subjects are selected for study and are divided into two groups – one group that is exposed to a risk factor that is supposed to cause a disease, and the other group, which is not, exposed that risk factor. It has to be ensured that none of the subjects have that disease at the beginning of the study and that all the subjects share similar characteristics. These subjects are followed-up over a period of time and data from both the groups are collected, analysed and interpreted to describe the outcomes of study.
The advantage of cohort studies is that rare causes can be faithfully evaluated as being pathogenic. The disadvantage of cohort studies is that they take very long time to complete and these can be very expensive to conduct. Moreover, it could be ethically incorrect to pose healthy subjects to the risks of potentially fatal exposures.
Randomised Controlled Trial is a program in which study is done on two groups for assessing the comparative value of the treatment given. These two groups are termed as control group and experimental group. Control group is the one, which is given a standard treatment modality or placebo. Experimental group is treated with the medicine that is to be tested for its effect – that is homeopathy.
Single blind RCT
These studies are usually done with a ‘blinding’ effect, i.e., often the subjects – both control and experimental – will not know who is getting the medicine and who is getting the placebo or the standard treatment. This technique is called ‘single blind’ study.
Double blind’ RCT
In case both the attending doctor / supervisor as well as the subjects (both experimental and control) are aware as to who is getting what, it is called ‘double blind’ study.
The advantage of RCT is that it allows for the evaluation of effectiveness of a treatment. The evidence that it provides for the effectiveness is strong. The disadvantage is that it is expensive and complicated to organise and a large sample is needed.
Systematic reviews are the studies that are done to assess the cumulative value of a group of experimental studies.
Meta-analysis is a type of systematic review, in which data from individual research studies is gathered and this data is reviewed.
MAL meta-analysis where abstraction of data is done from published papers
MAP, which the data is collected from the authors of the original research for the data of sample units (individual patients) or the data is gathered from unpublished literature.
MAP analyses are said to be more acute and sensitive than MAL analysis
Phase of study
Are the different stages in developing a drug.
There are four phases in the development
Phase I study is the earliest type of studies that are carried out in humans. They are typically done using small numbers (less than 30) of healthy subjects and are to investigate pharmacodynamics, pharmacokinetics and toxicity.
Phase II: studies carried out in patients usually to find the best dose of drug and to investigate safety. Phase III are generally the major studies aimed at conclusively demonstrating efficacy of drug and dose. They are sometimes called confirmatory studies and these are the studies on which registration of a new product will be based.
Phase IV are the studies that are carried out for marketing purposes as well as to gain broader experience with using the new product.
Reference: | https://www.homeobook.com/effective-research-design/ |
T This research aimed to identify the effectiveness of using (ice cream stick) strategy on concept acquisition in philosophy and psychology for fifth grade literary students and the using of experimental curriculum) experimental design with partial adjustment) (which contain two group experimental and post-test control) and the experiment was applied on random sample consisting of (80) sample from fourth grade literary students. The researcher conducts a parity process between two groups depended on the age of students in months and the general concept acquisition for all subjects at the first and second course in philosophy and psychology. This experiment was include (40) student in the experimental and (40) students in control group and all research standards were selected which includes selecting a study subject and behavioral purposes and daily teaching plans and select an achievement test which include (48) questions in the form of multiple choice question which contain four answers. Face validity and content validity for this test have been found and coefficient of difficulty and discriminatory power and reliability factors and T-test for two separated sample was used to show the results. Which amplify that there is a statistical difference for the experimental group which has been studied with this strategy. This show the effectiveness of this strategy in improving the acquisition for the fifth-grade literary students in philosophy and psychology this study give some of recommendations and suggestions. | https://turcomat.org/index.php/turkbilmat/article/view/3558 |
Tri astuti Romadhoni, (2013) THE EFFECT OF USING WEBBING STRATEGY TOWARDS READING COMPREHENSION AT THE SECOND YEAR STUDENTS OF STATE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL 23 PEKANBARU. Skripsi thesis, Universitas Islam Negeri Sultan Syarif Kasim Riau.
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Abstract
Based on the writer’s preliminary study, itwas found thatthe students could not comprehend the meaning of texts in their text books at school. This problem was caused by some factors. For example,some studentscould not understand about the content of reading text and identify the detailed informat ion of the text .So, the writer was interested in carrying out the research about this problem. The research was administered at Junior High School 23 Pekanbaru. The subject of the research was the second year students ofJunior High School 23 Pekanbaru, and the object of this research was the effect of using Webbing Strategy. The design of this research was quasi-experimental research with nonequivalent control group design. The population of this research was all of the second year students. The total number of population was 210students. Because the number of population was large, the researcher used clustering random samplingby taking randomly as sample; class VIII A, consisted of 30 students as an experimental group, and class VIII D which consisted of 30 students as a control group, so the numbers of sample from two classes were 60 students. To analyze the data, the researcher adopted Independent sample T-test formula by using SPSS. Finally, based on the analysis of T-test formula, H 0 was rejected and Ha was accepted.It means that there was a significant effect of using webbing strategy on reading comprehension at the second year students of State Junior High School 23 Pekanbaru. | http://repository.uin-suska.ac.id/9745/ |
Bias is an inherent part of the research process, and scholars must proactively address sources of bias to ensure validity. While bias has the potential to impact each stage of the research process, how participants are assigned to experimental groups is an important part of research design, as selection bias may be introduced. With selection bias, certain members of a sample population are intentionally omitted or targeted based on a specific trait(s). To reduce selection bias, random assignment of participants is used.
With random assignment, participants have an equal chance of being assigned to an experimental or control group, resulting in a sample that is, in theory, representative of the population. Random assignment helps ensure comparable groups, minimizing the influence of individual characteristics, such as age, ...
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The Impact of Using Running Dictation on Developing the Writing Skills on the Tenth Graders at Nablus Private Schools
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Date
2020-07-23
Authors
Ahmad, Hadeel Jameel
Journal Title
Journal ISSN
Volume Title
Publisher
An-Najah National University
Abstract
The study aimed at investigating the effect of using running dictation as a brand new approach for building writing skills for the tenth graders in Nablus private schools. In order to get the study goal, the researcher used the quasi experimental research design (it is used when we can’t control all the factors like feeling and emotions) since it is ideal for the dynamics of the research. The study population included (484) tenth graders in Nablus private schools according to the annual educational statistical book 2019/2020 produced by the Ministry of Education. The researcher chose the study sample purposively since the Nablus private school in which the experiment was applied near to the work place of the researcher. The study sample was comprised of (44) male and female students. The experimental group was comprised of (22) male and female students; while the control group was comprised of (22) male and female students.. The researcher conducted a writing skills achievement test, which aimed to determine the tenth graders' writing skills achievement level of English language before studying the lessons of the units in their school curriculum and after the test in order to compare between them. The results of the study showed that there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the control and experimental groups in the writing skills achievement posttest in favor of the experimental group due to the use of running dictation strategy. Based on the research finding, the researcher recommended using Running Dictation as an effective strategy of developing students' writing skills in teaching writing for the tenth graders. The researcher also recommended doing additional scientific studies associated with making use of Running Dictation technique with various dependent variables like speaking and listening with various grades. | https://repository.najah.edu/items/31c36714-a564-494a-9508-55a2d399bffb |
Using statistics in research is only a small part of understanding the whole research story. Whether you are reviewing, using, or creating research studies, understanding key elements of a research study will help you to see how related pieces fit together, and ultimately how statistics can be used to meet research goals. It is important to think through these elements before a study begins to ensure that your results tell you what you really want to know. Consider how the choice of study design could influence other research choices you might make, such as what statistical procedures you need to conduct to understand and interpret your data. Consider also how the choice to measure a variable using a specific scale of measurement can change your results.
For example, consider a study that researches the emotional recovery of individuals after a car accident. Researchers are specifically focusing on age differences in recovery in this study. In this example of a correlational study, the two variables in the study would be age and emotional recovery. If you wanted to look at these variables in another way, you could assign some participants to a therapy group and some to a control group to measure the effect of therapy on emotional recovery. That would be an experimental study. The independent variable would be therapy, and the dependent variable would be emotional recovery. You would not need to consider each participant’s unique mental health status but would need to keep in mind that statistics allow you to consider the group-level differences in data.
This week, by looking at a research scenario, you will be able to identify and differentiate components that make up a study, such as variables, study design, and scales of measurement.
Scenario:
Researchers want to determine if student intelligence is related to self-esteem. They collect a sample of 300 freshmen from a local university’s participant pool and ask each of them to take an IQ test. The results show IQ scores ranging from 95 to 145.
Researchers also ask students to complete a 20-item assessment of their self-esteem. Each item on the survey is scored on a 1 to 5 scale with higher scores meaning higher self-rating of self-esteem. The researchers average the student responses on the 20 items to get a self-esteem composite score.
The researchers conduct statistical analyses to see if it is probable that the sample accurately describes the relationship between the population’s intelligence (as measured with the IQ test) and self-esteem (as measured with the self-assessment questionnaire).
Assignment:
Based on the scenario , submit responses to the following:
- Identify the sample and what population it represents.
- Identify factors to consider when determining what population the sample represents.
- Categorize the variables of self-esteem and IQ based on scales of measurement in the scenario (ordinal, nominal, etc.).
- Identify limitations/factors to consider when evaluating the generalizability of the results.
- State whether this study design is experimental or correlational. Explain your answer. | http://writemyschoolessay.com/sampling-variables-and-study-design-custom-essay/ |
Yes, You Can Generalize from Experiments!
One of the main criticisms of experimental evaluations — where research units, such as people, schools, classrooms, and neighborhoods are randomly assigned to a program or to a control group — is that they are conducted under such special circumstances that their results may not apply to other people, places, or times. In evaluation parlance, experiments are criticized for having limited “external validity.”
This “problem” with external validity has two main features:
- Because experiments have a hard time recruiting sites to participate in these types of studies, the sites that do participate differ from those that do not; and
- Individuals that participate in experimental evaluations do not look like the broader population(s) of interest. This is generally a consequence of having selected non-representative sites.
These issues can be addressed through either design or analysis: Researchers can design and implement experiments to ensure that they take place in representative settings or researchers can adjust an experiment’s results so that they reflect a broader population of interest.
Improving External Validity through Design
Experiments have been successfully conducted in nationally representative sets of sites. Perhaps the two most notable of these are the National Job Corps Study and the Head Start Impact Study. Of course, a random selection of sites is the most straightforward way to ensure representativeness and the generalizability of an evaluation’s results. But there are other ways to ensure that the sites selected to be part of an experimental evaluation represent the sampling frame of interest.
Recent research provides more flexible alternatives to taking a random sample of sites that allow for administrative realities while ensuring the generalizability of study findings. Beth Tipton’s proposed approach involves grouping like sites, ranking them, and deliberately choosing them to mirror the population of interest. Under this approach, sites that decline to participate in the study can be replaced with the next site in the ranking, preserving the representativeness and making the approach practical and desirable for evaluation.
Improving External Validity through Analysis
Established recommendations exist for adjusting the results from a non-representative experimental evaluations so that they can be generalized to a population of interest. Generally, these involve:
- Analyzing the traits of an experimental sample and their association with the sample’s impacts;
- Comparing features of the sample to those in the broader population differ and how they differ; and
- Adjusting the study’s impacts to reduce differences between the sample and population. This has been addressed by Bell, Olsen, Orr, Stuart and colleagues, and Tipton.
What’s Next for the External Validity of Experiments?
I am excited about the next wave of experimental evaluations. Previous blog posts have discussed other ways in which experiments are increasingly providing better information about program effectiveness to practitioners and policymakers.
I am confident that the improvements to experimental designs in practice will help future evaluations provide more generalizable results. And, when implementing these design advancements is not possible, then analytic advancements can still help researchers, program administrators and policymakers extend the results from experiments to other people, places, and times.
Read more about these evaluation issues: | https://www.abtassociates.com/insights/perspectives-blog/yes-you-can-generalize-from-experiments |
Goal:Logical and realistic interpretation of academic experiences is effective on student's motivation and academic performance. The aim of this study is to design and implement the thinking training Program (based on Brookfield's critical self-awareness) and to evaluate its effectiveness on students' academic buoyancy and attributional style.
Method:The research was performed by quasi-experimental pre-test -post -test method with the unequal control group design. The statistical population of the study included all female students studying in the last year of first highschool in Tehran in the academic year 2019-20, from which 30 people were selected as an available sample from one of the available public schools and were randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. In order to collect data in this study, Hossein Chari and Dehghanizadeh (2012) academic buoyancy questionnaire and seligman et al. attributional style questionnaire (ASQ) were used and the Participants in both experimental and control groups were tested on pre-test and post-test. The executive program was performed for 11 sessions of 60 minutes group training for the experimental group, but the control group did not receive any training. Univariate analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) was used to analyze the data.
Findings: The findings showed that the implementation of thinking training program based on critical self-awareness has promoted academic buoyancy in students. This program also led to a significant superiority of the experimental group over the control group in the positive attributional style and a significant reduction in negative attributional style was also confirmed.
Result:The results of the study confirm the effectiveness of critical thinking based on critical self-awareness in correcting students' attributional style and is able to help students regulate their negative academic excitement and improves academic buoyancy. Therefore, this program can be used as a fruitful model in fostering student's thinking. | https://asj.basu.ac.ir/article_4672.html |
Anne is now the editorinchief of american psychologist, the flagship journal of the american psychological association, and she has passed the. Clinical trials utilizing innovative study designs to. He found that inmates with windows facing a meadow or mountains had significantly lower rates of stressrelated sick calls than inmates with a view of the prison courtyard and buildings. Description and explanation social researchers ask two fundamental types of research questions. In such a study, a group of people will be exposed to an intervention and then compared with another group a control group who have not been exposed, or with a group who had a different intervention. In order to empirically study social behavior, psychologists rely on a number of different scientific methods to conduct research on social psychology topics. Volume 8, health psychology volume 9, assessment psychology volume 10, forensic psychology volume 11, and industrial and organizational psychology volume 12. How we design feasibility studies pubmed central pmc. Descriptive studies aim only to gather data to present a complete picture of a given subject. International journal of clinical and health psychology.
To accomplish this, there is a need to select, adapt, and evaluate intervention studies. The word psychology is derived from two greek words psyche and logos. It introduces the kinds of study designs and methods that are in common usage across the health sciences and which are of particular relevance to psychologists. The difference between health psychology and behavioral medicine might be the most blurred.
Sep 24, 2019 social psychology research methods allow psychologists to get a better look at what causes people to engage in certain behaviors in social situations. Thus, originally psychology was defined as the study of soul or spirit. A 1986 study by west as cited by heerwagen 1986 evaluated the effects of light on health by evaluating prison inmates with different window views. Common mental disorders and disability across cultures. At hpb, this full disclosure policy is implemented in the replication and analysis packages. Study design for evaluating population health and health.
Classification of epidemiological study designs neil pearce 1 faculty of epidemiology and population health, london school of hygiene and tropical medicine, uk and 2 centre for public health research, massey university, wellington, new zealand. Some designs gather information from people with y and without y and then see who was exposed to x in the past. Because of this, psychology began to be regarded as the study of an individuals. There are situations in which an experimental approach may. These methods allow researchers to test hypotheses.
Research designs and methods cliffsnotes study guides. Psychologists use three major types of research designs in their research, and. Crosssectional study objective to estimate the magnitude and patterns of violence against pregnant women study populationbased, household, crosssectional study in mbeya and dar es salaam, tanzania, 20012002 result violence experienced by 7% in dar es salaam and 12% in mbeya. Clinical trials utilizing innovative study designs to assess complementary health approaches and their integration into health care. Key elements of a research proposal quantitative design.
A research design includes the structure of a study and the strategies for conducting that study kerlinger, 1973. The study of human beings starts with the functioning of biological systems especially the nervous system. Descriptive studies include case reports, caseseries. Survey, often with a random sample see survey sampling research designs vary according to the period s of time over which data are.
A collection of recently published articles from subdisciplines of psychology covered by more than 90 apa journals. Learning objectives by the end of this chapter you should appreciate that. Highachieving, interested and able students may consider including a study from the higher education studies program as part of their vce. Usually the design is an rct because that study design affords the greatest internal validity i.
Access study designs, assessment handbooks, assessment advice and other teacher support materials. A first type of research design is called descriptive. An approachable, coherent, and important text,research in psychology. Results from the who collaborative study on psychological problems in general health care. Free apa journal articles highlights in psychological.
Health psychology bulletin hpb strongly recommends full disclosure. There are important differences among the design typologies which provide diverse examples of designs that health psychologists can adapt for. Typically, the phasei or ii trial entails a smaller sample size than a full phaseiii efficacyeffectiveness trial. The researchers use an organized method of locating, assembling, and evaluating a body of literature on a particular topic using a set of specific criteria. Under central nervous system psychology studies the functions. Research methods in occupational health psychology. Epidemiologic study designs descriptive studies seeks to measure the frequency of disease andor collect descriptive data on risk factors analytic studies tests a causal hypothesis about the etiology of disease experimental studies compares, for example, treatments. In healthrelated research, including studies of screening tests, diagnostics.
A guide a wellplanned and conducted study design is critical to the overall credibility and utility of. Public health is moving toward the goal of implementing evidencebased interventions. The study provides opportunities for students to view health and wellbeing, and development, holistically across the lifespan and the globe, and through a lens of social equity and justice. Schabracq university of amsterdam, the netherlands jacques a. On a global scale, there are other health psychology societies linked to the mainstream, for example in japan, canada, australia, and new zealand.
Pathfinder international tool series monitoring and evaluation 1 preparing a case study. Probably the commonest way to design an experiment in psychology is to divide the participants into two groups, the experimental group, and the control group, and then introduce a change to the experimental group and not the. The health psychology and clinical science hpcs doctoral program is concerned with training students with strong research interests in the biopsychosocial determinants of physical and mental health disorders and how to design and evaluate interventions to improve the physical and mental health of individuals, families, and communities. Communications strategies and tools to enhance scientific literacy and understanding of clinical research. A nonanalytic or descriptive study does not try to quantify the relationship but tries to give us a picture of what is happening in a population, e. Such selection relies, in part, on making judgments about the feasibility of. Three measures of disease occurrence are commonly used in incidence studies.
It bridges the gap between undergraduate and postgraduate. A program conducts a simple needs assessment exploratory study and learns that the target students may benefit from intensive oneonone tutoring in math. Its about education, work, marriage its even about sports. Researchers use many different designs and methods to study human development. Our first distinction is whether the study is analytic or nonanalytic. One of the most common and wellknown study designs is the crosssectional study design. Research methods in occupational health psychology cuny. An experimental study is the standard method for evaluating the effectiveness of a health or medical intervention. It is easier to understand the different types of quantitative research designs if you consider how the researcher designs for control of the variables in the.
Regardless of the exact definition, the distinguishing feature of true experimental designs is that the units of studybe they individuals, animals, time periods, areas, clinics, or institutions i. Methods and design, 8theditioncontinues to provide its readers with a clear, concise look at psychological science, experimental methods, and correlational research in this newly updated version. For additional free resources such as article summaries, podcasts, and more, please visit the highlights in psychological research page. This title is a practical guide to carrying out research in health psychology and clinical psychology.
There are situations in which an experimental approach may not be feasible. Descriptive research is designed to create a snapshot of the current thoughts, feelings, or behaviour of individuals. Introduction to research methods in clinical and health psychology. Health psychology is the study of psychological and behavioral processes in health, illness, and healthcare. Neuroimaging and other psychophysiological methods. Social psychology research methods allow psychologists to get a better look at what causes people to engage in certain behaviors in social situations. In this type of research study, either the entire population or a subset thereof is selected. Optimizing the designs of longitudinal studies in occupational health psychology according to the national institute for occupational safety and health, occupational health psychology ohp involves the application of psychology to improving the. Health psychology lecture 1 health psychology research design. Critical reflections on the authors previously published mixed methods research illustrate how a range of different mixed methods designs can be adapted and applied to address health psychology research questions. A guide for designing and conducting a case study for evaluation input by palena neale, phd, senior evaluation associate shyam thapa, phd, senior monitoring and evaluation advisor carolyn boyce, ma, evaluation associate may 2006. A goal of occupational health psychology ohp researchers is to generate. Pdf using mixed methods research designs in health psychology. Introduction to study designs intervention studies and.
Health psychology and behavioral medicine coalesced as recognized fields in the mid1970s. Vce health and human development is designed to foster health literacy. Download a pdf by jeremy howick about study designs. Health psychology lecture 1 free download as powerpoint presentation. All documents from health psychology, 6th edition textbook only health psychology test 1 20110707. In this work, the classification system for research methods in psychology. Winnubst university of utrecht, the netherlands cary l. The handbook of work and health psychology second edition edited by marc j. Such a study helps us to develop a basic understanding about human nature and facilitates us to deal with a number of personal and social problems. Psychology is an academic and applied field involving the study of behavior, mind and thought and the subconscious neurological bases of behaviour. Observational study, can be naturalistic see natural experiment, participant or controlled. For example, chronically occurring environmental stressors affecting the.
The present section introduces the readers to randomised controlled study design. Handbook of research methods for clinical and health psychology. Sensitivity and specificity binary classification measures to assess test results. Sample size the number of units persons, animals, patients, specified circumstances, etc. You will learn about interventional study design and its strengths and weaknesses. Sometimes the data in a descriptive research project are based on only a small set of individuals, often. Introduction a study design is a specific plan or protocol for conducting the study, which allows the investigator to translate the conceptual hypothesis into an operational one. Interventional studies are often performed in laboratories and clinical studies to establish beneficial effects of drugs or procedures. Adapting formal mixed methods designs can help health psychologists.
The sample size should be big enough to have a high likelihood of detecting a true difference between two groups. Mp3, itunes, m4b, rss feed, epub, online reading, pdb, mobi, txt view. Journal of the american medical association, 27222, 17411748. Inappropriate interview questions for psychology doctoral and internship applicants pdf, 79kb. Experimental design refers to how participants are allocated to the different conditions or iv levels in an experiment. Riddle, 2014 and to a range of research designs as long as the work serves the pursuit of strategic behavioral medicine research goals. Behavioral medicine, historically based on learning theory, has become a broad interdisciplinary. Experimental and quasiexperimental study designs can help provide more evidence of a causal or correlational relationship between your services and the outcomes you measure. Full disclosure is the practice of publishing everything required to replicate a study as well as the analyses of its data for more information, see here. Sarafino, thinking, fast and slow by daniel kahneman, he. Psychology is the study of the mind, how it works, and how it might affect behavior.
An interesting example of a case study in clinical psychology is described by. Rounded out with helpful learning aids, stepbystep instructions, and detailed examples of real research studies. With nearly 30 awardwinning faculty and almost 150 people in total, we are a vibrant community whose research continues our departments 100year tradition of studying the deeper mechanisms and processes underlying human behavior and its social and neural bases. Health psychology, 6th edition textbook only, author. Psychology is much bigger than just medicine, or fixing unhealthy things. Freedland washington university school of medicine health psychology has been in the capable hands of anne kazak and her editorial team since 2011. What i want to do is see psychologists working to help people build strengths in all these domains. Victorian certificate of education health and human. | https://coicolrobest.web.app/1043.html |
The PICOT question is: In Black diabetes mellitus type II patients (P), will the early communication of HbA1c indicators within a specialized team (I), compared to Black diabetes mellitus type II patients who were not subject to the new protocol (C), yield better health outcomes (O), at a one-year point after the introduction of the protocol? (T). This paper aims to analyze the importance of the variables and their topicality to the chosen PICOT question.
The first variable (column heading) Author/Year would be relevant for the question in order to identify when the proposed intervention was tested. Besides, it is vital to know the researchers’ names to reference their investigations in the current work further. The second column, Conceptual Framework, contributes to the proper PICOT question organization. In the present case, it is observed that the PICOT question consists of indispensable parts, including population, intervention, comparison, outcome, and time (Pamungkas et al., 2017). It is worth noting that the elements are ordered in a fixed sequence, facilitating further investigation as the structure is already provided.
One of the most critical relevance-based columns for investigating the chosen PICOT question would be Design/Method. Its relevance is due to the fact that the proposed issue requires specific intervention, in particular tests for HbA1c. Based on the question, it can be noted that this is experimental research. The primary method identified within the PICOT question is the experiment that presumes medical intervention. Moreover, observation and comparison are also included in the methodology.
Besides, the column Sample/Setting is vital for this research because it includes both the control and treatment groups. The control group would consist of Black diabetes mellitus type II patients while Black diabetes mellitus type II patients subjected to the new protocol would constitute the treatment group. Notably, the chosen sample comprises people of color, which makes the research highly specialized (Pamungkas et al., 2017). Even though the setting is not stated, it appears that the experiment will be conducted in the context of a hospital.
The column titled Major Variables consists of the independent variable, namely Black diabetes mellitus type II patients exposed to the new protocol and Black diabetes mellitus type II patients with no intervention. In turn, the dependent variable presupposes the outcome of the experiment (Melnyk & Fineout-Overholt, 2014). Hence, this column is crucial for the research since it allows for establishing the results. The data obtained can be compiled in the Data Analysis column, which further contributes to identifying patterns depending on the intervention.
The Findings column will demonstrate the most critical observation within the control and treatment groups. Furthermore, the outcomes can further investigate HbA1c tests and reveal their impact on diabetes recognition at early stages. The final section entitled Appraisal includes a description of the practical implementation of the PICOT question. This column would also constitute recommendations and implications in regards to the proposed and further research in evidence-based practice.
In conclusion, it is observed that the Design/Method column is amongst the essential variable for the research since it defines its organizational structure. Major Variables section is relevant to describe the most important variables within the chosen PICOT question. Yet, the Findings column poses significant relevance since it presents the investigation outcomes that can further be implemented in practice. It should be noted that these three columns are indispensable to research the posed question efficiently. The study will also help to develop a synthesis table that describes the existing materials and data obtained after the experiment. It will allow researchers to reflect upon the usage of HbA1c tests in a patient with diabetes to avoid complications.
References
Melnyk, B., & Fineout-Overholt, E. (2014). Evidence-based practice in nursing & Healthcare: A guide to best practice (3rd ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
Pamungkas, R. A., Chamroonsawasdi, K., & Vatanasomboon, P. (2017). A systematic review: Family support integrated with diabetes self-management among uncontrolled type II diabetes mellitus patients. Behavioral Sciences, 7(3), 62. Web. | https://nursingbird.com/indicators-in-black-diabetes-mellitus-type-ii-patients/ |
Psychology Majors 2 Most Commonly Required Classes:
Research Statistics A SHORT Time to Ponder Why would these be the two most required classes for psychology majors across the country?
3
Chapter Preview Psychology’s Scientific Method
Types of Psychological Research Research Samples and Settings Analyzing and Interpreting Data Conducting Ethical Research Thinking Critically About Research Scientific Method and Health and Wellness
4
A SHORT Time to Ponder As a society, do we value critical thinking?
Is critical thinking uncomfortable sometimes?
5
Scientific Method Science is a method. (It’s a VERB)
It’s not what you study, but how you study it. any objective person can use the scientific method observe some phenomenon formulate hypothesis and predictions test through empirical research draw conclusions evaluate the theory
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Scientific Method – 1. Observe
Step 1: Observe some phenomenon curiosity variables theory
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Scientific Method – 2. Hypothesize
Step 2: Formulate hypotheses and predictions testable prediction derived from theory
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Scientific Method – 3. Research
Step 3: Test through empirical research operational definition of variables analyze data using statistical procedures
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Scientific Method – 4. Conclusions
Step 4: Draw conclusions replication of results → reliability If other people cannot replicate your study, then your result are unreliable. What could this potentially mean for your study? (Think critically!)
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Scientific Method – 5. Evaluate
Step 5: Evaluate the theory change the theory? peer review and publication publish or perish meta-analysis – method by which researchers combine results across studies to establish the strength of an effect theory = broad umbrella category which can either be supported or refuted by testable hypotheses
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Descriptive Research Goal: Describing a phenomenon
observation surveys and interviews case studies Descriptive research does not answer questions about how and why things are the way they are
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Correlational Research
Goal: Identify relationships (does not mean there is a causal relationships) correlation coefficient: r -1.00 ≤ r ≤ 1.00 strength of relationship: magnitude direction of relationship: + / -
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Correlational Coefficients
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Scatter Plots
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Correlational Research
Positive Correlations factors vary in same direction ↑ and ↑ … or … ↓ and ↓ Negative Correlations factors vary in opposite direction ↑ and ↓ … or … ↑ and ↓
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Correlation and Causation
correlation does not equal causation third variable problem Why would some people not WANT to consider a third variable problem? longitudinal design
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Experimental Research
Goal: Determine causation random assignment – extremely important in experimental design independent variable(s) – manipulation dependent variable(s) – measurement All of these vocabulary terms are very important to KNOW!
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Experimental Research
Experimental Group independent variable is manipulated Control Group treated equally, except no manipulation of independent variable
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Validity External Validity Internal Validity
representative of real world issues? do results generalize to the real world? Internal Validity are dependent variable changes the result of independent variable manipulation? bias? logical errors?
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Bias and Expectations experimenter bias demand characteristics
research participant bias placebo effect double-blind experiment
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Example of Experimental Research: Self Esteem
Baumeister’s research findings: “high self esteem leads to aggression” Donnellan & Trzesniewski’s research findings: “low self esteem leads to aggression” What accounts for these different findings? lab-only aggression? type of self esteem?
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Applying Different Research Methods to the Same Phenomenon
Example: Election of President Barack Obama Possible Research Methods: observation survey and interview case studies correlational research experimental research
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Research Sample Population Sample Representative Sample Random Sample
entire group about whom conclusion drawn Sample portion of population actually observed Representative Sample characteristics similar to population opposite of “biased sample” Random Sample equal chance of being selected
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Research Settings “Artificial” world – laboratory setting
controlled setting Real world - natural setting naturalistic observation DISCUSSION: What are the advantages and disadvantages of each setting?
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Analyzing and Interpreting Data
Statistics mathematical methods used to report data Descriptive Statistics describe and summarize data Measures of Central Tendency mean median mode Measures of Dispersion range standard deviation Inferential Statistics draw conclusions about data does data confirm the hypothesis? statistical significance α = 0.05 (confidence level) bridge between sample and population
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A SHORT Time to Ponder What is the difference between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics?
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Research Ethics research participants have rights
Institutional Review Board (IRB) APA Guidelines informed consent confidentiality debriefing deception
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Animal Research in Psychology
animal research has benefited humans used by 5% of researchers rats and mice used 90% of time standards of care in animal research housing feeding psychological and physical well being
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Reality TV – Ethical Issues?
informed consent? Deception? psychological and/or physical risk? is the behavior real? DISCUSSION: What do YOU think?
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A Wise Consumer… is skeptical yet open-minded!
Cautions exercise caution in applying group trends to individual experience avoid overgeneralizing results look for converging evidence question causal inferences consider the source
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Expressive Writing and Health
Results of study on suicide v. accidental death different survivor health different survivor rate of talking about the loss Results lead to study on writing those assigned to write about a trauma experienced better physical health
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Chapter Summary Explain what makes psychology a science.
Discuss common research settings and the main types of research that are used in psychology. Distinguish between descriptive statistics and inferential statistics. Discuss some challenges that involve ethics, bias, and information. Discuss scientific studies on the effect of writing about ones trauma.
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Chapter Summary Steps of the Scientific Method
observe hypothesize research conclude evaluate Research Methods and Settings descriptive, correlational, and experimental studies conducted in natural settings or the lab
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Chapter Summary Data Analysis and Interpretation
descriptive and inferential statistics Challenges: Research Ethics and Bias APA guidelines and the IRB Expressive Writing and Health and Wellness benefits of writing about trauma
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Slicing
To slice is to cut an item into broad, thin pieces. Slicing is use to create three specialty cuts: chiffonade, rondelle and diagonal. Slicing skills are also used to produce oblique or roll cuts and lozenges.
Chiffonade – to finely slice or shred leafy vegetables or herbs.
Wash and destem the leaves. Stack leaves on top of each other and roll them tightly. Make fine slices across the leaves while holding the roll tightly.
Rondelles or Rounds – Disk-shaped slices
Peel the item and make slices perpendicular to the item being cut.
Diagonals – Peel the item and position the knife at an angle and slice it evenly.
Oblique-cut or Roll-cut – Small pieces with two angle-cut sides.
Peel the item. Hold the knife at a 45 degree angle and make the first cut. Roll the item a half turn, keeping the knife at the same angle, and make another cut.
Lozenges – Diamond-shaped pieces, usually of firm vegetables.
Slice the item into long slices. Cut the slices into strips. Cut the strips at an angle to produce diamond shapes.
Horizontal slicing or Butterfly – To slice boneless meat, poultry or fish nearly in half lengthwise so that it spreads open like a book.
With hand opened, hold the item to be cut in the center of your palm. Slice a pocket to the desired depth, or cut completely through.
Chopping
To chop is to cut an item into small pieces where size and shape does not matter.
Coarse Chopping
This procedure is identical to slicing but without concern for size and shape.
Chopping Parsley and Similar Foods
Wash the parsley in water and drain. Grip the chef knife in one hand and hold the knife’s tip with your palm with the other hand. Use a rocking motion up and down while moving the knife back and forth over the parsley.
Chopping Garlic
Break the head of garlic into individual cloves. With the flat edge of the knife crush the cloves. This will help you to remove the peel from the garlic flesh easily. With a flat hand, hold the knife’s tip. Using a rocking motion chop the garlic cloves.Garlic paste can be made by first chopping the garlic and then turning the knife and dragging the knife along the garlic.
Cutting Sticks and Dicing
To dice is to cut an item into cubes.
Before an item can be diced, it must be cut into sticks such as juliennes and batonnets. These sticks are then reduced through dicing into the classic cuts known as brunoise, small dice, medium dice, large dice and paysanne.
Julienne – a stick shaped item with dimensions of 1/8 inch x 1/8 inch x 2 inches. When used with potatoes, this cut is sometimes referred to as an allumette.
Fine Julienne – sticks with dimensions of 1/16 inch x 1/16 inch x 2 inches.
Batonnet – a stick shaped item with dimensions of 1/4 inch x 1/4 inch x 2 inches.
Brunoise – a cube-shaped item with dimensions fo 1/8 inch x 1/8 inch x 1/8 inch
Fine Brunoise – 1/16 inch cube.
Small Dice – A cube-shaped item with dimensions fo 1/4 inch x 1/4 inch x 1/4 inch.
Medium Dice – A cube-shaped item with dimensions of 1/2 inch x 1/2 inch x 1/2 inch.
Large Dice – A cube-shaped item with dimensions of 3/4 inch x 3/4 inch x 3/4 inch.
Paysanne – A flat, square, round or triangular item with dimensions of 1/2 inch x 1/2 inch x 1/8 inch.
Dicing an Onion
Using a paring knife, remove the stem end. Trim the root end but leave it nearly intact. This helps to prevent the onion from falling apart while dicing. Peel away the outer skin.
Cut the onion in half through the stem and root. Place the cut side down on the cutting board.
Cut parallel slices vertically through the onion from the root toward the stem end without cutting completely through the root end.
Make a single horizontal cut on a small onion or two horizontal cuts on a large onion through the width of the onion. Do not cut through the root end.
Turn the onion and cut slices perpendicular to the other slices to produce diced onion.
Mincing
To mince is to cut into very small pieces where shape does not matter.
Mincing Shallots
Peel and dice the shallots, following the procedure for peeling and dicing an onion. With a flat hand, hold the knife’s tip. Use a rocking motion and mince the shallots with the heel of the knife.
Tourner
Tourner is to cut into football-shaped pieces with seven equal sides and blunt ends.
Cut the item into 2 inch pieces. Each piece should have flat ends.
Holding the item between the thumb and forefinger, use a tourne knife or a paring knife to cut seven curved sides ont on the item, creating a flat-ended, football-shaped product.
Parisiennes
Parisienne – spheres of fruits or vegetables cut with a small melon ball cutter.
Cut each scoop with a twisting motion.
Make the cuts close together to minimize trim loss.
Using A Mandoline
A mandoline is a cutting tool. It can cut very thin slices or large quantities of julienned vegetables. This tool cuts very quickly, easily, and very accurately. It can also produce a ridged slice or gaufrette.
Gaufrette – a thin lattice or waffle-textured slice of vegetable cut on a mandoline.
To use, position the legs and set the blade to cut the desired thickness.
Slide the guard into place.
To slice, slide the item against the blade.
To cut gaufrette, select the rigid blade and set to desired thickness. Make the first slice, turn the item 60 to 90 degrees and make a second slice. Turn the item back to the original position and make another slice, and so on. | http://www.manual-archives.com/knife-skills-for-gourmet-cooking/ |
/ Source: TODAY
There's more than one way to chop an onion — but not all methods are created equal.
If just the thought of slicing into an onion is making you teary, don't worry: This chef-approved method will have you slicing and dicing like a pro in no time. It's important to nail the technique because cutting an onion the wrong way can actually affect the way a dish tastes.
For all those home cooks who have ever nicked a finger, peeled off too many layers or sliced uneven strips, here are simple steps to make chopping easy as pie.
- Before you get started, if you're chopping something pungent, like an onion or garlic, make sure to clean your cutting board (or grab another one) before cutting up the next item.
- Rather than holding the knife by the handle, you should actually place your pointer finger and thumb on the “pinch grip” (the base of the blade just above the handle) to enable more control as you chop.
- Chop one end off of the onion so you have a steady base to place it on the cutting board. Cut the onion in half and peel off the papery skin.
- Place the peeled onion half, flat side down, on the cutting board and hold it gently on the top. Make several cuts lengthwise to make rows of strips, without cutting through the root end, which will keep the onion together while making the final dice.
- Next, finish up by chopping rows across the cuts you just made to create smaller pieces. The closer your cuts, the finer the pieces will be.
Ina Garten shares how to chop, slice and peel like a proOct. 23, 201805:41
Feeling confident in your onion-chopping skills? Put them to work by making these delicious dishes: | https://www.today.com/food/how-cut-chop-onion-video-step-step-instructions-t128002 |
The construction is an end-grain butcher block made with Oregon black walnut, maple, and oak woods then top coated with an oiled, food safe finish.
Our cutting board is great for chopping, dicing, cutting, or slicing any fruits, vegetables, or big juicy steak that may find its way on your table.
A magnetic strip runs down the center of the block to hold knives in place for ease of storage.
The cutting board can be stowed away sitting on its flat surface, or on its side for space efficiency.
To prevent food from being stuck in the block, we have added an extra slot on the opposite end to help with air circulation and ease of cleaning.
A combination of professional chefs and master craftsmen have provided their expertise in the construction, design, and reliability of each cutting board. | https://viebellescutlery.com/collections/cutlery/products/everyday-cutting-board |
Give yourself a professional edge in the kitchen with this 6" chef's knife from Zwilling J.A. Henckels. With its broad, strong blade and fine cutting edge, this knife is the one that pro chefs and casual cooks alike reach for again and again for everyday tasks like chopping herbs, dicing vegetables, and slicing fish and meat. From Zwilling J.A. Henckels.
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This product has not yet been reviewed. Be the first to write a review. | http://www.shop.com/Zwilling+J+A+Henckels+Four+Star+6+Chefs+Knife-1395163990-p+.xhtml |
This compact board is elongated in length to accommodate a little more food yet keeping it portably convenient for a small space. You get to mincing a little more herbs, julienning a little more veggie, dicing up a little more meat, well just a little extra for you to to store-up or perhaps feed one extra mouth. And definitely more fruit slices for your cocktail hour.
Tips: You may use the board bilaterally for different purposes. For instance, one side for the meaty or fishy, the flip side for the veggie. Getting confused on which sides to use? Well, ask us to get the labels engraved on the board for you!
*PS: There is no twin in the timber world. So, none of the chopping board will look identical to each other and that’s the gift and surprise from our mother nature. | https://woodalogy.com/compact-k30 |
Let our professional instructors guide you through basic meat cutting for the home cook; then hone your peeling, chopping, dicing and slicing skills. Use our signature Viking knives to debone a whole chicken and trim and carve a pork tenderloin; then learn to use a mandoline like a professional. This valuable three-hour workshop will give you a much greater command of your knives and new-found confidence in the kitchen. At the end of class, enjoy special dishes created using the results of your newly discovered knife skills. | http://www.guidelive.com/things-to-do/114153/knife-skills-2-class-milestone-culinary-arts-center-dallas |
The Wusthof Legende Chef’s Knife is designed for slicing, dicing, and chopping a full range of fruits, vegetables, and more. With its curved belly, the Chef’s knife can be gently rocked through fresh herbs or spices to produce a very fine mince. Wusthof Legende knives feature a slim, scaled down handle with a lightweight feel. The cutting edge produced using the PEtec process is extremely thin, which is what produces the exceptional sharpness. The benefits of the PEtec edge provide extremely high initial cutting performance with exceptionally long edge retention and long life of the blade. The quality of forged Wusthof Legende knives produced using the PEtec process is significantly higher than that produced by the standard manual sharpening process. | https://recipehen.com/wusthof-chefs-knife-8-forged-legende-series/ |
De Rossi Suites, a new hotel located by 3rd Avenue in Gwarimpa, Abuja is recruiting to fill the position below:
Job Title: Cook
Location: Gwarimpa, Abuja (FCT)
Employment Type: Full-time
Description
We urgently seek to hire the services of a Cook / Chef.
The Cook / Chef will be responsible for preparing ingredients at our kitchen processing guest orders, producing meals and cleaning their workspace throughout the day to follow health and safety guidelines.
The Cook will follow recipes consistently, make adjustments based on guest requests, communicate with waiters and prepare garnishes to make an attractive presentation for each meal.
Duties and Responsibilities
Prepare meals according to our standards and quality.
Weigh, measure, mix and prep ingredients according to recipes.
Steam, grill, boil, bake or fry meats, fish, vegetables, and other ingredients.
Check food and ingredients for freshness.
Arrange and garnish dishes.
Handle and store ingredients and food
Work well under pressure and within the time limit.
Ensure that kitchen area, equipment and utensils are cleaned.
Requirements and Skills
Candidates should possess an OND qualification
At least 2 years in same or similar role
Knowledge of safety procedures, including safe temperatures at which ingredients must be kept and to which food must be prepared to avoid foodborne illness
Prior knowledge or flair on pastry production is an advantage
Prior experience in related food and beverage service and food preparation positions
Ability to work as part of a team, collaborating on complex dishes
Interpersonal skills to interact with a variety of other people, such as wait staff, dishwashers, management and sometimes customers
Calm demeanor to work in a high-stress, fast-paced environment
Accountability for the dishes they prepare measuring up to the expectations of management and customers alike
Comprehension and organization to follow direct orders and recipes and to correctly prepare dishes to the standards of the restaurant
Manual skill and hand-eye coordination to handle tools, such as knife techniques for chopping, slicing, cutting and dicing
Ability to stand in one place for hours at a time, handle extreme heat and work shifts will be required.
Application Closing Date
19th June, 2022.
Method of Application
Interested and qualified candidates should send their CV to: [email protected] using the Job Title as the subject of the email. | https://unistores.com.ng/cook/ |
- This informative book covers nearly all of the details a person needs to know regarding cutlery. With a section on the history of knives and mankind, several sections on the types of knives used in the different regions of the world and their differences, a comprehensive section on sharpening with photos showing techniques that can be used for many different types of knives and maintenance of the sharpening equipment, and a section on techniques for using knives, with dicing, chopping, slicing methods and what they each should be used for. Many of the precise cut are shown in the last section which includes recipes from professional chefs from around the world.
- Josh Donald of Bernal Cutlery, has done a fantastic job of making this book an easy to read teaching guide, with plenty of details, making it a great addition to the library of any amateur or professional chef.
- 256 pages with color photographs and diagrams throughout. | https://nordicknives.com/collections/books/products/sharp |
Crushing:
To crush ginger or garlic, place it
near the edge of the cutting board, lay the knife
blade flat over it with the blade facing away
from you, and with the heel of your free hand,
give the side of the blade a good whack, being
careful to avoid the edge of the blade.
Dicing:
Line sticks up perpendicular to the
blade, and slice straight down across them,
creating cubes.
Julienne and Shredding:
Stack a few slices, and use the
slicing technique, cutting straight down through
the stack to create sticks. For matchstick
julienne, start with 1/8-inch slices, and cut
them into 1/8-inch sticks. To shred food into
fine slivers, begin by cutting paper-thin slices,
then cut across them in the same way to create
thin strip.
Mincing:
Start by cutting the ingredient into
thin strips, then dice the strips. Hold the knife
handle in one hand and, with the other, hold down
the tip of the blunt edge of the blade. Using the
tip as a pivot, raise and lower the blade in a
chopping motion, moving it from side to side to
mince everything evenly. Scoop up minced
ingredients occasionally, flip them over, and
keep chopping to ensure even mincing.
Parallel Cutting:
Used to cut broad, thin slices of
meat or vegetables. Lay the food close to the
edge of the board with the fingers of your free
hand flat on top of it. Angle the Chinese chef's
knife so that it's almost parallel to the board,
slanting slightly downward. Move it slowly and
carefully back and forth to slice the food,
paying close attention to avoid cutting your
fingers.
Roll-Cutting:
This technique is used for long
vegetables, like carrots or zucchini. It makes
attractive chunks and exposes more of the surface
area of the vegetable. Hold the blade
perpendicular to the board and cut straight down
on the diagonal. Then roll the vegetable a
quarter-turn, and cut straight down again at the
same diagonal angle. Continue rolling and cutting
in this way all along the length of the
vegetable.
Slicing:
Holding the food and the Chinese
chef knife firmly, cut straight down, using the
knuckles of your free hand as a guide.
Tenderizing:
Use the blunt edge of the Chinese
chef's knife to tenderize meat by pounding it in
a crisscross pattern. It's even more fun to get
out your aggressions by turning the blade on its
side and slapping the surface of the meat.
To submit your favorite recipes to be
included in the Garden of Friendship Recipe Book,
please email them to Barbiel
To submit your favorite recipes to be
included in the Garden of Friendship Recipe Book, | http://gofrecipes.tripod.com/tipscuttech.html |
The Miyabi Black Rocking Santoku Knife performs the three essential cutting tasks a Santoku is named for: slicing, dicing, and mincing. The blade of a Santoku is thinner than the blade of a chef’s knife, and the blade edge is also sharpened at a more acute angle than Western-style blades. The blade shape of this knife accommodates both rocking and chopping cuts.
The Miyabi Black collection is a work of art. The blade is made from an MC66 micro-carbide powder steel core with a 132-layer flower Damascus pattern. The ice-hardened CRYODUR blade undergoes a four-step hardening process. The finished blade features a hand-honed edge and 66 Rockwell hardness for exceptional edge retention. The black ash handle is D-shaped for a comfortable grip and includes a steel end cap. Each Miyabi knife undergoes a Honbazuke three-step honing process for exceptional sharpness. Made in Japan. | https://www.cutlerysale.com/discount-miyabi-black-rocking-santoku-knife/ |
Confused by cooking terms?
In this 3 part series, we’ll summarize some common cooking terms.
Let’s begin with different ways to cut-up food.
- Slice Slicing refers to cutting large ingredients into similarly shaped, flat pieces, such as sliced bread or sliced potato.
- Julienne Julienne refers to cutting food into long thin strips, similar to matchsticks, such as julienned carrots.
- Chop Chopping refers to cutting food up into smaller pieces – usually in no particular shape or size, unless specified in a recipe.
- Dice Dicing refers to cutting food into square-shaped pieces. These pieces are usually smaller and more uniform in size than when chopping.
- Shred Shredding refers to tearing, cutting or scraping food into strips, such as shredded cheese. This is often done using the larger holes on a food grater.
- Grate Grating refers to cutting food into very small shreds using the smaller holes of a food grater, such as grated parmesan cheese.
- Mince Mincing refers to cutting food up into very small pieces, similar to crumbled ground beef. This often requires the use of a food processor or blender.
- Puree Puréeing refers to breaking food into extremely small pieces until it has a pudding-like consistency. This will require the use of a food processor or blender.
Moving on to measurements. Most measurements are self-explanatory and have corresponding tools for measuring… a cup, a tablespoon, a teaspoon…
But what exactly is a dash, a pinch or a smidgen? These types of measurements allow for flexibility depending on your personal tastes.
In general: | https://mijava.com/tag/understanding-cooking-terms-part-1/ |
Effective cooling of the diamond blade at the point of contact with the material being processed is essential for any diamond cutting/ grinding application. Yet, cooling is one of the more overlooked conditions in the system.
The starting point for an efficient cooling system is the supply nozzle configuration which directs the coolant medium. Dual nozzle arrangements have significant advantages over most single nozzle designs in supplying coolant to the critical areas of the diamond blade during the cutting operation. Coolant must be directed at the blade/material interface as well as the leading edge of the blade. The coolant, after leaving this initial contact point, should follow along both sides and the extreme outside edge of the blade in such a manner that it will create intimate contact with these blade surfaces.
Proper workpiece position for efficient cooling.
A single-nozzle and dual-nozzle cooling
A single nozzle will satisfy the directional requirements but will fail to create intimate contact with the blade along its sides. The single stream of coolant, directed at the cutting interface, is split by the diamond blade into two separate streams and deflected away from the sides of the blade. The resulting decrease in cooling efficiency is characterized by more edge chipping damage when processing brittle materials, shorter blade life, and erosion on the sides of the diamond blade, which will cause uneven cuts.
The addition of side rails that direct a separate coolant supply to both sides of the blade is an attempt to compensate for the shortcomings of a single nozzle design. The problem is that the additional coolant supply interferes with the primary front supply, creating a non-directional and turbulent flow around the cutting edge of the blade so that each stream will favor increased efficiency in removing the debris developed during the cutting process. However, if the velocity of coolant supplied by the side rails is set to a point at which it will not interfere with the primary coolant stream, it will act as a wash due to the constant supply of flood coolant to the surface of the material being cut. This feature is worthwhile for surface-sensitive materials.
Dual nozzles provide two separate streams of coolant to the cutting interface, and at an angle to the cutting edge of the blade so that each stream will favor one side of the diamond blade after providing the necessary coolant to the leading edge. This approach provides the necessary coolant to all of the critical areas of the cutting blade, with no loss of the directional flow required for removing the debris generated during cutting.
Dual coolant nozzles meet the necessary criteria for the dicing/slicing of a wide variety of applications. A resinbonded blade is shown cutting through 0.165-in (4.191-mm) sapphire in one pass.
Main requirements for coolant nozzles
An extremely important step in setting the direction of the coolant flow is to ensure that the six-o-clock position of the blade is being supplied with adequate coolant in addition to the already mentioned guidelines. Coolant nozzles must provide a full and airless flow of coolant. Additionally, the nozzles should be installed in close proximity to the blade in order to prevent excessive pressure drop of the supply and to ensure that no air will become entrapped in the coolant stream prior to contact with the blade/ material interface.
Recirculating coolant systems require efficient filtering to remove the particles generated during cutting. These systems may incorporate cartridge, centrifugal, or cascade type filtering methods, and must be selected to fit the applications. Excessive particles suspended in the coolant medium will retard the heat transfer properties of the coolant, and cause surface damage to sensitive workpiece materials. Once the proper system has been installed, it must be maintained relative to the rate at which the volume of material is removed from the workpiece, in order to ensure consistent and reliable performance.
Coolant temperatures have a pronounced effect on blade life and cut quality in diamond 7 grinding technology. Test results indicate that coolant temperatures above 80° F (27° C) should be avoided, while temperatures of 50° F (10° C) or less dramatically improve cutting performance. Refrigeration of the coolant medium is easily adapted to most recirculating systems and is highly recommended.
The requirements of the variable dicing system components discussed thus far are basic and mandatory for successful diamond grinding in any application. Once the awareness factor of these variables is realized and made a part of the system building process, only then should the major components be procured. It is at that time that operational control functions, ergonomics, and the degree of automation of the dicing/slicing machine become a part of the final buying decision. These functions, as a part of the interacting variable components which make up the total system, warrant equal and due investigation. | https://dicing.com/es/blog/article/why-is-efficient-cooling-necessary |
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The Fundamentals – Knife Skills
Join us for chopping, mincing, dicing and slicing as we prove that knife skills are an essential skill in your kitchen, not just for professionals. You’ll learn knife care and safety; the difference between sharpening and honing and about different knife styles. Led by Chef Barbara Sowatsky, you’ll practice good technique, and get comfortable with all the classic cuts; the chefs knife will soon be your new best friend. Then celebrate your new skill set by enjoying the fruits (and veggies) of your labor. What you will be making is a
Hearty Vegetable Frittata, and a
Mixed Chopped Green Salad, all to be enjoyed with a glass of wine.
Settle in and get comfortable with the most important tool in the kitchen. | https://www.whiskcooks.com/classes/the-fundamentals-knife-skills-5/ |
Please Note: This event has expired.
Jan 15 2020
Take your cooking skills to the next level.
Learn how to select, use, sharpen, and store the knives that are right for you. You’ll practice slicing and dicing, and learn how to put an edge on your cutting tools. | https://www.milwaukee365.com/event/basic-culinary-knife-skills/ |
Ideal for slicing, chopping and dicing, this Saigo Chef Combo knife has a 20cm stainless steel blade for simple and easy cutting. The non-slip ergonomic handle also makes it comfortable to use. An excellent addition to any kitchen. | https://www.exportersindia.com/product-detail/stainless-steel-knife-3484199.htm |
Two of the most essential principles of democracy are accountability and transparency, without which democracy would be impossible. Accountability ensures that government officials are held accountable to the citizenry; transparency gives the public the right to access government information and requires that decisions and actions made by the government are open to public scrutiny.
What happens when transparency and accountability are absent? When the public is made ignorant of government information and decisions, it cannot hold meaningful elections or make informed electoral choices. This leaves the government free to become self-serving, corrupt, and arbitrary.
In democracy, elected officials are held accountable because it is the citizenry that elects them to begin with, and re-election theoretically heavily depends on how well those elected officials have served the interests of the people. An elected official who behaves in a way that is not consistent with the will and values of the citizenry—such as participating in illegal activities, succumbing to corruption, or failing to execute their duties competently—is subject to the people’s scrutiny.
Civics Lesson: The Freedom of Information Act of 1966
The Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) of 1966 established that “any person has a right, enforceable in court, to obtain access to federal agency records.” Signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, FOIA is designed to ensure that the public has access to any requested information from executive branch government agencies, including “cabinet offices, such as the departments of Defense, State, Treasury, Interior, and Justice (including the Federal Bureau of Investigation and the Bureau of Prisons); independent regulatory agencies and commissions, such as the Federal Trade Commission, Federal Communications Commission and the Consumer Product Safety Commission; ‘government controlled corporations’ such as the U.S. Postal Service and Amtrak; and presidential commissions.”
There are nine exemptions to FOIA that restrict the release of information. While FOIA applies to the Executive Office of the President and the Office of Management and Budget, it does not apply to the President, the President’s immediate staff, the Vice President, or the Office of Administration.
Photo credit: Shutterstock
One of the ways in which this “right to know” is protected is through freedom of the press. In the United States, the media has broad protections granted by the Constitution that allow it to seek out and share information of public interest.
Accountability is further enshrined in the U.S. through Constitutional Limits and the separation of powers, which provides a set of checks and balances designed to keep any one branch from abusing its power or dominating the others. The separation of powers is furthered by the 10th Amendment of the Bill of Rights, which states, “The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people.” This helps to ensure that local needs are decided by lower levels of government, allowing the people to be closer to the decision-making process and, if need be, hold local elected officials accountable.
Together, accountability and transparency safeguard against corruption and tyranny and help create government policies that better serve the people—rather than simply lining the pockets of government officials. These safeguards are absent in dictatorships, which paves the way for abuse of power. In the 2015 Corruption Perceptions index, Transparency International (TI) found that of the top 50 most corrupt countries in its “perception surveys,” 30 were categorized as “not free,” while 20 were “partly free” but mostly bordering on “not free.” This stands in stark contrast to the top 50 least corrupt countries: 40 were categorized as “free,” four were “partly free,” and six were “not free.”
The best way to fight and prevent corruption and tyranny in our government is to hold our government officials accountable, demand transparency, and arm ourselves with facts. Our founding fathers understood the importance of these principles in democracy, and so, too, should we. | https://www.civicsnation.org/2018/06/25/democracy-accountability-transparency/ |
Corruption vulnerabilities exist where government officials have power over the provision of goods and the imposition of costs. Building permits and infrastructure contracts are examples of state-issued goods. Traffic tickets and tax liabilities are examples of costs levied by the state. These and other corruption vulnerabilities turn to actual threats when officials calculate that the benefits of abusing their power are greater than the penalties associated with getting caught. By a similar logic, the formula for corruption control requires increasing the probability of detecting corruption—that is, of activating the Eye—through enhanced monitoring, and then effectively cracking the Whip by applying the appropriate penalty in response to wrongdoing. Notably, the common policy response to corruption often emphasizes only the first of the two mechanisms. Governments prioritize transparency measures, but avoid the risks associated with confronting corruption. Therefore, as a means to improve on the current situation, this book examines distinct approaches to promoting accountability, especially accountability among the set of unelected officials responsible for regulating the built environment. I study the implementation of Mexico’s Freedom of Information Act, and analyze the results of field experiments on corruption control conducted in the City of Queretaro in Central Mexico, urban and peri-urban districts in Peru, and two of New York City’s boroughs. The book offers evidence-based recommendations on how societies can go about fighting bureaucratic corruption.
The results of this project are presented in a book manuscript which is currently under review.
This project is part of CDEP's Politics, Institutions, and Conflict Initiative. | https://cdep.sipa.columbia.edu/projects/watchful-eye-cracking-whip |
Transparency and accountability are core values deeply embedded in an NGO. Since NGOs exist for carrying out voluntary work, it is expected that their actions demonstrate honesty, responsibility and answerability.
According to Transparency International,
“Transparency is about shedding light on rules, plans, processes and actions. It is knowing why, how, what, and how much. Transparency ensures that public officials, civil servants, managers, board members and businesspeople act visibly and understandably, and report on their activities. And it means that the general public can hold them to account. It is the surest way of guarding against corruption, and helps increase trust in the people and institutions on which our futures depend.”
Transparency and accountability not only help NGOs bring efficiency in their work, but they also improve their fundraising prospects. Donor agencies love to fund NGOs that have a clear set of rules, express openness and are responsible for the results shown.
Accountability can be classified into four types:
Upward Accountability: This refers to the responsibility of an NGO towards being accountable to funders, donors and government institutions. As an organization, you are answerable to donors and funders about how you will be utilizing their money.
Horizontal Accountability: This refers to being responsible with project partners, peers and related organizations. It also includes enhancing partnerships and collaborations with other organizations and stakeholders.
Downward Accountability: This means that as an organization, you are responsible towards your beneficiaries and the target audience. You have received funding from a donor for the upliftment and improvement of lives of these beneficiaries, and therefore you are answerable to them. Along with being accountable to them, you also should involve them with the project implementation.
Internal Accountability: One of the most important aspects of accountability is to be answerable to your employees and your organization’s mission. It means that you have ethical standards and governance structures and justify your organization’s core value. | https://ask.fundsforngos.org/cat/why-are-the-concepts-of-transparency-and-accountability-important-for-ngos/ |
- How Will the Coronavirus Reshape Democracy and Governance Globally?
Good governance is the process whereby public institutions conduct public affairs, manage public resources and guarantee the realization of human rights in a manner essentially free of abuse and corruption, and with due regard for the rule of law. The true test of 'good' governance is the degree to which it delivers on the promise of human rights: civil, cultural, economic, political and social rights.
Political corruption or Malpolitics is the use of powers by government officials or their network contacts for illegitimate private gain. Forms of corruption vary, but can include bribery , lobbying , extortion , cronyism , nepotism , parochialism , patronage , influence peddling , graft , and embezzlement. Corruption may facilitate criminal enterprise such as drug trafficking , money laundering , and human trafficking , though it is not restricted to these activities. Misuse of government power for other purposes, such as repression of political opponents and general police brutality , is also considered political corruption. Over time, corruption has been defined differently.
Transparency to curb corruption? Concepts, measures and empirical merit
The new coronavirus pandemic is not only wreaking destruction on public health and the global economy but disrupting democracy and governance worldwide. It has hit at a time when democracy was already under threat in many places, and it risks exacerbating democratic backsliding and authoritarian consolidation. Already, some governments have used the pandemic to expand executive power and restrict individual rights. Yet such actions are just the tip of the iceberg. The coronavirus will likely transform other pillars of democratic governance—such as electoral processes, civilian control of militaries, and civic mobilization—and potentially reset the terms of the global debate on the merits of authoritarianism versus democracy. This article surveys this wide spectrum of effects.
Our modern understanding of business ethics notes that following culturally accepted norms is not always the ethical choice. Does that behavior become unethical, and is the person engaged in the behavior unethical? In some cultures, there may be conflicts with global business practices, such as in the area of gift giving, which has evolved into bribery—a form of corruption. In India and Mexico, for example, a grease payment may help get your phones installed faster—at home or at work. Transparency International tracks illicit behavior, such as bribery and embezzlement, in the public sector in countries by surveying international business executives. New Zealand, Denmark, Singapore, and Sweden have the lowest levels of corruption, while the highest levels of corruption are seen in most African nations, Russia, Myanmar, and Afghanistan. Even the most respected of global companies has found itself on the wrong side of the ethics issue and the law.
Transparent Governance & Anti-Corruption
Erwann Sabai and Dr. Chirok Han from University of Auckland for their valuable comments and to the following people: Dr. Shahid M. Alam of Northeastern University, Boston, for their intuitive comments; and Ms. However, the authors are responsible for any errors or omissions, which are of course unintended. Using panel data from the International Country Risk Guide corruption index, institutional quality and political stability indices and several state variables for developed and developing countries, this paper explores the linear quadratic empirical relationship between corruption and economic growth.
G20, and that there is no nation in the world where corruption is not an issue what- economic growth to a distortion of public expenses, and are an important corruption is not just a problem of corrupt officials but as well of companies and of the correlation between the level of voice and accountability and control of.
How Will the Coronavirus Reshape Democracy and Governance Globally?
The United States believes addressing corruption begins with countries around the world sharing a common vision and a strong commitment to taking effective, practical steps to prevent and prosecute corruption. To turn talk into action, the United States directly engages other countries, promotes internationally recognized standards, sponsors reform programming, and contributes to building the architecture for cross-border cooperation. To sustain this effort, INL engages in high-level diplomacy and reinforces the important role played by civil society, the media, and the business community.
Policymakers and researchers often cite the importance of government transparency for strengthening accountability, reducing corruption, and enhancing good governance. Yet despite the prevalence of such claims, definitional precision is lacking. As a consequence, approaches to measurement have often cast a wide net, in many cases tapping into the capacity of government institutions more generally, resulting in empirical findings that are ambiguous in terms of interpretation.
Introduction
Metrics details. Corruption is recognized by the global community as a threat to development generally and to achieving health goals, such as the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 3: ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being for all. As such, international organizations such as the World Health Organizations and the United Nations Development Program are creating an evidence base on how best to address corruption in health systems. At present, the risk of corruption is even more apparent, given the need for quick and nimble responses to the COVID pandemic, which may include a relaxation of standards and the rapid mobilization of large funds. As international organizations and governments attempt to respond to the ever-changing demands of this pandemic, there is a need to acknowledge and address the increased opportunity for corruption.
Сьюзан! - позвал. - Меня осенило. Здесь шестнадцать групп по четыре знака в каждой. - О, ради Бога, - пробурчал себе под нос Джабба. - Все хотят поиграть в эту игру.
Червь ползет с удвоенной скоростью. У нас осталось всего восемь минут. Мы ищем число, а не произвольный набор букв. - Четыре умножить на шестнадцать, - спокойно сказал Дэвид.
Сьюзан, - начал он, - этого не должно было случиться. - Он провел рукой по своим коротко стриженным волосам. - Я кое о чем тебе не рассказал. Иной раз человек в моем положении… - Он замялся, словно принимая трудное решение.
Она понимала, что найти принадлежащую Хейлу копию ключа будет очень трудно. Найти ее на одном из жестких дисков - все равно что отыскать носок в спальне размером со штат Техас. Компьютерные поисковые системы работают, только если вы знаете, что ищете; этот пароль - некая неопределенность.
Я возьму такси. - Однажды в колледже Беккер прокатился на мотоцикле и чуть не разбился.
Почему я звоню. Я только что выяснил, что ТРАНСТЕКСТ устарел. Все дело в алгоритме, сочинить который оказалось не под силу нашим лучшим криптографам! - Стратмор стукнул кулаком по столу.
Три строки по пять, семь и снова пять слогов. Во всех храмах Киото… - Довольно! - сказал Джабба. - Если ключ - простое число, то что с. Варианты бесконечны.
Она не обратила внимания на его просьбу. - Сядь. - На этот раз это прозвучало как приказ. Сьюзан осталась стоять.
Ничего страшного - это глупая болтовня. То, что там происходит, серьезно, очень серьезно. | https://alfabia.org/and-pdf/513-government-accountability-and-corruption-as-a-global-soietal-problem-pdf-958-534.php |
Any discussion on corruption normally whips up emotions, anticipation, irritation, sadness, and compunctions. The corruption question and its impacts continue to dominate family discourse, community consultations, village square chats, places of worship, cabinet meetings, parliamentary sessions, national conferences and seminars. Sadly, only a sizeable few of such conversations proffer suggestions on how to prevent it.
Corruption is an irrational behaviour with grave costs on the individual, people and government and undermines every aspect of development, mostly the political and socio-economic growth of society. It is ubiquitous, irrespective of region, culture, tribe and religion. Corruption and governance are perceived to be innately fused both receiving continual adhesion from each other. When systemic and prevalent, corruption guides public policies, determine state contracts, forge appointments, sway discretions and judgements, establish projects, launch programmes and obliterate sanctions. The most efficient way of controlling or checking corruption, as several authorities have suggested, is to strengthen vulnerable systems, procedures, processes and flush out sleazy practices. This includes suggestions that institutions should be reviewed constantly along with officials manning them.
Notwithstanding where systems are strong or impervious, corrupt officials create and instigate weaknesses and opportunities for abuse and corruption. This highlights the essence for continuous system review and audit to ensure that particular processes and procedures are not broken by officers overseeing them.
Preventing Corruption
Anti-corruption literature and policies are replete with strategies to combat corruption. Approaches recommend employing culture as a purveyor to control corruption; increasing controls by audits and performance bench marking; institutional reforms enhancing transparency and accountability; strengthening anticorruption agencies and effective investigation and prosecution. Despite the colossal literature from academics, policy makers and civil society, corruption remains effervescent.
Enforcement against corruption takes place after the commission of the crime and with dire costs of the corrupt act on the society particularly the poor. The costs of enforcement and recovery are colossal, and criminal elements are compromising law enforcement efforts; this insight impels the imperative of building formidable systems that envision preventing corruption with irrepressible structures that hold off intensities and vagaries of corruption.
Short or long term, preventing corruption saves time, expenses and strains of enforcement; prevention is sustainable as it thrives on civil vigilance and support. Prevention corresponds and complements enforcement.
The United Nations Convention Against Corruption in 2003 specifically demands that states put up adequate statutory policies and programmes to prevent corruption (Chapter 2) and also fight corruption through criminalization and enforcement measures (Chapter 3). Rightly as the Independent Corrupt Practices and Other Related Commission (ICPC) has emphasized in several fora, it is imperative to maintain a balance between prevention and enforcement and not discard one for the other.
Preventive Tools
One peculiar aspect of the ICPC Establishment Act – a legislation that predates the United Nations Convention Against Corruption (2003), is the patent provisions on preventive measures against corruption. Though section 6(a) of ICPC Establishment Act provides for enforcement, section 6(b) – (d) provides for the examination and study of systems, procedures, and practices that may be permitting corruption, and advice government and officials to review such skewed systems, procedures, and practices. ICPC employs this provision as authority to identify and detoxify crooked public systems and procedures with advisories to relevant and concerned public agencies and officials realizing that these weak systems are cesspools for corruption.
These tools include the System Study and Review (SSR), Corruption Risk Assessment (CRA), Ethics and Compliance Scorecard (ECS), Corruption Monitoring and Evaluation (CME) etc. These tools have become the cornerstones of the Commission’s operations and have helped to check fraud and theft of public funds and reduce opacity and shaded practices as public systems are opened up for public scrutiny.
The focus here, however, is on two of ICPC’S preventive tools – the System Study and Review (SSR) and the Corruption Risk Assessment (CRA) under sections 6 (b) – (d) of ICPC Establishment Act.
System Study and Review
Systems study as the name implies inquire into government systems, practices and procedures to identify vulnerabilities permitting corruption and advise a review. It may be profound as procurement in huge projects covering construction of dams, stadia, and social investment programme, while also assessing granular and isolated issues as discretionary powers, poor record keeping, assets regularity, personnel appointments and promotions, etc. This tool is mostly compelled by reports, complaints and realities of broken public systems demanding the Commission’s intervention.
Since 2003, the ICPC has deployed the SSR in numerous public ministries and parastatals. Agencies are selected not in particular order but may include fallouts from findings made from investigation conducted, reports from the media, petitions and complaints from the public and the Commission’s direct intelligence reports.
Methodology adopted may require public hearing to gather opinion, concerns, complaints and suggestions; training sessions may be conducted to sensitize staff, stakeholders and the public on the assignments to prompt and elicit their submissions.
Objectives of the study would include but not limited to identifying vulnerable areas, which make the institution susceptible to corrupt tendencies; design and facilitate implementation of corruption controlling recommendations; empower staff against corruption; promote awareness on the essence and functions of Anti-corruption and Transparency Units (ACTUs).
Also, the System Study and Review on Capital and Personnel Budget Implementation, conducted in 201 Ministries Departments and Agencies in 2019 made several disclosures among other infractions that include appropriation of funds in excess of actual personnel cost suggestive of inflation of nominal roll; use of pension and health insurance budgets for unrelated payments. Others include failure to remit deducted taxes, Virement, and use of capital project funds for overhead costs or agency’s running costs.
System study presents the institution with reports of its weaknesses and vulnerabilities militating against effectiveness and productivity and recommends actions to stem the drift.
Corruption Risk Assessment
Risk assessment comes in a variety of forms – financial, cultural, environmental, forensic, health, criminal justice etc. Almost every form of human endeavour has some form of risk assessment or the other. The common decimal of these consist of – identifying risks that may be injurious to the institution or its personnel; detect object or subject that may cause the risk; assess the risks and determine action to take; review the risk assessment and ensure implementation of suggestions.
This analytical and diagnostic tool focuses on potential for risks and not the perception, existence or extent of corruption. It is disposed to evaluating likelihood of corruption occurring and the impact this would have on an institution should it occur. However, the fact that a threat exists may not warrant the conclusion that the organization is at risk.
A risk assessment identifies immanent threats and determines whether those threats actually relates to the organization, its operations, management and existence and mainly, if it could be detrimental to the organization. Indeed, as President Muhammad Buhari noted, “Corruption Risk Assessment… places a premium on prevention as an effective complement to enforcement in the war against corruption.”
Appreciating the crucial nature of corruption risk assessment in the fight against corruption, ICPC with the support of donor agencies at various times trained 69 and later 42 assessors drawn from the Commission, civil society organizations and other anti-corruption agencies.
The methodology of corruption assessment include identifying risks, listing the risk factors and schemes; collection of data, identifying risks specific to the agency, rating probability and potential impact of each corruption scheme, presenting mitigating actions, controls and processes, calculating residual or unforeseen risks and response plans.
Corruption risk assessment has also been conducted on Lagos and Abuja airports and in some cases with assistance and collaboration from international and local agencies like United Nations Development Programme, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, European Union, British Council, Bureau of Public Procurement and TUGAR.
The reports on Education, Health and Water Resources Sector listed weighty issues, such as management malfeasance; ethical dilemma by officers on difference between gift and gratification; non-compliance and adherence to laws; abuse of rules and procedures of procurement, and more.
Other issues identified include, politically motivated appointments that create incompetence and inefficiency; absence of Standard Operating Procedures and manuals to guide operations; absence of complaint, redress or sanctions mechanism; failure to sanction or prosecute officers indicted for criminal offences, etc.
Findings from the Abuja and Lagos airports assessment report indicated general tolerance and permission of touting which create serious security risks to the airports and travelers; security agency officials influence posting to the two airports; undue interference and abuse of protocol by senior security personnel to facilitate passengers’ passage; over population of security officers and check desks causing unwarranted delays; brazen offer of money by passengers to security officials for one favour or the other; corruption at the two airports also aggravated by poor automaton and computerization, and so on.
Assessment has also been made on e-platforms covering public sector payments such as the Treasury Single Account, Integrated Payroll and Personnel Information System, Government Integrated Financial Management System etc. The Commission has through these tools improved service delivery and instilled some accountability and ethical discipline in most reviewed ministries, departments and agencies.
Impact of System Study and Risk Assessment
SSR and CRA tools have instigated tremendous improvements and progress in government institutions and escalated this in the nation. Through systems reviews, most MDAs visited have corrected systems hitherto crooked or with exposures to pathogens of corruption and unethical practices. Peripheral and opaque systems and processes are opened up for public scrutiny thereby speeding up service delivery. Reports also indicate that transparency, integrity and efficiency are enhanced in public systems and practices as records and processes are up for checks.
Where records were not kept or transactions made hand to hand, the studies have directed and insisted on computerized flies, electronic and automated payment systems to check theft and leakages of government funds and revenue.
System studies and reviews have helped to recover billions of public funds fraudulently diverted from government projects and converted to private purses and use. This intervention hampers impunity and the twisted conception that public office thieves could evade punishment whatever the felony.
The constant visitations through system studies are impelling government agencies to their responsibilities. Officials are conscious of conducting themselves ethically and not abusing their offices. The University System Study Review principally has improved tertiary education management and administration in Nigeria. The morphology and structures of the institutions that were studied have been improved, admission and evaluation processes also enhanced, sexual and ineffable harassment of students by lecturers greatly reduced if not diminishing. ICPC is prosecuting a number of university teachers for this criminal act and primitivism.
The reports of corruption risk assessment, on the other hand, have ensured that infrastructure and facilities are enhanced as shown in the airports and seaports. E-payment platforms are being introduced and touting drastically reduced as security is upgraded. Funds recovered from these studies are ploughed back to government treasury to boost public expenditure and projects.
Importantly, system reviews and risk assessments have checked the monumental attrition and erosion of public office ethics and accountability, and have exposed felonies being committed in public offices. Much consideration is presently being accorded these tools as more officers are being investigated and prosecuted from the outcomes of the deployments.
Conclusion
Approaches like the system study and risk assessment are helpful in checking corruption in government and private organizations. As reports of the deployment indicate, the fight against corruption can only be successful and sustainable with a combination of enforcement and preventive approaches. Undeniably, it is beneficial to prevent than pursue curative or therapeutic measures after the harm.
Reports of the deployments have been commendable, and serving the nation, government, and people more effectively. ICPC is following up on its advisories and assessment reports to ensure that observed unethical and corrupt practices do not persist in MDAs that have been studied, assessed and reviewed. | https://icpc.gov.ng/2021/08/16/the-impact-of-system-review-and-risk-assessment-in-the-prevention-of-corruption-written-by-abbia-udofia/ |
President Jokowi Asks Indonesian National Police and Attorney General to Strengthen Synergy with Corruption Eradication Commission
President Joko Jokowi Widodo asked to materialize corruption prevention and eradication actions. These actions should not be just written in some planning documents. There should be some real actions and not just symbolic ones.
According to the President, legal reforms have been started by taking an action to eradicate illegal levies that currently is carried out by the Illegal Levies Eradication Team (Saber Pungli). As the result, a number of public services centers have shown some improvements.
I get information that there are a lot of public complaints. The teams works have shown some results, for example the arrest of several apparatus, bureaucrats, and officials of State-Owned Enterprises who/that still have guts to take illegal levies. This action will be continued, the President said when delivering an introductory remarks at a limited meeting on Corruption Prevention and Eradication Actions, at the Presidential Office, Jakarta, on Tuesday (22/11) afternoon.
The President firmly said that the Government will not stop only on eradicating illegal levies. Corruption eradication must be started from upstream to downstream, from prevention to strict legal enforcement.
Regarding preventive actions, the President asked to prioritize licensing and public services sectors that are directly related with the people, for example land administration services, health services, as well as education services.
I also ask for massive improvements in tax management and state revenue, particularly on natural resources and food managements, the President firmly said.
Moreover, the President added, it should also prioritize the efforts to build transparency in distributing and using grant as well as social assisstance, and pay serious attention to transparency in goods and services procurement. These are the areas prone to corruption, the President said.
President also asked to improve the mechanism of deregulation, to simplify bureaucracy procedures, including to simplify the permit of Official Travel Documents (Surat Perjalanan Dinas) that has been discussed for 2-3 times.
The effort must be continued by optimizing information technology. However, to build an IT-based system is not the only answer. It must be accompanied by an effective control, either by internal supervisor in each ministry and institution, and by inviting public participation through information openness, the President further said.
Strengthening KPK
Regarding law enforcement, President Jokowi emphasized the importance to support and strengthen the Corruption Eradication Commission (KPK), either from the institutional side, independence, and budget.
The President emphasized that internal reforms in the Office of the Attorney General and Indonesian National Police (Polri) must be continued in order to produce professional law enforcement.
Moreover, to help corruption eradication works effectively, Polri and Attorney Generals Office must strengthen their synergy with KPK, the President firmly said and asked to improve the transparency of the handling of corruption cases. | https://setkab.go.id/en/president-jokowi-asks-indonesian-national-police-and-attorney-general-to-strengthen-synergy-with-corruption-eradication-commission/ |
These presentations provide management professionals with an overview of corporate governance by examining the process by which organisations are directed and controlled. Issues to be covered include, among others, transparency, accountability, stewardship and integrity.
CORPORATE GOVERNANCE
Issue
We all know that the failures of the past, especially the global financial crisis of 2007-08, exposed all organisations to a new concern for corporate governance. A greater demand for accountability of organisations to their owners and business partners was required as part of these changing times. This implies that an organisation is part of a wider societal network and has responsibilities to all of that network rather than just to the owners of the organisation. In respect of an organisation’s commercial confidentiality and its strategic competitive advantage this may create a number of difficult issues for many organisations. How should you approach it?
Solution
Given that accountability is about an organisation being aware that its actions have an impact on the whole of the external environment surrounding it, it needs to acknowledge that it must accept responsibility for the effect of its actions. This is not something that may be dismissed lightly for it is now clear that an organisation’s external stakeholders have the power to affect the way in which those actions are taken. Not only that, they also play a major role in determining the justification of those actions, which inevitably has a financial impact on the organisation.
Before considering how to approach this issue let’s be clear about one thing – accountability doesn’t mean that your organisation has to reveal information that belongs to and is owned only by your organisation. Likewise, any kind of privileged information, or that which would breach legal, commercial, security or personal privacy obligations should not be considered as requiring to be transparent. Accountability, in the context of corporate governance, generally only means that an organisation’s reporting structures must be clear. Why is that such an important aspect of corporate governance?
Let’s start by trying to understand more about accountability. Generally, an organisation is now required to be accountable both for the consequences of its activities and also for not repeating any negative activity. The principle of transparency requires such information to be revealed and accountability is the means to revealing it. In essence, being accountable means providing proof on what you are responsible for. Unfortunately, there has not been a consensus generally about how to deal with this necessity.
It is inevitable, therefore, that there is a need for some sort of mediation of the different interests to reach a broad consensus on what is in the best interests of all stakeholders and how this can be achieved. Is it acceptable to simply rely on an organisation’s self-declaration? Or, as with the audit of financial statements, should there be a third party who scrutinises on behalf of all stakeholders?
Irrespective of which view on this you hold, the key to successful accountability is for your organisation to keep track of the implementation of all significant decisions to ensure these decisions are followed in a socially responsible way and for the results of those implementations to be declared, either positive or negative, in a timely and responsible way. There really is no uniform method of presenting an organisation’s accountability to its stakeholders. No doubt ever increasing disclosure requirements, especially in the commercial sphere, may be considered an attempt to enhance transparency and accountability yet it is patently obvious that one size does not fit all. Whatever practice you adopt for satisfying the accountability principle of corporate governance it must satisfy the needs of the stakeholder community and, most of all, make economic sense.
At Park Advisory we understand this may be a complex task and would be more than happy to assist you in developing an appropriate accountability reporting structure. Please do email us at [email protected] for a free, no obligation initial consultation. | https://www.parkadvisory.uk/q-1-2 |
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Box 3.3: Making democracy work
Code of good practice in electoral matters
(Venice Commission, Opinion No. 190/2002; Parliamentary Assembly Resolution 1320 (2003); Congress of Local and Regional Authority of Europe Resolution 148 (2003); Declaration by the Committee of Ministers (13 May 2004))
Developed by the Venice Commission in response to a request from the Parliamentary Assembly, (Resolution 1264 (2001)), the Code of good practice in electoral matters, provides the detailed criteria against which free and fair elections in Europe can be measured. In particular, it establishes the criteria for ensuring five principles are upheld:
Both the Committee of Ministers declaration and the Parliamentary Assembly’s resolution call upon member states to bring their electoral law into line with these criteria. They will also form the basis of the Council’s future election observation and monitoring activities.
Instruments of direct democracy
(Committee of Ministers Recommendation No. R (96) 2 on referendums and popular initiative)
In this recommendation, the Committee of Ministers lays down conditions for the holding of local referendums and popular initiatives. Stressing that representative democracy must remain the basis of local democracy, the Committee of Ministers acknowledges that the right of citizens to have their say in major decisions on long-term or virtually irreversible commitments is one of the democratic principles common to all member states of the Council of Europe.
Financing of political parties
(Venice Commission (2001) “Guidelines and report on the financing of political parties” (doc. CDL-INF (2001) 8); Committee of Ministers Recommendation Rec(2003)4E on common rules against corruption in the funding of political parties and electoral campaigns (8 April 2003);Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe Recommendation 86 (2000) on the financial transparency of political parties and their democratic functioning at the local level)
Having surveyed member states on the ways in which political parties are funded and the possibilities of corruption where parties are too dependent upon private finance, the Venice Commission established criteria for public financing of political parties. These have been built upon by the Committee of Minister’s common rules which establish the following basic rules:
The Council has been especially concerned to ensure that ethnic minorities, immigrants and foreign residents are treated equally and fairly through the electoral process.76 A more recent concern has been the practice of family voting in some countries and the need to protect women’s individual voting rights.77 The problem is neatly summarised by Walter Schwimmer in his foreword to a 2002 publication on the issue:
“Family voting” is when a male family member votes with or for one or more women relatives or when family members vote together in the open, often facilitated by polling officials. This undermines the political rights of women and implies failure to comply with both international and national legal instruments. ... [It] amounts to the disenfranchisement of women, a lack of respect for fair electoral proceedings, and leaves the door open to electoral fraud.78
In many respects, this new focus on the problem of family voting can be seen as a continuation of the Council’s work in defending free and fair elections. However, it also raises a significant point about the development of representative democracy across Europe. Pulling together election observer reports from the Council’s own activities and those of the OSCE (Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe), the research of the Congress identifies the problem as being associated almost entirely with the new democracies in Europe, where, with relatively new democratic political structures and unlike in older democracies, the individual right to vote is not always well established, particularly in rural areas.79
This concern is, arguably, symptomatic of the Council’s wider concern with ensuring that those members that have joined the Council since 1989 live up to the same supposedly high democratic standards as the founding member states. While such concerns may have substance in relation to some new democracies, they are patently not true in relation to all of them. Moreover, they create an artificial distinction between old and new democracies, and pose problems for the future development of democratic practices in the established democracies as well as those in transition. In response to declining electoral turnout a number of established democracies have introduced postal voting as an option for all citizens, or even as a mandatory practice in some elections. Remote voting of this nature removes the opportunity for election officials or impartial observers to prevent family voting. The push towards remote e-voting via the Internet or other technologies compounds the threat of family voting.80 The problem of family voting could return to old democracies, as well as the new, if remote voting either by post or electronically becomes the norm.
Consequently, there is a potential clash in the Council’s activities. On the one hand, it is advancing the principles of a secret ballot as being at the heart of representative democracy. On the other hand, it is helping to define the standards for experiments and developments in e-voting. While the Council’s motivation for this involvement is to ensure that the principles of democratic elections are respected, the consequence of e-voting may be that the privacy of voting may be undermined in many contexts. The assumption that family voting only occurs within transition democracies which suffer from “cultural practices that reflect the dominance of patriarchy over democracy”81 is a bold and possibly misplaced one. While the problem may not be as widespread in established democracies it is still easy to imagine circumstances where dominant individuals will exercise voting on behalf of others in their household, especially when they can do so from their homes. Given the opportunity, family voting will occur in some households, even in the most stable and developed democratic cultures. Moreover, it will be difficult for the Council to argue against the extension of remote voting practices into those countries currently identified as being particularly guilty of allowing family voting, if it is promoting it in other countries as a solution to the democratic deficit.
Through a range of mechanisms the Council is seeking to sustain and develop representative democracy and to reconfirm the legitimacy of parliaments. In so doing, it is responding to both the challenges of widened democratic practices and the opportunities that new technologies and other innovations can offer. However, at the same time the Council needs to balance the development of democracy with the establishment and protection of its core principles.
Transparency, responsiveness and accountability
Issues of transparency, responsiveness and accountability of elected politicians are a perennial problem in models of representative democracy.82 Transparency, in particular, has taxed the Council in its deliberations. Attention has focused especially upon the role of the media as an independent watchdog of democracy and as a safeguard for freedom of expression. From this perspective, a free and critical media is fundamental to achieving transparency of the political process, ensuring that politicians are responsive to popular will and that governments are properly accountable for their policies and actions. One of the most pressing concerns is that without effective transparency and accountability, politics is prone to corrupt and oligarchic tendencies. The setting of ethical standards for individuals in public office and the monitoring of their behaviour, therefore, provides an important focus for democratic developments.
Transparency, responsiveness and accountability covers a multitude of different democratic features, ranging from the role of elections in holding individuals to account through to the responsiveness of governments to the “general will” and the transparency of internal processes to ensure that individuals are not making unfair personal gain through public office. While all of these remain significant, the Council has been particularly concerned with three institutional features that underpin such practices. First, there has been an emphasis upon defining and enforcing the ethical standards to which public servants should be bound. These standards build upon a long history of public service ethics and provide a minimum standard by which all public organisations should be judged across Europe. Second, and linked to this first point, the Council has been anxious to address corruption at all levels of government across Europe and, indeed, the wider problems of organised crime and corruption and its threat to democracy. Finally, the role of a free and active media as a vital institutional component of an effective democracy has been extensively promoted by the Council. In many respects, this third feature makes the most important contribution to the transparency, responsiveness and accountability of governments not only by identifying government failure or corruption but, also, by providing a pluralistic public space in which the “general will” is deliberated. Furthermore, the very existence of an active free press may discourage corruption and mitigate the oligarchic tendencies of all governments. Each of these three concerns will be dealt with in turn.
Public service ethics have a long tradition in democratic practice.83 Its core principles are widely accepted and include the belief that: holders of public office should act in the “public interest” and not seek to make personal gain from their office; they should not accept gifts from others seeking advantage or place themselves under an obligation to any individual; they should avoid any conflicts of interests and take steps to remove themselves from decisions where such conflicts arise; they should act objectively, making decisions on the merits of each individual case; their activities should be transparent and open to public scrutiny; and they should remain accountable for their actions.84 These principles are reaffirmed in a Committee of Minister’s recommendation on codes of conduct for public officials.85 They are also widely accepted and practised across many European countries.
Given the maturity of many democracies in Europe, it seems surprising that the Council needs to continue to focus upon public service ethics. However, the ongoing promotion of ethical standards across all levels of government is seen as being fundamental to maintaining public confidence in the institutions of democracy. High standards of public service are necessary not only among national governments but must also be present at the local level, where public servants are not only more visible but, also, where the opportunities for corrupt or unethical behaviour are equally high. It is for this reason that the Steering Committee for Local and Regional Democracy (CDLR) has produced a model initiatives package on public ethics at the local level.86 While not a legal instrument it nevertheless provides model examples of how public service ethics are maintained and monitored in various countries, and the relationship between standards in public life at central and local levels. Consequently, it not only reaffirms the principles set out in the Committee of Ministers recommendation on codes of conduct for public officials but, also, provides various examples of the institutional and organisational frameworks in which these values can be embedded.
The fight against unethical or corrupt behaviour in public service, however, cannot be constrained to the behaviour of public officials, whether elected or appointed. The Council has been concerned with the broader problems and effects of corruption wherever it occurs. As the preamble to the Committee of Ministers resolution on corruption states:
corruption represents a serious threat to the basic principles and values of the Council of Europe, undermines the confidence of citizens in democracy, erodes the rule of law, constitutes a denial of human rights and hinders social and economic development.87
Thus, corruption not only affects the immediate institutions of democracy but is also an attack on democratic principles (for example, where there is corruption it is impossible for all citizens to have political equality) and the underlying institutions that sustain democracy (such as the rule of law). The existence of two European-wide conventions on corruption88 and the creation of two bodies that focus on the rule of law89 and the monitoring of corruption90 demonstrate the importance that the Council attaches to this problem. Indeed, measures to fight corruption are central to much of the Council’s activities. The conventions not only provide a concrete definition of corruption and by default, therefore, a statement of its unacceptability, but also a set of legal and institutional measures that member states are expected to take in order to combat it. The Venice Commission and GRECO, in different ways, provide external monitoring and reporting of nation state’s effectiveness in stamping out corruption, although it should be noted that not all European countries are members of these bodies. Consequently, the Council’s activities to combat corruption provide an important underpinning for democracy.
All of these efforts, so far, have been focused upon the ways in which government should be organised and the ways in which high standards of public service can be maintained. However, the Council of Europe also recognises the role of the media in promoting transparency, responsiveness and accountability of government. Three related issues have been central to its concerns for several decades. First, the issue of freedom of expression as a fundamental feature of democracy is upheld in various aspects of the Council’s work. For example, a 1978 recommendation of the Parliamentary Assembly reiterates “its conviction that freedom of the press and television, as a fundamental component of freedom of expression, is a prerequisite for a democratic political system”.91 This assertion develops from Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights which, among other rights, includes the “freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers”.92 The defence of this right in relation to the media has been deemed so important that the European Court of Human Rights has given over 100 judgments on Article 10 since 1960, developing a substantial case-law on the issue.93 Despite both the case-law and the Convention, however, the Parliamentary Assembly recognises that “serious violations of freedom of expression” persist across Europe and the rest of the world,94 and recommends that the Council expands its monitoring activities in this area. In particular, it highlights the concern that “recent terrorist attacks can provide a pretext for introducing new restrictions to freedom of information”.95 While media freedom is effectively embedded in the Council’s acquis, therefore, there remain concerns about the extent to which governments constrain or attack such freedom. Of particular concern is the harassment and intimidation of both journalists and the media more generally by particular states.
Second, and linked to the notion of freedom of expression, the Council has been concerned with media pluralism and the real independence of different forms of media from political influence. The particular concern here is the concentration of the media in the hands of a few individuals and the deliberate manipulation of the media to suit a few vested interests. In the preamble to its 1999 recommendation on measures to promote media pluralism, the Committee of Ministers emphasised that:
the public service broadcasting sector should enable different groups and interests in society – including linguistic, social, economic, cultural or political minorities – to express themselves … [and] that the existence of a multiplicity of autonomous and independent media outlets at the national, regional and local levels generally enhances pluralism and democracy.96
Consequently, attention is both upon those who seek to control the media by restricting pluralism and those whose interests remain ignored because of a lack of media pluralism. In particular, the rights and cultures of national minorities and migrant workers are considered to be under particular threat where media pluralism is restricted.97
Third, the Council has developed a converse concern with the ethics of journalism and the need to regulate the media to ensure that it acts fairly towards individuals. This concern focuses upon the objectivity and neutrality of the media and, particularly, “the right of reply to any individual citizen who has been the subject of an allegation”.98 Consequently, the Council recognises the need for regulation of the media, especially with the exploitation of new technologies providing additional avenues for media development. However, it also recognises that balancing regulation with the protection of freedom of expression and media pluralism is a complex problem that is not easily resolved. It is for this reason that monitoring of member states and their relationships with the media remains important.
All of these concerns are, in essence, an acknowledgement that the media provides strong support for transparency, responsiveness and accountability in government. Wherever the media is investigating government policies, holding individuals or governments to account for their actions, or providing an expression of public concern or interest, it is making an important contribution to democracy, even though governments may not necessarily welcome their interventions. In particular, an effective media can help in the promotion of ethical standards among public servants and the wider battle against corruption. However, there remains a paradox at the heart of this principle. Transparency, responsiveness and accountability are fundamental to strong democratic institutions in that they encourage trust in those institutions. At the same time, however, effective policies and instruments that expose failing standards or corruption in government serve to undermine trust in those same institutions. There are instances where distrust of democratic institutions is healthy, especially where governments are systematically abusing their powers. However, there are other instances where minor failings are given too much emphasis and lead to a breakdown in trust among citizens which is out of proportion with the seriousness of the offence. Scepticism is a healthy feature of democracy that is enhanced through measures to ensure transparency, responsiveness and accountability but it also needs to be balanced with attempts to preserve the legitimacy of democratic institutions.
Box 3.4: Transparency, responsiveness and accountability
The conduct of public officials
(Committee of Ministers Recommendation No. R (2000) 10 on codes of conducts for public officials)
The code of conduct for public officials establishes the standards of behaviour expected of public officials in a democracy. It specifies that:
Committee of Ministers Recommendation No. R (98) 12 on supervision of local authorities' action specifies ways for making the systems of supervision evolve in a way favourable to local self-government without endangering their effectiveness.
Twenty guiding principles for the fight against corruption
(Committee of Ministers Resolution 97 (24))
Aware that corruption poses a serious threat to democracy, the Committee of Ministers adopted a resolution in 1997 that, among other principles, encourages national and international initiatives to fight corruption, including criminalisation and the seizure of the proceeds of corrupt practices; limits immunity from investigation and prosecution; encourages transparency in public procurement; and reaffirms the independence of the media in highlighting corrupt practices.
Conventions on corruption
(Criminal Law Convention on Corruption, ETS No. 173; Civil Law Convention on Corruption, ETS No. 174)
The Criminal Law Convention on Corruption aims to co-ordinate criminalisation of a large number of corrupt practices including:
It provides for enhanced international co-operation (mutual assistance, extradition and the provision of information) in the investigation and prosecution of corruption offences. As soon as they ratify it, states which do not already belong to GRECO will automatically become members.
The Civil Law Convention on Corruption is the first attempt to define common international rules in the field of civil law and corruption. It requires contracting parties to provide in their domestic law “for effective remedies for persons who have suffered damage as a result of acts of corruption, to enable them to defend their rights and interests, including the possibility of obtaining compensation for damage” (Art.1).
Sub-national democracy and subsidiarity
Box 3.5: Sub-national democracy and subsidiarity
(European Charter of Local Self-Government, ETS No. 122; Committee of Ministers Recommendation No. R (95) 19 on the implementation of the principle of subsidiarity)
The charter establishes the basic rules guaranteeing the political, administrative and financial independence of local authorities. It provides that the principle of local self-government shall be recognised in domestic legislation and, where practicable, in the constitution. It also requires local authorities to be elected in universal suffrage.
Under the charter, local authorities are able to regulate and manage public affairs under their own responsibility in the interests of the local population, subject to legal limits. Consequently, the charter introduces the principle of subsidiarity, stating that public responsibilities should be exercised preferably by the authorities closest to the citizens, the higher level being considered only when the co-ordination or discharge of duties is impossible or less efficient at the level immediately below. To this end, it sets out the principles concerning the protection of local authority boundaries, the existence of adequate administrative structures and resources for the tasks of local authorities, the conditions under which responsibilities at local level are exercised, administrative supervision of local authorities' activities, financial resources of local authorities and legal protection of local self-government.
The Committee of Ministers Recommendation No. R (95) 19 on the implementation of the principle of subsidiarity specifies further how the core set of powers pertaining to each level of local and regional authorities should be established and exercised.
The institutions of sub-central government are particularly important to the Council of Europe. This importance is illustrated by a number of concrete steps that the Council has taken to support the development of local and regional government and to ensure that these institutions remain central to its work. First, the creation of the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe in 1994 as a consultative body, itself a development from the Council’s original Standing Conference of Local and Regional Authorities in Europe, has raised the voice of local government in European affairs to a much higher status than is found in many European states. The Congress is regularly consulted by both the Committee of Ministers and the Parliamentary Assembly, making it a significant part of the Council’s work. In addition, it has successfully brought forward a number of conventions and charters that support the development of democracy in member states. Second, the European Charter on Local Self-Government, adopted in 1985, has become a significant instrument with which to promote and evaluate the role of local and regional government in national democratic structures and to monitor central-local government relations more generally. As already noted, the principles enshrined in this charter are forming the foundations of a United Nations world charter on local self-government. Furthermore, as will be shown below, the charter has become a defining standard for democracy. Finally, the Council has adopted a number of other charters and conventions which focus especially upon sub-central issues and which promote the work of local or regional authorities. Consequently, the Council has demonstrated a strong commitment to the institutions of democracy beneath that of the nation state.
Given that the other statutory organs of the Council are comprised primarily of representatives from state-level governments and parliaments, it seems unusual that the Council should provide such an emphasis to sub-central institutions. To explain this emphasis and to analyse the role played by these institutions, it is necessary to begin by examining the Council’s understanding of local democracy in relation to democratic theory. Democratic theory holds a special place for local democracy and its institutional embodiment, local government. Traditional justifications for the existence of local government include pluralist arguments that the institutions of local democracy provide for a diffusion of power within society, arguments that local democracy supports diversity and difference in the face of an otherwise constrictively uniform set of central policies, and arguments that local government can be more responsive to citizen needs than remote central governments.99 More recently, there has also been a revival of interest in the role of local democracy in facilitating and encouraging political participation as part of a broader democratic polity. This argument has its roots in 19th century political thought and maintains that local institutions of democracy are the most accessible locations for political skills to be acquired and practised. J. S. Mill argued in 1861 that local democracy not only provided greater opportunities for political participation but that it was an instrument of social inclusion:
But in the case of local bodies, besides the function of electing, many citizens in turn have the chance
of being elected, and many, either by selection or by rotation, fill one or other of the numerous local
executive offices … It may be added, that these local functions, not being in general sought by the
higher ranks, carry down the important political education which they are the means of conferring, to
a much lower grade in society.100
Similarly, Alexis de Tocqueville, in his study of democracy in America, was struck by the capacity for democratic self-government among small communities, even where wider state institutions were failing to provide democracy.101 These theories have been built upon in recent decades to support the belief that democracy is intrinsically dependent upon effective institutions of local democracy to support a wider democratic culture and practice.102 Without local democracy, democracy at a national (or indeed, international) level cannot thrive.
These beliefs are given substance in the European Charter of Local Self-Government.103 In the preamble to the charter, the Council commits itself to many of the principles set out above. It states that “local authorities are one of the main foundations of any democratic regime”, confirms the “right of citizens to participate in the conduct of public affairs” and argues “that it is at the local level that this right can be most directly exercised”. Consequently, the charter emphasises the principle of subsidiarity in which “public responsibilities shall generally be exercised, in preference, by those authorities which are closest to the citizen”.104 It also commits signatory countries to developing a power of general competence for local authorities and establishes, among other things, the principle that local authorities should have legal remedies where they can demonstrate undue interference by central governments in the “free exercise of their powers”.105 The charter, therefore, establishes an important set of principles which are concerned with protecting local democracy as a fundamental feature of national democracy.
The charter has been widely accepted across Europe. By November 2003 only four countries had not signed the treaty106 and a further three had yet to ratify it.107 For the other thirty-eight countries, therefore, it seems that the concept of local self-government and the principles enshrined in the charter are widely accepted and implemented. However, this overview ignores the distinction between commitment and action. In 1998 the Congress observed that many countries that had ratified the charter had not incorporated its principles into domestic law, thereby denying local authorities the capacity to appeal to the courts where national legislation or regulations were in breach of the charter.108 The monitoring reports of the Congress on local and regional democracy in individual member states paint a much more complex and even less satisfactory picture. While few states are directly criticised for failing to support local democracy, many are criticised for only implementing some aspects of the charter or for failing to always act within its spirit. Central governments in many states are still resistant to extending political legitimacy and financial powers to local or regional governments, despite their commitment to the principles set out in the charter. In this respect, the charter and its ratification provide a starting point for realising the Council’s local democracy and subsidiarity ambitions, rather than an end point. While the Council remains committed to local democracy, it has considerably more work to do to encourage member states to deliver it.
The activities of the Council in this area are not restricted exclusively to concerns with local democracy: the Council has developed a number of other charters and conventions that focus on aspects of sub-central government. In particular, the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. and the Convention on the Participation of Foreigners in Public Life at the Local Level, both emphasise an important complementary role for sub-central government. Both of these treaties recognise that regional and local governments may provide a much better focus for protecting minority rights and cultures than nation states. In this respect, regions are seen as being a response to globalisation and are associated with cultural diversity in the context of the increasing internationalisation of political and economic interests. It is such concerns that lie behind the Congress recommendation to strengthen the activities and promotion of regions with legislative powers109 and its focus on sustainable regions under global rules.110 Moreover, the logical extension of this focus has been the development of a European Charter on Regional Self-Government which sets out “the general frame of reference for the fundamental powers to be granted to all regions and at the same time opens up areas of latitude for differentiation and organisation so that specific regional interests according to types of region may be taken into account’.111 While consensus has not been achieved on this issue and the charter remains in draft format, its significance for further promoting sub-central government as a means of protecting the democratic interests and cultures of minorities remains an important aspect of the Council’s work.
The focus on regional and local democracy is not simply aimed at the development of democratic institutions but also supporting democratic practice. The Council, and particularly the Congress, recognises that local and regional democratic institutions also provide much greater opportunity for political engagement among those groups that are traditionally marginalised from politics at the level of the nation state. Thus, the European Urban Charter, in its declaration of urban rights, includes participation as a fundamental component of life within European cities.112 While this charter is somewhat idealistic and lacking in concrete recommendations to member states, it nevertheless articulates a vision of cities that includes local democracy. Similarly, the Charter on the Participation of Young People in Municipal and Regional Life (1992), revised in 2003, sets out guidelines to encourage young people to play their part in decisions affecting them and to be actively involved in social changes in their neighbourhood, municipality or region. The Congress has provided an institutional home for the debate and development of local and regional government and, therefore, for the promotion of local democracy. There can be little doubt that the Council accepts the argument that local democracy is a fundamental component of a vibrant and healthy national and European democracy. However, the other pillars have also been actively engaged in promoting local and regional democracy. Since 1979, the Committee of Ministers have made over twenty recommendations to member states in the field of local democracy, including significant recommendations on citizen participation,113 local government finance,114 and the implementation of the subsidiarity principle.115 These recommendations show an encouraging level of engagement from the Committee of Ministers in sub-central government. It is evident that for wider benefits to accrue from developments in local democracy it is necessary for the other pillars of the Council of Europe to continue to be closely engaged in supporting and enhancing it.
|Challenges, Opportunities, and Next Steps”||Problems and Opportunities Summary 13|
|Умк “Opportunities Upper Intermediate” авторы: Michael Harris, David Mower, Anna Sikorzynska издательство “Longman” (Pearson Education, 2004)|
Анализируемый учебник является завершающим в умк ‘Opportunities’, который рекомендован Министерством образования РФ
|BoundAry value problems and characteristic value problems|
|Понасенко И. И., учитель английского языка моу гимназия №23 г. Челябинск Анализ умк “Opportunities Upper Intermediate” Издательство “Longman”|
Умк “Opportunities Upper Intermediate “ авторы: Michael Harris, David Mower, Anna Sikorzynska издательство “Longman” (Pearson Education,... | http://lib.znate.ru/docs/index-124647.html?page=5 |
As part of its continuing effort to promote organizational accountability and transparency, U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP) announced the release of its Report on Internal Investigations and Employee Accountability: Fiscal Year 2020.
For FY2020, CBP leadership directed OPR and HRM generate a joint report combining information regarding allegation intake and misconduct investigations with information regarding disciplinary outcomes. The intent was to correlate misconduct allegations and investigations with agency-imposed disciplinary penalties. However, because of factors such as statutory due process requirements and collective bargaining agreements, the disciplinary actions meted out by CBP in any given fiscal year cannot be viewed as a one-for-one match with allegations received and investigations conducted over the same period.
Although certain allegations received in FY2020 were fully investigated and adjudicated and are thus accounted for in the FY2020 report, other cases remained under investigation or pending final agency action when the data was pulled. Accordingly, OPR and HRM incorporated two special sections in the report pertaining to Significant Misconduct Investigations and Disciplinary Outcomes. Both sections link summaries of specific misconduct cases with corresponding criminal and/or administrative penalties.
Historically, CBP’s Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR) and Office of Human Resources Management (HRM) generated separate, public-facing annual reports for posting on CBP.gov. OPR’s reports detailed the agency’s efforts to prevent, detect, and investigate misconduct and corruption with examples of OPR’s diverse mission, while HRM’s reports summarized penalties imposed to correct misconduct along with highlighted areas of disciplinary emphasis.
CBP is committed to being a leader in law enforcement accountability and transparency by providing multiple ways to report incidents as well as timely, accurate and appropriate information regarding CBP-related deaths, use of force incidents and other critical incidents resulting in serious injuries. The Accountability and Transparency page provides the public with statements, policies, reports and other important information concerning critical incidents and related Office of Professional Responsibility (OPR) reviews and investigations.
CBP will publish future annual reports in a timely manner and will continue to prioritize accountability and transparency – hallmark principles in maintaining the trust of the American people. | https://www.hstoday.us/subject-matter-areas/border-security/cbp-releases-report-on-internal-investigations-and-accountability/ |
CfA filed a Freedom of Information Act Request with the Consumer Financial Protection Board to investigate the federal government's response to the predatory lending practices of Clayton Homes, one of the nation’s largest mobile home sellers.
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CfA investigates corruption at all levels of government no matter where it occurs. CfA exposes those who have betrayed the public trust by abusing their power to advance their own ends.
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CfA exposes corporations and investors that attempt to influence government officials for their personal financial gain at the expense of the public interest. | https://campaignforaccountability.org/ |
— Corruption Perception Index 2019 Reports; CENTAL calls on Government to act now
The Center for Transparency and Accountability in Liberia (CENTAL), one of the leading civil society organizations in Liberia, has called on the administration of President George M. Weah to thoroughly enforce the existing global, regional and national laws, policies and frameworks for fighting against corruption in the country.
CENTAL’s calls follows the just-released 2019 Corruption Perception Index (CPI) report, which ranked Liberia as one of the “Worst Decliners” worldwide in the fight against corruption.
At a news conference held in Monrovia, CENTAL Executive Director, Anderson Miamen, expressed dismay over Liberia’s rating in the latest Corruption Perception Index 2019 report released by Transparency International, the Global Coalition against Corruption.
Mr. Miamen said it is regrettable to note that Liberia’s score significantly dropped to 28; four points down from the 2018 score of 32. “Liberia now ranks 137/180 and sits further down the table compared to its 2018 rank of 120/180,” he noted.
According to him, Liberia has therefore joined the list of countries significantly declining countries on the CPI since 2012. He named Congo (19), Madagascar (24) and Malawi (31). He added that with the exception of Saint Lucia that has dropped sixteen (16) points since 2012, only Liberia and Syria have fallen thirteen (13) points since 2012.
He noted that Liberia’s highest score of 41 was attained in 2012 and it has failed to perform any greater since. Instead, Liberia has slid back into fostering a culture of corruption and significantly undermined gains made in strengthening governance, financial management, and the rule of law.
He recalled that Liberia’s improved performance in 2012, was as a result of the passage of key laws, as well as the establishment and strengthening of public integrity institutions. “Liberia has since failed to make these institutions and laws work, as the laws are not enforced or respected and public integrity institutions not fully supported, morally and financially to deliver,” Mr Miamen stated.
Miamen also said CENTAL is deeply concerned about Liberia’s continuous underperformance, especially its current position among the worst decliners worldwide; something which he said speaks to the government’s inability to address the entrenched culture of impunity and enforce existing anti-corruption laws and policies.
He said the Government of Liberia’s limited or lack of effort to comprehensively audit the past administration and prosecute alleged corrupt officials, as well as limited moral and financial support to public integrity institutions, is counterproductive to the fight against corruption in the country.
“We urge the Government of Liberia to lead by example in dedicating sufficient resources to the war against corruption, which remains hugely disappointing at the moment,” he added.
Mr. Miamen also said there can be no successful fight against corruption if the rule of law is not upheld; “if the laws work for others and not just highly-placed persons or those connected to higher-ups in government; and if, among other things, investigations into major scandals, including the $25 million Mop-Up Exercise, are disappointingly endless with no sense of finality.”
He further calls on the Liberian Government to prioritize and vigorously fight against corruption. He also indicated that there can be no better time to do so than now, especially when the country’s economy is seriously challenged and the negative impacts of corruption are glaringly visible across the country.
CENTAL, through its Executive Director, reiterates its call for the CDC-led Government to move away from talks to actions; from future to now; and from delay to speed, in taking the necessary steps to decisively address Corruption in Liberia. He acknowledged that Liberia has lost millions to corruption that must be identified, retrieved and re-invested into the economy to help alleviate the hardship ordinary citizens currently face.
CENTAL’s Recommendations to GoL
Mr Miamen further recommend the timely implementation of anti-corruption commitments in the Pro-Poor Agenda for prosperity and Development (PAPD), the speedy establishment of a specialized Anti-Corruption Court, as well as the provision of direct prosecutorial power to the LACC to aid in timely processing and prosecuting Corruption Cases.
In the recommendations, he stressed the need to commission a comprehensive audit of the past administration to ensure that those who embezzled public resources are identified and prosecuted. Also, recommendations contained in existing reports of LACC, GAC, IAA and other integrity institutions must be timely implemented.
He further urged the government to address impunity through the prosecution of alleged corrupt officials of the current regime.
However, he maintained that the investigation into the $25 million mop-up exercise must be completed and those implicated prosecuted timely and impartially. He further cautioned the government to increase the moral and financial support to public integrity institutions to operate fully and independently among other things. | https://www.liberianobserver.com/news/liberia-ranked-worst-decliner-worldwide-in-the-fight-against-corruption/ |
Officials in Portland, Oregon, discovered they lost $1.4 million to fraudulent activity after malicious actors gained access to a government email account.
Preliminary evidence indicates that an unauthorized, outside entity gained access to a City of Portland email account to conduct this illegal activity. Officials identified the breach after they flagged another fraudulent financial transaction attempt from the same account on May 17.
After city officials discovered the incident, a cyber incident response team was immediately activated to investigate the matter, evaluate the extent of the breach, and ensure that technology and policies are in place to prevent any future cybersecurity threats.
An updated notice on the incident said that the malicious actors gained access to a Portland Housing Bureau email account and fraudulently diverted a payment intended for Central City Concern for costs related to the construction of the Starlight, an affordable housing development that was formerly known as the Westwind.
“Although the project is partially funded by the city’s housing bond, no money from that funding source was used in the fraudulent transaction,” city officials said in a statement. “The city is working quickly to ensure Central City Concern receives payment. Construction of the Starlight is expected to remain on schedule, with a projected opening this fall in Old Town.”
An investigation is still underway to discover and hold accountable whoever is responsible for the fraudulent activity, and city officials are still assessing all available avenues to recoup funds.
However, to prioritize security and ensure the integrity of the investigation, city officials said they do not plan on releasing any additional information at this time.
“We are committed to sharing as much information about this incident as possible while protecting sensitive information that could compromise the city’s security,” city officials said. | https://www.21centurystate.com/articles/city-of-portland-loses-1-4m-in-security-breach/ |
The introduction of social accountability as means to promote development that is driven by the people is an idea that is gaining popularity around the world. In Kenya, the recent general election saw the 2nd generation of county governments take office. As the country gets into the second five-year cycle of implementing devolution, the general public have high hopes and expectations that service delivery and citizen’s welfare will be prioritized and enhanced. The 2010 constitution of Kenya, the supportive legal and institutional framework on devolution, emphasizes on public participation, openness and accountability as key principles in meaningful engagement of the public in the management of their own affairs. The Constitution has placed public participation at the core of devolved governance system by recognizing the right of local communities to manage their own affairs in furthering their social, political and economic development. This may lead to enhanced efficiency and effectiveness in public service delivery. It is expected that with citizens participating in the devolved governance process, policy makers at county levels are more likely to make responsive policies. In this regard, social accountability has become key in ensuring that county governments deliver on their responsibility as stipulated in Schedule IV of the Constitution. Previous experiences have shown that lack of commitment by the political leaders and the citizens and the appropriate accountability mechanisms, then social accountability may not yield intended outcomes. In promoting social accountability, Article 174 of the Constitution advocates for active engagement of the citizens, communities and other non-state actors in county governance processes. Further, Article 10 identifies public participation as one of the national values and principles of governance. The legislature and executive at both national and county governments are required to engage individuals, governmental and non-governmental groups in policy making, monitoring and implementation. These requirements serve to strengthen the voice and capacity of the general public in demanding greater accountability from public service providers at the county level. This is achieved by holding public institutions and governments into account by the general public. Ordinary citizens and other interested organizations seek to enforce standards of good governance and performance by the public officers. This kind of engagement is therefore expected to enhance transparency, reduce corruption, and support good governance which is critical in strengthening effectiveness and efficiency in public service delivery. In addition, there is horizontal accountability for public officers in county governments. The Office of the Controller of Budget exerts accountability on county governments by monitoring the use of county funds and implementation of county budgets. The Controller of Budget seeks answers and clarifications on management of public funds, and the accountable public officer responds to the raised concerns. Further, the County Assembly exerts accountability on County Executives on implementation of development projects. Public officers are expected to adhere to certain values and norms as articulated in the Leadership and Integrity Act 2012, and this forms the basis of holding a County Government and its public officers accountable. Various legislation provide for establishment of structures, mechanisms and guidelines for citizen participation at County Government level, including the Public Participation Act 2016 that seeks to enhance, promote and facilitate public participation in governance processes, the Public Finance Act 2012, and the County Government Act 2012. In 2015, the Ministry of Devolution and Planning in collaboration with other stakeholders developed County Public Participation Guidelines to ensure that structured citizen participation processes for county governance are established. Social Accountability communication and feedback Mechanisms…. Generally, structured social accountability mechanisms seek to ensure that the public, communities and organizations to be affected by a decision shall have a right to be consulted and involved in the decision making process. Of importance, though, is that formal accountability mechanisms instituted by government and external mechanisms of accountability instituted by citizens and civil society should be mutually reinforcing in enhancing efficiency in service delivery by county officials. Social accountability uses various mechanisms to hold public officials and by extension their respective County governments accountable in using public funds and quality of public service delivery, including: Community Scorecard, Social Audits and Citizens Report Cards. Public Expenditure Tracking Surveys can also be used to track the flow of resources from the National Government to the front line service providers at the County Government by assessing how allocated resources are contributing to improved service delivery. Further, citizens and non-state actors may establish independent citizen oversight committees or watchdog groups to improve public oversight. The non-state actors in such instances play the role of an intermediary between the citizens and government institutions such as the Ethics and Anti-Corruption Commission, Ombudsman and Boards of public health facilities at the county level. Social audit is commonly used to demand accountability from the County Government officers through performance management and oversight. Details of a public project are scrutinized to determine the value for money invested in such projects, in seeking to evaluate how well public resources are used to meet the real needs of targeted beneficiaries. Public awareness meetings and public accountability forums are an integral part of the social audit process to get feedback from citizens. Social audits have thus served to empower citizens and communities by introducing them to evidence-based monitoring, encouraging them to ask questions and compel county officers to act on county lapses in governance. The poor and marginalized tend to be the greatest beneficiaries of effective social accountability mechanisms as they mostly rely on government services and are least equipped to hold public officers accountable. Experiences of Social Accountability processes at County Level….. Social accountability has led to process improvements at the counties leading to enhanced public service delivery. There has been inclusiveness in running the affairs of the county governments.Opportunities for the youth; women and remote communities have been increased through various social accountability mechanisms. For instance in Makueni County, government officials have adopted a sequential process of identifying citizens’ priorities, beginning from the local levels up through the sub units of the county government. Through structured mechanisms of social accountability, there have been reduced transactions costs of compliance by elimination of overlapping county development activities. There has been improved compliance to the existing legislative and legal frameworks requirements for public participation. Moreover, structured social accountability processes have led to validation and prioritization of county projects on needs basis. This enables the overall credibility of the processes and ownership of community projects by the general public. Challenges facing implementation of Social Accountability mechanisms…. Though public participation is a mandatory and continuous process for the county governments, it has faced some challenges. Funding for county social accountability programmes is often inadequate, and some counties have not given such programmes adequate consideration especially when preparing county integrated development plans. In addition, although the structures of social accountability exist, in some cases there is little commitment to making them work, and citizens feel locked out especially when meetings are postponed and there is no timely communication. Further, public participation is not an ingrained culture among the public officials, and this has seen delays in release of adequate and timely information to citizens. Moreover, awareness on social accountability among the citizens is low, and this has made it difficult to hold public officers accountable even in misuse of funds. Benefits of Social Accountability………… The benefits of enhanced social accountability are enormous. Social accountability promotes sustainable governance as the mechanisms for engagement enable power holders to report to the citizens. As a result, these mechanisms have the potential of increasing development effectiveness and public service delivery. Evaluations undertaken by the public and other non-state-actors provide vital feedback to the county governments on the inadequacy in service delivery. Marginalized groups including youth and women who mainly constitute large percentage of people in the rural areas and underrepresented in political arena are likely to be empowered. Moreover, citizen’s information and voice is enhanced creating incentives for downward accountability and creating mechanisms for citizen government dialogue and participatory monitoring. This may lead to more informed policies that are tailored to the general public needs. Besides, citizens gain a higher level of understanding of the process of formulating public policy, and developing integrated plans and budgets as envisaged by the legislative framework on devolved governance. As a result, citizens are able to appreciate the challenges or limitations that respective governments may face in delivering the development agenda, and therefore the need to prioritize demands. In addition, citizens may start to appreciate the essence of paying taxes, fees, charges and levies as part of revenue for County Government. This notwithstanding, citizens need access to adequate information to be able to hold office bearers and service providers to account. They also need to be aware of their rights and responsibilities and the effective channels through which they can exercise them in order to have meaningful citizen participation. Way forward……. To enhance social accountability, those in leadership positions need to actively engage the public by providing adequate time and resources for public to participate in the governance processes. It is also important to build capacity of the citizens and other non-state actors to understand their role in devolved governance. There is also need to train state actors to appreciate the essence of meaningful engagement in social accountability processes. Easy and timely access to verified and authentic information is critical in ensuring that all stakeholders are adequately informed for productive engagement. Moreover, a clear mechanism for public participation and communication channels between the citizens and county officers will enhance knowledge and understanding of the development issues and public processes. While public institutions and County Governments require enabling systems, mechanisms and frameworks to be in place, the extent to which social accountability achieves the intended objectives largely depends on how the public is organized and informed on the issues they seek to influence. | https://events.globallandscapesforum.org/blog-competition/embracing-social-accountability-for-effective-public-service-delivery/ |
- What is PATTIRO? PATTIRO or Center for Regional Information and Studies is a research and advocacy non-governmental organization established to foster the democratic decentralization implementation in Indonesia as well as to improve local government social accountability, particularly on the issue of public services accountability, transparency, and, public finance management reform.
- Why was PATTIRO founded? PATTIRO was established to ensure the success of regional autonomy implementation in Indonesia. PATTIRO believes that the purpose of regional autonomy policy or decentralization may only be achieved when the government provides a wider space for its citizens to actively engage in policy and decision making, as well as in public service improvement. PATTIRO exists to continuously encourage the achievement of decentralization goals, especially its goal to increase the quality of public services that will result on society’s welfare improvement
- What does PATTIRO do? PATTIRO focuses on several scope of works such as research, either quantitative or qualitative research using particularly participative method, training facilitation for civil society organizations and local government, as well as local parliament members, and technical assistance for civil society organizations, both local and central government officials and legislators. PATTIRO also engage in people organizing by establishing numerous community centers in various regions in Indonesia. In addition to that, PATTIRO also create some innovations by developing the results of researches PATTIRO has conducted. Moreover, PATTIRO also create and publish learning materials such as books, training guideline, policy paper, lessons learned, and others.
- Where does PATTIRO work? Since its establishment in 1999 until now, PATTIRO has worked in at least 17 provinces and more than 70 districts/cities throughout Indonesia. PATTIRO also has a network namely PATIRO Raya whose members have its own legal entities and agendas. Nevertheless, organizations joined in this network have the same goal that is to realize good local governance. PATTIRO Raya network spreads across Aceh, Banten, Blora, Bojonegoro, Gresik, Kendal, Magelang, Malang, Pekalongan, Semarang, Serang, Surakarta, Tangerang, Jeneponto.
- What has PATTIRO achieved? For six consecutive years, from 2011 to 2015, PATTIRO has received an award from University of Pennsylvania, United States of America as one of best global think tanks in research and policy advocacy.
About Decentralization, Transparency, Social Accountability:
- How do you define Decentralization? Decentralization is a process of redistributing or dispersing functions, powers, people or things away from a central location or authority. Government decentralization has both political and administrative aspects. Its decentralization may be territorial, moving power from the central level to the other levels (localities), and it may be functional, moving decision-making from the top administrator of any branch of government to lower level officials, or divesting the function entirely through privatization.
- And what is democratic decentralization? According to Ribot, al. (2002), democratic decentralization, or also known as political decentralization, is the delegation of authority to the actors who represent the community and be accountable to the bottom. In addition, local actors should have discretions and autonomy in decision-making, along with the authority – and resources – to make decisions that are meaningful to the lives of local citizens. It is often referred as devolution, because of the handover of authority or power to the institutions of local representatives elected on the basis of the election. According to Camille Barnett, et.al. (1997) cited by Sutoro Eko, democratic decentralization manages power to develop policy, expansion of the democratic process at lower levels of government, and develop standards which ensure a sustainable democracy.
- What is Transparency? Transparency is about shedding light on rules, plans, processes and actions. It knows why, how, what, and how much. Transparency ensures that public officials, civil servants, managers, board members and businessmen act visibly and understandably, and report on their activities. And it means that the general public can hold them to account. It is the surest way of guarding against corruption, and helps increase trust in the people and institutions on which our futures depend. (Source: Transparency International – transparency.org )
- What is Social Accountability? Measure of an organization’s state of being mindful of the emerging social concerns and priorities of internal and external stakeholders (community, employees, governmental and non-governmental organizations, management, and owners). It is reflected in the organization’s verifiable commitment to certain factors (which may or may not be tied directly to its processes) such as (1) willing compliance with employment, health, and hygiene, safety, and environmental laws, (2) respect for basic civil and human rights, and (3) betterment of community and surrounding. | http://pattiro.org/en/faq/ |
Former Moderator of the Presbyterian Church of Ghana, Reverend Professor Emmanuel Martey, believes that some officials of the 10-month old New Patriotic Party (NPP) administration, are already showing signs of corruption.
The man, who blatantly criticized officials of the erstwhile Mahama administration for being corrupt and having mismanaged the country, appears to be turning the heat on the Akufo-Addo administration.
He has thus called for a constitutional direction to streamline the size of Government in the country, since in his view, a large size government contributes to corruption.
The NPP government has been severely accused following Nana Addo’s appointment of 110 ministers of state, the largest in the country’s history.
The outspoken bishop warned that those NPP appointees who have begun showing signs of corruption, will soon be exposed.
Professor Martey was speaking at a Public Lecture on the Corruption menace in Ghana, organized by the Christian Service University College(CSUC) in Kumasi.
He said Government must prioritize issues of corruption and ensure a vigorous fight against the menace if positive results are to be seen.
“A large Government means large corruption. So we should have a constitutional direction. NPP and corruption, I said clearly that what has been proven, the NPP appointees have begun showing signs of corruption”.
He cited the recent happenings at the Microfinance and Small Loans Centre (MASLOC), and urged the President to ensure issues about corruption under his administration are dealt with.
The NPP government has so far found itself in two cases of alleged corruption, with the recent one being the allegations of corruption against two deputy chiefs of staff, by musician and NPP sympathizer Kwame A-Plus, as well as the perceived corruption in the sale of contaminated fuel involving BOST.
There has also been perceived corruption in government’s handling of the Ameri Power Deal, in which the same firm that was being questioned over a supposed bloated contract, sponsored a committee from Ghana to Dubai to hold discussions with them.
Finance Minister Ken Ofori-Atta, was also accused of cronyism by the minority in one of government’s bond issue. Another major scandal, which many were unhappy with, was the allegations of corruption leveled against Boakye Agyarko, now Energy Minister during his vetting.
He was accused by some minority MPs of seeking to bribe them to enable him sail through his vetting with ease. The matter was later investigated by parliament, but the accusers were supposedly unable to prove their claims.
The lecture, on the theme: “Institutional Corruption in Ghana: Causes and Effects” brought other dignitaries including; the outgoing Managing Director of the Graphic Communications Group, Ken Ashigbey, and the General Secretary of the Christian Council of Ghana, Reverend Dr. Opuni Frimpong.
Mr. Ashigbey, who spoke on ‘The Efficacy of Anti-corruption measures in Ghana: What is missing and the way Forward’, said corruption is purely “thievery” and must not be glorified.
He wants political parties to publish their sources of funding used for electioneering campaigns.
He also called for the quick passage of the Right to Information (RTI) Bill and a reformation of the Asset Declaration Act.
Source: citifmonline.com
October 14, 2017
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The Council believes that the right of citizens, especially women, children and the disabled should be protected by all. In view of that, it works to ensure that there is respect for fundamental human right which includes the right to live, the right to education, the right to free speech and the right to movement with the view of ensuring peace. Council’s work in the area of HIV/AIDS, advocacy for Food Security and Worse forms of Child trafficking reflect the right based approach to its activities. | http://www.christiancouncilofghana.org/NewsPages/nana-addos-appointees-showing-signs-of-corruption-rev-martey.php |
The previous chapter explained the background of ethics and its global importance in leadership in the context of the African continent and Tanzania particularly in Local Government Authorities. Corruption is immoral and the outcome of unethical behavior. The purpose of this chapter is to synthesize relevant literature review concerning ethical leadership. The chapter entails the theoretical and conceptual frameworks of ethical leadership. The next part is discussion on ethics and leadership.
2.2 Ethics and Leadership
Leadership is a process by which a leader influences a group of people to achieve a common goal. Salminen (2006:183) expressed the importance of public servants of being both professional and adherence to high moral standards. According to Van Wart (2003:214), stated that effective leadership is that which makes possible the provision of higher quality and efficient goods and services to the citizens with a sense of good direction and vision. Ethical leaders have to care for the necessary needs of their citizens such as health, education and water. A leader should be creative in order to build up a vibrant organizational culture and climate for common good rather than self-interests. Brown et al. (2005:117) note that the frequent publicized ethical scandals and failures in both public and private sectors “have raised the important questions about the role of leadership in shaping ethical conduct” in on organizations. Thus, the leader’s vision, behavior and actions are necessary for positive results, good governance. The following part discusses the importance of ethical leadership.
2.2.1 The importance of ethical leadership
Ethics is very important in leadership in any organizational setting. Menzel (2007:6) noted “ethics are values and principles that guide right and wrong behavior”. Kanungo and Mendonca (1996:3) noted on the importance of ethics in leadership as follows “Effective organizational leaders need ethics as fish need water and human beings need air” According to Northouse (2007:346), ethics are the centrality of leadership whereby leaders help to establish and influence organizational values. Northouse noted that, such an influence has a great ethical burden and responsibility. Kanungo and Mendonca 1996:6) noted that when actions and behavior of leaders fail to be in accordance with the shared values, there is more harm than physical harm. Such ethical failure or compromise can cause moral cynicism, which is compared with a cancer that corrodes the society’s moral health. Therefore, the place and role of ethics in leadership cannot be replaced by competency alone. It leads us to the conclusion that there is no true leadership without ethics. The next part shows relationship between ethics and morality.
2.2.2 Ethics and morality
For Menzel (2007:6), ethics are the rules and principles that guide people as a framework to making good decisions. Morality also deals with the right and wrong decisions or actions of people. Good governance is the outcome of ethical leadership whereby ethical leadership is built on the bases of ethics and morality. A similarity exists between the two terms: ethics and morality. Kanungo and Mendonca (1996:33) noted that ethics and morality are interchangeable terms in the sense that what is ethical also is moral and what is moral also is ethical. Therefore, both moral and ethics concepts are used interchangeably in this study. The next part discusses on ethics in administration and governance.
2.2.3 Ethics in Administration and Governance
Public administration is an instrument by which, through efficient and effective institutions government provides social goods and services that advance socioeconomic and human development. Governance as a process or method in which responsibilities or the public officials discharge functions in serving human beings requires ethical leadership. Menzel (2007:8-9) observed that it is difficult to promote public services without ethical government. Ethics in governance is fundamental to effective and democratic government. He further continues to state that, “ethical governance is vital to effective and democratic. Menzel remarked that good government cannot be achieved with men and women who lack ethical or moral values. The concept of good governance in this context implies the capacity of government to discharge its responsibilities and accountable to citizens in just manner. The public expect from their public officials at all levels of government to utilize public resources for the well-being of the citizenry. Good social services that foster the socioeconomic improvement and strong democratic institutions are indications that a government is practicing good governance to its citizens as good caretaker of the public good. Bowman (2008:62) democratic government and its administration require ethics as preconditions on which all plans and public policies depend on it. The emphasis is on public servants to know their call and serve with commitment the needs of their citizens. The highest standard of ethics is more required in all of public officials though is highly needed in every organization. The administrators in public services should act as servants accountable to the people. Consequently, ethical leadership in public service remains very important for achieving sustainable socioeconomic development and good governance. Good government guarantees “a responsive governmental and administrative framework” (Doig 1995:151), which assists in making good governance and economic development attainable. The next subsection deals with ethics and leadership in developing countries.
2.3 Ethics and Leadership in Developing Countries
The issue of ethical leadership and good governance is a global issue. Nevertheless, in developing countries corruption as unethical practice is widespread. Burn et al., (2011:xi) as cited in Hoseah (2014:3) noted that the theft of public assets from developing countries that are hidden in foreign jurisdictions each year is estimated at 20-40 billion USD. Hoseah (2014:2) stated that the current corruption measurements still rank Africa, especially South of the Sahara, as terribly corrupt. From this reason, it is essential to have a brief study on ethical leadership and good governance in Local Government Authorities particularly in Kenya, Zimbabwe and Nigeria. The aim of including the above three mentioned countries is to study on how Local Governments affected by unethical practice of corruption. However, Tanzanian local governments will be my place of research about ethical leadership for good governance. The first country next to this discussion is Kenya.
2.3.1 Ethics and leadership in Kenyan local governments
According to Mitullah (2010:1), since the 1999 the Kenya Government has implemented Local Government Reform Programme aimed at structuring the Local government Administration system for improved service delivery. However, the findings of the Kenya Round 4 Afro Barometer Survey revealed that, citizens remain discontented with the performance of Local Officials due to their poor service provision and inability to follow procedures (Mitullah, 2010:1). Moreover, citizens do not trust any more their councilors. Citizens are not allowed to participate in councils’ decisions and in making council’s programme are not known to the ordinary people. The majority of councilors are insufficient qualified in handling public funds and not honesty. The study manifests that, the Local Government officials lack competency and ethics in leadership. The parliament of Kenya enacted the Public Officer Ethics Act of 2003 and the Leadership Integrity Act of 2012 among other laws. Leadership and Integrity Act of 2012 in chapter six of the Constitution of Kenya wants public officers adhere to the principles set out in various legislative provisions. Section 13 of the Act spells out that, the public officers are required to show forth honesty of public affairs subjects to the Public Office Act of 2003. In spite of the elaborate institutional framework ethics and integrate are of great importance in the public service of Kenya, still unethical practices persist. For instance, Kenya Anti –Corruption Commission reports that, corruption permeates in health sector. The findings show that the local councils do not follow democratic procedures. From the findings, we can conclude that the public officials in the local governments in Kenya do not follow the principles of ethical leadership and good governance since some attributes of ethics of leaders and good governance such as transparency, honest, efficient and effectiveness and participation a in decision-making lack (mercury.ethz.ch/…/Files/…/AfrobriefNo89.pdf).The following discussion bases on Zimbabwe.
2.3.2 Ethics and leadership in Zimbabwe Local governments
The system of local governments in Zimbabwe has experienced a lot of changes and challenges during colonial rule and after independence 1980.The decentralization of the local government system in Zimbabwe in the new National Constitution (2013) is positive development. The new Zimbabwe Constitution of (2013) has defined the local government system in detail. However, poor service delivery is experienced in local governments including unpredictable water supplies and roads filled with potholes and become a nightmare for motorists. The Zimbabwe Election Support Network (ZESN) (2008:1) cited in Jonga (2014:82) explained that there has been general dissatisfaction among residents about the level of service delivery. Madzivanyika (2011:33) as cited in Jonga (2014:84) alleged that an efficient and effective provision of services is undermined by a high level of interference from central government in the decision of local governments. The findings revealed that many of councilors are elected on the politics, and qualifications do not matter much when choosing candidates for election (Jonga, 2014:85). Consequently, the issue of ethical leadership and good governance lack in Zimbabwe Local Government Authorities. The failure to elect or appoint professionals who can work properly for the public effectively and efficiently it is unethical. The next part will be on Nigerian local governments.
2.3.3 Ethics and leadership in Nigerian local governments
The 1976 local government reforms in Nigeria meant to promote public service delivery at the grassroots level. Due to the deficiency of ethical practices by local government officials makes the achievement of good governance and service delivery difficult in Nigeria. From the findings according to Okechukwu (2012:260) demonstrated that the local government system in Nigeria is regarded as a place of bribery and corruption because most of the councils’ officials are corrupt, they lack honest and person integrity. The public officials in local governments are not transparent. They do not let people know what they do (Okechukwu, 2012:261).They afraid to be transparent because they know what they do is not right thing hence try to run away from an accountability. It means that there is much secrecy than transparency in Nigerian local government officials. The rule of law is not followed by public officials in Nigerian local governments. For example, the corrupt officials used the public funds to build big houses, buy costly cars for themselves and spouses and still the law has not caught them (Okechukwu, 2012:265). It was found that leaders are not much interested in the public interests but for their own interest. For instance, those in health department were on strike three to four months in Nigeria. People are deprived of receiving medical attention they need particularly when their need is agent (Okechukwu, 2012:271). Thus, most of the local officers see their positions as an opportunity for self-enrichment. The next part discusses on Tanzania.
2.3.4 Ethics and leadership in Tanzanian local governments
Article 145 (1) and 146(1-2) of the 1977 Constitution of the United Republic of Tanzania guarantee the establishment of a Local Government system by democratically elected government councils. Article 146 (1-2) specifies the purpose and functions of Local Government Authorities. The purpose of having local government authorities is to transfer authority to the people and participation of people in the planning and implementation of development programmes within their respective areas. The functions of Local Government in its areas are; a) to reform functions of local government, b) ensure the enforcement of law and public safety of the people, and, c) consolidate democracy and apply it to foster the development of the people. Tanzania has adopted a policy of decentralization by devolution; however service delivery not efficient and effective. The next part discusses theoretical frameworks.
2.4 Theoretical Framework
The study was guided by three major normative ethical theories: utilitarian theory, deontological theory, virtuous theory and justice theory. Ethical leadership and good governance emerged in the discussion of these ethical theories including Mill’s consequential theory, Kant’s deontological theory, Aristotle’s virtuous theory and Rawls’ justice theory. Ethical theories give us the principles for guidance and moral decision-making being as individuals or as a group. Northouse (2007) cited in Okechukwu (2012:37), remarked that ethical theories provide principles that enable individuals in deciding what is right or wrong and good or bad in any ethical predicament. Vance Trani, (2008) as noted in Okechukwu (2012:37) identified the above-mentioned three major ethical theories. Each of the above-mentioned theories articulates and emphasizes particular ethical principles. The next discussion is about utilitarian ethical theory.
2.4.1 Teleological utilitarian ethical theory
According to teleological theories, an action can be judged morally good when the leader’s actions result into something good or the ‘greatest good’ (Ciulla, 2005:163). Bentham argued that the ultimate goal of human action was to achieve pleasure and to avoid pain; these two values govern human actions. The nature has placed humankind under the governance of two supreme masters, pain and pleasure. They determine us in all we do, in all we say; in all we think (Burtt, 1939:791). Teleological ethical theories also known as consequential theories since their principles primarily focus on the outcomes of actions. The right actions are those that promote “the greatest possible…happiness…” (Vance and Trani, 2008: 373). Bentham (1748-1832) and Mill (1806-1873) were two notable proponents of utilitarianism. For Bentham, the ultimate goal of human action was to achieve happiness or pleasure and to avoid pain (Burtt 1939:791). From this point of view, Bentham formulated his moral principle known as the utility principle or the greatest happiness principle. Basing on this perspective, what is considered morally right action is that which produces the maximum quantity of pleasure in favor of the greatest number of people. Mill argued that the principle of utility underpins the normative, ethical theory and our decisions and actions are judged ethically right or wrong to the extent they promote or diminish happiness for people. Therefore, the utilitarian ethical principle guarantees the happiness and well-being of greatest number of people. Bentham insisted that government policies should be in line with the principle of utility, which means that they must be geared toward promoting the well-being of the citizenry rather than diminishing it (Burtt, 1939:791). The foremost task of the government is to serve its citizenry through provision of various needs that will improve their well-being and happiness. The utilitarian ethical point of view encourages those public officials’ actions and policy to focus on improving the well-being of the conditions of life of their people whom they serve. The next theory to be discussed is deontological theory.
2.4.2 Deontological ethical theory
From deontological ethical theory, an action can be judged morally good if a leader acts according to moral principles and on duty regardless of the outcomes ( Ciulla, 2005:163). Deontological ethical theory presents an ethical framework that considers morality as duty or a principle that ought to be followed by everyone. There is a distinction between deontological ethics and teleological ethics. Deontological ethics evaluates and judges ethical merit of an action, not by the consequences as in teleological ethics, but rather on motive based on duty or moral principles (Van staveren, 2007:23). According to deontologists certain action are right in themselves and some are intrinsically bad, no matter their outcomes, therefore, bad action should not be done at all. Deontological ethics provides us with “universal norms that prescribe what people obliged to do, how they should behave, what is right and what is wrong” (Van Staveren, 2007:23; Kropotkin, 1922:21). Kant was the chief proponent and a notable figure in deontological ethical theory. Ciulla (2003:95) as a scholar noted that Kant’s theory “captures the idea of ‘acting’ on principle or doing something simple because it is the right…” From Some scholars observed Kant’s instance that an ethical rule must not be used as a means to an end but must be as end itself. In an attempt to ground all ethical judgment on a rational principle, Kant posited the concept of ‘categorical imperative’ “act only according to that maximum whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law” (Ciulla, 2003:102). Vance and Trani (2008:373) noted that this maxim supports the equality of all human beings, no individual should be turned into means for others’ ends but people should be treated as an end in themselves. The following is the discussion on Virtue ethical theory.
2.4.3 Virtue ethical theory
Aristotle defined virtue, as the mean between extremes (Ciulla, 2011:234) .According to Aristotle virtues are moral qualities that people acquire from the society and from their legislators. Aristotle (1984:1743) as cited in (Ciulla, 2011:234) writes, ‘Legislators make citizens good by forming habits in them’. Nevertheless, virtues come naturally to those who practice them. For instance, a person may value honesty but he or she never always tells the truth. Aristotle insisted that when a person practices a virtue he or she must always be conscious that it is the right way to be and act. … Therefore, if this is true in every case, the excellence of man also will be the state which makes man good and which makes him do his work well” (Ciulla, 2011:235). The function of humans in accordance with Aristotle is to reason. To be morally virtuous, you must reason well, because the reason tells you how and when to practice a virtue. For Aristotle, the morally virtuous leader must also be a competent leader otherwise, it is immoral for a leader to be incompetent (Ciulla, 2011:235).
Virtues ethics concern with the sort of person an individual ought to be and the kind of life a person ought to live rather than the kind of actions the individual should do (Stewart, 1991:363). The focus of virtue ethics is on the agent rather than on the act on “being rather than on doing” (Stewart 1991:363). Aristotle has been regarded as the leading theorist in virtue ethics theory. Maclntyre (1984:150) noted that Aristotle insisted that the practice of the virtues is very important, for achievement of virtues requires an individual to have the capacity to judge and make choices that lead “to do the right thing in the right place at right time…” In favor of Aristotle, human beings are political animals. The author also claimed that the goal of political science was the formation of “character of the citizen, to make them good people who do fine actions (Irwin, 1999: 12). Ethics helps individual and a community to live happily (Irwin 1999:12). According to Aristotelian tradition, virtues include courage, temperance, generosity, self-control, honesty, sociability, modest, fairness and justice. Hence, according to Aristotle virtuous public administrators have the capacity and disposition to use their positions to enhance prosperity of the people through provision of good governance. Being aware of moral responsibilities, they are committed to discharging their duties with moral integrity. Virtue must be the fundamental aspect of public officials’ character, which guide all their actions and behavior. The next discussion is on justice ethical theory.
2.4.4 Justice ethical theory
According to Rawls (1971:3-4), justice is the first virtue of social institutions, as truth is of systems of thought. He articulated the idea of justice as fairness in his work entitled Theory of Justice. Rawls emphasized the importance of justice in social institutions. Rawls contrasts with utility principle by insisted that it would never be right and just to sacrifice the freedom or subject some people to unjust treatment to attain the greatest profit for many. In democratic governance involves equal liberty, individual autonomy, and social justice among others. These values can be realized if only the public leaders were to act from and base their decisions on justice principle. Consequently, the question of ethical leadership and good governance at present parallels the perspectives of deontological and teleological theories in ethics.
As the discussion above illustrates the major three normative theories and justice theory the contextual meaning from deontological point of view in this study implies this, when the leader acts according to his or her duty or on moral principles, the leader acts ethically right regardless of the outcomes. From the teleological perspective, what matters is about leader’s actions result in bringing about something morally good or the greatest good. Deontological theory locates the ethics of an action in the moral intention of the leader and the moral justification for the action. Both deontological and teleological theories are needed to account for the ethics of leaders (Ciulla, 2005:163), just as a good leader has to be ethical and effective. That is, leaders have to do their duties and with some notion of the common good in mind. If Local Government officials were to do their entrusted duties and with the notion of serving the community then unethical practice such as corruption would have no chance at all. The following section discusses about conceptual framework.
2.5 Empirical Background
Brown et al. (2005) cited in Okechukwu (2012:91), remarked that leadership should be major source of ethical guidance in the workplace, but little is known about ethical leadership. This shortfall of research in the ethical leadership is obvious in the public sector, and its ahs an impact of this study, because most of the ethical leadership literature utilized in this study is from private business sector. Ethical leadership becomes even more scarce in the context of the Tanzanian Local Government Authorities. As a result, I explored in other fields, precisely in the private business sector to understand how the leadership concept could be employed in Local Government Authorities to achieve good governance outcomes Still, it is to stress that this idea does not invalidate the credibility of this study because any leadership paradigm develop in one sector can be used in another sector without affecting the foundational principles of ethical leadership.
Brown et al.(2005) cited by Okechukwu (2012:91)conducted seven different but interrelated studies to examine the viability and significance of an ethical leadership construct. They employed a qualitative research method. Ethical leadership was an independent variable while honesty, behavior, consideration of others were treated as dependent variables. The results show that ethical leadership is related to consideration behavior, interaction fairness, honest, idealized influence, and effective trust in leader.
Ponu and Tennakoon (2009) as cited in Okechukwu (2012:92) conducted in Malaysia. A qualitative research methodology was used to examine the impact of ethical leadership behavior on employee attitudinal outcomes and trust regarding organizational commitment and trust in leaders. Ethical leadership was treated as independent variable while employee organizational loyalty was treated as dependent variables. Questionnaire technique was used to collect data. The outcomes indicated that ethical leaders’ behavior has impact on both the employee and organizational commitment and trust in leadership
Dibie (2003) cited in Okechukwu 2012:94) conducted study on the performance of local government public servants and citizens participation in governance in Nigeria, Dibie used a mixed method approach. Questionnaires, interview and documentary analysis were used as tools for collecting data. The outcomes indicated that most of Local government Councils in Nigeria lacks qualified personnel, adequately trained staff or trained programmes for their stuff. Moreover, the findings show that the citizen’s participation in Local Government elections is declining.
Zhu (2008) as cited by Okechukwu (2012:93) conducted a study to examine ethical leadership influences the moral development of followers. Quantitative method approach was employed. The author treated ethical leadership as independent variable while follower’s psychological empowerment and moral integrity as dependent variables. The results indicated that ethical leadership has a positive effect both o follower moral integrity and psychological empowerment.
2.6. Conceptual Framework
The previous subsection described the theoretical framework used in this study. This part provides a conceptual framework derived from scholars’ views. According to Miles and Huberman (1984:18), define a conceptual framework as a tool that, ‘explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the main things to be studied – the key factors, constructs or variables – and the presumed relationships among them’. The model for this study relies on Brown and Trevino et al. Brown et al., (2005:120) defined ethical leadership as “the demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct through personal actions and interpersonal relationships, and promotion of such conduct to the followers through two-way…”. From this definition, Brown et al. (2005:120-21) enumerated the constitutive components of ethical leadership as follows: a) demonstration of appropriate conduct such as honest, trustworthiness, fairness, and cares in their behavior and model such to followers b) making ethics as salient factors; communicate unambiguously regarding ethics and provide followers with just interpersonal process to express their views; c) reward ethical conduct and punish the disobedient ones; c) make decisions based on principles and justice. The concept of ethical leadership according to Brown et al.’s (2005:120) corresponds to what Trevino et al., (2000:597) regarded as two-fundamental pillars for ethical leadership. According to Trevino et al., those who are perceived as ethical leaders are characterized as moral both personally and in their roles as leaders. They also encouraged the issue of accountability with reward system. Thus, in this study the following factors as adapted from Brown et al. (2005:120) and Trevino et al., (2000:597) of person integrity, honest and concern for people, trustworthiness, openness (transparency), fairness (justice), accountability, participation and competency were used as criteria to investigate on citizens’ perspectives on ethical leadership for good governance in Local Government Authorities. The following part discusses the above-mentioned constitutive components (elements) of ethical leadership.
2.6.1 Justice/fairness and rule of law
According to Rawls (1999:3-4) as cited in (http://www.readbag.com/who-medicines-areas-policy-goodgovernance-ethical-infrastructure) “justice is about giving each his or her fair due of reward or punishment. …”.Legal orders as a system of public rule can be addressed to rational persons for the purpose of regulating the conduct and providing a framework for social cooperation. One kind of unjust action is the failure of judges and others in authority to apply the appropriate rule or interpret it correctly. The rule of law must be impartial to everyone in the sense of fair treatment before the law; we may call “justice as regularity” (Rawls, 1971:207-8). The society is well ordered when it is designed to advance the good of its members as well as when it is effectively regulated by public conception of justice. That is, in the society whereby (i) everyone accepts and knows that the others accept the same principles of justice, and (ii) the basic social institutions generally satisfy and are generally known to satisfy the principle (Rawls, 1971:4). Therefore, the rule of law demands the existence of impartial and incorruptible judiciary in order to achieve good governance in Local Government Authorities in Tanzania. The following discussion is on accountability and transparency.
2.6.2 Accountability and transparency
Accountability is an inevitable part of public management. It is a system in public institutions where by public officers are held accountable for their actions or omissions in decision-making (Hope, 2005:298). Hope (2005:296) noted, “transparency is closely associated with the successful implementation of good governance…” A public servant can be held legally accountable to accomplish the terms of the agreement related to his or her professional services under the rule of law on the behalf of public interest. Hence, accountability refers to the obligation of public officials to give a report on how they used the public resources and as they answer for their failure to meet the stated performance objectives (Armstrong, 2005:1). According to Kakumba Flourie (2007:651) there are three key reasons for accountability, especially in the public organization: (a) to ensure control of abuse and misuse of public power; (b) to ensure effective use of public resources and adherence to procedural law and public service values; (c) to encourage learning and continuous improvement in governance and public management. Mostly, public leaders in South of Sub Saharan Africa tend to see their public positions as person inheritance property, that they often struggle to secure by “the selective distribution of favors and material benefits to loyal followers who are regarded and treated as clients” (Hope2005:298). Under this patrimonial nature of public officials in African region, undermines good governance and inhibits the prospect of achieving sustainable development (Hope, 2005: 299). Therefore, the public officials entrusted with the power to serve the public interest and common good have to discharge their duties with accepted standards of ethics and conduct. Hope (2005:296) observed that the governance record in African region shows poor level of public accountability and hence needs to be improved. The transparency of decision-making and resource management for the public examination should be documented and accessible for the public inspection. Nevertheless, the situation of accountability and transparency from the literature review on Local Governments in Kenya, Zimbabwe and Nigeria was not effective. In the Local Government Authorities that lack accountability then an abuse of public offices is high. Hope (2005:296) transparency enhances public trust and allows identification of possible acts of corruption and as well as permitting the time for corrective measures. Free availability and accessibility of an information to the people affected by the government’s decisions helps to reduce uncertainty and control corruption among public officials (Hope, 2005:296). The next discussion bases on equality, participation and merit system.
2.6.3 Participation and inclusiveness
Participation as a principle of good governance includes conducting free and fair elections, ensuring that all citizens have a voice in their local public affairs. It is through the consultative process that diversity of views and voices within a social organization can be heard and taken into consideration in the process of collective decision-making. Participation allows the decisions to reflect truthfully and justly the needs of the members of the society. The public services should be inclusive and should serve all equally. This requires a basic recognition by public institutions and public officials of the reality of the oneness of humanity. According to Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948) Article 1, all human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. The principle of inclusiveness relates to fundamental social justice in service to the common good. (http://www.readbag.com/who-medicines-areas-policy-goodgovernance-ethical-infrastructure). The next section deals with ethical principle of trustworthiness.
2.6.4 Person integrity and honest, truth and trust
Person integrity is the quality of being honesty and having strong moral principles. Honesty is so crucial in both public and private administration in managing the resources. For instance, stealing, the acceptance of bribes and lying are all forms of dishonesty that lead to corruption. Dishonest behavior by public officials creates public distrust towards the institutions that are supposed to serve that society (http://www.readbag.com/who-medicines-areas-policy-goodgovernance-ethical-infrastructure).
At the individual level, integrity is more than ethics; it is all about the character of the person. The individuals with personal integrity do consistently what is right as well as what is expected of them. They are trustworthy and knowable in serving others and they are defenders of what is fair and acceptable (http://www.aabri.com/manuscripts/10504.pdf).
2.6.5 Concern for the people
The public servants should fulfill the moral imperative by using their official position to serve the public interest. Both personal and institutional commitment to the core moral value of serving the common good is source of natural motivation to sustain the efforts and perseverance often needed to promote social transformation and human development. A significant role of moral leadership in the society has to do with constructing consensus on the shared core values that define the common good. The commitment to maintain the common good should be public official’s primary motive for combating corruption. Selfishness does not serve the common good. Service to the common good should be based on human development. Public services should respect human dignity. People should not be made fell ignorant or inferior when receiving services that are due to them. People should be served in way that truly respects and enhances their human dignity.
2.6.6 Efficient and effectiveness (Competency)
According to Ciulla (1995) as noted in Ciulla (2005:161), a good leader is an ethical and effective leader. The use of “good” here has two senses, morally good leadership and technically good leadership. It is immoral for a leader to be incompetent (Ciulla, 2011:235). The fulfillment of the role of trusteeship requires the efficient and effective use of public resources in the service of the public interest and the common good. There must a systematic monitoring and evaluation of the efficient delivery of services and their impact are very important responsibility of trusteeship. The issue of ethical leadership is inseparable from competency. Therefore, the figure below shows the relationship among variables of this framework.
SUMMARY
The above-mentioned empirical researches proved that ethical leadership has positive impacts on both public and private sectors. However, those empirical studies were conducted outside of Tanzania. Therefore, there are two gaps: (i) geographical gap and (i) knowledge gap. These gaps will be filled by this study. The studies showed that ethical leadership is workable and successful model of leadership that constitutes impact positive results in any organizational sector. From the extant literature review provides the characteristics of ethical leadership including honesty, trustworthy, just and fair, considerate altruistic, respect of human dignity and focusing on the common good. Therefore, it is only individual with some qualifications that can truly run a government that is accountable and transparency to the citizenry. On the foundation of the four ethical theories one can judge his or her actions as right or wrong. Among the four ethics theories as explored the above, deontological and utilitarian ethics seem to be more prominent in the sphere of public administration. To a large degree, both public service and professional ethics depend on both deontological and utilitarian ethics on decision-making. Once theory argued is not to be adequate in the developing countries such as Tanzania. Thus, there was a need of conducting a study to investigate citizens’ perspectives on ethical leadership for good governance in Local Government Authorities in Kinondoni Municipality, Tanzania. The next chapter discusses about research methodology. | https://studysolver.com/essay-examples/science-essay/literature-review/ |
Transparent institutions with strong integrity and governance mechanisms are critical to ensure government efficiency and accountability, strengthen the rule of law and consolidate a country’s social and economic development. In Chile, a series of corruption cases in late 2014 undermined public confidence in the country’s institutions and highlighted the need to further strengthen its legislation to adequately prevent conflicts of interest, influence peddling and other types of corruption within and between business, politics, and public service. The country launched a robust and comprehensive Integrity and Transparency Agenda in 2015. In this context, and in line with Chile’s commitment to institutional development, in 2015, Chile and the IDB partnered to finance Chile’s Integrity and Transparency Agenda Support Program I and II (CH-L1110 and CH-L1111)—two consecutive programs—to strengthen the legal and institutional framework for integrity and transparency contributing to the implementation of a subset of the 35 measures included in the Agenda.
By project completion, Chile had successfully implemented 14 legislative and administrative initiatives agreed with the IDB, which included strengthening the system to prevent and sanction conflicts of interest, promoting integrity of public officials and transparency in the public service career system. By the end of the project, 94% of the public officials required to declare presented their declaration of interest and assets.
The programs also contributed to incorporating the crime of corruption between private individuals into national legislation for the first time and to increasing the punishments for corruption and bribery in the exercise of public office. By project completion, 79% primary and secondary schools implemented a civic education plan.
Finally, the programs contributed to implementing legislation to improve transparency in the political party system and strengthened the oversight functions of the institutions responsible for administering and regulating electoral activities. For more information on results under the program and lessons learned from its implementation, visit the Project Completion Report. | https://crf.iadb.org/en/2020-2023/stories/promoting-transparency-and-integrity-chile |
Gatchalian prioritizes simplification of tax system for MSMEs
SEN. Sherwin T. Gatchalian said Tuesday he would prioritize measures that will simplify tax procedures for micro, small, and medium-sized enterprises (MSMEs) alongside establishing a mechanism to report abusive government officials involved. in the collection system.
“I want to put taxpayers first on the committee, making sure taxation is as easy as buying goods in Shopee,” the senator, who will chair the Committee on Ways and Means of 19e Congress, said during a speech at a Senate hearing.
“We ensure corruption and errant government officials are addressed,” he added.
He said he wanted “focus on the growing small MSME sector,” which is considered to be “the backbone of our economy.”
MSMEs account for 99.5% of business establishments in the country, 63% of the workforce and around 40% of gross domestic product in recent years, according to data from the Ministry of Trade and Industry.
Mr. Gatchalian said prioritizing MSMEs and other taxpayers while looking at accountability and efficiency requires attention through oversight and not just creating new laws.
OTHER TAX SOURCES
Revenue can also be generated from non-essential goods and casinos, he added.
When asked if he was ready to impose higher taxes on the country‘In the more affluent segment, the senator highlighted the Passive Income and Financial Intermediaries Act (PIFITA), one of the bills he plans to prioritize.
“The PIFITA will not only harmonize the different tax regimes in the different income classes, but also… increase passive income tax levels, so in a sense that problem will be solved through this bill,” he said.
Mr Gatchalian will also put the Property Assessment and Valuation Reform Bill on the priority list, which was part of the previous administration‘s planned tax reform packages.
The proposed measure is expected to generate more revenue for local government units, which are responsible for collecting annual property taxes, and accelerate the rollout of infrastructure projects.
The senator also noted that imposing new or higher taxes requires consideration of other factors.
“The moment is very important to raise taxes,” he said. “This‘It is also very important to listen to people’s calls.”
He also said he was uncomfortable suspending promised voter discounts, especially at a time of heightened inflation. | https://imjustsayin.net/gatchalian-prioritizes-simplification-of-tax-system-for-msmes/ |
The project seeks to enable positive change in the domains of policy and practice of local level public institutions as well as in the domain of behaviour of citizens against corruption. At the level of policy and practice, the project will seek to facilitate a multi-stakeholder platform involving key state accountability institutions. The project will advocate closing existing gaps and promoting stronger legislation to enable corruption reporting.
At the level of behavioral change, the project will engage on one hand with media and citizens (through the SACs) to inform, encourage and enable more and better reports of corruption. On the other hand, it will seek to strengthen the capacity and motivation of local level government authorities (Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies) to create better opportunities for communities to participate and effectively engage in local governance processes.
Since 2009, GII has established Social Auditing Clubs (SACs) throughout Ghana. SACs engages in social auditing activates with the aim of improving transparency, accountability and basic service delivery particularly at the local level. However, through its years of experience, GII has recognized that citizen initiatives to engage with local government alone are not sufficient to ensure proper collaboration between authorities and community members to resolve corruption related issues. Local and national level institutions will also have to be willing to engage with citizens if the participation is to yield positive results. Recognising the key challenge, GII has developed a holistic programme that engages both citizens and state actors equally. Sensitising state actors of their mandate and their role in promoting democracy at the local level as well at the national level, engaging anti-corruption actors to prioritize action on corruption reports and create strengthened systems necessary to promote anti-corruption.
At the same time, the project also supports the Advocacy and Legal Advice Centre of GII and the IPaidABribe online corruption reporting platform to encourage more citizens to speak up against corruption. GII will collaborate with the media to sensitize the citizenry through a sustained media campaign on corruption reporting. The proposed media collaboration will also train journalists to effectively capture corruption reportage in a way that highlights the key issues and the role of key stakeholder in fighting the canker.To support resolution of individual complaints, GII will engage with national level accountability institutions to facilitate stronger cooperation. | https://tighana.org/programs/ongoing-projects/stronger-transparency-accountability-and-participation-in-anti-corruption-governance-in-ghana/ |
The Central Bank of Kenya raised interest rates by half a percentage point on Monday to curb rising inflation and stabilize the shilling.
The central bank rate (CBR) hike to 7.50 percent was in line with the Expectations of most analysts, who said they expect interest rates to rise further in the coming months as the country fends off inflationary pressures caused by rising oil prices and the economic fallout from the Russian-Ukrainian attack on food supplies .
Read:Eyes on EA central banks as inflation bites
Inflation – a measure of annual changes in the cost of living – rose in April fell from 5.56 percent to 6.47 percent in the previous month, the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics reported last month.
This was the fastest pace since last September, when it was 6.91 percent.
CBKs on inflation The Currency Policy Committee (MPC) said that while the economy is showing strong resilience, shocks from food shortages, a weak shilling and imported inflation in the form of rising food prices could lead to a rise in consumer goods prices if liquidity is not tightened.
“Noting heightened risks to the inflation outlook from higher global commodity prices and supply chain disruptions, the Committee concluded that there is scope for monetary tightening to further anchor inflation expectations” , MPC Chairman and CBK Governor Patrick Njoroge said after his meeting.
< p>“In light of these developments, the MPC decided to raise the policy rate of the central bank (CBR) from 7.00 percent to 7.50 percent. “
The shilling traded at 116.71 on Monday, hitting a new record low for the dollar and already is paving the way for costly imported commodities such as cars, electronics, farm supplies and second-hand clothing, and electricity amid a US currency shortage.
Also read:The stock market of Nairobi feels the heat of dollar shortages
The weakening of the shilling has sparked fears of a new round of inflationary pressures, a political headache for the government, which was recently forced to offer fuel subsidies to defuse social tensions.
The tightening of liquidity is a problem, however. likely to have a negative impact on access to credit for individuals and businesses. | https://mawazowritingafrica.com/east-africa/kenya-raises-key-interest-rate-to-tame-inflation/ |
Before the Fed hike, the worry: RBI behind the curve
Less than a month ago – April 8 – the Reserve Bank’s Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) decided to keep the policy rate unchanged at 4% despite rising inflation and heightened global uncertainty following Russia’s attack on Ukraine.
The sudden action to raise the rate by 40 basis points on Wednesday, experts said, was likely prompted by some understanding within RBI of a higher retail inflation print in April, a sharp rise rates by the US Fed and deep concerns about domestic food. price given their sensitivity in the political economy of India.
It turned out that the US Fed raised its key overnight rates by half a percentage point nine hours after the RBI’s action on Wednesday. This 50 basis point increase by the US Fed is the biggest jump in 22 years, according to Reuters. His biggest concern remains inflation, the war in Ukraine and new coronavirus lockdowns in China threatening to keep pressure high.
In India, headline CPI (consumer price index) or retail inflation jumped to 6.95% in March 2022, as predicted in the RBI’s April policy statement. The RBI has now indicated that the April print is expected to be high.
Some analysts have warned that the RBI has fallen behind in the fight against inflation. There were also clear directions. The yield on the benchmark 10-year bond has already exceeded the 7% level. “My concern is that the dovish stance carries the risk of falling behind in the future because the stance limits the MPC’s freedom of action in subsequent meetings,” RBI policy panel member Jayanth Varma told Reuters. the Indian Express during an interaction in March. This year.
A senior fund manager at a leading asset management firm said the RBI’s move was also linked to an expected hike by the Federal Reserve later in the night. “Rate hikes by the US Fed lead to large outflows of funds and put pressure on the rupiah, which necessitates currency management by the RBI. was made just before the Fed rate hike is not a mere coincidence,” said the fund manager, who did not wish to be named.
Some economists pointed to the RBI’s statement which reflected serious concerns about rising food prices. “The logical underpinning for the RBI’s rise today and away from the date of regular politics is the growing concern over inflation – particularly in relation to food. Food inflation, more so than inflation non-food, can drastically alter inflation expectations in India,” said Indranil Pan, Chief Economist, Yes Bank.
According to RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das, geopolitical tensions are pushing inflation to its highest level in the past 3-4 decades in major economies while moderating external demand. “Global crude oil prices dominate above US$100 a barrel and remain volatile. Global food prices hit a new high in March and have since strengthened further. Inflation-sensitive items relevant to India, such as edible oils, are facing shortages due to the conflict in Europe and export bans by major producers,” he said.
Soaring fertilizer prices and other input costs have a direct impact on food prices in India. The sharp acceleration in headline CPI inflation in March 2022 to 7% was propelled, in particular, by food inflation due to the impact of the negative fallout from unprecedented global food prices. Nine of the twelve food sub-groups recorded an increase in inflation in March, the RBI said.
The RBI says high-frequency price indicators for April point to continued food price pressures. At the same time, the direct impact of increases in domestic prices of petroleum products at the pump – from the second half of March – is fueling impressions of underlying inflation and should have intensified in April. Going forward, food inflationary pressures are likely to continue, he said.
Continued high crude oil prices and uncertainty over the duration of the Russian-Ukrainian war have led to sustained global inflationary pressures. With the Chinese and Japanese currencies depreciating by 4% and 6% respectively last month, emerging market currencies are under pressure. “Although the rupee has only depreciated by 1.1% over the past month, any further downward pressure on the rupee would raise greater concerns about imported inflation, so a timely rate hike was needed ahead of the inevitable U.S. rate hike expected this week,” said Prasenjit Basu, Chief Economist, ICICI Securities.
According to an RBI survey released last month, household inflation expectations in various cities for the next three months and one year have exceeded the 10% level. “The median perception of household inflation for the current period remained unchanged at 9.7% in the last survey, while expectations for the three months and one year rose by 10 basis points each to reach 10 .7% and 10.8%, respectively, compared to the January 2022 round,” the RBI’s Household Inflation Expectations Survey said.
“There is a collateral risk that if inflation remains elevated at these levels for too long, it may unanchor inflation expectations which, in turn, may become self-fulfilling and detrimental to growth and financial stability.” , RBI Governor Das said.
As the war drags on and sanctions and retaliatory actions intensify, shortages, volatility in commodity and financial markets, supply shocks and, most alarmingly, persistent inflationary pressures and generalized become more acute every day. Over-indebtedness is increasing in the developing world due to capital outflows and currency depreciations. Recent GDP releases suggest the global economic recovery is running out of steam, he said. | https://www.bondcliff.net/before-the-fed-hike-the-worry-rbi-behind-the-curve/ |
Bank of England Governor Andrew Bailey has said he is not at all happy with rising inflation, but that the central bank couldn’t have done anything differently to avoid it.
Bloomberg | Bloomberg | Getty Images
LONDON — The Bank of England on Thursday implemented a fifth consecutive hike to interest rates as it looks to rein in soaring inflation.
The Monetary Policy Committee voted 6-3 to increase the Bank Rate by 25 basis points to 1.25%, with the three dissenting members voting for a 50 basis point hike to 1.5%.
The MPC said in a statement Thursday that it will “take the actions necessary to return inflation to the 2% target sustainably in the medium term,” with the the scale, pace and timing of any further hikes depending on the economic outlook and inflationary pressures.
“The Committee will be particularly alert to indications of more persistent inflationary pressures, and will if necessary act forcefully in response,” the Bank said.
The pound dropped by 0.8% against the dollar shortly after the announcement to trade at around $1.2080.
Policymakers face the unenviable task of bringing consumer prices back under control against a backdrop of slowing growth and a rapidly depreciating currency, while the U.K. faces a major cost of living crisis.
At its May meeting, the Bank raised its base rate by 25 basis points to 1%, its highest level for 13 years, but warned that the British economy risks falling into recession.
Since then, fresh data has shown that U.K. inflation soared to a 40-year high of 9% annually in April as food and energy prices spiraled. The Bank now expects inflation to rise to “slightly above 11%” in October, reflecting higher projected household energy prices following an expected further increase to the U.K. energy price cap.
Inflation is surging worldwide due to spiking costs of food and energy, which have been exacerbated by the war in Ukraine and supply fears in agricultural commodities. Supply chain disruptions and demand shifts as a result of the pandemic have also driven up tradable goods prices.
However, in its statement Thursday, the MPC acknowledged that not all of the excess inflationary pressure can be chalked up to global events, noting that domestic factors such as a tight labor market and the pricing strategies of firms have also played a role.
“Consumer services price inflation, which is more influenced by domestic costs than goods price inflation, has strengthened in recent months. In addition, core consumer goods price inflation is higher in the United Kingdom than in the euro area and in the United States,” the Bank said.
The economy unexpectedly shrank by 0.3% in April after a 0.1% contraction in March, the first back-to-back declines since April and March 2020, and the OECD has forecast that the U.K. will be the weakest G-7 economy next year as higher interest rates, tax rises, reduced trade and spiraling food and energy prices hammer households. | https://finance-news.co/bank-of-england-hikes-rates-for-the-fifth-time-in-a-row-as-inflation-soars/ |
Rupee depreciation has impacted the current account deficit and fuelled inflationary pressures but at the same time it has made Indian exports more competitive, according to experts.
The Indian rupee has been depreciating against the USD dollar and is nearing the psychologically key mark of 80, making imports expensive.
“The depreciation of the rupee has multiple impacts on the economy. Given we have a negative trade balance, though a depreciation of the rupee makes our exports more competitive, our import bills go up significantly.
“It has an impact on the current account deficit thus further putting pressure on the rupee as well as imports inflation too as the price of imports in rupee terms is higher,” said Ranen Banerjee, Leader, Economic Advisory Services, PwC India.
A recent report by the finance ministry cautioned that India’s current account deficit (CAD) is expected to deteriorate in the current fiscal on account of costlier imports and tepid merchandise exports.
Primarily driven by an increase in the trade deficit, the CAD stood at 1.2 per cent of GDP in 2021-22.
Rumki Majumdar, Economist, Deloitte India, said the US dollar has strengthened amid economic uncertainties marked by rising global inflation and commodity prices, rapidly tightening monetary policy in advanced nations, rising geopolitical tensions, fears of a global economic slowdown, and even a possible recession in the US and a few major European nations.
However, not always does currency depreciation hurt an economy, she added.
“The opportunity to boost services exports revenue on the back of the global digitisation wave is promising. A weaker domestic currency also is an opportunity for FPIs to enter the equity market to earn handsome returns in the medium to long term,” she opined.
Foreign portfolio investors (FPIs) were net sellers in the Indian equity market for the ninth consecutive month in June, with an outflow of Rs 49,469 crore — the highest since March 2020. The sell-off has continued this month, with net outflows to the tune of Rs 7,432 crore during July 1-15.
Overall, FPIs have withdrawn Rs 1.2 lakh crore from the Indian equity market in 2022-23 so far, but the sell-off has been absorbed by domestic institutional investors (DIIs).
Aditi Nayar, Chief Economist, ICRA Limited, was of the opinion that a weaker rupee will partly counteract the slide in commodity prices, lessening the fall in the wholesale (WPI) and retail (CPI) inflation expected over the next few months.
“Similarly, the beneficial impact of the fall in input costs on corporate margins will be tempered. The weaker INR will help to protect some export competitiveness, given the sharper fall recorded by many emerging market (EM) currencies than the INR in the recent period,” she added.
Khalid Khan, vice-chairman of exporters’ body FIEO, said while a depreciating rupee will help exporters, exporting goods which have import content in terms of raw materials will not be benefited that much.
An article published in its recent bulletin said that amid a hostile international environment, close and continuous monitoring of the widening trade deficit and portfolio outflows is warranted, strong reserve buffers notwithstanding.
As per the latest data, the country’s imports expanded by 57.55 per cent to USD 66.31 billion in June compared to the year-ago month.
The merchandise trade deficit in June 2022 was estimated at USD 26.18 billion as against USD 9.60 billion in June 2021, which is an increase of 172.72 per cent.
Crude oil imports in June almost doubled to USD 21.3 billion.
Coal and coke imports more than doubled to USD 6.76 billion in the month as against USD 1.88 billion in June 2021.
It is widely expected that the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) may go for the third consecutive hike in the key interest rate next month as retail inflation continues to rule above 7 per cent — higher than its upper tolerance limit of 6 per cent.
Banerjee further said the matching rate hikes by the RBI in response to the US Federal Reserve actions will also provide support to the rupee.
These counterbalancing forces have helped the rupee in the past few months wherein it has not depreciated to the extent of other emerging market currencies, he added.
Rupee depreciation has impacted the current account deficit and fuelled inflationary pressures but at the same time it has made Indian exports more competitive, according to experts. | https://www.nagalandpost.com/index.php/rupee-fall-fuels-inflationary-pressures/ |
Inflation has proved to be anything but transitory in the US as was claimed by the Federal Reserve 2021. Even earlier in 2022, US Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen also opined that US inflation would be short lived and temporary. But the inflation rate in the US has been accelerating hitting 9.1 per cent in June, 2022, the highest since November,1981 from 8.6 per cent in the previous month.
This rapid rise in inflation rate in the US is sending shock waves through the global economy and came in well above market expectations of an 8.8 per cent rise. Reflecting broader market sentiments, economists have put an interest rate hike of 100 basis points (1 percentage point) on the table for the meeting of the Federal Reserve to be held at the end this month.
The escalation of US inflation that commenced in August-September 2021 has continued to worsen. The emerging factor of growing importance now is the continuation of inflation trends throughout 2022 giving rise to emerging “inflation expectation”. This means consumers will purchase early items they do not need now or had not planned to buy, in order to avoid future price hikes further adding to demand pressures notwithstanding the existing and future supply constraints. Overlaid on this scenario is another factor, widespread price gouging by US corporations with concentrated market power that enable them to raise prices beyond normal demand and supply.
Meanwhile, the Bank for International Settlements (BIS), the umbrella organisation for the World’s central banks has called for an escalation of interest rate rises to tame inflation. The call was made in the BIS annual economic report issued last month. The report further added that “Given the extent of the inflationary pressures unleashed over the past year, real policy rates will need to increase significantly in order to moderate demand”. That means policy rates must remain above inflation increases.
IMF Managing Director Kristalina Georgieva on the eve of the G20 Finance Ministers’ meeting held in the middle of this month forewarned that while there was a synchronised tightening of monetary policy by central banks, more was required and they would “need to continue to tighten monetary policy decisively”. She further added, “Without action, these countries could face a destructive wage-price spiral”. More alarmingly she also said it was “going to be tough 2022 – and possibly tougher 2023, with the increased risk of recession”.
As the inflation problem has worsened and broadened beyond food and fuel prices, policy makers at the Federal Reserve are more likely to scale up the pace of interest rate hikes to rein in inflation. The federal Reserve’s policy aim is to manage money supply in a way that maintains price stability and that usually means fighting inflation, which is assumed to be caused by too much money floating around. Also, by bringing inflation under control will ensure that price rises do not lead to increased wage demands thus forestalling a wage-price spiral.
It is now clearly apparent that later this month (July), US interest rates are expected to jump for a second time and that will have serious implications for the economic recovery of countries in the Global South such as Bangladesh. The Federal Reserve, as mentioned earlier, could push its base rate up by a full percentage point, ending 15 years of very cheap money intended to promote growth. In fact, the Federal Reserve may even be contemplating further rises in the near future.
Many countries in the Global South are already broke and the deepening crisis in Sri Lanka is having a heavy impact on these countries. Also, the recent debt default by Sri Lanka has some concerned that further defaults may occur. According to the IMF, four Asian countries which include Bangladesh, Laos, Maldives and Pakistan are likely to be moving into a similar trajectory like in Sri Lanka.
In fact, with reserves falling and rising inflation as well experiencing the twin deficit, the Bangladesh government has acted fast to curb non-essential imports, relaxing rules to attract increased remittances and reducing foreign trips for its officials.
IMF Managing Director Georgieva already said during meetings of the G20 finance ministers that “Countries with high debt levels and limited policy space will face additional strains. Look no further than Sri Lanka as a warning sign”. She further added that countries that could struggle are the ones seeing sustained capital outflows for four months.
Now there is great concern that when the US decides to raise interest rates further to tackle inflation, that will exert terrible impact on these economies. Economic analyst Mohammed El-Erian (President of Queen’s College, Cambridge University) in a comment published in the Financial Times writes, “They now face a further tightening of global financial conditions, as well as increased dollar appreciation (because of interest hikes in the US) that aggravates their imported inflation and destabilising their debt sustainability and the domestic financial markets”. Now it is becoming increasingly clear that countries in the Global South in general and highly indebted ones among them in particular are in the first firing line.
There are a number of reasons why such outcomes will eventuate. Interest rates rise in the US makes the country a more attractive place to invest leading to increased demand for the US dollar around the world pushing its price up. As the dollar appreciates, prices of imported goods and raw materials will rise as most of these are priced in the dollar. At the same time borrowing in dollar also becomes more expensive.
Therefore, the consequences for a Global South country like Bangladesh are very clear. As Bangladesh mostly borrowed in the dollar, it will have to raise domestic interest rates to help the Bangladesh taka to compete with import price rises on the one hand and on the other Bangladesh will also face massive rise in interest payments on its dollar borrowings.
It is now increasingly becoming clear that many countries in the Global South will stumble on their dollar denominated external loan repayments. IMF Managing Director Georgieva has warned that 60 per cent of low income countries are already in or near “debt distress” – an alarming threshold reached when their debt payments equal half the size of their economies.
According to the IMF, emerging and developing economies policy rates were lifted sooner, the average total rate increase has been 3 percentage points – almost double the 1.7 per cent points for advanced economies. The IMF also further adds that central banks will need to continue to tighten monetary policy decisively. This is especially urgent where inflation expectations are starting to de-anchor.
Bangladesh Bank also raised its policy rate by 50 basis points to 5.5 per cent on June 30. This is the second consecutive month the policy rate has been raised, after a 25 basis points hike in May. The central bank said that the most recent hike was meant to “manage demand side pressures”. However, it is to be noted that the IMF early this year pointed out that supply constraints hurt economic recovery and boosted inflation in 2021. That situation remains unaltered into 2022.
Despite interest rate hikes, Bangladesh currency taka has been depreciating over the last few months. Such depreciations lift the price of imports, further fuelling inflation on top of the price hikes caused by food and fuel price escalations, thus contributing to the higher cost of living. The Bangladesh taka is likely to fall further as the US dollar continues to appreciate propelled by interest rate hikes in the US. Furthermore, borrowing in dollar is also now becoming more expensive. An editorial in the Wall Street Journal already warned that “sharp movements in exchange rates create uncertainty and can lead to economic and financial instability”.
According the BBS, the inflation rate in Bangladesh reached 7.56 per cent in June from 7.42 per cent in May this year. This was the highest inflation rate since July 2013. With rising inflation, purchasing power of Bangladeshi consumers is declining creating a cost of living crisis. However, it is to be noted that inflation can be a sticky and slow moving variable. Also, gradually raising policy rates at a pace that falls short of inflation increases means falling real interest rates. This is difficult to reconcile with the need to keep inflation in check.
The result of rising inflation has been that while consumers are paying more, consumption is falling and making cut backs on many daily consumption items in a country where 20.15 of the population live below the national poverty line as estimated in 2019.
But according to the South Asian Network on Economic Modelling (SANEM), the percentage of the population living below the upper poverty line has nearly doubled from 20.16 per cent in 2018 to 42 per cent in 2020. The percentage of extremely poor trebled from 9.4 per cent 2018 to 28.5 per cent in 2020. According to the UN sponsored report titled “The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World, 2020”, a total of 73.5 per cent of the people in Bangladesh are unable to afford healthy food. What is more concerning is that the trend in the number of people belonging this category shows a rising trend.
It now appears that Bangladesh’s attempt at fighting inflation is unlikely to fix surging food and fuel prices in the near future. Of particular concern for Bangladesh is surging fuel prices. Bangladesh is a net fuel importing country. As fuel prices surge to record levels, it negatively impacts on fuel imports creating fuel shortages. Already Bangladesh government has introduced planned power outages to conserve energy.
Economic activity is energy transformed; without energy producing anything basically becomes impossible. Therefore, the emerging energy crisis will cause deceleration of economic growth in Bangladesh and other countries in the Global South. Petroleum accounts for 3 per cent of global GDP, if this 3 per cent of global GDP become increasingly more expensive, that will definitely have some impact on inflation. Inflation now is higher than expected and has broadened beyond food and fuel prices creating increasingly a more challenging situation. This will even impede economic recovery and lower living standards in countries in the Global South.
Many countries in the Global South are now facing serious economic challenges driven by unsustainable debt levels, rising inflation, declining competitiveness, and now also food and fuel crises on the top. More worryingly, El-Erian in his comment published in the Financial Times also dismissed suggestions that if inflation numbers started to come down, the crisis would somehow pass, pointing to “the damage already unleashed and that which is to come”. In a similar vein, IMF’s Georgieva told G20 Finance Ministers at Bali that they face a global economic outlook that had darkened significantly.
Under the circumstances outlined above, the US interest rate hikes to wring inflationary pressures out of the economy can deliver long distance damage to many countries in the Global South that are vulnerable to financial shocks. Among them are those that rely heavily on imported food, fuel and other commodities and that have low reserves to meet their external debt obligations. And yet, the Federal Reserve could just be taking a breath before embarking on raising interest rates several more times this year to flush out resurgent inflation in the US. | https://venturecurrent.com/rising-inflation-and-interest-rates-in-the-us-and-the-global-south/ |
Despite the impact of the ongoing Ukrainian crisis on the global GDP, India is projected to grow by 6.4% in 2022.
India showed a growth of 8.8% the previous year, and even after the downward adjustment, India has been the fastest-growing major economy with higher inflationary pressures and unstable recovery of the labour market curbing private consumption and investments, reveals a UN report.
A report released on Wednesday by the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs said in its World Economic Situation and Prospects (WESP) that the war in Ukraine has negatively impacted the already fragile economic situation left by the Covid-19 pandemic, triggering a devastating humanitarian crisis in Europe, increasing food and commodity prices and globally exacerbating inflationary pressures, reports NDTV.
The report stated that the global economy can be expected to grow by only 3.1% in 2022, down from the 4.0% growth forecast released in January 2022. Additionally, global inflation is projected to increase to 6.7% in 2022, double the average of 2.9% during 2010-2020, with notable rises in energy and food prices.
Due to the on-going conflict in Ukraine, South Asia has also been deteriorating in the past several months. There has been a notable increase in commodity prices and potential negative spillover effects from monetary tightening in the United States, it said in the reports.
"India, the largest economy in the region, is expected to grow by 6.4% in 2022, well below the 8.8% growth in 2021, as higher inflationary pressures and uneven recovery of the labour market will curb private consumption and investment," it said.
Lead Author & Chief, Global Economic Monitoring Branch, Economic Analysis and Policy Division, United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Hamid Rashid told reporters at the UN Headquarters that almost all regions in the world are affected by high inflation except for East Asia and South Asia.
"We expect Indian recovery to remain strong in the near term, in the next year and two, but again we cannot completely discount the downside risk that would come from external channels. So that risk is still there," he said.
The report included that the agricultural sector in Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka are expected to experience higher prices and a shortage of farming inputs including fertilisers.
"This will probably result in weaker harvests and exert further upward pressures on food prices in the near term," the report said.
Consumer price inflation in the region is expected to accelerate to 9.5% in 2022, from 8.9% in 2021. Elevated prices of food will likely increase food insecurity across the region.
The report also said that tighter external financial conditions will adversely affect regional growth prospects, especially for countries with high exposure to global capital markets facing debt distress or risks of debt default.
"The pandemic left many countries with large fiscal deficits and higher and unsustainable levels of public debt. Sri Lanka is currently facing a debt crisis and discussing a new IMF-supported programme to bring its economy out of the crisis," it said.
The downgrades in growth prospects are broad-based, including the world's largest economies - the United States, China and the European Union - and the majority of other developed and developing economies, it said.
"The war in Ukraine - in all its dimensions - is setting in motion a crisis that is also devastating global energy markets, disrupting financial systems and exacerbating extreme vulnerabilities for the developing world," UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres said.
"We need quick and decisive action to ensure a steady flow of food and energy in open markets, by lifting export restrictions, allocating surpluses and reserves to those who need them, and addressing food price increases to calm market volatility," he said. | https://www.tbsnews.net/world/global-economy/india-declared-fastest-growing-major-economy-despite-downward-adjustment-un |
CALGARY, Alberta, (Reuters) – Canada’s top central banker said Saturday the commodity price boom could last for decades and urged his emerging market peers facing inflationary pressures not to delay raising interest rates for too long.
The rise in prices for commodities is partly due to supply effects, though underlying demand remains strong, Bank of Canada Governor Mark Carney said during a panel discussion at the Inter-American Development Bank’s annual meeting in Calgary.
“It’s a mistake to chalk this all up to cyclical, and that’s where one can make pretty big mistakes and delay too much, both on the monetary side, or on the pretty fundamental structural reforms,” Carney said.
“… We’re in an environment that is probably going to be with us for several decades,” he said.
One challenge for Canada, a major producer of oil, gas, grains and metals, is to rebalance trade and investment away from its top buyer, the United States, he added.
In a speech earlier on Saturday, Carney warned that misguided policies for dealing with high inflation and a flood of capital into emerging markets could lead to financial instability and weak economic growth.
“The stakes are very high,” he said.
Carney said some countries were postponing interest rate hikes, needed to arrest inflation, for fear of further boosting currencies that have already been pushed higher due to heavy capital inflows.
As the world recovers from recession, nations have clashed over foreign exchange policy as many countries adjust to ultra-low U.S. interest rates and China’s reluctance to let the yuan appreciate more freely. Investors seeking high yields have put their money into Latin America, exacerbating these tensions.
Referring to what Brazil’s finance minister dubbed the ”currency wars,” Carney said that when large economies keep their currencies from appreciating, others feel pressured to follow suit. This leads to a chain reaction of other distortional policies.
“The collective impact of this behavior risks inflation and asset bubbles in emerging economies and, over time, subpar global growth,” he said.
THIS BOOM IS DIFFERENT
Carney sees the current high commodity prices persisting for much longer than in past boom cycles because of the rapid urbanization and mushrooming middle classes in emerging economies such as China and India.
“Even though history teaches that all booms are finite, this one could go on for some time,” he said.
The other thing that is different about this commodity boom — and which could lead to dangerous global imbalances — is that the strong demand from emerging markets is combined with tepid growth in core advanced economies such as the United States.
This shift to a “multipolar economy” is permanent and should not be underestimated, Carney said.
“Some countries are postponing monetary tightening in the hope that old relationships reassert.” Others have introduced measures to curb capital inflows. “All appear to be underestimating the scale of what is happening. Therein lies the risk of another crisis,” he said.
Carney said Latin America is the region most affected by these pressures. However, he too has grappled with a sharp currency appreciation in Canada, which has hampered the country’s recovery and allowed the Bank of Canada to keep benchmark interest rates on hold since last September. Foreign investors also bought a record amount in Canadian securities last year.
In terms of measures that can be taken in the short term to contain these pressures, Carney proposed a renewed commitment among G7 countries for floating exchange rates and a global code of conduct on capital flows. | https://www.bestgrowthstock.com/update-1-bank-of-canada-warns-on-capital-flows-prices/ |
The recent news about the U.S. economy suggests relatively strong growth as evidenced by a key economic forecasting gauge, which rose in February for the third time in the past four months. This growth is the result of expanding employment, impressive business investments and increased consumer spending. Although this is good news, the increased cost of fuel and the steady decline of the U.S. dollar are cause for concern. The depreciating dollar puts upward pressure on prices of imported goods and increases the global competitiveness of U.S. manufacturers. In the future, the likelihood is that higher prices of imported goods and commodities in the United States will cause inflationary pressures that will raise interest rates and slow economic growth.
The Federal Reserve Open Market Committee will meet in May to decide whether to raise, lower or hold steady the federal funds rate. Raising the target rate will affect short-term rates on adjustable mortgages and credit cards. Although this will have a negative impact on some Americans, it will be a positive step in fighting inflation.
The Fed's effect on long-term rates is more indirect. It is investors' expectations of the longer-term effect of Fed action on economic growth and inflation that determines the course of long-term rates. The Fed should raise interest rates at a gradual pace over the next several years to sustain economic growth. The economy is strong enough to keep growing adequately to increase jobs and slow enough to stifle inflation.
There are many positive things happening with the United States economy. Although there are concerns about the rising cost of fuel and the decline of the U. S. dollar, the positives far outweigh the negatives. The anticipation of the Fed raising interest rates will contribute to momentum and stability in economic growth. The outlook is optimistic for the future economy in the United States. | https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-2005-04-23-0504230213-story.html |
The National Bureau of Statistics has reported a 52-bps uptick in inflation to 14.23% YoY, that corroborated the sustained surge in cost of living across the country. The reading was ahead of our 14.02% YoY estimate and consensus forecast of 14.10% YoY. Food inflation (+72 bps to 17.38% YoY) remained the primary driver of the pressures as prices of food staples rose considerably in the review month. Core inflation also advanced by 56 bps to 11.4% YoY. On a month-on-month basis, headline inflation printed at 1.54%, its highest level since June 2017.
At least a duo of factors left food prices on the rise
Consumer prices have risen at a faster pace each month since February, and the trend is showing little signs of tapering. MoM inflation has accelerated from 0.87% in January to 1.54% in October. While the change may appear immaterial at face value, its impact could be significant when extrapolated over 12 months. Precisely, the former would translate to a 10.95% inflation over the next 12 months, while the latter suggests a 20.1% annual change in prices. The worrying trend has been primarily driven by higher domestic food inflation; whose monthly reading (1.96%) is currently at the highest level for 40 months. Unsurprisingly, food products with the steepest price increases were those mainly in the CBN's FX restriction list. These products include oils and fats, meats, vegetables, and cereals. However, the lower imported food inflation (relative to domestic food inflation) may suggest that the FX passthrough to food is mostly indirect. Besides, local food prices may have been affected by recent flooding in rice-producing regions and the lingering impact of land border closures. On the former, Rice Farmers Association of Nigeria estimates that flooding may have washed away over 30% of rice harvests this year.
Energy cost pressures to offset seasonal harvest impact
Rising energy costs from higher electricity tariffs and increases in petrol prices are likely to compound the impact of existing currency pressures and weigh on the price environment in the final months of the year. After the initial suspension of electricity tariff hikes for 3-weeks in October, the cost increase (capped at 30%) took effect on 18th October, with the impact on consumer prices likely to manifest in coming months. Additionally, the liberalization of the downstream oil and gas sector has introduced more volatility to fuel costs, which should track movements in global crude oil prices and other key variables. The most recent hike in PMS prices to between N168-170 per litre in November marks the fourth increase in PMS prices since June, and higher projections for crude prices suggest that pressures on this front may subsist in the near term. Already, higher energy costs and legacy issues appear to be counteracting the price-moderating impact of the harvest season, leaving legroom for sustained inflationary pressure in the last months of the year. All in, we expect inflation to print at 14.70% in November 2020 and retain our average inflation forecast of 13.2% for 2020.
MPC decision may be unaffected by inflation trajectory
The Central Bank of Nigeria cut its key interest rate by 100 basis points in September even though inflation was well above the 9.00% ceiling of its target range, positing that inflationary pressures were supply-side driven. In line with this position, the apex bank is unlikely to tamper with its policy lever due to inflationary pressures given that the drivers of price pressures are mostly the same. The apex bank, under the current CBN Governor, is yet to alter the monetary policy rate in consecutive meetings and is unlikely to break from trend due to the surge in consumer prices. | https://www.proshareng.com/news/Nigeria-Economy/Inflation--Higher-Energy-Costs-Could-Compound-Spiralling-Food-Prices/54333 |
- We at Fitch Solutions now expect the Bank Of Zambia (BoZ) to increase its policy rate by 50 basis points (bps), to 10.25% by end-2019. This represents a downward revision from 10.75% in our previous forecast.
- We continue to believe that bouts of currency weakness and rising food price growth will see headline inflation exceed the upper bound of the BoZ’s 6.0-8.0% target band.
- However, a slowdown in global monetary tightening, coupled with a deceleration in Zambian real GDP growth will limit the impetus for aggressive tightening by the BoZ.
We expect inflationary pressures and currency weakness will motivate the Bank of Zambia (BoZ) to increase interest rates. A deterioration in investor sentiment towards Zambia – following the government’s upward revisions of its fiscal deficit targets in September 2018 – resulted in a 13.4% depreciation of the kwacha against the US dollar between September and October 2018. Although the kwacha has traded in a fairly narrow band around ZMK11,900/USD since November 2018, we believe that the weaker exchange rate will feed through to increased imported inflation over 2019.
Kwacha Depreciation To Increase Inflation Risks
Zambia - Exchange Rate, ZMK/USD (Daily)
Source: Bloomberg
We further expect food price inflation to tick slightly upward in 2019. Lower-than-average crop production in the Q218 main harvest – which saw food price inflation climb from 4.6% y-o-y in January 2018 to 8.2% in January 2019 – will continue to put upward pressure on food price growth over H119. Moreover, the Food and Agriculture Organization forecasts lower-than-average rains in intensive-producing southern parts of the country at the end of Q119, which could contain crop production in the May-June harvest season. Given higher imported and food price pressures, we expect headline inflation to accelerate from 7.5% in 2018 to 8.3% in 2019 – exceeding the upper bound of the BoZ’s 6.0-8.0% target range – with further upside risks posed by dry conditions related to the El Niño weather oscillation. We believe that these inflationary pressures will increase the impetus for an interest rate rise this year.
Headline Inflation To Breach Target Band In 2019
Zambia - Food, Transport and Headline Inflation, % y-o-y
Source: Central Statistical Office Of Zambia, Fitch Solutions
That said, we believe that a slowdown in interest rate rises in developed markets will limit the need for an aggressive tightening stance by the BoZ. We previously forecasted the BoZ to increase interest rates by 100 basis points (bps), to 10.75%, in 2019 (See ‘Bank Of Zambia Set To Increase Rates In 2019’, November 12 2018), factoring in a weakening kwacha and tightening credit conditions in developed markets. Although we still expect developed market central banks to go ahead with monetary tightening, they are likely to do so at a slower pace. Indeed, with the US Federal Reserve’s recent shift in language, suggesting potential for an indefinite pause in its rate hiking cycle, our North America team now forecasts only one 25 bps hike by the Fed by end-2019, down from three previously (See ‘Moving To One 25 Bps Hike In 2019 As Fed Shifts Language To Neutral’, February 5). We also anticipate a gradual slowdown in quantitative tightening by the US central bank. The Fed’s recalibration of the pace of tightening will temper the impetus for hiking by the BoZ, which we now expect to increase interest rates only by 50 bps by end-2019.
Fed To Enact One 25 Basis Points Hike This Year
United States - Central Bank Policy Rate, % eop
Source: Federal Reserve, Fitch Solutions
Moreover, we believe that with Zambia’s real GDP growth slowing to 2.9% in 2019 from an estimated 3.4% in 2018 this will further reduce the central bank's impetus for aggressive monetary tightening over the coming quarters. We expect GDP growth in Zambia to remain fairly subdued in the coming quarters on the back of a slowdown in mining sector activity and a muted recovery in the agriculture sector. A series of tax measures, including a 1.5% increase in mineral royalty taxes, proposed in the 2019 budget will increase business operating costs in the mining industry and weigh on sector growth. Indeed, our Mining team forecasts growth in domestic production of copper – by far the country’s largest export – to decelerate from an estimated 8.0% in 2018 to 5.0% in 2019. Moreover, we expect the agriculture sector – which contracted by 19.2% and 15.4% in Q218 and Q318 respectively – to make only a modest recovery in the coming quarters given continued adverse weather. Since agriculture employs 53.0% of Zambia’s labour force, we believe that the weak performance of the sector since 2018 will weigh on household spending over the coming quarters, further discouraging the central bank from tightening aggressively this year.
Private Consumption To Remain Dependent On Agriculture Sector
Zambia - Employment By Sector, % Of Total
Source: Central Statistical Office, Fitch Solutions
Given the potential for continued global financial markets and US interest rate policy volatility later this year, we believe that risks to our view remain to the upside. While we have seen the return of risk-on sentiment to financial markets in recent months, weaker-than-expected global economic activity could dampen investor confidence and lead to safe-haven capital flows. Countries with weak macroeconomic fundamentals would be especially vulnerable to a shift in market sentiment, placing downward pressure on the Zambian kwacha. Alternatively, a more hawkish stance by the Fed (following an early trade deal between the US and China and signs of firming global GDP growth in H219, neither of which is our core view) could prompt the BoZ to hike more aggressively to reduce the interest rate differential with the US central bank. We highlight that the playing out of either scenario could pose upside risks to our forecast of a 50 bps hike this year.
This report from Fitch Solutions Country Risk & Industry Research is a product of Fitch Solutions Group Ltd, UK Company registration number 08789939 ('FSG'). FSG is an affiliate of Fitch Ratings Inc. ('Fitch Ratings'). FSG is solely responsible for the content of this report, without any input from Fitch Ratings. Copyright © 2021 Fitch Solutions Group Limited. © Fitch Solutions Group Limited All rights reserved. 30 North Colonnade, London E14 5GN, UK. | https://www.fitchsolutions.com/country-risk/gradual-monetary-tightening-ahead-bank-zambia-22-02-2019 |
What Trichet did not tell MEPs is that this move will represent a paradigm shift in ECB monetary policy. For it will be tightening policy when growth is still fragile and while there is still little evidence that inflation in the prices of goods and services, or even inflation expectations, are really getting out of control.
Nevertheless, the answer to the question of whether or not the ECB should take this politically provocative step is an unequivocal “Yes”. But do not expect the ECB to spell out in detail its full rationale. That would require officials to lay bare their deeper fears about longer-term global economic prospects and discuss their concerns that, if the global economy were to be hit by some new economic (or terrorist) disaster with rates still at 2%, then Europe’s central bank would have precious little room for manoeuvre.
The obvious explanations for raising rates have been bandied about by ECB officials and professional economists for several weeks. As Trichet told the Parliament, energy prices have driven headline inflation well above 2%, the ECB’s price stability yardstick, and this may not be a transitory shift. Credit growth is strong, creating concerns that easy money will add to inflationary pressures, perhaps through driving the prices of assets such as houses even higher.
There have been signs too that economic growth in the eurozone is taking deeper root instead of being so dependent on exports. Corporate investment is reviving, particularly in Germany, and, as economist Christel Aranda-Hassel of Credit Suisse First Boston put it, there is even evidence of “the return of the European consumer”.
The Commission this month forecast that eurozone growth next year will be 1.9%, up from 1.3% in 2005. So, for the ECB, there is less reason than there was a few months ago to hold back: a small rate increase now won’t do any harm.
But beyond this conventional short-term cyclical economic analysis, central bankers like Trichet are paid to think about the longer-term, bigger picture. This is not pretty.
Around the world, officials are genuinely worried about the future implications of the past four years of budgetary excess and easy money, particularly, but not only, in the US. There, according to one senior central bank official, the US Federal Reserve has developed a penchant for throwing more fuel on every new economic fire. Have easy money policies already laid the foundation for a re-run of the economic instability generated in the 1970s?
Then, failure to tackle the inflationary blow-out that accompanied the quadrupling of oil prices contributed to two decades of slow and volatile growth, double digit inflation across the globe and a succession of economic crises in developing countries.
The ECB cannot say so publicly, but America’s irresponsible “guns and butter” policy, running massive budget deficits to finance a major war and slashing taxes and keeping domestic interest rates low to boost the economy, also carries some ominous echoes from the Vietnam War era and the economic policies of the then president Lyndon B. Johnson.
Perhaps times have changed. Perhaps private bankers are now wiser. Perhaps price deflation coming from cheap goods imported from China will more than offset the inflationary pressures that low interest rates and China and India’s dash for growth are exerting on oil and other raw materials prices. Perhaps…
There are further reasons why the ECB is right to have its finger on the interest- rate trigger. One, of course, is that the single currency has been on its knees again recently, dropping this month to below the $1.1747 against the American greenback at which it wriggled into the world back in 1999.
Were the euro to slump further, perhaps the jibes about it being a “toilet currency” would resurface among (Anglo-Saxon) currency traders, especially in the eurosceptic UK, though sterling has recently dipped against the euro.
The slippage so far reflects in part the relentless, continuing, but belated, rise in dollar interest rates from 1% just over a year ago to 4% now. This makes the dollar more attractive to hold. So, to try to stabilise the single currency, the ECB also has to move interest rates up.
As John Llewellyn, chief economist at investment bankers Lehman Brothers in London puts it, “for central bankers the feeling that you have no more arrows in your quiver is very uncomfortable”.
Most official economists believe that the US $800 billion current account deficit, surging foreign borrowing, ballooning budget deficits and bursting housing bubble, do not augur well for the US economy.
A key question these experts ask is, what economic policy environment needs to be in place for the day when America’s economy, the world economic locomotive for a decade, finally does hit the buffers?
Stronger economic growth in Europe and Japan would help, of course. In an emergency it would certainly be good to have some budgetary flexibility. This does not currently exist in the major economies of the eurozone.
What the ECB seems to be thinking is that it would be good to get interest rates up while it can, so that it has at least one tool, monetary policy, which it can deploy actively to try to stabilise the eurozone economy and the single currency in an emergency. ECB governors want to make sure, as Llewellyn puts it, that they have room for policy manoeuvre, to have some “arrows in our quiver”. If this is indeed part of the ECB strategy, the 1 December raise will, surely, not be the last. | https://www.politico.eu/article/arrows-in-quiver-will-calm-trichet/ |
The U.S. dollar is steadily dropping. Yet, value can be found in certain areas of the market and exchange trade funds (ETFs). Who wins and who loses when the dollar drops off?
The dollar’s value relative to other world currencies has depreciated by a third since 2002, according to the Wall Street Pit. A weaker dollar is asset class supportive, stimulates exports and improves the rate of economic growth; however, a large currency depreciation may lead to inflationary pressures, damage to export industries in the long-term and reduces incentives for export industries to become more efficient. (Unemployment numbers strengthen the dollar).
The ultimate winners of a depreciating greenback include investors, nations with rich resources, American industry and Chinese industry. The losers include China’s Central Bank, other foreign industries and other Central Banks.
ETFs that could be potentially positively impacted include:
- SPDR Gold Shares (NYSEArca: GLD)
- iShares MSCI Brazil (NYSEArca: EWZ)
- Market Vectors Russia (NYSEArca: RSX)
- WisdomTree Dreyfus Japanese Yen (NYSEArca: JYF)
- PowerShares DB U.S. Dollar Bearish (NYSEArca: UDN)
ETFs that could be negatively impacted include: | https://www.etftrends.com/2009/12/etf-winners-losers-when-u-s-dollar-is-weak/ |
Fitch Solutions projects that the State Bank of Pakistan will maintain its benchmark interest rate at 12.25% throughout 2019.
Pakistan and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reached a staff-level agreement on a 39-month Extended Fund Facility (EFF) package of around USD 6 billion on May 12.
According to the latest report issued by the research agency, the recent 150bps interest rate hike will likely support stabilization in inflation over the coming months. In particular, the interest rate hike has brought the real interest rate firmly into the positive territory of around 3.5%, which should help stabilize the rupee and hence prices of imported goods.
Fitch forecast inflation to stabilize to an average of 7.0% in FY2019/20 (July-June), slightly higher than SBP’s target of 6.0% for FY2018/19, but considerably lower from the 8.8% YoY recorded in April.
Higher interest rates and a more stable currency will ease consumer price inflation which has already started to fall to 8.8% YoY in April, from 9.4% in March.
Fitch predicts that the Brent Crude prices will average USD73.00/bbl in 2019 (from year-to-date average of around USD66.00/bbl). They also believe that the recent hikes will be able to counter the inflationary pressure resulting from rising oil prices.
According to different economic analysts, the policy rates are likely to touch new heights and Rupee value will further sink to deeper pits against the US dollar in the coming months.
However, Fitch Solutions Macro Research believes otherwise as their recently published research injects a certain sense of hope in the time of crisis.
Credit Growth to Slow
The macro research agency stated that inflationary pressures will ease as credit growth in both private and public sectors slows and the transmission mechanism of monetary policy improves.
It further stated that the higher costs of borrowing and the likely reduction of public spending following the finalization of an IMF deal, credit growth to the government (which rose by 14.5% YoY in April from 11.8% YoY in April) will likely slow.
Fitch noted down that the combination of rising interest rates and slowing economic growth (they forecasted real GDP growth to slow from 5.4% in FY2017/18 to 4.4% in FY2018/19, but will be revising down our forecast within the coming weeks) will also discourage the private sector borrowing which should also help curb inflationary pressures.
Moreover, there is a chance that the interest rate hike could improve the interest rate transmission mechanism in the economy, stated the agency.
Economic Growth Set to Slow Further
Fitch believes that Pakistan’s growth is set to slow over the near term. In addition to the likely fiscal consolidation measures agreed as part of the IMF EFF deal, the 150bps interest rate hike will discourage investment as well as consumer spending.
Fitch will be revising their current forecast for Pakistan’s real GDP growth within the coming weeks.
These predictions are so silly. State bank will have to keep increasing interest rates and inflation will hit double digits next year. Oil and energy price increases have yet to be passed on to consumers. The rupee has yet to find a bottom. Once all that happens we will face a tsunami of inflation. | https://propakistani.pk/2019/05/22/sbp-to-maintain-interest-rate-at-12-25-throughout-2019-creating-a-positive-impact-fitch/ |
The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) is under increasing pressure to fulfill its statue primary responsibility under the New Central Bank of 1995 (and its predecessor, the Central Bank Act as amended by Presidential Decree No. 71), which is the maintenance of domestic and external monetary stability.
Domestic monetary coalitions are anything but stable, namely as a result of the slew of excise taxes imposed by the Duterte administration’s TRAIN (Tax Reform and Inclusion) program and the resurgence of the world oil market, the inflation as measured by consumers prices rose in June to 5.2 percent, its highest level in five years. Inevitably, price increase and higher wage demands ensued, with higher wages prices and higher wages chasing one another upward. The upward movement of costs and prices (including the price of labor) is ongoing.
Nor is the external monetary environment characterized by stability. The Philippines’ merchandise trade suffered yet another, monthly deficit, bringing its January-to-May deficit to a whopping $15.76 billion. That is almost one-fifth of this country’s gross international reserve. The five-month BOT (balance of trade) brought the to-date BOP (balance of payments) deficit past the $1.5 billion mark. Sensing this country’s deteriorating BOP position, the international financial markets steadily marked down the peso. Today the peso has depreciated down to 53 to the US dollar.
Government—and even, distressingly, private—economists like to downplay the negative implications of a depreciating peso by saying that a lowest-value peso is good for Philippine exports, OFW (overseas Filipino workers) remittances and inward tourism. But the far more serious negative effects of a falling peso is the inflationary impact of rising prices of imported consumer goods and the higher service on debts denominated in foreign currencies. True, OFW families will receive more pesos for the remittance they receive—thereby making possible an increase in consumption spending, which accounts for around two-thirds of this country’s gross domestic product—but Philippine exports are not about to turn around anytime soon and the Philippines is likely to remain near the bottom of the ladder as a high-priority FDI destination.
Clearly, BSP has its plate full both domestically and externally.
And what has been the response of the BSP—more accurately, the Monetary Board—to these disturbances of the nation’s domestic and external monetary stability? Two upward adjustments in its overnight borrowing rate, in May and then in June, which have brought that rate up ti 3.5 percent, its highest level in four years. “The monetary authorities are treating the inflation outlook as a concern, given the elevated inflation expectations and the increasing risks of the second-round effects of ongoing price pressures,” BSP Gov. Nestor A. Espenilla Jr. said after the second rate increase.
What does the BSP expect to accomplish with the interest rate increases that it has put into effect? Which of the two basic objectives of interest-rate raising—discourage lending and spending and encourage and non-consumption—does it want to see achieved?
Raising interest rates has the effect of increasing production costs and consumer prices, and where basic goods—or what economists call goods in inelastic demand—are concerned, higher interest rates can only add further fuel for the inflationary file. With all due respect to Governor Espenilla and his Monetary Board colleagues, I really cannot see any logic in raising interest rates under the present economic circumstances. The interest rates tool is the wrong monetary tool to deploy.
Turning now to the BOT/BOP picture, the merchandise trade imbalance can only get worse, given (1) the weakness of this country’s export sector and (2) the Build, Build, Build program’s voracious need for imported equipment and supplies. Higher interest rates will deal a double whammy to the BOT: They make imports more costly while having little impact on exports in the near term.
The BSP will have to do a thorough rethink of its approach to the monetary-instability problems that it is forcing—surging consumer prices, a worrisome BOP deficit, a steady depreciation of the peso and, lately, a decrease in the gross international reserve. Raising interest rate is not the answer. Gov. Espenilla and his colleagues should select another weapon(s) from the BSP’s awesome armory. | http://manilastandard.net/opinion/columns/business-class-by-rudy-romero/271230/interest-hikes-won-t-cure-rising-prices-trade-deficit.html |
At its meeting held on 27 September, the Central Bank of the Philippines (BSP) decided to raise the overnight reverse repurchase facility (RRP) from 4.00% to 4.50%, the highest rate in seven years. The decision, which was expected by market analysts, represented the fourth interest rate increase since May. Moreover, the Bank also hiked the overnight deposit facility (ODF) and the overnight lending facility (OLF) rates by 50 basis points each; they now stand at 4.00% and 5.00%, respectively. The ODF establishes the floor, whereas the OLF establishes the ceiling of the interest rate corridor system.
The Bank’s decision was primarily motivated by intensifying inflationary pressures, which have been driven by strong supply side factors and firm domestic demand. Higher oil and commodity prices in international markets along with a depreciating peso are stoking price pressures and inflation hit an over nine-year high in August (August: 6.4%, July: 5.7%), moving further above the upper bound of the Bank’s target range of 3.0% plus or minus 1.0 percentage point. Subsequently, the BSP revised its inflation forecasts for 2018 to 5.2% (previously reported: 4.9%) and to 4.3% in 2019 (previously reported: 3.7%). According to the BSP, risks to the inflation outlook remain tilted to the upside due to exchange rate volatility, geopolitical tensions and monetary policy normalization in advanced economies.
In its communiqué, the Bank struck a hawkish tone and reiterated its commitment to “take all necessary policy actions to address the threat of high inflation”. This, in tandem with the Bank’s above target range inflation forecast in 2019, suggest another rate hike before the end of the year is not improbable.
The next monetary policy meeting will be held on 15 November.
Philippines Interest Rate Forecast
FocusEconomics Consensus Forecast panelists are taking the Bank’s latest move into consideration and new forecasts will be published on 16 October.
Author: , | https://www.focus-economics.com/countries/philippines/news/monetary-policy/central-bank-hikes-key-rate-for-the-fourth-consecutive |
Israel Has ‘Luxury’ of Waiting Before Hiking Rates: Decision Day
(Bloomberg) -- Robust economic growth and relatively low inflation will likely lead the Bank of Israel to hold borrowing costs on Monday and for months to come, opening up the prospect of a rates spread with the U.S. that could weaken the roaring shekel.
Analysts see Israel’s benchmark rate staying steady at 0.1% until late 2022 or early 2023, though inflation is heating up and the economy remains potentially threatened by the highly contagious omicron variant. All 11 economists surveyed by Bloomberg expect borrowing costs to hold on Monday.
The U.S. Federal Reserve, by contrast, recently signaled it expects to raise rates three times next year as it battles the hottest inflation in a generation. A rates differential could tamp down the shekel -- the world’s strongest currency in 2021 -- by making it slightly less appealing, said Modi Shafrir, chief strategist at Mizrahi-Tefahot Bank Ltd.
“The Bank of Israel would like to see the interest rate differential between the U.S. and Israel because this is something that could mitigate the appreciation pressures,” Shafrir said. The Bank of Israel declined to comment.
The central bank bought more than $30 billion in foreign currency last year to try to weaken the currency, which is now trading near a level that broke a quarter-century high against the dollar.
At 2.4% in November, Israel’s annual inflation remains within the government’s 1% to 3% target band -- contained in part by the strong shekel, which has brought down the cost of imported goods. Bank of Israel Governor Amir Yaron recently said the inflationary picture gives policy makers the “luxury” of waiting to see how other countries respond to price gains.
The central bank “doesn’t have the need, or the compulsion, to immediately tackle and to operate the interest rate tool like in other countries where inflation is already very high,” he said in a Dec. 21 interview.
Still, Israel’s inflation is accelerating as the prices of food, real estate and durables rise. That has some analysts predicting more hawkish talk from the bank.
“My current forecast is not that we’ll get to that 3%, but I believe that the risks are definitely tilted towards that,” said Guy Beit-Or, chief economist at Psagot Investment House Ltd. “What is very important for me to see is how they change their language regarding the inflationary risks in Israel.”
Israel Consumer Prices to Rise 1.8% Next 12 Months: BOI Survey
The rapidly spreading omicron variant is also casting a long shadow over the economy.
The Bank of Israel’s research department has forecast the economy grew 7% last year as it rallied from the ravages of multiple virus-related lockdowns, significantly stronger than projections for the European Union and U.S. A soaring virus caseload threatens to erode that gain, with Bank Leumi analysts writing in a recent investor note that the virus continues to pose a threat to the labor market.
Prime Minister Naftali Bennett said Sunday that he expects Israel will soon register tens of thousands of new cases daily, an exponential explosion in the country of 9.5 million people.
Goldman Sachs predicted recently that Israel’s inflation figures and the enduring strength of the shekel mean the Bank of Israel is unlikely to raise rates before 2023. Mizrahi-Tefahot forecast policy makers would move slightly sooner, raising borrowing costs to about 0.25% “very late” this year.
But even if the Bank of Israel does end up hiking rates later this year, borrowing costs “will still remain way below the level of inflation, which is a situation that encourages investments and consumption,” Bank Hapoalim said in a recent investor note.
©2022 Bloomberg L.P. | https://www.bqprime.com/onweb/israel-has-luxury-of-waiting-before-hiking-rates-decision-day |
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The thralls have been then brought again residence to Scandinavia by boat, used on location or in newer settlements to build wanted structures, or offered, typically to the Arabs in trade for silver. Well-preserved remains of 5 Viking ships had been excavated from Roskilde Fjord within the late Nineteen Sixties, representing each the longship and the knarr. The ships had been scuttled there in the 11th century to dam a navigation channel and thus shield Roskilde, then the Danish capital, from seaborne assault. The stays of these ships are on show at the Viking Ship Museum in Roskilde.
In day by day life, there have been many intermediate positions in the total social structure and it is believed that there must have been some social mobility. These particulars are unclear, however titles and positions like hauldr, thegn, landmand, show mobility between the Karls and the Jarls. Slavery was of important importance to Viking society, for on a regular basis chores and enormous scale construction and in addition swedish mailorder brides to commerce and the economy. Thralls were servants and workers within the farms and larger households of the Karls and Jarls, and so they were used for constructing fortifications, ramps, canals, mounds, roads and comparable hard work initiatives. According to the Rigsthula, Thralls were despised and appeared down upon.
Nordic Council And Nordic Council Of Ministers
Within these burial sites and homesteads, combs, often produced from antler, are a standard discover. The three classes were easily recognisable by their appearances. Men and girls of the Jarls had been nicely groomed with neat hairstyles and expressed their wealth and status by sporting expensive clothes and well crafted jewellery like brooches, belt buckles, necklaces and arm rings. Almost all of the jewellery was crafted in particular designs unique to the Norse .
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Other social buildings included the communities of félag in each the civil and the army spheres, to which its members (known as félagi) had been obliged. A félag could be centred round certain trades, a typical ownership of a sea vessel or a army obligation under a specific leader. Members of the latter were referred to as drenge, one of many words for warrior. There had been also official communities inside towns and villages, the overall defence, faith, the legal system and the Things.
The final recognized people to make use of the Runic alphabet have been an isolated group of individuals generally known as the Elfdalians, that lived in the locality of Älvdalen within the Swedish province of Dalarna. They spoke the language of Elfdalian, the language distinctive to Älvdalen. The Elfdalian language differentiates itself from the other Scandinavian languages because it advanced much nearer to Old Norse. The people of Älvdalen stopped using runes as late as the Nineteen Twenties.
The manufacturing of such combs was also widespread throughout the Viking world, as examples of comparable combs have been found at Viking settlements in Ireland, England, and Scotland. The apply of grooming was a concern for all levels of Viking age society, as grooming merchandise, combs, have been present in widespread graves as well as aristocratic ones. Together, these grooming merchandise point out a acutely aware regard for appearance and hygiene, especially with the understanding of the regular bathing practices of Norse peoples. Archaeological findings all through Scandinavia and Viking settlements within the British Isles support the concept of the nicely groomed and hygienic Viking. Burial with grave items was a standard practice in the Scandinavian world, through the Viking Age and properly previous the Christianization of the Norse peoples.
On their raids, the Vikings captured many people, amongst them monks and clergymen. They were typically bought as slaves to Arab merchants in change for silver. Silk was an important commodity obtained from Byzantium and China. It was valued by many European cultures of the time, and the Vikings used it to indicate standing such as wealth and the Aristocracy. A typical bóndi was extra more likely to battle with a spear and defend, and most also carried a seax as a utility knife and facet-arm.
Bows have been used within the opening phases of land battles and at sea, however they tended to be thought of much less “honourable” than melee weapons. Vikings were comparatively uncommon for the time in their use of axes as a main battle weapon. The Húscarls, the elite guard of King Cnut had been armed with two-handed axes that would cut up shields or metallic helmets with ease.
ClichéS And Rumors About Swedes
Finger rings had been seldom used and earrings were not used at all, as they had been seen as a Slavic phenomenon. Most Karls expressed similar tastes and hygiene, however in a more relaxed and inexpensive method. Women had a comparatively free status within the Nordic international locations of Sweden, Denmark and Norway, illustrated within the Icelandic Grágás and the Norwegian Frostating legal guidelines and Gulating laws. The paternal aunt, paternal niece and paternal granddaughter, referred to as odalkvinna, all had the best to inherit property from a deceased man. In the absence of male relations, an single woman with no son may inherit not only property but also the position as head of the household from a deceased father or brother.
Seeds of carrots, parsnip, and brassicas have been also discovered, however they were poor specimens and have a tendency to return from white carrots and bitter tasting cabbages. The rotary querns typically used within the Viking Age left tiny stone fragments in the flour, which when eaten wore down the teeth. The effects of this can be seen on skeletal remains of that interval. The manufacturing of such antler combs was widespread, as on the Viking settlement at Dublin hundreds of examples of combs from the tenth-century have survived, suggesting that grooming was a common practice.
Other exports included weapons, walrus ivory, wax, salt and cod. As one of many extra unique exports, looking birds had been sometimes supplied from Norway to the European aristocracy, from the 10th century.
Traditionally regarded as a Swedish dialect, however by a number of criteria closer related to West Scandinavian dialects, Elfdalian is a separate language by the standard of mutual intelligibility. Although there isn't a mutual intelligibility, as a result of faculties and public administration in Älvdalen being conducted in Swedish, native speakers are bilingual and converse Swedish at a local stage. Residents in the space who communicate only Swedish as their sole native language, neither talking nor understanding Elfdalian, are additionally frequent. Älvdalen may be said to have had its personal alphabet through the 17th and 18th century.
New thralls have been equipped by both the sons and daughters of thralls or captured abroad. The Vikings usually intentionally captured many individuals on their raids in Europe, to enslave them as thralls.
The quality of food for widespread people was not all the time notably high. The analysis at Coppergate exhibits that the Vikings in York made bread from entire meal flour—probably each wheat and rye—but with the seeds of cornfield weeds included. Corncockle , would have made the bread darkish-colored, but the seeds are toxic, and individuals who ate the bread may need turn out to be sick. | http://piercedcuties.com/20-things-to-know-before-moving-to-sweden/ |
In old Scandinavian society, there were many symbols connected with marriage. Besides the ring, the bride will be tied up with a hustrulinet. A hustrulinet symbolizes a married female. In some nationalities, the soon-to-be husband would enter the grave of your ancestor and retrieve a sword, which will symbolized fresh life. The groom would also check out the bathhouse, be a part of similar traditions and dress for the wedding. A hustrulinet, which was worn by the bride, was a symbol of her libido.
The first practice of marriage was the brud-hlaup, which means new bride. Traditionally, the bride’s family members might race for the celebration site, the last ones to arrive portion the beverages for the rest of the party. The brud-hlaup also dirt the move from a woman’s childhood to the adult. This slapped traditions also demonstrates a man’s devotion to his wife.
In ancient Scandinavia, the bride was sequestered prior to ceremony and accompanied by female attendants including her mother and other betrothed women (the gydja). The bride would probably then be stripped of all of the status emblems associated with to be a maiden. The kransen was worn by gentle women of the time. It was worn for the hair being a symbol of virginity. This customized is still used in some Nordic countries.
The Vikings also a new traditional habit that involves a handfasting. The handfasting marriage ceremony was significant towards the Vikings, and it still retains symbolic relevance. The new bride would afterward step over the threshold to turn into a wife. A handkerchief or knitted scarf was used by bride. The bride’s parents would conduct rituals to appease virility gods. The wedding ceremony formal procedure was forwent by premarital rituals, which would start with the brud-hlaup.
The wedding service was a vital ritual to get the Vikings. Brud-hlaup means “bride’s race”. In this ritual, the groups of the bride and groom contest from the wedding site towards the celebration site. Those who reach the final destination first are the winners. During this time, mead likewise signified union. Beyond the kransen, a bride’s overhead was the bride’s crown.
Until the present, Scandinavian lifestyle has emphasized marriage https://bridewoman.org/scandinavian/norwegian-brides/singles/ as a kind of alliance and peace. In Norse civilizations, marriage was often a almost holy ceremony that involved the exchange of valuable property, including a bride’s ancient sword. In some areas, this ritual included the exchange of marital life rings and vows, which were sworn simply by her parents. In Norwegian, the brides’ swords and wedding wedding rings were also employed as signs of the union.
Throughout the Viking Age, the bride was placed in the sack by girl attendants before the groom arrived, where your woman was wrapped in goldgubber. The goldgubber, depicting both of them embracing results, was often used to be a decorative decor on the bride’s nightclothes. It absolutely was also thought that the https://www.doa.go.th/fc/palmkrabi/?m=20200628 horns were a symbol of fertility. The wedding ceremony was as well accompanied by a contest between the bride-to-be and the soon-to-be husband. | http://www.filmine.cn/scandinavian-symbols-of-marriage/ |
When you think of Vikings, one would mostly picture large, intimidating, and strong individuals, who oozed dominance and power. Their appearance easily instilled fear in anyone who stood before them, given their Nordic-like dressing and flair. According to scholars, Vikings were fashion-conscious individuals who used their appearance to express themselves.
Although they did not keep written history, what is known from archeological findings, and extensive research, show that theirs was a free society. They are said to have allowed many different forms of self-expression including body modifications like tattoos. There is, however, no evidence that they had any forms of body piercings. In this post, we will be focusing on whether or not, Vikings embraced body piercings, the possible reasons behind them, and the types of jewelry they did prefer.
Did Vikings Have Piercings of Any Type?
Despite today’s depiction of Vikings in their signature horned helmets and sometimes piercings, these were not things worn by real Vikings during the Viking Age. A lot of what is known about real Vikings was pieced together from the archeological findings over the years and written texts and poems after the Viking Age. Even from this information and findings, the concept of earrings and other body piercings have rarely been found in any of the Norse settlements.
Whatever forms that were found, seemed to have either been acquired through trade or from looting the enemy’s hoards. The only form of earrings discovered in the Viking ruins was traced back to Slavic origins, where the Slavs were the Viking’s neighbors. The design of these Slavic earpieces was the kind that was draped over the ears. That means that one did not require an ear-piercing to wear one.
It is therefore unlikely that the Vikings had any piercings. Archeologists still haven’t found any form of earrings, nose rings, septum rings, or others in the graves with human remains. The clear lack of physical evidence and written descriptions serves as an indication that the Vikings may not have been fond of body piercings. Whatever form of earrings they possessed or acquired through trade, were likely used as material to create other jewelry, or used for trading.
Why Didn’t the Vikings Have Piercings?
Now that we have established the fact that Vikings did not engage in any form of body piercing, it begs the question why? If Vikings were a free society that gave freedom when it came to self-expression, one would wonder why then they would be against body piercings as a form of self-expression.
Although there are no clear proof-backed explanations, there are some speculations as to why Vikings would opt against body piercings. For warriors, the most logical reason would be due to war. The reason would be because, during combat, the enemy may use the piercings as an opportunistic way of inflicting injury by grabbing onto them.
While this explains the reason why Viking men did not have body piercings, it doesn’t entirely explain why Viking women also lacked body piercings. This is especially because the main role of Viking women was nurturing. That is until the Middle Ages when women also took part in the war and became warriors. Probably an explanation for women’s lack of piercings before the Middle Ages was that Vikings may have believed that the piercings would interfere in their role as nurtures.
Viking Weapon
Although current media depict Vikings as mindless, aggressive savages, these groups had a full functioning culture. They also considered particular objects as symbols of one’s status and prestige. The social hierarchy especially in the early periods was based on power, respect, wealth, and prestige. To be a leader, for example, you had to prove yourself in battle, show your willingness to defend your territory, and acquire wealth to share with your followers. These qualities were best represented by material possessions.
Weapons were among these prized possessions. They were seen as status symbols in their own right. As per their culture, every adult Vikings were legally required to possess a weapon. If in the case where one could not afford one, then the local leaders would go as far as buying one on their behalf. The finer the weapon was the more wealth you would be seen to possess. That’s because the finest Viking weapons were said to be made of valuable material with beautiful details on them.
Vikings Loved Jewelry
Aside from weaponry, jewelry was another representation of a Viking’s status. Even though they were not inclined to body piercings, the Vikings were fond of jewelry. A significant number of different forms of jewelry were discovered during the excavation of their settlements and graves. That is because, according to Vikings’ burial traditions, the dead were buried with items that represented their status in life and what they would need in the afterlife. These were mainly jewelry.
Ever since the Vikings learned the value and beauty of jewelry, they either crafted their own or acquired them through raiding targets of opportunity like monasteries. The common kind of jewelry recovered from their artifacts are necklaces, pendants, and amulets that were made of bronze, gold, or silver. These necklaces and amulets were commonly adorned for decorative and spiritual purposes. Rings and armbands made mainly from gold and silver, were also popular choices among Vikings. These were worn mainly as a status symbol. The most important form of jewelry, however, was the brooches. They were used to fasten the cloaks on men and dresses on women.
When it comes to social differentiation, the lower class would often wear simpler jewelry made of bronze and decorated with colored glass beads. The wealthier Vikings on the other hand would have more sophisticated finer pieces of jewelry. Their jewelry would be made of precious metal like gold or silver and embellished with crystals and gemstones.
Aside from jewelry being worn for decorative or spiritual purposes or as status symbols, they also doubled up as a form of currency. Vikings were known to use their jewelry as a form of payment during trading, which is another reason why jewelry is important for them. If the piece of jewelry was too valuable for a particular trade, then it would be broken down into smaller pieces. Even in death, Vikings believed that jewelry could be used as a currency in the afterlife.
Conclusion
Although there was nothing conventional or subdued about how the Vikings lived their lives, their unwillingness to pierce their bodies is a bit surprising. This is especially because some Vikings were heavily tattooed according to several historical accounts. They even wore permanent eyeliner as a way of looking youthful and attractive. There may be no explanation or evidence as to their real reason, but one can only believe that there was a sensible reason behind it. | https://piratejewellery.com/viking/did-vikings-have-piercings/ |
Large Viking Wolf Bracelet. This design is inspired from a real historical find and represents Fenrir, the giant wolf who was the son of Loki in Norse Mythology. In Norse culture arm rings conveyed status and loyalty, They were often given by Viking chieftains to their loyal followers.
This bracelet is extra large and thick whilst still being finely detailed.
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Product Information: | https://viking-styles.com/products/large-viking-wolf-bracelet |
Wolf Ring From Goa Proves Viking Wolf Ring Is Historical
Autumn of 2015 witnessed an exciting excavation, though small, in Goa in Randaberg, Western Norway. It was a unique ring with spiral patterns and two wolf heads. The ring later was believed to date back to the Viking Age. But whether the wolf heads showed Fenrir Wolf of Destruction, Freki and Geri Odin's wolves or Hati and Skoll probably remains a mystery forever.
Bjørn Tjelta who was a member of Rygene Metal Detector Club came across this wolf ring buried only 4inches (10cm) down in the ground. The study of the ring claimed that the ring dated back to 900 and 1000 AD. The ring measured 0.9inch (23mm) in diameter. The ring had similarities with the finger rings in the Middle Age and the arm rings in Viking Age.
The wolf heads were what worth discussing much because there was no official claim upon what the ring creator was trying to convey.
Odin's Wolves Freki and Geri
In Norse mythology, Odin the chief god of Asgard had a pair of wolves as his constant companions. Their names were Freki and Geri. They always sat right under Odin's High Throne in many depictions. Even in Ragnarok, the pair accompanied Odin into his final battle.
While Odin's ravens Huginn and Muninn acted as Odin's messengers, there was no vivid account of the mission that Odin gave to Freki and Geri. But according to the myth, Odin gave all of his food to his wolves and he only consumed wine.
In 2009, archaeologists found a figurine made of silver in Denmark. The small statue showed Odin sitting on his High Throne Hlidskjalf and his constant companions surround him. The ravens Huginn and Muninn were perching on the arms of the High Throne while Freki and Geri standing behind Odin.
Odin's silver statue with wolves and ravens
Fenrir the Wolf of Destruction
Norse mythology had it that Fenrir was the son of Loki the Trickster. Fenrir had siblings Jormungand the Midgard Serpent and Hel the Queen of Death. These figures together with the giant army ignited Ragnarok which resulted in Gods' Destruction.
The ancient prophecy told that Fenrir was set to swallow Odin in Ragnarok. Because of this prophecy, many attempts were made to prevent Fenrir from causing such tragic. But no one could ever escape the fate. Fenrir finally put an end to Odin's glory. However, the revenge for the Viking Supreme God was taken by Vidar Odin's Son.
The chained Fenrir
Overall, Fenrir was one of the most complicated figures in Norse mythology. Many years ago, Fenrir was a true villain to the viewpoint of many. As time went on, Fenrir has become the symbol of both destruction and creation, the end of the beginning, and the incredible wild power.
Hati and Skoll
Hati and Skoll were not famous figures in Norse mythology. But their importance shouldn't be neglected. They were the offsprings of Fenrir. This pair of wolves spent their lives chasing down the Sun and the Moon in the Norse sky. Many times they tried, many times they fell. But they never seemed to give up. Until the dawn of Ragnarok, they managed to catch the Sun and the Moon. As Hati and Skoll swallowed the Sun and the Moon, the world fell into the complete darkness.
Hati and Skoll chasing the Sun and the Moon
Like Fenrir, Hati and Skoll were complicated figures. They presented both the negativity and the positivity, the destruction of something and the creation of something instead, the successive failure and the final success.
Final words
To answer the question which wolf the ring from Goa tried to depict requires both effort and luck in the future. By far, there has been no official agreement though. The ring helped us to know how much Norse mythology had an effect on the Vikings and how important of the wolves to the Vikings. | https://bavipower.com/blogs/bavipower-viking-blog/wolf-ring-from-goa-proves-viking-wolf-ring-is-historical |
Prince Leopold, son of Queen Victoria, showing his left hand pinky rings worn in a typical stacked fashion, circa 1878.
There's only one really significant objection to rings on men as a broad concept, and that's an old and class-based one: very traditional men of wealth, ...
Rings used to send signals of wealth and power. The size of a precious stone and the clarity of the gem would indicate superior quality and therefore, ...
5 Rules To Wearing Rings | Ring Finger Symbolism & Significance | Cultural & Personal Relevance Of Rings
Many military men wear signet rings that reflect their rank as a status symbol whereas others wear symbolic rings to showcase the branch they served with. | http://vietimgy.pw/All-the-Kings-Men-Photo-Male-jewellery-t.html |
Ingleby, historically in the West Riding of Yorkshire, takes its name from the Old English ethnonym Engle ‘the Angles, later the English’ and Old Norse by ‘a farmstead, a village’. There is also an Ingleby in Derbyshire, close to the Viking winter camp at Repton, and the site of a unique Viking Age cremation cemetery. The exact implications of such a name are not yet fully understood and are the subject of ongoing work by Dr Jayne Carroll of the Institute for Name-Studies, University of Nottingham. Ingleby in Lincolnshire is now a joint parish with Saxilby.
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Viking Names
Swarkestone
Swarkestone, in the Repton and Gresley Hundred of Derbyshire, is derived from a Scandinavian male personal name which appears in Old Danish as Swerkir, in Old West Norse as Sorkir and in Old Swedish as Swerker. This is combined with Old English tun ‘farm, settlement’ and it is thus a hybrid name, as so many in the Trent Valley.
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Viking Names
Snibston
Snibston, in the West Goscote Hundred of Leicestershire, is a hybrid place-name formed from the Old Norse male personal name Snípr, a byname related to Norwegian snipa ‘a miser, an unsociable person’ and Old English tun ‘farm, settlement’. Snibston became a joint parish with Ravenstone in 1884 when Ravenstone moved from Derbyshire to Leicestershire.
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Some Derbyshire Warriors
Of the East Midlands counties, Derbyshire is perhaps the least well known for its Viking Age remains, apart of course from the camp at Repton. There is a scatter of place-names that suggest that members of that camp settled down in the region. And the recent publication of the Derbyshire volume of the Corpus of Anglo-Saxon Stone Sculpture provides further clues. Cross-shaft from Brailsford, Derbyshire. Photo by Judith Jesch At Brailsford, not far from Derby, a moss-covered cross-shaft stands outside the church, depicting a figure with a small shield and a rather large sword. The Corpus volume describes this as a ‘battle-ready warrior’ (p. 91) and suggests (p. 157) that this unusual warrior image is a memorial stone or marker of a member of the Anglo-Scandinavian warrior elite. The stone is loosely dated to the tenth century, so it could represent someone who had been at Repton, or more likely one of his descendants. Another warrior figure can be found on a cross-shaft at Norbury, to the west of Brailsford. This figure has a sword and what looks like a horn. The Corpus volume suggests (p. 194) that this is similarly a memorial to a member of the warrior elite. But it also raises the intriguing possibility that the figure represents the Norse god Heimdallr, whose horn announces the beginning of Ragnarök. While a bit speculative, this is not impossible since Heimdallr is fairly certainly represented on the Gosforth cross in Cumbria and possibly on the Jurby cross in the Isle of Man. Part of cross-shaft from Bakewell. Photo by Roderick Dale Though there seem to be only two warrior-figures from Derbyshire, there are plenty of other Anglo-Scandinavian sculptures. There are (or were) two hogbacks: one from Repton which is lost but known from drawings, and one from Derby which can be seen in the museum there. There are a number of crosses and cross-shafts with various types of Viking Age ornament. Particularly interesting is part of a cross-shaft from Bakewell with Borre-style ring-chain (p. 122). This type of ornament is associated with the Irish Sea region and demonstrates the links the East Midlands had with the rest of the Viking world. Who all these memorials represent is a fascinating question we would all love to know the answer to. Most intriguing of all is a rune-inscribed fragment, also from Bakewell. The runes are very clearly Anglo-Saxon, yet as interpreted by David Parsons (p. 142) they most likely represent the Scandinavian male personal name Helgi (or its female equivalent Helga).
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Viking Names
Bretby
The first element of Bretby, in the Repton and Gresley Hundred of Derbyshire, comes from either the Old Norse ethnonym Bretar ‘Britons’ or its Old English cognate, Brettas. The second element of the place-name is Old Norse bý ‘a farmstead, a village’. Traditionally, the place-name has been interpreted as referring to Britons who accompanied the Scandinavians in their settlements. However, the exact implications of such a name are not yet fully understood and are the subject of ongoing work by Dr Jayne Carroll of the Institute for Name-Studies, University of Nottingham.
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Viking Objects
Silver Wire Embroidery (1988/225-16)
This silver wire was found in Mound 11 at Heath Wood, Ingleby, Derbyshire. This burial mound contained fragments of the remains of an adult human together with the cremated remains of animals, including a small dog, a horse and sheep. The burial was accompanied by this silver wire, an iron spade shoe, some small iron nails and some corroded metalwork. The silver wire was found in two parts with traces of carbonised fibres attached. This suggests that it was probably attached to a piece of cloth. Silver and gold embroidery are known from a number of Viking Age graves, including from nearby Repton, Derbyshire, as well as further afield, e.g. Birka, Sweden. At Birka, wire embroidery was found on caps and headbands, although there is no reason to think that it was only used on headgear at all times.
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Viking Names
Oakthorpe
Oakthorpe, historically belonging to the Repton and Gresley Hundred of Derbyshire, probably comes from the Old Norse male personal name Áki (genitive singular Áka) and the Old Norse element þorp ‘outlying farm, settlement’. Alternatively the first element of the place-name could be Old English ac ‘oak tree’; however, it is more likely that the Old Norse personal name became confused with this Old English appellative. Oakthorpe is a joint parish with Donisthorpe and they were both transferred to Leicestershire in 1897.
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Croxall
Croxall, historically in the Repton and Gresley Hundred of Derbyshire, probably comes from the Old English male personal name Croc derived from the Old Norse personal name Krókr and the Old English halh ‘nook, corner of land’. However, it is also possible that the first element is from the Old English topographical element croc ‘crook’, perhaps ‘nook’. The parish was transferred to Staffordshire in 1894.
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Viking Names
Krok
Krókr, an original byname meaning ‘crook-backed’, related to Old Norse krókr ‘hook’, or possibly ‘crooked-dealer’. It is a rare and late personal name in West Scandinavia, but is more common as a byname early. The personal name is also recorded in Sweden and Denmark and is found in a Danish runic inscription as well as in several Danish place-names. Additionally, the name is probably found in Normandy. The name is common throughout the Danelaw and found in many place-names such as South Croxton and Croxton Kerrial in Leicestershire and Croxall, Staffordshire (formerly of the Repton and Gresley Hundred of Derbyshire).
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The Rich and the Brave: Burials, Weapons, and Warriors
The common association of highly furnished weapon burials containing a male skeleton with warriors is still a highly debated topic and one that has a profound impact on how we view Vikings. Much scholarly ink has been spilled discussing theories surrounding motivations behind grave good deposition and the relation between weapon burials and the deceased in Scandinavia, Britain, and with varying degrees of success. Choosing which theory to apply to a situation is complicated by a variety of factors not least of which is that historical, geographical and chronological context changes how one interprets a ritual depending on the time and place it was practised. Furthermore, there is usually no knowledge of who selected the objects to be deposited and thus no concrete idea why they did so. According to Heinrich Härke, textual sources are the best means with which to attempt to determine motivations but are rarely present for the space and time under review (Härke 2014, 53–54). A Viking sword found at Repton, Derbyshire. (c) Derby Museums and Art Gallery While weapons are highly-visible in archaeological contexts, their use in burials only represents a small segment of the population within a social context that had many different high-status burial practices (Harrison 2015, 314). Secondly, poorly furnished burials are understudied with no definitive comments made about them (Harrison 2015, 314–15; 2008, 166–90). In addition, the relationship between perceived and actual status and the fact that no artefact has a fixed value or meaning but rather its meaning is imposed both complicate the issue further (Harrison 2015, 304). The perceived importance of an individual is heavily influenced by local burial tradition. For example, at Kilmainham/Islandbridge a large number of weapon burials with high-quality swords were discovered which reflects the importance of Dublin between the ninth and tenth centuries while the number of graves containing these high-quality swords may reflect the role competitive display played within Dublin society (Harrison 2015, 304; Harrison and Ó Floinn 2014, 75–93). However, the situation in the former Danelaw is very much the opposite with a general paucity of weapon burials east of the Pennines (Harrison 2015, 304; Graham-Campbell 1980, 379; Richards 2000, 142). Harrison argues that this may be a reflection of the higher value placed on weapons in the Danelaw than in Dublin or elsewhere along the western seaboard (Harrison 2015, 304). One last point to consider when examining burials and grave goods is that the choice of grave goods can reflect how the deceased or those burying them wished their identity to be portrayed can equally affect weapon burials. Moreover, grave goods can underline the hybridity of an individual’s identity. For example, the shield bosses of Kilmainham/Islandbridge combine elements of both Irish small bosses and Anglo-Saxon conical bosses to create a fusion shield boss type only found near Dublin reflecting the distinct local identity of its elites (Harrison 2015, 309; Harrison and Ó Floinn 2014, 122–25; Bøe 1940, 33, 38). So how can weapons in burials be used to potentially identify whether or not individuals were involved in military activities? In simple terms, there is no definitive way of correlating the two but by studying the graves within their historical and geographical context, it may be possible to make a case. One strong indicator that an individual may have been involved in military activities are any signs of trauma on the skeletons, such as those found at Repton, alongside the inclusion of weapons as grave-goods. References: Bøe, Johs. 1940. Viking Antiquities in Great Britain and Ireland, Part 3: Norse Antiquities in Ireland. Edited by Haakon Shetelig. Oslo: H. Aschehoug. Graham-Campbell, James. 1980. ‘The Scandinavian Viking-Age Burials of England: Some Problems of Interpretation’. In Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries, edited by Phillip Rahtz, Lorna Watts, and Tania Dickinson, 379–82. British Archaeological Reports British Series 82. Oxford: Archaeopress. Härke, Heinrich. 2014. ‘Grave Goods in Early Medieval Burials: Messages and Meanings’. Morality 19 (1): 41–60. Harrison, Stephen. 2008. ‘Furnished Insular Scandinavian Burial: Artefacts & Landscape in the Early Viking Age’. Dublin: Trinity College Dublin. Harrison, Stephen. 2015. ‘“Warrior Graves”? The Weapon Burial Rite in Viking Age Britain and Ireland’. In Maritime Societies of the Viking and Medieval World, edited by James Barrett and Sarah Gibbon, 299–319. Society for Medieval Archaeology. Leeds: Maney Publishing. Harrison, Stephen, and Raghnall Ó Floinn. 2014. Viking Graves and Grave-Goods in Ireland. Dublin: National Museum of Ireland. Richards, Julian. 2000. Viking Age England. Stroud: Tempus.
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Unlocking the Meaning of Keys in the Viking Age
A reproduction iron key based on one from Repton, Derbyshire Most keys that have been found are from graves, and were deliberately buried with individuals. The fact that only some people were buried with keys shows that keys had both practical and symbolic functions in the Viking Age. The practical function of keys was to lock locks, as is to be expected. They secured items against access or theft, and their presence indicates that the owner of the key actually had valuables worth locking up. Viking Age keys, padlocks and locks have all been found by archaeologists. The locks and padlocks probably belonged to chests and were used to secure a person’s most important belongings. Chests were used as storage at home and as travelling luggage by sailors going abroad. The chest provided a secure place to keep personal belongings, and was also used as a seat for the rowers. Keys could be decorated, like one from Gjerdal in Norway, which had been decorated with stylized animal heads and geometric ornamentation that dates it to the Viking Age. Keys are found as a part of burial paraphernalia in Scandinavia from the Migration Period through the Viking Age, and were usually made of iron or copper alloy. Although often viewed as primarily grave goods, in reality they have also been found on settlement sites throughout Scandinavia, and as single finds. Received wisdom states that they are most commonly found in women’s graves, and occasionally in men’s graves. However, they are not a common find overall. Only a small number of keys have been found compared to the large number of excavations undertaken. Most importantly, this applies to graves, where Berg (2015, 130) notes that of 6000-8000 graves excavated in south-east Norway only 117 contained keys. She also shows that keys are not a predominantly female accessory, as is usually stated. The Museum of Cultural History in Oslo notes that approximately 75 copper alloy keys and 170 iron keys of Viking Age date have been found in south-east Norway alone. The copper alloy keys are all different, showing that they were not mass-produced, but rather cast individually. Moulds for keys and smiths’ tools have been found during the excavations at Kaupang in Norway, providing the key to understanding how keys were made. Keys had symbolic value which has most often been taken to indicate the social function of the bearer. As items that provided access and closed it off, they indicated that the bearer had these powers too. This symbolic value has been most associated with women, largely because medieval law codes such as Borgartingslova (the Borgarthing Law) which dates from the twelfth or thirteenth century, identify keys ‘as a signifier for the key-bearer, sometimes described as a woman or housewife’ (Berg. 2015, 127). In the Eddic poem Þrymskviða Thor must dress up as Freyja. Part of his disguise is a set of keys hanging from his belt leading to the suggestion that Freyja may have been particularly associated with keys as a symbol of her domain. This image of powerful women controlling access to the house has led to an enduring image of the Viking Age matriarch wearing keys on her belt or hanging from a brooch to show that she was the gatekeeper in the household. However, this raises the question of what keys are doing in men’s graves, as in the case of Grave 541 at Repton, Derbyshire. Norse laws from the medieval period demonstrate that keys symbolised control over the household, a female area of power, and reinforce this idea. Given that keys symbolized power, ownership and control of access, it is likely that keys in men’s graves are indicators of their status as owners too. They may not have carried them in life, but keys as grave goods symbolise their power after death. Beyond simple interpretations of keys indicating ownership, Pantmann (2014, 52) suggests that keys had a cultic role in pagan Scandinavia. The concept of the ‘kloge kone’ or ‘wise woman’ may have been symbolised by keys, because keys have a universal symbolic value indicating knowledge, power, and insight. In this role, they are associated with Freyja and thus childbirth, the afterlife (Freyja receives half of those slain in battle into her hall Sessrúmnir), and female leadership, a role that is closely associated with the role of matriarch of a household. Berg (2015, 127) notes that the connection between keys and childbirth is that the keys symbolically unlock the womb or loins to ensure a successful birth. Keys are also associated with Christianity. The triquetra found on some keys may be associated with the Holy Trinity, but may also be a pre-Christian symbol of fertility and motherhood (Berg, 128). The focus on keys as symbols of women’s power is not supported by the archaeological evidence, so it is likely that keys are not symbolic of the housewife alone. However, it is noteworthy that decorated bronze keys are almost exclusively linked to women while iron keys are not (Aannestad. 2004, 80). The fact that keys were buried with certain people is a clear indicator of symbolic significance; the dead are buried with items that are important to them or to those that buried them. Those items gain significance by being chosen to be included as grave goods. Thus keys had symbolic significance, and it may have been related to power and access. This is supported by their rarity as finds, indicating that they belonged to the few, not to the many, and it is likely that those few were the ones who had wealth or treasures that needed locking away. Keys are symbols of wealth and access to power, and perhaps symbolise the ability to affect one’s environment through ritual action (Berg. 2015, 132), but their use as symbols is nuanced and may represent different things at different points in the Viking Age, and in different places within the Viking diaspora. As a result, unlocking the meaning of keys in the Viking Age is not simple. Further Reading: Aannestad, Hanne Lovise. 2004. “En nøkkel til kunnskap – Om kvinneroller i vikingtid”. Viking. Berg, H. L. 2015. “’Truth’ and reproduction of knowledge. Critical thoughts on the interpretation and understanding of Iron-Age Keys”. In Marianne Hem Eriksen, Unn Pedersen, Bernt Rundberget, Irmelin Axelsen and Heidi Lund Berg (eds). Viking Worlds: Things, spaces and movement. Oxbow Books: Oxford. Pantmann, Pernille. 2014. “Nøglekvinderne” in Kvinner i vikingtid. Ed. by Nancy Coleman and Nanna Løkka. Scandinavian Academic Press: Oslo. Pp 39-56. | https://emidsvikings.ac.uk/search/list/?page=4&s=repton&order=rel |
The Social Orders
Aside from the Emperor and his near god-like status, one’s status derived essentially from two criteria.
Nobility—families of traditional, established position that usually dated to the founding years of early Rome. Hence the importance of tribe—one’s nomen (see Roman Naming Conventions) indicated that import familial-tribal relationship.
By the late Republic and imperial age, an individual’s census (monetary net worth) was determinative of either Senatorial status, the highest rank, or Equestrian status, the next in line. These two accounted for a mere one to five percent of the population—they were the elites. Next were those who held Roman citizenship which was highly prized. The remainder were the commoners, plebs, and those of the lowest—slaves.
This rigid hierarchy determined not only one’s status in the “pecking order” of society, but also the opportunities available for advancement to the next higher rung on the ladder.
An extremely visual expression of status was the seating positions in governmental buildings (the Senate Curia or provincial assemblies) and at theaters and other public buildings. The best seats are reserved for… guess who! | https://www.michaelkleinfall.com/social-orders |
"Falconry is the hunting of wild animals in their natural state and habitat by means of a trained bird of prey. Small and larger animals are hunted; squirrels and rabbits often fall prey to these birds. There are two traditional terms used to describe a person involved in falconry: a falconer flies a falcon; an Austringer (German origin) flies a hawk ... or an eagle ... In modern falconry, the red-tailed hawk ... the Harris's hawk ... and the peregrine falcon ... are some of the more commonly used birds of prey." (Wikipedia)
Hunting with birds of prey goes way back. According to Wikipedia, "evidence suggests that the art of falconry may have begun in Mesopotamia, with the earliest accounts dating to approximately 2,000 BC," but the practice may be even older. The next video, for instance, suggests that people were hunting with birds in the Beaker Culture (~2800 - 2300 BC in Europe).
"Historically, falconry was a popular sport and status symbol among the nobles of medieval Europe, the Middle East, and Mongolian Empire. Many historical illustrations left in Rashid al Din's 'Compendium chronicles' book described falconry of the middle centuries with Mongol images. Falconry was largely restricted to the noble classes due to the prerequisite commitment of time, money, and space. In art and in other aspects of culture such as literature, falconry remained a status symbol long after it was no longer popularly practiced. The historical significance of falconry within lower social classes may be underrepresented in the archaeological record, due to a lack of surviving evidence, especially from nonliterate nomadic and non-agrarian societies." (Wikipedia)
Hunting with birds of prey was popular with the Vikings and earlier Nordic peoples. "Judging from finds of bones from birds of prey in cremation graves ... hawking seems to have been practiced in Scandinavia almost as early as on the Continent. Lavishly furnished graves like Vendel III and Valsgärde 6 contains birds of prey, as do at least 14 other Swedish graves, dating from the late 6th to the 10th century." Source: Viking Age Hawking, Arkeologi i Nord.
"Training raptors (birds of prey) is a complex undertaking. Books containing hundreds of pages of information and advice by experienced falconers are still rudimentary at best. Many important details vary between individual raptors, species of raptors and between places and times." Source: Falconry Training and Techniques, Wikipedia. Hoods are used to keep the birds calm and to help in getting them used to being around humans. Bells and strips of leather are attached to the bird's legs. "Falcons (the long-wing family of raptors) are tethered perched on a block; large owls (during training only) and short-winged and broad-winged hawks are tethered to a bow perch or round perch, when not allowed to fly free in their mews, an Old English word for a raptor's chamber."
It's good to see that this ancient form of hunting is still being practiced in the modern world. | https://www.ancientworldreview.com/2019/06/hunting-with-birds-of-prey.html |
This book discusses the impact of various social networks on Scandinavian society from a longue durée perspective, from the Viking Age to the nineteenth century.
Friendship, patron-client relationships, and social networks played a fundamental role in Scandinavian society from the Viking Age through to the Industrial Era. Personal ties were essential to Viking chieftains for building their power base, and such ties were equally crucial for early modern merchants, who used their personal bonds to create trade networks. Furthermore, social networks connected medieval men and women to the saints and to God.
The articles in this book emphasize the strong correlation between political developments such as the emergence of the state and the evolution of friendships and social networks. They also highlight radical changes in the importance and contexts of friendship that occurred between the Viking Age and the late eighteenth century. During this period, friendships became far more than community-based social relationships, but rather tools for the elite in social positioning and wealth acquisition.
This volume highlights the major significance of friendships and patron-client relationships to political and cultural life in medieval, early modern, and modern society. It covers social networks in Iceland, Norway, Denmark, and Sweden, each of which are characterized by different societal features, ranging from the free-state republic of early medieval Iceland to the early modern kingdom of Denmark.
Paping et al. Landscapes or seascapes? | http://www.brepols.net/Pages/ShowProduct.aspx?prod_id=IS-9782503542485-1 |
In its general sense, pluralism refers to the existence and validity of a variety of beliefs, values, realities, and identities. Pluralism has been used to describe the variety of beliefs and values that exist within a society (e.g., political pluralism), a discipline (e.g., scientific pluralism), or culture (e.g., cultural pluralism). In the multicultural counseling literature, pluralism refers to the existence and inclusion of all aspects of diversity (e.g., individual diversity, group diversity) within a society or culture (cultural pluralism). Pluralism carries the inherent belief that the inclusion, validation, and affirmation of multiple aspects of diversity are intrinsically valuable to the overall well-being of a group or community.
Philosophical and Sociological Perspectives
The origins of pluralism as a philosophical thought can be traced to Western philosophy, with roots in early Greek philosophy. Developed in the 5th century B.C. by philosophers Empedocles and Anaxagoras, pluralistic philosophy sought to provide a different explanation for the natural world. Natural world phenomena were previously defined by the Ionian philosophers as based in a single element; pluralistic philosophy challenged this notion and posited that natural world phenomena were based in multiple elements. From this philosophical basis comes the contemporary view of pluralism that posits the existence of multiple realities. Neither of these views of pluralism accounts for a complete explanation of total reality.
From this background, sociological aspects of pluralism were developed. Within sociological theory, pluralism is the social condition that accepts, embraces, validates, and celebrates the multiple cultures and the many beliefs and values that exist in a society. The strength and health of such a society is predicated upon the belief that such a diverse collection of cultures and beliefs is a valuable and integral component to the welfare of that society.
Counseling and Pluralism
In 1990, Paul Pedersen dubbed multiculturalism as the “fourth force” in counseling, which would shift the existing paradigms of counseling and therapy to integrate the cultural experiences and identities of clients. Multiculturalism was seen as the next wave in counseling that would promote the value of a culture-centered approach in working with clients and promote the value of a pluralistic society. Since Pedersen’s naming of this fourth force in counseling, the multicultural movement within counseling has grown, and with it has grown the increasing recognition of the value of pluralism in society.
The foundation for multicultural counseling is the inherent assumption and valuing of pluralism. Pluralism, in this sense, was initially seen as the collection of various racial or ethnic cultures and worldviews. Pluralism and culture-centric counseling attempted to then define culture and its constructs (e.g., identity) from etic and emic perspectives. As pluralism and multiculturalism continued to grow and to be explored within the counseling literature, the definition of culture also grew to encompass other aspects of personal and social identity, including, for example, socioeconomic status, gender, sexual orientation, spirituality and religion, physical ability, and numerous other personal and social variables, both seen and unseen. From this, the term cultural pluralism was then used to reflect the multifaceted and multidimensional nature of culture and identity.
Pluralism and multiculturalism are intimately tied together within the counseling profession. Although both terms may be used interchangeably, pluralism connotes the broader philosophical principle whose roots are in ancient Greek philosophy whereas multi-culturalism is used to refer to the inclusion of various cultural and racial groups and identities. More recently, multiculturalism has been used to refer to the broad spectrum of individual and group diversity to include sexual orientation, physical ability status, spirituality and religion, and socioeconomic status, among the variety of individual and group differences.
The Growth of Pluralism in Counseling
For the greater part of the 20th century, the counseling profession has relied on theories and practices of counseling with clients that have been based on Western, Eurocentric teachings, perspectives, and values. For the most part, the majority of mainstream counseling theories have reflected this Western ethnocentric approach to working with clients, which has neglected the role of cultural and individual differences in identity and values formation. Only within the latter part of the 20th century did pluralism and cultural pluralism gain ground within the counseling profession.
The increasing presence of pluralism in counseling can be directly evidenced in the increase of publications, the development of educational curricula, and the establishment of organizational policies and statements that affirm pluralism. Since Pedersen’s claim that multiculturalism is the fourth force in counseling, there have been numerous publications that address issues of cultural pluralism within the counseling profession. Landmark publications in this area include Counseling the Culturally Diverse: Theory and Practice; Counseling and Psychotherapy: A Multicultural Perspective; and the Handbook of Multicultural Counseling.
A number of graduate programs in counseling have recognized the need to prepare graduates for counseling in a pluralistic society. Graduate programs in counseling have been developed to reflect training and education in the principles of multicultural counseling. Though graduate programs have gradually made the shift to an inclusion of multicultural issues within their curricula, full integration of multicultural-ism that reflects the basic tenets of inclusion in pluralistic philosophy is still needed.
Professional counseling and psychological associations have pioneered a variety of publications, guidelines, policies, and resolutions proclaiming the importance of multiculturalism and the value of a pluralistic society. Organizations such as the American Counseling Association and the American Psychological Association have developed guidelines and standards that endorse the importance of a pluralistic society and the development of multicultural awareness, knowledge, and skills in the work of the counselor. While these and other organizations have professed the importance of multiculturalism and pluralism in counseling clients and in counselor development, continued work is necessary to promote and integrate these guidelines and pronouncements within the greater counseling profession.
Social Justice and Pluralism
The counseling profession has recently attended to the concept of social justice within its theory and practice. However, the idea of social justice has existed within other disciplines (e.g., theology) before it gained the attention of the counseling profession. Social justice has as its foundation the core values and philosophical tenets of pluralism; that is, social justice strives to advocate for, and to bring justice to, those individuals, peoples, groups, and cultures that suffer from oppression and social stigma. Social justice is, then, an action that promotes the values of pluralism within societies and organizations.
Within the counseling profession, pluralism and social justice embrace the notion of counselors as agents of prosocial change. Social justice and pluralism recognize the role of the counselor in advocating for the needs and rights of clients who experience social oppression. Beyond that, social justice and pluralism also recognize the role of the counselor as an active member within the community to work toward advancing the work of social justice and pluralism within the community in ways that promote social welfare and cultural pluralism.
References:
- Ivey, A. E., D’Andrea, M., Ivey, M. B., & Simek-Morgan, L. (2007). Counseling and psychotherapy: A multicultural perspective (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
- Ponterotto, J. G., Casas, J. M., Suzuki, L. A., & Alexander, C. M. (Eds.). (2001). Handbook of multicultural counseling (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
- Sue, D. W., & Sue, D. (2008). Counseling the culturally diverse: Theory and practice (5th ed.). New York: Wiley. | https://psychology.iresearchnet.com/counseling-psychology/multicultural-counseling/pluralism/ |
Signet rings occur in various ancient civilizations, as they were used to “sign” documents through the impression on hot wax of the symbol on the ring, which would lead to the owner. During the Medieval period, seal rings were widely used in trading to ensure the authenticity and security of a document or letter. The social status of the owner was reflected in the size and media of such seal rings, with the combination of motives engraved on the bezel providing further insight into the owner’s identity, such as their place in a family. Bronze rings with Christian symbols, as seen on this fine example, would have been worn in everyday life as a sign of faith and devotion.
Medieval Christian Ring with Engraved Cross
$68.34
A well-preserved Medieval solid bronze signet ring, featuring a round hoop, with the front engraved with a cross. The ring is covered with green and brown patina. UK ring size M.
Condition: Extremely fine, suitable for modern wear with care. | https://www.antiquities.co.uk/shop/ancient-jewellery/rings/medieval-christian-ring-with-engraved-cross/ |
Vitally, it is the medium of our only written (Scandinavian) Viking Age sources. The runes that were dropped are ᚷ, ᚹ, ᛇ, ᛈ, ᛖ, ᛜ, ᛟ, and ᛞ – transliterated as g, w, ï/æ, p, e, ŋ, and d. The ættir, or runic groups, known from Elder Futhark, remained in place, now becoming groups of six, six, and four, respectively.
Runes are the letters of the runic alphabet. Germanic people with Vikings had developed this system of writing in the 1st or 2nd Century AD. … Runes are the mystical alphabet, used 2000 years ago to name things and places, provide protection, attract luck and fortune, and magically divine the course of future events.
Moreover, How do you read Old Norse runes?
Secondly, What do Viking symbols mean?
Here are some of them: Thor’s Hammer, a symbol of protection, strength, consecration, and the integrity of custom and tradition. . The Swastika or sunwheel, a symbol of luck, holiness, power, prosperity, and the sky.
Simply so, How do Viking runes work?
Carved on sticks or other objects, they could be cast and deciphered to discern the present or predict the future. Rather than being penned on vellum or parchment, runes were usually carved on wood, bone, or stone, hence their angular appearance.
What does a Viking tattoo symbolize?
Viking Symbol Tattoos It was seen as a symbol of protection and might. (In Icelandic, the symbol is called Aegishjalmur). A very similar looking symbol in Icelandic is the Vegvisir, meaning “signpost.” It’s meant to guide people through bad weather.
28 Related Question Answers Found
What religion uses runes?
Norse religion
What is a Viking Witch?
In the Middle Ages the Danish word for seeress “vølve” meant witch. Their rituals were by then connected with dangerous and harmful magic. Thus it might be said that the Viking Age seeresses were predecessors of medieval witches. Laws were issued in the Middle Ages in order to suppress pagan rituals.
Are Runes Nordic?
The Norse and other Germanic peoples wrote with runes since at least the first century. Rather than being penned on vellum or parchment, runes were usually carved on wood, bone, or stone, hence their angular appearance.
What do Viking tattoos represent?
Viking Warrior One of the interesting aspects of Viking culture is that they too wore tattoos as a sign of power, strength, ode to the Gods and as a visual representation of their devotion to family, battle and the Viking way of life.
Are Celtic and Norse runes the same?
Did the Celts use runes like the Vikings? – Quora. The runes were typical of some Germanic peoples, such as the Anglo, Saxon, Viking, etc., which were neither linguistically nor culturally Celtic. It has not been possible to verify the presence of Runes in lands of Celtic culture.
Can you write in runes?
However, writing in runes an Old Norse word or a quote that you have in Roman letters is also possible, since the conventions used by Younger Futhark rune carvers are more or less clear. Not recommended: Permanent use if you converted an inscription into runes yourself.
Are runes Norse?
The runes are an ancient alphabet that originated in Germanic and Scandinavian countries. Today, they are used in magic and divination by many Pagans who follow a Norse or Heathen-based path.
What is a Viking Witch called?
Seiðr
Did Vikings really have seers?
The ancient seer is one of the most important figures in Viking life because the Vikings believe in fate and the Seers can read the runes and often translate the wishes of the gods.
How did Vikings use runes?
In fact, the Vikings left behind a great number of documents in stone, wood, and metal, all written in the enigmatic symbols known as runes. They relied on these symbols not only for writing but also to tell fortunes, cast spells, and provide protection.
What does a Viking represent?
As a symbol of victory, Vikings used spears and threw them through their enemies’ lines, as a symbol of sacrificing them to the god Odin. Today, there are many accessories with the Gurnir symbol, symbolizing power, courage, fearlessness, inspiration, wisdom and skill.
What do tattoos symbolize?
Tattoos may be skin deep, but their significance sometimes goes deeper. The messages sent by body art are an individual’s self-expression, but there are recurring motifs that can often tell you something about the wearer. Barbed wire can mean a stint in prison. A red rose is often a reflection of romance. | https://popularask.net/what-runes-did-vikings-use/ |
R may refer to:
- R, denoting a member of the Republican Party in American politics
- R, denoting The Crown, Rex (King) or Regina (Queen) in Commonwealth nations
- R. (album) (1998) by R. Kelly
- R (cable operator), a telecommunications company
- A film rating in the Motion Picture Association of America film rating system
- Rated R (Queens of the Stone Age album)
- Rolled R, the alveolar trill of Spanish, Italian, & Arabic languages
- The three Rs of Reading, wRiting and aRithmetic
- In The World Is Not Enough, a character played by John Cleese
- R·Type, an arcade video game
- ®, the registered trademark symbol
- The South African rand currency
- Ryder's NYSE ticker symbol
- R (New York City Subway service)
- R, the military designation for a reconnaissance aircraft.
- Volkswagen Golf R
- The spectral resolution in astronomy
- The symbol given to the molar gas constant in chemistry
- A stellar classification for orangish or K carbon stars
- R (cross section ratio), the ratio of hadronic to muonic cross sections
- Röntgen, a unit of measurement for ionizing radiation such as X-ray and gamma rays
- The Rydberg constant, a physical constant relating to energy levels of electrons within atoms
- R, a label that denotes one of two chiral center configurations in the R/S system
- A side chain (an unspecified group of atoms) in a chemical or structural formula
- Arginine, an amino acid
- Relatedness, in biology
- r, representing population growth rate in the r/K selection theory of ecology
- Haplogroup R (mtDNA), a human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplogroup
- Haplogroup R (Y-DNA), a Y-chromosomal DNA (Y-DNA) haplogroup
- ATC code R Respiratory system, a section of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System
- °R, the symbol for the thermodynamic temperature scale Rankine
- R-value (insulation), a non-SI measure of thermal resistance used in housing insulation
- R-value (soils), property of soils used in pavement design
- An electronic resistor, e.g. in circuit diagrams
- The R-# refrigerant numbering system
- In fracture mechanics, the ratio between the minimum and maximum stresses
- R (programming language), an environment for statistical computing and graphics
- R (complexity), the set of all recursive languages
- R, RequestBot, a service in QuakeNet's IRC services
- IBM System R, an IBM database system
Rank:
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Content: | http://strunko.com/content/rua |
This thesis contributes new archaeological evidence to the debate about how early Icelandic society was constituted and organised, and how it developed over the course of its first 200 year,s. It examines Viking Age residential architecture in Iceland at new levels of detail and with new methods, including geoarchaeological techniques to enhance the interpretation of activity areas in individual buildings, and space syntax analysis to facilitate the comparison of houses and the detection of patterns in architectural form. The integration of these different techniques and scales of analysis permits a detailed understanding of how households organised social and economic activities on farmsteads, and sheds new light on the cultural identity of the earliest settlers, the size and complexity of their households, the degree of stratification in early Icelandic society, and how social structures in Iceland changed over time. This thesis examines the excavation data of all Viking Age houses and pit houses that were excavated in Iceland up to 2005, highlighting the complex interplay between cultural norms and the agency of individuals in the design and construction of residential buildings. It presents detailed geoarchaeological studies of the floor deposits in a tenth-century house at Aðalstræti 14-18, in Reykjavik, and a tenth-century pit house at Hofstaðir, in Mývatnssveit, and interprets the results in light of floor formation processes observed in early twentieth-century turf buildings at the farm of Þveni, in Laxárdalur, northeast Iceland, These geoarchaeological case studies reveal new types of activity areas that were previously not identified in Viking Age houses or pit houses, and enhance the understanding of the range and organisation of social and economic activities on early Icelandic farmsteads. This study of residential architecture reveals that there was either a high degree of cultural unity or a high degree of cultural integration in Viking Age Iceland, with settlers adopting the building style of the dominant group - particularly in the public parts of houses - as a way of integrating into Icelandic society. Based on the form and internal organisation of the main residential buildings, the dominant cultural group appears to have originated in southwest Norway and/or the Norwegian settlement in the Faroe Islands, and it is likely that this group attributed symbolic importance to the curved shape of its dwellings. Based on the relative size, complexity, and number of residential buildings on Viking Age farmsteads, the households that initially settled in Iceland appear to have been roughly similar in size and status. Each farm had a main residential building, which incorporated a large living room and smaller, more specialised storage and cooklng rooms. Most farms also had a pit house, a small, multi functional building that was used for textile production and as a dwelling/living room for a small number of people - probably of the servile class. The eventual addition of annexes to the main residential buildings hints at some growth in the size and complexity of households, but it is only in the later tenth and eleventh centuries that there is clear evidence for growing social differentiation. Therefore, contrary to suggestions that there may have been an entrenched social hierarchy in Iceland from the time of the initial land-taking, the residential architecture suggests that social stratification only began to develop later - probably in the later tenth and eleventh centuries - when the best farmland was already occupied and there was increasing tension over the unequal distribution of land and natural resources.
Sponsorship
This dissertation was funded by a Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada Doctoral Fellowship, a United Kingdom Overseas Research Studentship, a bursary from the Cambridge Commonwealth Trust, a Pelham Roberts Research Studentship, two Muriel Onslow Research Studentships and additional funding from Newnham College, Cambridge, and by two Canadian Centennial Scholarships from the Canadian High Commission in London. Julie Miller, at the McBurney Geoarchaeology Laboratory, University of Cambridge, manufactured the thin sections for the site of Aðalstræti 14-18 with the financial support of the City of Reykjavik. Muriel Mcleod, then at the Department of Environmental Science, University of Stirling, manufactured thin section HST96-1 with the financial support of the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. | https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/245017 |
Wolf Arm Ring
Show your Viking honour with this Wolf arm ring.
Traditionally, they were given by Viking chieftains to secure the allegiance of warriors, and thus were often known as Oath rings. They continue to be a symbol both of trust, honour and pride.
Made from stainless steel, it is safe to be worn in water and won’t rust or tarnish. | https://norsehawk.org/product/wolf-arm-ring/ |
These volumes are a compilation of transcribed and edited talks of Shaykh Arif Abdul Hussain in which the essential message of Islam and Prophet Muhammad’s message of God-centricity is presented in a fresh reevaluation of religion and human purpose. The talks outline the philosophical foundations of the Qur’anic outlook for humanity, in which religion and prophetic teachings are envisioned as a purposive process of continuous spiritual growth. The leitmotif of the book is the role of Qur’anic principle of God-centricity in maintaining a universal equilibrium.
By identifying the core tenets of purposive religion, the author embraces a philosophically rigorous concept of human progress that is informed by the teachings of Islamic sages and mystics.It provides an interpretation of religion that regards humans as dynamic beings engaged in a process of achieving greater degrees of perfection at both the individual and communal levels. This progressive and endless process allows religion to keep evolving in accordance with levels of human development. Religion is thus the sina qua non of human success.
An essential feature of Islamic philosophy is the spirit of sincere inquiry and continual learning. . The history of humanity has been punctuated by waves of progression and regression, both of which are the result of either the presence or absence of the spirit of sincere inquiry and learning. Today, there is no facet of life in which this spirit is lacking; religion being ironically but sorely the worst casualty. Fundamental to this process is the examination of theological assumptions of religion by their individual adherents.
Shaykh Arif founded the Al-Mahdi Institute in Birmingham in 1993, and currently serves as its Director. For over twenty years, he has been at the forefront of training students in Islamic theology and equipping them with tools that can enable them to address the needs of contemporary societies where religious values permeate entire cultural systems. Arif’s spiritual messages are girded in the modern lexicon; this is the reason why they have found natural soil in a world where religious, spiritual and philosophical outlook inform decisions and instincts of great leaders in diverse fields.
Arif’s mission is a response to the need for an institutional movement to address challenge to religious faith in general and to the Islamic faith in particular .Similarly there is need for understanding the ethical and social values enshrined in the Qur’an and the Sunna in the context of modern cultures. These challenges have been faced largely without the guidance of adequately trained scholars.
The core pedagogy at Al Mahdi is centered around its emphasis on the use of modern theories in the study of religion, theology and language. The aim is to train and prepare students who will be able to function within Western academic traditions and contemporary intellectual discourse as participants, not spectators. Since the students are schooled in classical and modern thought, they tend to be more connected to their own communities as well as to the mainstream society. This give them a stable sense of identity, religious and otherwise, and shield them against radicalism. They are thus allies in society’s fight against extremism.
Arif is aiming at a spiritual, moral, social and cultural development of the new a generation in ways that equips them better to face modern challenges. Although he belongs to a predominant Shia school and liberally draws on imagery from Shia icons for expounding his thesis, Arif’s focus is clearly on the core Islamic creed. He steers clear of peripheral thought areas that can generate sectarian friction and obscure his central mission.
The pluralistic world created by the diffusion of understanding of world’s major faith traditions has made religion a vital resource in the task of building a good society, a world where all can live freely and pursue visions of the highest values. We face a constant struggle with the moral, material, social, cultural and political complexities and oddities of an ever rapidly changing society. Spiritualism is truly a way of setting out and travelling the paths of the heart, mind and the imaginary.
The different spiritual paths lead to the same human heart. The vast spiritual heritage is actually the common treasure of entire mankind. Our civilization’s spiritual prism provides a kaleidoscopic canvas of shimmering stars of wisdom. The blazing radiance exuded by this constellation is what keeps the darkness of carnal impulses from overwhelming us.
The spiritual quest is an internal journey, it is a psychic path. Very often, priests, rabbis, imams, and shamans are just as consumed by worldly ambition as regular seekers of material possessions. But all this is generally seen as an abuse of a sacred ideal. These power struggles are not what religion is really about, but an unworthy distraction from the life of the spirit, which is conducted far from the madding crowd, unseen, silent and unobtrusive.
We must understand that every scriptural book has to be read, not only with the tongue and voice and eyes, but with the truest and purest light which our heart and conscience can provide. This is the only way we can internalize it. Spirituality springs from the soul, and permeates the entire being. If the soul becomes barren; we will continue to practice our rituals robotically. What is the point if our prayers and fasting and our rituals can’t clean our heart and enhance the quality of our character? In our religious journey we often mistake the guideposts for the final destination. At that point, prayers become mere empty words; rituals become routines and the soul becomes a slave of habit.
The scriptures have not to be just ritualized; they have to be applied to our everyday lives. What ultimately matters is the purity and chastity of the conscience and this is the primary attribute of a true servant of God. It is the most authentic barometer of our piety. Spiritual values are the central axis of the chariot of civilization As Woodrow Wilson emphasized, “Unless our civilization is redeemed spiritually, it cannot endure materially.”
Finding common ground among faiths can help us bridge needless divides at a time when unified action is more crucial than ever. As a species, we must embrace the oneness of humanity as we face global issues like pandemics and economic and ecological crises. At this scale, our response must be as one. Harmony among the major faiths is an essential ingredient for peaceful coexistence. From this perspective, mutual understanding among these traditions is not merely the business of religious believers – it matters for the welfare of humanity as a whole.
Preachers like Arif, who combine religious luminosity with modern wisdom and learning, are a gentle, mindful presence in a world where scriptural principles are being increasingly recognized as fundamental to every walk of life. | https://www.eurasiareview.com/27122019-islam-and-god-centricity-a-theological-basis-for-human-liberation-review/ |
Sociocultural evolution, sociocultural evolutionism or social evolution are theories of sociobiology and cultural evolution that describe how societies and culture transfer over fourth dimension. Whereas sociocultural development traces processes that tend to increase the complexity of a company or culture, sociocultural development besides considers process that can lead to decreases in complexity ( degeneration ) or that can produce version or proliferation without any apparently significant changes in complexity ( cladogenesis ). [ 1 ] Sociocultural evolution is “ the serve by which structural reorganization is affected through clock time, finally producing a form or structure which is qualitatively different from the ancestral form ”. [ 2 ] Most of the 19th-century and some 20th-century approaches to socioculture aimed to provide models for the development of world as a whole, arguing that different societies have reached different stages of social development. The most comprehensive attempt to develop a general theory of social evolution centering on the development of sociocultural systems, the work of Talcott Parsons ( 1902–1979 ), operated on a scale which included a theory of worldly concern history. Another attack, on a less taxonomic scale, originated from the 1970s with the world-systems approach of Immanuel Wallerstein ( 1930-2019 ) and his followers.
Reading: Sociocultural evolution – Wikipedia
More late approaches focus on changes specific to individual societies and reject the estimate that cultures differ chiefly according to how army for the liberation of rwanda each one has moved along some presume linear scale of social progress. Most [ quantify ] modern archaeologists and cultural anthropologists work within the frameworks of neoevolutionism, sociobiology, and modernization theory .
introduction [edit ]
Anthropologists and sociologists often assume that human beings have natural sociable tendencies and that particular human social behaviours have non- genic causes and dynamics ( i.e. people learn them in a social environment and through social interaction ). Societies exist in building complex social environments ( i.e. with natural resources and constraints ) and adapt themselves to these environments. It is frankincense inevitable that all societies change. specific theories of social or cultural evolution frequently attempt to explain differences between coetaneous societies by positing that different societies have reached different stages of development. Although such theories typically provide models for understanding the kinship between technologies, social structure or the values of a club, they vary as to the extent to which they describe specific mechanisms of variation and variety. While the history of evolutionary thinking with respect to humans can be traced back at least to Aristotle and other greek philosophers, early on sociocultural development theories – the ideas of Auguste Comte ( 1798–1857 ), Herbert Spencer ( 1820–1903 ) and Lewis Henry Morgan ( 1818–1881 ) – developed simultaneously with, but independently of, Charles Darwin ‘s works and were popular from the belated nineteenth hundred to the end of World War I. These 19th-century unilineal evolution theories claimed that societies start out in a primitive express and gradually become more civilized over fourth dimension ; they equated the culture and technology of western culture with advancement. Some forms of early sociocultural evolution theories ( chiefly unilineal ones ) have led to much-criticised theories like sociable Darwinism and scientific racism, sometimes used in the past by european imperial powers to justify existing policies of colonialism and slavery and to justify raw policies such as eugenics. [ 3 ] Most 19th-century and some 20th-century approaches aimed to provide models for the development of world as a single entity. however, most 20th-century approaches, such as multilineal evolution, focused on changes specific to individual societies. furthermore, they rejected directional change ( i.e. orthogenetic, teleological or progressive change ). Most archeologist cultivate within the framework of multilineal evolution. other contemporary approaches to social change include neoevolutionism, sociobiology, dual inheritance theory, modernization theory and postindustrial hypothesis. In his seminal 1976 book The Selfish Gene, Richard Dawkins wrote that “ there are some examples of cultural development in birds and monkeys, but … it is our own species that actually shows what cultural evolution can do ”. [ 4 ]
Stadial theory [edit ]
nirvana and subsequently thinkers much speculated that societies progressed through stages : in other words, they saw history as stadial. While expecting world to show increasing growth, theorists looked for what determined the course of homo history. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel ( 1770–1831 ), for exercise, saw social development as an inevitable march. [ citation needed ] It was assumed that societies start out primitive, possibly in a department of state of nature, and could progress toward something resembling industrial Europe. While earlier authors such as Michel de Montaigne ( 1533–1592 ) had discussed how societies change through time, the scots enlightenment of the eighteenth century proved key in the growth of the theme of sociocultural development. [ citation needed ] In relative to Scotland ‘s coupling with England in 1707, several scots thinkers pondered the relationship between advance and the affluence brought approximately by increased barter with England. They understood the changes Scotland was undergoing as involving transition from an agricultural to a mercantile club. In “ conjectural histories ”, authors such as Adam Ferguson ( 1723–1816 ), John Millar ( 1735–1801 ) and Adam Smith ( 1723–1790 ) argued that societies all pass through a series of four stages : hound and gather, pastoralism and nomadism, farming, and last a degree of commerce .
philosophic concepts of advance, such as that of Hegel, developed arsenic well during this period. In France, authors such as Claude Adrien Helvétius ( 1715–1771 ) and other philosophes were influenced by the scots custom. Later thinkers such as Comte de Saint-Simon ( 1760–1825 ) developed these ideas. [ citation needed ] Auguste Comte ( 1798–1857 ) in particular presented a coherent opinion of sociable progress and a new discipline to study it : sociology. These developments took place in a context of wide processes. The beginning summons was colonialism. Although imperial powers settled most differences of opinion with their colonial subjects through force, increased awareness of non-Western peoples raised newly questions for european scholars about the nature of club and of polish. similarly, effective colonial government required some academic degree of understanding of other cultures. Emerging theories of sociocultural evolution allowed Europeans to organise their new cognition in a way that reflected and justified their increase political and economic domination of others : such systems saw colonize people as less evolve, and colonising people as more evolve. modern refinement ( silent as the Western refinement ), appeared the result of brace build up from a submit of brutality, and such a notion was common to many thinkers of the Enlightenment, including Voltaire ( 1694–1778 ). The second process was the Industrial Revolution and the arise of capitalism, which together allowed and promoted continual revolutions in the means of product. Emerging theories of sociocultural development reflected a impression that the changes in Europe bring by the Industrial Revolution and capitalism were improvements. Industrialisation, combined with the acute political change brought about by the french Revolution of 1789 and the U.S. Constitution, which paved the way for the dominance of democracy, forced european thinkers to reconsider some of their assumptions about how society was organised. finally, in the nineteenth hundred three major classical theories of social and historical change emerged :
- sociocultural evolutionism
- the social cycle theory
- the Marxist theory of historical materialism.
These theories had a common divisor : they all agreed that the history of humanness is pursuing a sealed fix path, most likely that of social progress. therefore, each past event is not only chronologically, but causally tied to present and future events. The theories postulated that by recreating the sequence of those events, sociology could discover the “ laws ” of history. [ 5 ]
sociocultural theory of evolution and the idea of progress [edit ]
While sociocultural evolutionists agree that an evolution-like serve leads to social build up, classical social evolutionists have developed many different theories, known as theories of unilineal development. sociocultural theory of evolution became the prevailing theory of early sociocultural anthropology and social comment, and is associated with scholars like Auguste Comte, Edward Burnett Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, Benjamin Kidd, L. T. Hobhouse and Herbert Spencer. such stage models and ideas of linear models of advance had a bang-up influence not lone on future evolutionary approaches in the social sciences and humanities, [ 6 ] but besides shaped public, scholarly, and scientific discussion surrounding the rising individuality and population think. [ 7 ] Sociocultural theory of evolution attempted to formalise social think along scientific lines, with the add influence from the biological theory of development. If organisms could develop over time according to discernible, deterministic laws, then it seemed fair that societies could a well. Human club was compared to a biological organism, and sociable science equivalents of concepts like pas seul, natural selection, and inheritance were introduced as factors resulting in the advancement of societies. The estimate of progress led to that of a pay back “ stages ” through which human societies build up, normally numbering three – brutality, brutality, and refinement – but sometimes many more. At that time, anthropology was rising as a modern scientific discipline, separating from the traditional views of “ primitive ” cultures that was normally based on religious views. [ 8 ] already in the eighteenth century, some authors began to theorize on the development of humans. Montesquieu ( 1689–1755 ) wrote about the relationship laws have with climate in particular and the environment in general, specifically how unlike climatic conditions cause sealed characteristics to be coarse among different people. [ 9 ] He likens the development of laws, the presence or absence of civil shore leave, differences in ethical motive, and the whole development of different cultures to the climate of the respective people, [ 10 ] concluding that the environment determines whether and how a people farms the land, which determines the room their society is built and their culture is constituted, or, in Montesquieu ‘s words, the “ general emotional state of a nation ”. [ 11 ] Over clock, as societies evolved from simple to complex, however, humans came to be governed less and less by the environment ( at least those in temperate climates ) and its influence was replaced by moral and legal forces. [ 12 ] besides Jean-Jacques Rousseau ( 1712–1778 ) presents a conjectural stage-model of human sociocultural development : [ 13 ] beginning, humans lived solitarily and only grouped when copulate or raising children. belated, men and women lived together and shared childcare, therefore building families, followed by tribes as the result of inter-family interactions, which lived in “ the felicitous and the most persistent epoch ” of human history, before the corruptness of civil company degenerated the species again in a developmental stage-process. [ 14 ] In the late eighteenth hundred, the Marquis de Condorcet ( 1743–1794 ) listed ten stages, or “ era ”, each advancing the rights of serviceman and perfecting the homo race. Erasmus Darwin ( 1731-1802 ), Charles Darwin ‘s grandfather, was an enormously influential natural philosopher, physiologist and poet whose unusually insightful ideas included a statement of transformism and the interconnection of all forms of liveliness. His study, which are enormously varied, besides advance a theory of cultural transformation : his celebrated The Temple of Nature is subtitled ‘ the Origin of Society ’. [ 15 ] This work, preferably than proposing in detail a stern transformation of humanness between different stages, rather dwells on Erasmus Darwin ‘s evolutionary mechanism : Erasmus Darwin does not explain each stage one-by-one, trusting his theory of universal organic development, as articulated in the Zoonomia, to illustrate cultural development vitamin a well. [ 16 ] Erasmus Darwin therefore flits with abandon through his chronology : Priestman notes that it jumps from the emergence of biography onto land, the development of opposable thumbs, and the beginning of sexual reproduction directly to modern diachronic events. [ 15 ] Another more complex theorist was Richard Payne Knight ( 1751-1824 ), an influential amateur archeologist and universal theologian. Knight ‘s The Progress of Civil Society: A Didactic Poem in Six Books ( 1796 ) fits precisely into the tradition of exultant historic stages, beginning with Lucretius and reaching Adam Smith––but just for the first four books. [ 17 ] In his final books, Knight then grapples with the french revolution and affluent degeneracy. Confronted with these twin issues, Knight ‘s theory ascribes advance to battle : ‘ partial derivative discord lends its care, to tie the building complex knots of general harmony ’. [ 17 ] Competition in Knight ‘s mechanism spurs development from any one stagecoach to the adjacent : the dialectic of class, land and gender creates growth. [ 18 ] Thus, Knight conceptualised a theory of history founded in inevitable racial conflict, with Greece representing ‘ freedom ’ and Egypt ‘ cold dormant daze ’. [ 19 ] Buffon, Linnaeus, Camper and Monboddo variously forward divers arguments about racial hierarchy, grounded in early theories of species change––though many thinking that environmental changes could create dramatic changes in form without permanently altering the species or causing species transformation. however, their arguments silent bear on race : Rousseau, Buffon and Monboddo cite orangutans as evidence of an earlier prelinguistic homo type, and Monboddo even insisted Orangutans and certain African and South asian races were identical. other than Erasmus Darwin, the other pre-eminent scientific textbook with a hypothesis of cultural transformation was advanced by Robert Chambers ( 1802-1871 ). Chambers was a scots evolutionary thinker and philosopher who, though he was then and now perceived as scientifically inadequate and criticized by big contemporaries, is important because he was thus wide read. There are records of everyone from Queen Victoria to person dockworkers enjoying his Robert Chambers ’ Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation ( 1844 ), including future generations of scientists. That The Vestiges did not establish itself as the scientific write out edge is precisely the point, since the Vestiges ’ s influence means it was both the concept of development the victorian public was most likely to experience, and the scientific presupposition laid earliest in the minds of bright young scholars. [ 20 ] Chambers propounded a ‘principle of growth ‘ whereby everything evolved by the lapp mechanism and towards higher order structure or intend. In his theory, liveliness advanced through different ‘ classes ’, and within each class animals began at the lowest form and then advanced to more complex forms in the same class. [ 21 ] In short, the progress of animals was like the development of a fetus. More than just an indistinct analogy, this parallel between embryology and species development had the status of a genuine causal mechanism in Chambers ’ theory : more progress species developed longer as embryo into all their complexity. [ 22 ] Motivated by this comparison, Chambers ascribed development to the ‘ laws of universe ’, though he besides supposed that the unharmed development of species was in some manner preordained : it was merely that the predestination of the creator acted through establishing those laws. [ 22 ] This, as discussed above, is exchangeable to Spencer ‘s later concept of development. Thus Chambers believed in a advanced theory of progress driven by a developmental analogy .
In the mid-19th hundred, a “ revolution in ideas about the antiquity of the human species ” took place “ which paralleled, but was to some extent independent of, the darwinian revolution in biology. ” [ 23 ] Especially in geology, archeology, and anthropology, scholars began to compare “ primitive ” cultures to past societies and “ saw their degree of engineering as analogue with that of Stone Age cultures, and frankincense used these peoples as models for the early stages of human evolution. ” A developmental model of the evolution of the mind, culture, and society was the resultant role, paralleling the development of the homo species : [ 24 ] “ Modern savages [ sic ] became, in effect, living fossils left behind by the march of advancement, relics of the Paleolithic even lingering on into the present. ” [ 25 ] Classical social theory of evolution is most closely associated with the 19th-century writings of Auguste Comte and of Herbert Spencer ( coiner of the idiom “ survival of the fittest “ ). [ 26 ] In many ways, Spencer ‘s hypothesis of “ cosmic evolution “ has much more in common with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and Auguste Comte than with contemporary works of Charles Darwin. Spencer besides developed and published his theories several years earlier than Darwin. In respect to social institutions, however, there is a well case that Spencer ‘s writings might be classified as social theory of evolution. Although he wrote that societies over prison term progressed – and that progress was accomplished through contest – he stressed that the individual rather than the collectivity is the unit of analysis that evolves ; that, in other words, development takes place through natural choice and that it affects social american samoa well as biological phenomenon. however, the publication of Darwin ‘s works [ which? ] proved a boon to the proponents of sociocultural development, who saw the ideas of biological development as an attractive explanation for many questions about the development of society. [ 27 ] Both Spencer and Comte view club as a kind of organism subject to the process of growth—from simplicity to complexity, from chaos to order, from abstraction to specialization, from tractability to arrangement. They agree that the work of social increase can be divided into certain stages, have [ clarification needed ] their begin and eventual end, and that this emergence is in fact social progress : each newer, more-evolved club is “ better ”. frankincense progressivism became one of the basic ideas underlying the theory of sociocultural theory of evolution. [ 26 ] however, Spencer ‘s theories were more building complex than merely a tomboy up the great chain of being. Spencer based his arguments on an analogy between the development of societies and the growth of an animal. accordingly, he searched for “ general principles of development and social organization ” or “ fundamental principles of constitution ”, preferably than being content merely ascribing advance between social stages to the direct intervention of some beneficent deity. [ 28 ] furthermore, he accepted that these conditions are “ far less specific, far more modifiable, far more dependent on conditions that are variable ” : in short, that they are a messy biological procedure. [ 29 ] Though Spencer ‘s theories transcended the label of ‘ stagism ’ and appreciate biological complexity, they still accepted a strongly fixed guidance and morality to natural development. [ 30 ] For Spencer, interference with the natural summons of development was dangerous and had to be avoided at all costs. such views were naturally coupled to the pressing political and economic questions of the time. Spencer intelligibly thought company ‘s evolution brought about a racial hierarchy with Caucasians at the peak and Africans at the bottom. [ 30 ] This impression is profoundly linked to the colonial projects european powers were pursuing at the time, and the mind of european transcendence used paternalistically to justify those projects. The influential german zoologist Ernst Haeckel even wrote that ‘ natural men are closer to the higher vertebrates than highly civilized Europeans ’, including not good a racial hierarchy but a civilizational one. [ 31 ] Likewise, Spencer ‘s evolutionary controversy advanced a theory of statehood : “ until ad lib fulfilled a populace want should not be fulfilled at all ” sums up Spencer ‘s impression about limit government and the free operation of marketplace forces. [ 32 ] This is not to suggest that stagism was useless or entirely motivated by colonialism and racism. Stagist theories were first gear proposed in context where competing epistemologies were largely static views of the earth. Hence “ advancement ” had in some sense to be invented, conceptually : the idea that homo club would move through stages was a exultant invention. furthermore, stages were not always static entities. In Buffon ‘s theories, for example, it was possible to regress between stages, and physiological changes were species ‘ reversibly adapting to their environment preferably than irreversibly transforming. [ 33 ] In addition to progressivism, economic analyses influenced classical social theory of evolution. Adam Smith ( 1723–1790 ), who held a profoundly evolutionary view of human society, [ 34 ] identified the growth of freedom as the driving violence in a process of stadial social development. [ 35 ] According to him, all societies pass successively through four stages : the earliest humans lived as hunter-gatherers, followed by pastoralists and nomads, after which society evolved to agriculturalists and ultimately reached the phase of commerce. [ 36 ] With the strong emphasis on specialization and the increased profits stemming from a division of labor, Smith ‘s think besides exerted some steer influence on Darwin himself. [ 37 ] Both in Darwin ‘s theory of the evolution of species and in Smith ‘s accounts of political economy, rival between egotistically functioning units plays an important and even dominating rôle. [ 38 ] similarly occupied with economic concerns as Smith, Thomas R. Malthus ( 1766–1834 ) warned that given the intensity of the sex drive built-in in all animals, Malthus argued, populations tend to grow geometrically, and population growth is only checked by the limitations of economic growth, which, if there would be growth at all, would cursorily be outstripped by population increase, causing starve, poverty, and misery. [ 39 ] Far from being the consequences of economic structures or social orders, this “ struggle for being ” is an inevitable natural jurisprudence, so Malthus. [ 40 ] Auguste Comte, known as “ the father of sociology ”, formulated the police of three stages : human development progresses from the theological stage, in which nature was mythically conceived and man sought the explanation of natural phenomena from supernatural beings ; through a metaphysical stage in which nature was conceived of as a result of apart forces and homo sought the explanation of natural phenomena from them ; until the final convinced stage in which all pilfer and obscure forces are discarded, and natural phenomena are explained by their constant kinship. [ 41 ] This progress is forced through the development of human judgment, and through increasing application of think, reasoning and logic to the understand of the world. [ 42 ] Comte saw the science-valuing society as the highest, most train type of homo organization. [ 41 ] Herbert Spencer, who argued against government intervention as he believed that society should evolve toward more individual freedom, [ 43 ] followed Lamarck in his evolutionary think, [ 44 ] in that he believed that humans do over time adapt to their surroundings. [ 45 ] He differentiated between two phases of development as regards societies ‘ inner regulation : [ 41 ] the “ military ” and “ industrial ” societies. [ 41 ] The earlier ( and more archaic ) military society has the goal of conquest and defense, is centralised, economically self-sufficient, collectivist, puts the effective of a group over the good of an individual, uses compulsion, force and repression, and rewards loyalty, obedience and discipline. [ 41 ] The industrial company, in contrast, has a finish of production and barter, is decentralised, interconnected with other societies via economic relations, works through voluntary cooperation and individual self-restraint, treats the good of person as of the highest value, regulates the social life via volunteer relations ; and values initiative, independence and initiation. [ 41 ] [ 46 ] The passage action from the military to industrial society is the result of sweetheart evolutionary processes within the company. [ 41 ] Spencer “ imagined a kind of feedback loop between mental and social evolution : the higher the mental powers the greater the complexity of the company that the individuals could create ; the more complex the company, the greater the stimulation it provided for far mental development. Everything cohered to make advance inevitable or to weed out those who did not keep up. ” [ 47 ] careless of how scholars of Spencer interpret his relation to Darwin, Spencer became an incredibly popular figure in the 1870s, particularly in the United States. Authors such as Edward L. Youmans, William Graham Sumner, John Fiske, John W. Burgess, Lester Frank Ward, Lewis H. Morgan ( 1818–1881 ) and other thinkers of the gild long time all developed theories of social theory of evolution as a consequence of their exposure to Spencer adenine well as to Darwin .
In his 1877 classical Ancient Societies, Lewis H. Morgan, an anthropologist whose ideas have had a lot impact on sociology, differentiated between three eras : [ 48 ] ferociousness, brutality and refinement, which are divided by technical inventions, like ardor, crouch, pottery in the feral era, tameness of animals, agriculture, metalworking in the savage earned run average and alphabet and spell in the civilization era. [ 49 ] Thus Morgan drew a link between sociable advancement and technological advancement. Morgan viewed technological build up as a effect behind social advance, and held that any social change —in social institutions, organizations or ideologies—has its beginnings in technical change. [ 49 ] [ 50 ] Morgan ‘s theories were popularized by Friedrich Engels, who based his celebrated work The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State on them. [ 49 ] For Engels and other Marxists this hypothesis was authoritative, as it supported their conviction that materialistic factors—economic and technological—are critical in shaping the destiny of humanness. [ 49 ] Edward Burnett Tylor ( 1832–1917 ), a pioneer of anthropology, focused on the evolution of culture cosmopolitan, noting that culture is an important part of every society and that it is besides subject to a work of development. He believed that societies were at unlike stages of cultural development and that the function of anthropology was to reconstruct the evolution of polish, from crude beginnings to the modern state .
Anthropologists Sir E.B. Tylor in England and Lewis Henry Morgan in the United States worked with data from autochthonal people, who ( they claimed ) represented earlier stages of cultural evolution that gave insight into the process and progress of development of culture. Morgan would late [ when? ] have a significant charm on Karl Marx and on Friedrich Engels, who developed a theory of sociocultural development in which the inner contradictions in company generated a series of escalating stages that ended in a socialist company ( see Marxism ). Tylor and Morgan elaborated the theory of unilinear evolution, specifying criteria for categorising cultures according to their standing within a fixate system of growth of world as a wholly and examining the modes and mechanisms of this growth. Theirs was often a business with culture in cosmopolitan, not with individual cultures. Their analysis of cross-cultural data was based on three assumptions :
- contemporary societies may be classified and ranked as more “primitive” or more “civilized”
- there are a determinate number of stages between “primitive” and “civilized” (e.g. band, tribe, chiefdom, and state)
- all societies progress through these stages in the same sequence, but at different rates
Theorists normally measured progress ( that is, the difference between one stagecoach and the future ) in terms of increasing social complexity ( including class specialization and a building complex division of labor ), or an increase in intellectual, theological, and aesthetic sophistication. These 19th-century ethnologists used these principles primarily to explain differences in religious beliefs and kinship terminologies among respective societies .
Lester Frank Ward Lester Frank Ward ( 1841–1913 ), sometimes referred to [ by whom? ] as the “ beget ” of American sociology, rejected many of Spencer ‘s theories regarding the development of societies. Ward, who was besides a botanist and a paleontologist, believed that the law of evolution functioned much differently in homo societies than it did in the plant and animal kingdoms, and theorized that the “ law of nature ” had been superseded by the “ law of the thinker ”. [ 51 ] He stressed that humans, driven by emotions, create goals for themselves and endeavor to realize them ( most effectively with the advanced scientific method ) whereas there is no such intelligence and awareness guiding the non-human populace. [ 52 ] Plants and animals adapt to nature ; man shapes nature. While Spencer believed that competition and “ survival of the fittest ” benefited human society and sociocultural evolution, Ward regarded rival as a destructive violence, pointing out that all human institutions, traditions and laws were tools invented by the mind of man and that that mind designed them, like all tools, to “ meet and checkmate ” the delirious competition of natural forces. [ 51 ] Ward agreed with Spencer that authoritarian governments repress the talents of the individual, but he believed that modern democratic societies, which minimized the function of religion and maximized that of science, could efficaciously support the individual in his or her undertake to fully utilize their talents and achieve happiness. He believed that the evolutionary processes have four stages :
- First comes cosmogenesis, creation and evolution of the world.
- Then, when life arises, there is biogenesis.
- Development of humanity leads to anthropogenesis, which is influenced by the human mind.
- Finally there arrives sociogenesis, which is the science of shaping the evolutionary process itself to optimize progress, human happiness and individual self-actualization.
While Ward regarded mod societies as superior to “ primitive ” societies ( one want only look to the affect of aesculapian science on health and life [ citation needed ] ) he rejected theories of white domination ; he supported the Out-of-Africa theory of human development and believed that all races and social classes were equal in talent. [ 53 ] however, Ward did not think that evolutionary advancement was inevitable and he feared the degeneration of societies and cultures, which he saw as very apparent in the historical record. [ 54 ] Ward besides did not favor the revolutionary reshape of society as proposed by the supporters of the eugenics movement or by the followers of Karl Marx ; like Comte, Ward believed that sociology was the most complex of the sciences and that true sociogenesis was impossible without considerable research and experiment. [ 53 ]
Émile Durkheim, another of the “ fathers ” of sociology, developed a dichotomal horizon of social advance. [ 55 ] His key concept was sociable solidarity, as he defined social development in terms of progressing from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity. [ 55 ] In mechanical solidarity, people are self-sufficient, there is little integration and therefore there is the need for the use of impel and repression to keep society in concert. [ 55 ] In organic solidarity, people are a lot more integrate and interdependent and specialization and cooperation are extensive. [ 55 ] Progress from mechanical to organic solidarity is based first on population growth and increasing population density, second on increasing “ morality density ” ( exploitation of more complex social interactions ) and third on increasing specialization in the workplace. [ 55 ] To Durkheim, the most authoritative gene in social progress is the division of labor. [ 55 ] This [ clarification needed ] was late used in the mid-1900s by the economist Ester Boserup ( 1910–1999 ) to attempt to discount some aspects of malthusian theory. Ferdinand Tönnies ( 1855–1936 ) describes development as the development from informal club, where people have many liberties and there are few laws and obligations, to modern, formal rational company, dominated by traditions and laws, where people are restricted from acting as they wish. [ 56 ] He besides notes that there is a tendency to calibration and union, when all smaller societies are absorbed into a one, big, modern society. [ 56 ] Thus Tönnies can be said to describe part of the process known nowadays as globalization. Tönnies was besides one of the first sociologists to claim that the development of company is not necessarily going in the right direction, that social advancement is not perfect, and it can evening be called a regression as the newer, more develop societies are obtained lone after paying a high cost, resulting in decreasing satisfaction of the individuals making up that society. [ 56 ] Tönnies ‘ sour became the foundation of neoevolutionism. [ 56 ] Although Max Weber is not normally counted [ by whom? ] as a sociocultural evolutionist, his hypothesis of tripartite classification of agency can be viewed [ by whom? ] as an evolutionary theory american samoa well. Weber distinguishes three ideal types of political leadership, domination and authority :
Weber besides notes that legal domination is the most advance, and that societies evolve from having by and large traditional and charismatic authorities to largely rational and legal ones .
Critique and shock on modern theories [edit ]
The early 20th-century inaugurated a period of taxonomic critical examination, and rejection of the sweep generalisations of the unilineal theories of sociocultural development. cultural anthropologists such as Franz Boas ( 1858–1942 ), along with his students, including Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead, are regarded [ by whom? ] as the leaders of anthropology ‘s rejection of classical music social theory of evolution. however, the school of Boas ignore some of the complexity in evolutionary theories that emerged outside Herbert Spencer ‘s influence. Darwin ‘s On the Origin of Species gave a mechanistic account of the origins and development of animals, quite apart from Spencer ‘s theories that emphasized the inevitable human development through stages. consequently, many scholars developed more sophisticate understandings of how cultures evolve, relying on abstruse cultural analogies, than the theories in Herbert Spencer ‘s custom. [ 57 ] Walter Bagehot ( 1872 ) applied selection and inheritance to the development of human political institutions. Samuel Alexander ( 1892 ) discusses the natural selection of moral principles in society. [ 58 ] William James ( 1880 ) considered the ‘ natural choice ’ of ideas in learn and scientific growth. In fact, he identified a ‘ noteworthy latitude [ … ] between the facts of social development on the one bridge player, and of zoological evolution as expounded by Mr Darwin on the other ’. [ 58 ] Charles Sanders Pierce ( 1898 ) even proposed that the current laws of nature we have exist because they have evolved over clock. [ 58 ] Darwin himself, in Chapter 5 of the Descent of Man, proposed that human moral sentiments were subject to group choice : ” A tribe including many members who, from possessing in a high degree the heart of patriotism, fidelity, obedience, courage, and sympathy, were constantly ready to aid one another, and to sacrifice themselves for the common well, would be victorious over most other tribes ; and this would be natural selection. ” [ 59 ] Through the mechanism of imitation, cultures vitamin a well as individuals could be subject to natural choice.
While these theories involved development applied to social questions, except for Darwin ‘s group selection the theories reviewed above did not advance a precise sympathize of how Darwin ‘s mechanism extended and applied to cultures beyond a undefined solicitation to contest. [ 60 ] Ritchie ‘s Darwinism and Politics ( 1889 ) breaks this swerve, holding that “ speech and social institutions make it possible to transmit experience quite independently of the continuity of race. ” [ 61 ] Hence Ritchie saw cultural development as a process that could operate independently of and on different scales to the development of species, and gave it precise underpinnings : he was ‘ extending its image ’, in his own words, to ideas, cultures and institutions. [ 62 ] Thorstein Veblen, around the lapp time, came to a similar insight : that humans evolve to their sociable environment, but their social environment in turn besides evolves. [ 63 ] Veblen ‘s mechanism for human progress was the development of human intentionality : Veblen labelled men ‘ a creature of habit ’ and thought that habits were ‘ mentally digested ’ from those who influenced him. [ 57 ] In shortstop, as Hodgson and Knudsen point out, Veblen thinks : ” the change institutions in their turn make for a far survival of individuals endowed with the fittest temperament, and a further adaptation of individual temperament and habits to the switch environment through the geological formation of newfangled institutions. ” frankincense, Veblen represented an propagation of Ritchie ‘s theories, where evolution operates at multiple levels, to a sophisticate taste of how each horizontal surface interacts with the other. [ 64 ] This complexity however, Boas and Benedict used sophisticated ethnography and more rigorous empiric methods to argue that Spencer, Tylor, and Morgan ‘s theories were inquisitive and systematically misrepresented ethnographic data. Theories regarding “ stages ” of development were specially criticised as illusions. additionally, they rejected the distinction between “ crude ” and “ civilized ” ( or “ modern ” ), pointing out that alleged primitive contemporaneous societies have fair vitamin a much history, and were barely ampere evolve, as alleged civilize societies. They therefore argued that any undertake to use this theory to reconstruct the histories of non-literate ( i.e. leaving no historical documents ) peoples is wholly inquisitive and unscientific. They observed that the contend progress, which typically ended with a stage of civilization identical to that of modern Europe, is ethnocentric. They besides pointed out that the theory assumes that societies are intelligibly bounded and discrete, when in fact cultural traits and forms frequently cross social boundaries and diffuse among many different societies ( and are therefore an important mechanism of change ). Boas in his culture-history approach focused on anthropological fieldwork in an attack to identify actual processes alternatively of what he criticized as notional stages of growth. His approach greatly determine american anthropology in the first half of the twentieth century, and marked a retreat from high-level abstraction and from “ systems build ”. late critics observed that the assumption of securely bounded societies was proposed precisely at the time when european powers were colonising non-Western societies, and was frankincense self-serving. many anthropologists and social theorists now consider unilineal cultural and social development a westerly myth rarely based on solid empiric grounds. critical theorists argue that notions of social evolution are plainly justifications for world power by the élites of society. ultimately, the annihilative World Wars that occurred between 1914 and 1945 crippled Europe ‘s assurance. After millions of deaths, genocide, and the destruction of Europe ‘s industrial infrastructure, the estimate of advance seemed dubious at best. therefore modern sociocultural theory of evolution rejects most of authoritative social theory of evolution due to diverse theoretical problems :
- The theory was deeply ethnocentric—it makes heavy value judgments about different societies, with Western civilization seen as the most valuable.
- It assumed all cultures follow the same path or progression and have the same goals.
- It equated civilization with material culture (technology, cities, etc.)
Because social development was posited as a scientific theory, it was much used to support unjust and frequently racist social practices – peculiarly colonialism, slavery, and the unequal economic conditions present within industrialized Europe. Social Darwinism is particularly knock, as it purportedly led to some philosophies used by the Nazis .
Max Weber, disenchantment, and critical hypothesis [edit ]
Max Weber in 1917 Weber ‘s major works in economic sociology and the sociology of religion deal with the rationalization, secularization, and so called “ disenchantment “ which he associated with the rise of capitalism and modernity. [ 65 ] In sociology, rationalization is the process whereby an increasing number of social actions become based on considerations of teleological efficiency or calculation preferably than on motivations derived from morality, emotion, custom, or tradition. Rather than referring to what is authentically “ intellectual ” or “ coherent ”, rationalization refers to a grim quest for goals that might actually function to the detriment of a club. Rationalization is an ambivalent aspect of modernity, manifested particularly in western society – as a behavior of the capitalist market, of intellectual administration in the express and bureaucracy, of the extension of mod skill, and of the expansion of advanced technology. [ citation needed ] Weber ‘s think regarding the rationalize and secularizing tendencies of modern western company ( sometimes described as the “ Weber Thesis “ ) would blend with Marxism to facilitate critical theory, particularly in the influence of thinkers such as Jürgen Habermas ( hold 1929 ). critical theorists, as antipositivists, are critical of the idea of a hierarchy of sciences or societies, peculiarly with obedience to the sociological positivity in the first place set forth by Comte. Jürgen Habermas has critiqued the concept of arrant instrumental rationality as mean that scientific-thinking becomes something akin to ideology itself. For theorists such as Zygmunt Bauman ( 1925–2017 ), rationalization as a manifestation of modernity may be most closely and unfortunately associated with the events of the Holocaust .
modern theories [edit ]
complex effigy of the earth at nox in 2012, created by NASA and NOAA. The brightest areas of the Earth are the most urbanize, but not necessarily the most populated. even more than 100 years after the invention of the electric light, most regions remain thinly populated or unlighted. When the review of classical social theory of evolution became widely accepted, modern anthropological and sociological approaches changed respectively. modern theories are careful to avoid unsourced, ethnocentric speculation, comparisons, or measure judgments ; more or less regarding individual societies as existing within their own diachronic context. These conditions provided the context for newfangled theories such as cultural relativism and multilineal development. In the 1920s and 1930s, Gordon Childe revolutionized the study of cultural theory of evolution. He conducted a comprehensive pre-history score that provided scholars with evidence for African and asian cultural transmission into Europe. He combated scientific racism by finding the tools and artifacts of the autochthonal people from Africa and Asia and showed how they influenced the engineering of european acculturation. testify from his excavations countered the idea of Aryan domination and transcendence. Adopting “ Kosinna ‘s basic concept of the archaeological culture and his identification of such cultures as the remains of prehistoric peoples ” and combining it with the detail chronologies of european prehistory developed by Gustaf Oscar Montelius, Childe argued that each society needed to be delineated individually on the basis of constituent artefacts which were indicative of their practical and social affair. [ 66 ] Childe explained cultural development by his theory of discrepancy with modifications of overlap. He postulated that different cultures form separate methods that meet different needs, but when two cultures were in contact they developed like adaptations, solving exchangeable problems. Rejecting Spencer ‘s hypothesis of twin cultural evolution, Childe found that interactions between cultures contributed to the convergence of alike aspects most often attributed to one acculturation. Childe placed emphasis on homo culture as a social construct preferably than products of environmental or technological context. Childe coined the terms “ Neolithic Revolution “, and “ Urban Revolution “ which are hush used today in the outgrowth of pre-historic anthropology. In 1941 anthropologist Robert Redfield wrote about a chemise from ‘folk society ‘ to ‘urban club ‘. By the 1940s cultural anthropologists such as Leslie White and Julian Steward sought to revive an evolutionary model on a more scientific basis, and succeeded in establishing an approach known as neoevolutionism. White rejected the enemy between “ primitive ” and “ modern ” societies but did argue that societies could be distinguished based on the sum of energy they harnessed, and that increased energy allowed for greater sociable differentiation ( White ‘s law ). Steward on the other hand rejected the 19th-century notion of progress, and alternatively called attention to the darwinian impression of “ adaptation ”, arguing that all societies had to adapt to their environment in some way. The anthropologists Marshall Sahlins and Elman Service prepared an edit book, Evolution and Culture, in which they attempted to synthesise White ‘s and Steward ‘s approaches. [ 67 ] early anthropologists, building on or responding to work by White and Steward, developed theories of cultural ecology and ecological anthropology. The most outstanding examples are Peter Vayda and Roy Rappaport. By the late 1950s, students of Steward such as Eric Wolf and Sidney Mintz turned away from cultural ecology to Marxism, World Systems Theory, Dependency theory and Marvin Harris ‘s cultural materialism. nowadays most anthropologists reject 19th-century notions of advance and the three assumptions of unilineal development. Following Steward, they take badly the relationship between a polish and its environment to explain different aspects of a polish. But most modern cultural anthropologists have adopted a general systems border on, examining cultures as emergent systems and arguing that one must consider the unharmed social environment, which includes political and economic relations among cultures. As a resultant role of simplistic notions of “ progressive development ”, more modern, complex cultural evolution theories ( such as double Inheritance Theory, discussed below ) receive little attention in the sociable sciences, having given way in some cases to a series of more humanist approaches. Some reject the entirety of evolutionary think and expression alternatively at diachronic contingencies, contacts with early cultures, and the operation of cultural symbol systems. In the area of exploitation studies, authors such as Amartya Sen have developed an sympathy of ‘development ‘ and ‘human flourishing ‘ that besides question more simplistic notions of progress, while retaining much of their original inspiration .
Neoevolutionism [edit ]
Neoevolutionism was the first in a series of mod multilineal evolution theories. It emerged in the 1930s and extensively developed in the period following the second World War and was incorporated into both anthropology and sociology in the 1960s. It bases its theories on empiric attest from areas of archeology, paleontology, and historiography and tries to eliminate any references to systems of values, be it moral or cultural, alternatively trying to remain objective and just descriptive. [ 68 ] While 19th-century theory of evolution explained how culture develops by giving general principles of its evolutionary serve, it was dismissed by the historic Particularists as unscientific in the early twentieth hundred. It was the neo-evolutionary thinkers who brought back evolutionary thinking and developed it to be acceptable to contemporary anthropology. Neo-evolutionism discards many ideas of classical music social theory of evolution, namely that of social advance, so dominant allele in previous sociology evolution-related theories. [ 68 ] then neo-evolutionism discards the determinism argument and introduces probability, arguing that accidents and free will greatly affect the action of social development. [ 68 ] It besides supports counterfactual history —asking “ what if ” and considering different potential paths that sociable evolution may take or might have taken, and frankincense allows for the fact that diverse cultures may develop in unlike ways, some skipping entire stages others have passed through. [ 68 ] Neo-evolutionism stresses the importance of empiric attest. While 19th-century theory of evolution used measure judgments and assumptions for interpreting data, neo-evolutionism relies on measurable information for analysing the work of sociocultural evolution. Leslie White, writer of The Evolution of Culture: The Development of Civilization to the Fall of Rome ( 1959 ), attempted to create a theory explaining the entire history of humanness. [ 68 ] The most important factor in his theory is engineering. [ 68 ] Social systems are determined by technological systems, wrote White in his ledger, [ 69 ] echoing the earlier theory of Lewis Henry Morgan. He proposes a company ‘s energy consumption as a standard of its progress. [ 68 ] He differentiates between five stages of homo development. [ 68 ] In the first, people use the energy of their own muscles. [ 68 ] In the second, they use the energy of domesticate animals. [ 68 ] In the third base, they use the department of energy of plants ( so White refers to agrarian revolution here ). [ 68 ] In the fourth, they learn to use the department of energy of natural resources : char, oil, gas. [ 68 ] In the one-fifth, they harness nuclear energy. [ 68 ] White introduced a rule, P=E·T, where vitamin e is a measure of energy consumed, and T is the measure of efficiency of technical foul factors utilising the energy. [ 68 ] This hypothesis is similar to russian astronomer Nikolai Kardashev ‘s late theory of the Kardashev scale. julian Steward, generator of Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of Multilinear Evolution ( 1955, reprinted 1979 ), created the theory of “ multilinear ” evolution which examined the direction in which societies adapted to their environment. This approach was more nuanced than White ‘s hypothesis of “ unilinear development. ” Steward rejected the 19th-century notion of progress, and rather called attention to the darwinian notion of “ adaptation ”, arguing that all societies had to adapt to their environment in some manner. He argued that different adaptations could be studied through the examination of the specific resources a company exploited, the engineering the society relied on to exploit these resources, and the organization of homo labor. He far argued that different environments and technologies would require different kinds of adaptations, and that as the resource base or technology changed, so excessively would a polish. In other words, cultures do not change according to some inner logic, but quite in terms of a changing relationship with a changing environment. Cultures therefore would not pass through the same stages in the like regulate as they changed—rather, they would change in varying ways and directions. He called his theory “ multilineal development ”. He questioned the hypothesis of creating a social theory encompassing the entire evolution of humanness ; however, he argued that anthropologists are not limited to describing specific existing cultures. He believed that it is potential to create theories analysing typical common culture, example of particular eras or regions. As the decisive factors determining the development of given acculturation he pointed to technology and economics, but noted that there are secondary factors, like political system, ideologies and religion. All those factors push the evolution of a given society in several directions at the same time ; hence the application of the term “ multilinear ” to his hypothesis of development. Marshall Sahlins, co-editor with Elman Service of Evolution and Culture ( 1960 ), divided the development of societies into ‘general ‘ and ‘specific ‘. [ 70 ] General evolution is the tendency of cultural and social systems to increase in complexity, organization and adaptiveness to environment. [ 70 ] however, as the respective cultures are not isolated, there is interaction and a dispersion of their qualities ( like technical inventions ). [ 70 ] This leads cultures to develop in different ways ( particular evolution ), as diverse elements are introduced to them in different combinations and at different stages of evolution. [ 70 ] In his Power and Prestige ( 1966 ) and Human Societies: An Introduction to Macrosociology ( 1974 ), Gerhard Lenski expands on the works of Leslie White and Lewis Henry Morgan, [ 70 ] developing the ecological-evolutionary theory. He views technological build up as the most basic divisor in the evolution of societies and cultures. [ 70 ] Unlike White, who defined technology as the ability to create and utilise energy, Lenski focuses on data —its sum and uses. [ 70 ] The more information and cognition ( particularly allowing the shaping of natural environment ) a given club has, the more advance it is. [ 70 ] He distinguishes four stages of human development, based on advances in the history of communication. [ 70 ] In the first degree, information is passed by genes. [ 70 ] In the second, when humans gain sense, they can learn and pass information through by experience. [ 70 ] In the third, humans start using signs and develop logic. [ 70 ] In the one-fourth, they can create symbols and develop lyric and write. [ 70 ] Advancements in the engineering of communication translate into advancements in the economic system and political system, distribution of goods, social inequality and other spheres of social life. He besides differentiates societies based on their level of engineering, communication and economy : ( 1 ) hunters and gatherers, ( 2 ) agrarian, ( 3 ) industrial, and ( 4 ) special ( like fishing societies ). [ 70 ] Talcott Parsons, generator of Societies: Evolutionary and Comparative Perspectives ( 1966 ) and The System of Modern Societies ( 1971 ) divided evolution into four subprocesses : ( 1 ) division, which creates running subsystems from the main system ; ( 2 ) adaptation, where those systems evolve into more efficient versions ; ( 3 ) inclusion of elements previously excluded from the given systems ; and ( 4 ) generalization of values, increasing the legitimization of the ever more complex system. [ 71 ] He shows those processes on 4 stages of evolution : ( I ) primitive or foraging, ( II ) archaic agrarian, ( III ) classical or “ historic ” in his terminology, using formalized and universalize theories about world and ( IV ) modern empiric cultures. however, these divisions in Parsons ‘ hypothesis are the more dinner dress ways in which the evolutionary process is conceptualized, and should not be mistaken for Parsons ‘ actual theory. Parsons develops a theory where he tries to reveal the complexity of the processes which take form between two points of necessity, the beginning being the cultural “ necessity, ” which is given through the values-system of each evolving community ; the early is the environmental necessities, which most directly is reflected in the material realities of the basic product system and in the relative capacitance of each industrial-economical level at each window of time. generally, Parsons highlights that the dynamics and directions of these processes is shaped by the cultural imperative mood embodied in the cultural inheritance, and more secondarily, an result of absolute “ economic ” conditions. Michel Foucault ‘s late, and very much misunderstood, concepts such as Biopower, Biopolitics and Power-knowledge has been cited as breaking complimentary from the traditional creation of world as cultural animal. foucault regards both the terms “ cultural animal ” and “ human nature ” as misinform abstractions, leading to a non-critical exemption of man and anything can be justified when regarding social processes or lifelike phenomena ( sociable phenomenon ). [ 72 ] Foucault argues these building complex processes are interrelated, and difficult to study for a rationality so those ‘truths ‘ can not be topled or disrupted. For Foucault, the many modern concepts and practices that attempt to uncover “ the truth ” about human beings ( either psychologically, sexually, religion or spiritually ) actually create the very types of people they purport to discover. Requiring aim “ specialists ” and knowledge codes and know how, rigorous avocation is “ put off ” or delayed which makes any kind of survey not only a ‘taboo ‘ discipline but measuredly ignored. He cites the concept of ‘truth ‘ [ 73 ] within many human cultures and the ever flowing dynamics between accuracy, power, and cognition as a resultant complex dynamics ( Foucault uses the terminus regimes of truth ) and how they flow with relief like water which make the concept of ‘truth ‘ impervious to any further rational probe. Some of the West ‘s most mighty social institutions are knock-down for a reason, not because they exhibit herculean structures which inhibit investigation or it is illegal to investigate there historical foundation. It is the very notion of “ legitimacy ” Foucault cites as examples of “ truth ” which routine as a “ Foundationalism “ claims to historical accuracy. Foucault argues, systems such as Medicine, Prisons, [ 74 ] [ 75 ] and Religion, equally well as groundbreaking works on more abstract theoretical issues of world power are suspended or buried into oblivion. [ 76 ] He cites as promote examples the ‘Scientific survey ‘ of Population biology and Population genetics [ 77 ] as both examples of this kind of “ Biopower ” over the huge majority of the human population giving the fresh establish political population their ‘politics ‘ or civil order. With the second coming of biology and genetics teamed together as newly scientific innovations notions of study of cognition regarding truth belong to the kingdom of experts who will never divulge their secrets openly, while the bulk of the population do not know their own biology or genetics this is done for them by the experts. This functions as a truth ignorance mechanism : “ where the “ subjugated cognition ‘s ”, as those that have been both written out of history and submerged in it in a masked form produces what we now know as truth. He calls them “ Knowledge ‘s from below ” and a “ historical cognition of struggles ”. Genealogy, Foucault suggests, is a way of getting at these cognition ‘s and struggles ; “ they are about the rebellion of knowledge’s. ” Foucault tries to show with the total dimension of “ Milieu ” ( derived from newtonian mechanics ) how this Milieu from the seventeenth hundred with the exploitation of the Biological and Physical sciences managed to be interwoven into the political, social and biological relationship of men with the arrival of the concept work placed upon the industrial population. Foucault uses the terminus Umwelt, borrowed from Jakob von Uexküll, meaning environment within. engineering, output, cartography the production of Nation states and Government making the efficiency of the Body politic, Law, Heredity and Consanguine [ 76 ] not only sound genuine and beyond historic beginning and foundation garment it can be turned into ‘exact truth ‘ where the individual and the social body are not only subjugate and neutralize but dependant upon it. Foucault is not denying that genetic or biological study is inaccurate or is merely not telling the truth what he means is that notions of this newly discovered sciences were extended to include the huge majority ( or wholly populations ) of populations as an exercise in “ regimes change ” .Foucault argues that the conceptual think of from the Middle ages and Canon law period, the Geocentric model, late superseded by the Heliocentrism model placing the position of the law of right in the Middle ages ( exclusive right or its discipline legal term Sui generis ) was the Divine mighty of kings and Absolute monarchy where the former personification of truth and principle of political reign was considered absolute and undisputed by political philosophy ( monarchs, popes and emperors ). however, Foucault noticed that this Pharaonic version of political power was transversed and it was with 18th-century emergence of capitalism and liberal democracy that these terms began to be “ democratized ”. The modern Pharaonic adaptation represented by the president of the united states, the sovereign, the pope and the prime minister all became propagandize versions or examples of symbol agents all aimed at towards a newly discovered phenomenon, the population. [ 78 ] As emblematic symbol agents of baron making the multitude population having to sacrifice itself all in the name of the newly formed voting franchise we now call Democracy. however, this was all turned on its head ( when the Medieval rulers were thrown out and replaced by a more accurate apparatus now called the state ) when the homo sciences suddenly discovered : “ The determine of mechanisms through which the basic biological features of the human species became an object of a political strategy and took on board the cardinal facts that humans were now a biological species. ” [ 79 ]
sociobiology [edit ]
Sociobiology departs possibly the furthest from classical sociable theory of evolution. [ 80 ] It was introduced by Edward Wilson in his 1975 script Sociobiology: The New Synthesis and followed his adaptation of evolutionary theory to the airfield of social sciences. Wilson pioneered the attempt to explain the evolutionary mechanics behind social behaviours such as altruism, aggression, and nurturance. [ 80 ] In doing therefore, Wilson sparked one of the greatest scientific controversies of the twentieth hundred by introducing and rejuvenating neo-darwinian modes of thinking in many social sciences and the humanities, leading to reactions ranging from fundamental resistance, not merely from social scientists and humanists but besides from Darwinists who see it as “ excessively simplistic in its approach path ”, [ 81 ] to calls for a radical restructure of the respective disciplines on an evolutionary basis. [ 82 ] The stream theory of development, the modern evolutionary synthesis ( or neo-darwinism ), explains that evolution of species occurs through a combination of Darwin ‘s mechanism of natural survival and Gregor Mendel ‘s theory of genetics as the basis for biological inheritance and numerical population genetics. [ 80 ] Essentially, the modern deduction introduced the joining between two authoritative discoveries ; the units of evolution ( genes ) with the chief mechanism of development ( survival ). [ 80 ] due to its close reliance on biota, sociobiology is much considered a ramify of the biota, although it uses techniques from a overplus of sciences, including ethology, evolution, zoology, archeology, population genetics, and many others. Within the discipline of human societies, sociobiology is closely related to the fields of homo behavioral ecology and evolutionary psychology. Sociobiology has remained highly controversial as it contends genes explain specific human behavior, although sociobiologists describe this character as a very complex and frequently unpredictable interaction between nature and foster. The most luminary critics of the view that genes play a steer function in human behaviour have been biologists Richard Lewontin Steven Rose and Stephen Jay Gould. Given the convergence of a lot of sociobiology ‘s claims with rightist politics, this approach has seen severe opposition both with regard to its research results equally well as its basic tenets ; [ 83 ] this has led even Wilson himself to revisit his claims and submit his opposition to some elements of modern sociobiology. [ 84 ] Since the resurrect of evolutionary psychology, another school of intend, Dual Inheritance Theory, has emerged in the past 25 years that applies the mathematical standards of Population genetics to modeling the adaptive and selective principles of culture. This school of think was pioneered by Robert Boyd at UCLA and Peter Richerson at UC Davis and expanded by William Wimsatt, among others. Boyd and Richerson ‘s book, Culture and the Evolutionary Process ( 1985 ), was a highly numerical description of cultural change, late published in a more accessible form in Not by Genes Alone ( 2004 ). In Boyd and Richerson ‘s horizon, cultural development, operating on socially learned information, exists on a break but co-evolutionary track from familial development, and while the two are related, cultural evolution is more active, rapid, and influential on human company than genetic evolution. dual Inheritance Theory has the profit of providing centripetal territory for a “ nature and nourish ” paradigm and accounts for more accurate phenomenon in evolutionary hypothesis applied to culture, such as randomness effects ( drift ), concentration colony, “ fidelity ” of evolving information systems, and lateral pass transmission through communication. [ 85 ]
theory of modernization [edit ]
Theories of modernization are closely related to the colony theory and development hypothesis. [ 86 ] While they have been developed and popularized in the 1950s and 1960s, their ideological and epistemic ancestors can be traced back until at least the early twentieth hundred when progressivist historians and social scientists, building upon Darwinian ideas that the roots of economic success in the US had to be found in its population structure, which, as an immigrant company, was composed of the strongest and fittest individuals of their respective countries of lineage, had started to supply the national myth of US-American manifest fortune with evolutionary intelligent. explicitly and implicitly, the US became the yardstick of modernization, and other societies could be measured in the extent of their modernity by how closely they adhered to the US-American model. [ 87 ] Modernization Theories combine the previous theories of sociocultural development with practical experiences and empirical research, specially those from the era of decolonization. The theory states that :
- Western countries are the most developed, and the rest of the world (mostly former colonies) is in the earlier stages of development, and will eventually reach the same level as the Western world.
- Development stages go from the traditional societies to developed ones.
- Third World countries have fallen behind with their social progress and need to be directed on their way to becoming more advanced.
Developing from classical social theory of evolution theories, the hypothesis of modernization stresses the modernization component : many societies are plainly trying ( or need ) to emulate the most successful societies and cultures. [ 86 ] It besides states that it is potential to do indeed, frankincense supporting the concepts of social engineer and that the explicate countries can and should help those less develop, directly or indirectly. [ 86 ] Among the scientists who contributed a lot to this theory are Walt Rostow, who in his The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto ( 1960 ) concentrates on the economic system side of the modernization, trying to show factors needed for a area to reach the way to modernization in his Rostovian take-off model. [ 86 ] David Apter concentrated on the political system and history of majority rule, researching the connection between majority rule, thoroughly government and efficiency and modernization. [ 86 ] David McClelland ( The Achieving Society, 1967 ) approached this subject from the psychological perspective, with his motivations theory, arguing that modernization can not happen until given society values invention, success and detached enterprise. [ 86 ] Alex Inkeles ( Becoming Modern, 1974 ) similarly creates a model of modern personality, which needs to be independent, active, concerned in public policies and cultural matters, open to modern experiences, rational and able to create long-run plans for the future. [ 86 ] Some works of Jürgen Habermas are besides connected with this subfield. The theory of modernization has been national to some criticism like to that levied against classical music social theory of evolution, particularly for being excessively ethnocentric, nonreversible and focused on the western world and its polish .
contemporaneous perspectives [edit ]
political perspectives [edit ]
The Cold War period was marked by competition between two superpowers, both of which considered themselves to be the most highly develop cultures on the planet. The USSR painted itself as a socialistic society which emerged from class fight, destined to reach the state of communism, while sociologists in the United States ( such as Talcott Parsons ) argued that the freedom and prosperity of the United States were a proof of a higher charge of sociocultural evolution of its culture and society. At the same clock time, decolonization created newly mugwump countries who sought to become more developed—a model of advance and industrialization which was itself a form of sociocultural evolution .
technical perspectives [edit ]
many [ who? ] argue that the next stage of sociocultural development consists of a amalgamation with technology, particularly information march technology. several accumulative major transitions of development have transformed life through key innovations in data storage and replication, including RNA, DNA, multicellularity, and besides linguistic process and culture as inter-human information process systems. [ 89 ] [ 90 ] in this sense it can be argued that the carbon-based biosphere has generated a cognitive system ( humans ) adequate to of creating technology that will result in a comparable evolutionary transition. “ Digital data has reached a exchangeable order of magnitude to information in the biosphere. It increases exponentially, exhibits high-fidelity rejoinder, evolves through differential fitness, is expressed through artificial intelligence ( AI ), and has facility for about illimitable recombination. Like previous evolutionary transitions, the potential symbiosis between biological and digital data will reach a critical point where these codes could compete via natural choice. alternatively, this coalition could create a higher-level superorganism employing a low-conflict part of labor in performing informational tasks … humans already embrace fusions of biology and engineering. We spend most of our waking time communicating through digitally mediated channels, … most transactions on the stock grocery store are executed by automatize trade algorithm, and our electric grids are in the hands of artificial intelligence. With one in three marriages in America beginning on-line, digital algorithm are besides taking a role in homo match bonding and reproduction ”. [ 88 ]
anthropological perspectives [edit ]
current political theories of the new tribalists consciously mimic ecology and the life-ways of autochthonal peoples, augmenting them with advanced sciences. Ecoregional Democracy attempts to confine the “ shift groups ”, or tribes, within “ more or less unclutter boundaries ” that a company inherits from the surrounding ecology, to the borders of a naturally occurring ecoregion. build up can proceed by rival between but not within tribes, and it is limited by ecological borders or by natural Capitalism incentives which attempt to mimic the pressure of natural choice on a human society by forcing it to adapt consciously to scarce energy or materials. Gaians argue that societies evolve deterministically to play a role in the ecology of their biosphere, or else die off as failures due to competition from more efficient societies exploiting nature ‘s leverage. therefore, some have appealed to theories of sociocultural development to assert that optimizing the ecology and the social harmony of closely knit groups is more desirable or necessary than the progression to “ civilization. ” A 2002 poll of experts on Neoarctic and Neotropic autochthonal peoples ( reported in Harper’s magazine ) [ citation needed ] revealed that all of them would have preferred to be a typical New World person in the year 1491, prior to any European contact, quite than a typical european of that time. This approach has been criticised by pointing out that there are a number of historical examples of autochthonal peoples doing severe environmental price ( such as the deforestation of Easter Island and the extinction of mammoths in North America ) and that proponents of the goal have been trapped by the European pigeonhole of the noble savage .
The function of war in the exploitation of states and societies [edit ]
particularly since the end of the Cold War, there has been a growing phone number of scholars in the social sciences and humanities who came to complement the more presentist neo-evolutionary research with studies into the more distant by and its human inhabitants. A key component in many of these analyses and theories is war, which Robert L. Carneiro called the “ prime proposer in the origin of the state ”. [ 91 ] He theorizes that given the limited handiness of natural resources, societies will compete against each other, with the losing group either moving out of the area now dominated by the victorious one, or, if the sphere is circumscribed by an ocean or a batch image and re-settlement is frankincense impossible, will be either subjugated or killed. frankincense, societies become larger and larger, but, facing the constant threat of extinction or acculturation, they were besides forced to become more complex in their inner organization both in ordain to remain competitive equally well as to administer a growing territory and a larger population. [ 92 ] Carneiro ‘s ideas have inspired bang-up count of subsequent research into the rôle of war in the process of political, social, or cultural development. An model of this is Ian Morris who argues that given the right geographic conditions, war not only drove much of human culture by integrating societies and increasing substantial wellbeing, but paradoxically besides made the world much less violent. large-scale states, so Morris, evolved because only they provided enough stability both internally and outwardly to survive the constant conflicts which characterise the early on history of smaller states, and the possibility of war will continue to force humans to invent and evolve. [ 93 ] War drove human societies to adapt in a step-wise process, and each development in military technology either requires or leads to comparable developments in politics and society. [ 94 ] many of the underlying assumptions of Morris ‘s intelligent can be traced back in some shape or another not only to Carneiro but besides to Jared Diamond, and particularly his 1997 script Guns, Germs, and Steel. Diamond, who explicitly opposes racist evolutionary tales, [ 95 ] argues that the ultimate explanation of why different homo growth on different continents is the presence or absence of domesticable plants and animals adenine well as the fact that the east-west orientation of Eurasia made migration within similar climates much easier than the south-north orientation of Africa and the Americas. [ 96 ] Nevertheless, he besides stresses the importance of conflict and war as a proximate explanation for how Europeans managed to conquer much of the world, [ 97 ] given how societies who fail to innovate will “ tend to be eliminated by competing societies ”. [ 98 ] similarly, Charles Tilly argues that what drove the political, social, and technological change which, after centuries of great pas seul with regard to states, lead to the european states ultimately all converging on the national state was coercion and war : “ War wove the European network of national states, and homework for war created the inner structures of states within it. ” [ 99 ] He describes how war became more expensive and complex due to the introduction of gunpowder and large armies and frankincense required significantly big states in order to provide the capital and work force to sustain these, which at the same clock were forced to develop new means of extraction and administration. [ 100 ]
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