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Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Iowa Chemical Plant. Polyethylene Unit. DCS installation. Installed new dust collector. Upgraded Condensate System. Provided field engineering. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Illinois Chemical Plant. Update powder transfer system. Scope definition, estimating, field Engineering. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Texas Chemical Plant. Ambitech Engineering performed a relief valve study for the Vinyl Chloride Monomer Unit, the Chlor-Alkali Unit, and the Cogeneration Unit at Ingleside, Texas plant. The study included 56 relief devices, which included relief valves (PSV), rupture disks (PSE), and PSV/PSE combinations. The evaluation of each device included the determination of viable relief cases, calculation of relieving rates for each viable case, sizing calculations for each viable case, inlet and outlet piping evaluation at the maximum relief rate, and reaction force evaluation in accordance with API Standards 520 and 521 and Clients plant safety standards. Evaluations were based on current mass balances, physical properties data, HYSYS simulations, PFDs, P&IDs, piping isometrics, equipment data sheets and instrument data sheets.The results for each devices evaluation were assembled into a package that included all calculations, drawings, data sheets, simulation results, and recommendations for remediation and a revised data sheet if required. Study, Calculations, Design, Data Sheets, Simulation Results. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Illinois Chemical Plant. Ambitech provided process engineering services to complete a study of 1550 pressure relief valves and rupture disks at a chemical manufacturing facility. 3-year effort involved performing field walk down and verification of nameplate data and installation details, development of relief contingencies, preparing calculations for relief device sizing, developing a remediation or mitigation plan, and providing required documentation. Applicable codes were ASME Sections I and VIII as well as API RP 520 & 521. Study, Calculations, Design, Data Sheets, Simulation Results. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | North Carolina Chemical Plant. Construction of new 130,000 square foot UV cured coatings plant. Project included installation of new equipment for making specialized inks. Conceptual engineering, detailed engineering and design, cost estimating, scheduling, procurement, construction observation. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Illinois Chemical Plant. Designed completely new Silica Dispersion Plant including mixers, blenders, chemical additions system, packaging and utility equipment. Project included all mechanical, piping, electrical, control and programming requirements.Designed plant PLC control architecture including programming and HMI development. Performed vendor management, construction management. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Illinois Chemical Plant. Grass roots manufacturing facility housed in a new building 125 x 90 x 85 high. Design, specifications. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Indiana Catalyst Plant. Designed and installed catalyst bag unloading stations. Process and layout development, vender selection and construction |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Illinois Chemical Plant. Converted existing storage facilities for new service. Installed new heating and condensing equipment. Installed new pumps. Performed detailed engineering. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Illinois Chemical Plant. Optimized use of existing assets to recover methanol from waste stream for recycling. Process design and engineering, detailed design engineering |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Upgrade mainly aims at some old power plants with aging equipment and/or obsolete configuration, or power plants which need modification to the combustion devices due to fuel change or modification/change of any other production system.
In order to make the upgrade work successful and meet the owner's requirement, we will study the detailed configuration and running conditions of the power plant planning to be modified, troubleshoot the failures and defects, evaluate upgrading possibility/feasibility and then report to the owner our suggestions and solutions.
Usual upgrade includes:
? Adjustment of boiler combustion for adapting to the new fuel or increasing production capacity.
? Replacement or maintenance of the furnace membrane, superheater and economizer for improving the thermal efficiency.
? Increase or decrease the capacity and/or parameters (temperature and pressure) of the steam extraction.
? Install frequency converter to the auxiliary equipment such as ID fans, FD fans and pumps to reduce energy consumption.
? Increase DCS control points to the existing equipment to strengthen the automatic control and reduce the artificial factors, achieve the interlock of each systems and equipment.
? Modified with new dust removal equipment to meet emission standard. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | To upgrade an old power plant has an even higher requirement to the contractor than to build a new power plant, it requires not only the experience in project implementation and power plant operation, but also the well understanding of the working principle, structure and characteristics of each equipment/system in the power plant, so as to find the most practicable solution and reach the upgrading target: increase efficiency, reduce energy consumption or save operation cost.
We have expertise, references and solutions for different types of power plants and fuels - we can offer globally f. ex. following solutions and services
long term O&M (operation and maintenance) services with mobilization for CCGT (combined cycle gas turbine) plants but also for other power plants
burning system modifications with emission reduction used by own technology f. ex. for coal and other pulverized fuel boilers as well as for circulating bed (BFB or CFB) boilers
turbine island upgrading, overhaul and troubleshooting services for steam and gas turbines and their generator systems
planning, productivity and performance development services with remote monitoring for bio, waste to energy (WtoE) and common for CHP (combined heat and power) plants managing especially availability, energy efficiency, life cycle condition, O&M and investment costs and sustainable needs and targets.
supporting IT systems as process planning tools, dynamic planning and training simulators, process and energy management systems as well as asset and maintenance management systems with server or web based solutions |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Shwedong CCGT power station, (2014) Myanmar, APR Energy. Owners Engineer to prepare a concept design of the optimum CCGT plant configuration based on the gas allocation and the project drivers. Prepared the technical description for the tender submission based on the optimum concept. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Process Audit of Engineering Standards, (2014), Sydney, NSW, Australia, Ausgrid. Chief auditor for the engineering standards process, conducting interviews with staff and reviewing standards and supporting documentation. The audit found a suitable way forward for several significant findings. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Condamine 140MW (2xSGT800) Combined Cycle Gas Turbine Power Station, (2011), Miles, QLD, Australia, QGC. Owners Engineer. Project involved supervising the GT overhaul, providing recommendations to the owner regarding reuse of components and providing support regarding the Long Term Service Agreement and operation intervals |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | A turnkey Gas Turbine upgrade on a combined cycle plant that due to the additional output required a steam turbine and generator retrofit. I led a consortium of various ALSTOM product lines to put the approximately 40 million Euros.
o A Long Term Service Agreement involving; part supply, reconditioning, field service and technical support over 10 years with a value approximately 100 million Euros.
o A gas turbine control system replacement and logic upgrade.
? Prepared of a tool for more accurate pricing and cost calculation of Long Term Service Agreements.
? Introduced a value based pricing strategy for control logic upgrades.
? Prepared the annual three-year budget forecast |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | Tracked the field findings of the GT26 fleet leader components, carried out metallurgical lab testing and based on empirical lifetime assessment increased the service life of the components. Instigated design changes based on field experience that lead to lifetime extension of the gas turbine components.
? Remote support for GT outages (2004-2008), to define the suitability of hot gas parts for reuse or repair.
? Onsite lifetime Assessment of Combustor Parts (2007), Senoko, Singapore, Assessment Engineer. Onsite assessment of the GT26 components to determine their suitability for reuse or repair. These were the first combustor parts to be used beyond 1 c-inspection interval.
? Gas Turbine Hot Gas Path Component Reconditioning Process Development (20042006) Developed reconditioning processes for GT26 components according to the necessary cost and quality requirements. This included definition of material specifications and heat treatments, NDT requirements, supplier qualification and acceptance testing, managing non-conformance rework and expediting component delivery.
? Gas Turbine Rotor Repair Process Development (20022004).
Designed repair methods and tooling for removal of cracks in the Gas Turbine rotors.
? Gas Turbine Compressor Design (2002-2004).
Preparation of design drawings and inspection and test quality plans for the GT11D and 13D gas turbines compressor upgrades. This involved working closely with the factory to integrate the latest manufacturing techniques for blade production including casting, forging, 5 axis milling, heat treatment, surface treatment such as shot peening and laser peening, laser welding as well as corrosion and thermal barrier coatings.
? Gas Turbine Inspections (2002-2008), Assessment Engineer. Gas turbine component inspection for reuse and definition of repair solutions in UK, UAE, Singapore Bahrain and Libya. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | With so much pressure from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reigning down on aging coal plants, one option for power plant operators is transforming the facility into a combined cycle (CC) plant, harnessing both steam and natural gas. By doing so, they can make use of all the steam turbines as well as a large portion of the balance of plant.
The same applies to nuclear facilities, which already have the bulk of infrastructure in place for natural gas CC operation. Faced with the prospect of being edged out of the U.S., European and Japanese markets, some utilities and independent power providers may decide to switch from coal and nuclear to natural gas as the best route ahead.
And the economics are favorable. Many anticipate a boost in combined cycle construction in the U.S. and other regions of the world (Figure 1).
Upcoming EPA rulings on greenhouse gases (GHG) and maximumachievable control technology (MACT), as well as the uncertainty around renewables have created an expectation of many new future natural gas units in the U.S., said Tim Xie, Lead Power Plant Performance Evaluation Group at WorleyParsons.
He laid out the math in favor of CC. It has the lowest construction costs among all types of generation technologies, on top of a relatively short construction duration, lower emissions, and low water consumption compared with other fossils. Financing, too, he said, is easier on CC compared to others. In March 2012, a combined cycle gas turbine power plant had lower $/MWh fuel costs compared to coal-fueled power plants for the first time in history, said Xie.
However, low gas prices pose a dilemma for CC plant design as fuel savings over the plants lifecycle may struggle to offset the increased capital costs. Therefore, GT selection is the key to success. Those specifying power plants are advised by Xie to investigate fuel costs and capital costs for the various GTs being considered to find the best option, which varies from site to site (Figure 2).
He cited the trend in Asia and Europe for increased orders for H- and J-class GTs, where high natural gas costs make it easier to justify higher upfront costs. Those types of turbines, though, have far fewer U.S. installs because of cheaper natural gas. As a result, there appears to be more of a focus on up-rating the more proven F-class gas turbine models. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | As operators retire coal-fired plants, they will be faced with the challenge of cycling, according to Bill Siegfriedt, project manager at Sargent & Lundy*. Most of the recent combined cycle plants were originally built for base load operation, he said. Yet they find themselves tasked with cycling duty to fit the needs of a grid holding an abundance of variable renewable resources. Unfortunately, many of the design techniques to equip CC plants for cycling duty are not suited for retrofit.
The original intent of most CC plants assumed full load operation and infrequent starts, no quick starts and low capital costs for a short-term payback, said Siegfriedt. Cycling plants, on the other hand, run only on higher demand days, times or seasons, and typically at part load. For plants not designed for this kind of duty, it can lead to premature wear, excessive maintenance and equipment failure, said Siegfriedt. You have to take a close look at the existing plant to find the potential for modifications. However, some features are not suitable for retrofit.
He explained that it is possible to retrofit many older CC sites for reduced load operation, rapid and frequent starts, and high availability. Procedures and control systems can be adapted to assure that a CC plant with multiple GTs will turn down while avoiding inefficient GT part-load modes. Also, conversion to sliding pressure operation can improve efficiency of the steam cycle in part-load situations.
The need for rapid starting should also be addressed. Large heat transfer tubing requires a heavy wall and contains a great deal of water, which requires gradual warm up. A Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) retrofit, to a faster-heating design, would be financially unattractive. That said it is important to keep the steam cycle warm to speed up starting as much as possible.
This can be done by adding: a stack isolation damper; steam sparging to the HRSG mud drum; and LP condensate recirculation between the evaporator and the economizer. Of course, the ramping of the GTs can be uncoupled from the HRSG warm up requirement by using Inlet Guide Vanes (IGV). These can help match the temperature of the flue gas entering the HRSG to allowable levels.
The steam turbine also should be addressed. Installing attemperation for the main steam and reheat steam will uncouple the steam turbines warm up rate from those of the GTs and the HRSGs. Adding a steam bypass to the condenser will reduce the venting of excess steam and cut down on demineralized water make-up requirements. Some steam will still be vented, so it may also be desirable to increase makeup water treatment capacity. Keeping the combustion turbine and steam turbine warm is a good strategy to be able to better deal with faster or more frequent starts, said Siegfriedt.
Further tips: invest in redundancy so that if one system fails, you can maintain high availability; review trips and start failures to determine what systems or components are causing repeated events; upgrade control algorithms to provide intelligence to operators so they can more reliably follow load patterns; and automate control of the steam bypass to assure accurate dumping from HRSGs to minimize steam pressure swings. |
Plant Reliability Improvement Projects | An even more adventurous strategy for aging coal plants is eliminating coal altogether. Brian Reinhart, Study Manager at Black & Veatch Energy in Overland Park, Kansas, examined a variety of options including a switch from coal to natural gas.
He framed the discussion around a 250 MW subcritical pulverized coal-fired unit built in the late 70S the type of site that is firmly in the EPAs crosshairs. This particular facility was challenged by the fact that the closest gas line with sufficient capacity was 60 miles away.
Reinhart covered several options such as conversion to natural gas only, natural gas and coal co-firing, a full emissions control retrofit to bring the unit into compliance, repowering the steam turbine to make it run as part of a combined cycle plant or replacing the entire plant with a new CC. Co-firing was dismissed rapidly as it is still regarded as a coal unit by the EPA, so regulatory issues remain.
Reinhart said that a more feasible long-term approach is either emissionscontrol retrofits or a combined cyclebased solution. A CC could entail retaining the steam turbine, condenser, control room and water treatment facilities and replacing the boiler.
The steam turbine would need to be repowered, said Reinhart. Although you would experience a derate of about 10% to 20% in steam output due to flow limitations in the steam turbine, by adding two F-class gas turbines you would boost net power by nearly three times.
On the downside, you would need about eight acres or more for these two GTs and heat recovery steam generator trains. But the end result would be a gain in efficiency, a drop in O & M and no need to perform heavy maintenance on pulverizers and other coal equipment. Further, by changing from 250 MW to 600 MW, the area would have to possess sufficient transmission margin.
Nick Zervos of the Thermal Engineering Group at Shaws Power Group was another pointing out the potential advantages of steam turbine repowering as an option for converting a coal site to a combined cycle plant. As it could cost hundreds of millions in regulatory compliance to keep an old coal boiler going, the owner may choose instead to retire the existing coal-fired boiler and put in one or more combustion turbines and HRSGs to repower the existing steam turbine, said Zervos.
He detailed the differences in steam systems in repowered plants, compared to compact Greenfield combined cycle plants. When a GT is added to run in CC mode, for instance, that can lead to long steam piping due to where the gas turbine is sited.
Zervos said that longer lines mean greater pressure and temperature losses. A mere 1°F drop in steam temperature can mean a big loss in revenue. So for long steam piping lengths, he advised plant managers to choose pipe insulation thicknesses carefully. And if at all possible, site the gas and steam turbines close together. One of the other consequences of long steam lines is more complicated warm ups for cold starts.
If there is no way around having the GT sited far away from the steam turbine, the plant will need adequate drain lines to avoid the accumulation of condensate, which can lead to water slug damage of the pipe. It is especially important to minimize the length of steam turbine bypass lines downstream of the bypass valves.
When a cold bypass pipe is suddenly filled with hot steam during a steam turbine trip event, condensate will form and be propelled along the pipe. The longer the line is downstream of the bypass valve, the greater will be the condensate accumulation and consequent transient loads applied at all changes in direction.
Ideally the gas turbine and HRSG will be selected to make as much steam as the steam turbine can swallow, said Zervos. Very often supplemental duct firing in the HRSG is appropriate for a good match with the existing steam turbine. You can also make modifications to the steam turbine to be able to handle more or less steam.
In addition to bringing in GTs and HRSGs, required modifications include condensate pumps, boiler feed pumps, a steam turbine bypass system with condenser spargers, steam drain tanks, and retiring feedwdater heaters.
For the steam path itself, modifications are needed on high pressure inlet blading and low pressure back-end blading. Alternatively, perform a complete steam path replacement.
It is often economical to reblade the whole steam turbine to keep it from acting as a bottleneck to the system, said Zervos. You also need a steam bypass system so that when the steam turbine trips, you dont need to trip the GT, too. This is especially important for multi- HRSG plants. |
Rail Projects | The North-South Railway (NSR) project in Saudi Arabia is the world's largest railway construction and the longest route to adopt the European train control system (ETCS) to date. It is a 2,400km passenger and freight rail line originating in the capital city Riyadh, in the northwest of the country, to Al Haditha, near the border with Jordan.
The industrial line is a 1,486km rail line from Al Jalamid (phosphate belt) in the north to Al Azbirah (bauxite belt) in the centre of the country and will run eastwards to the processing and export facilities at Raz Az Zwar. The 1,418km passenger line runs from Riyadh and passes through industrial stations in Sudair, Al Quassim, Hail, Al-Jawf and Al -Basyata to Al Haditha.
The North-South Railway line is being built as a part of 3,900km rail expansion plans. The other two projects include a 1,100km landbridge project connecting the eastern and western parts of Saudi Arabia and a 450km high-speed rail link from Haramin to Jeddah, connecting Makkah and Madinah.
Due to its strategic importance in contributing to the national economy, the North-South Railway has been given priority over the other projects. It is an integral part of the planned phosphate and bauxite mining projects in the northern region of the country, which are available in commercial quantities and can be exported from the processing facilities at Raz Az Zwar on the Gulf coast. This will make Saudi Arabia the second largest exporter of minerals in the world.
The project is expected to transport four million tons of commodities and two million passengers every year. |
Rail Projects | he project involves construction of a single 2,400km track, sidings, yards, depots, stations and administrative facilities.
Total cost of the project is estimated to be $3.5bn, and will be financed by the Public Investment Fund (PIF) managed by the Ministry of Finance. The project commenced in 2005 and is expected to be completed by 2011-12. Freight operations are scheduled to begin by the end of 2010 while the passenger operations are likely to begin in 2011-12.
A consortium of Louis Verger, Systra, Canarail and Saudi Consolidated Engineering was appointed as the project implementation and supervision consultancy on a 75-month contract in 2004. The consultancy completed the detailed engineering designs of the project in 2005.
On 3 April 2007, three civil and track works contracts were signed with a consortium of international and local companies. The first contract valued SAR2.3bn was signed with the construction company Saudi Binladin Group and Mohammed Al-Swailem Co. in partnership with a German firm for a 576km stretch from Al Zubirah to Ras Az Zwar. The second contract was awarded to the AlSuwaikat group of companies for a 440km stretch from Al Zubirah to the middle of the desert in Al Nafude for SAR1.9bn.
The third contract worth SAR2.8bn was awarded to Barclay Mowlem of Australia, Mitsui of Japan and Al-Rashed of Saudi for laying a 750km railroad from the middle of Al Nafude to Al Haditha, Al Jalamid and Al Basyata.
''This will make Saudi Arabia the second largest exporter of minerals in the world.''
A commercial corporation, Saudi Railway Company (SAR), was created to maintain and operate the North-South Railway line through a contract based operator. On 9 April 2009, SAR signed three new contracts to continue work on the railway. A contract to build European style signalling, ticketing, communications and security systems was awarded to a French group, Thales, and to Saudi Binladin group for $453m. The second contract for design and manufacture of 4300HP locomotives was awarded to the US firm, ElectroMotive Diesel Inc., for $90m and the third contract worth $91.3m was awarded to China's CSR group who will design and manufacture the proposed 668 wagons.
In March 2010, SAR signed a three year contract worth $74.1m with Rites Ltd. to operate the rail line that will transport minerals. Rites Ltd. is a state owned logistics and infrastructure subsidiary of Indian Railways. |
Rail Projects | The North-South Railway will have 107 bridges and 2,679 culverts along the 2,400km freight and passenger line. This stretch involves construction of a 280km rail line in the Al Nafude desert between Hail and Al Jawf.
The bridges will be assembled with pre-stressed concrete spans of 20m in length. A standard Continuous Welded Rail (CWR) track-form will be used throughout the line for easy maintenance. RCC culverts will be cast using in-situ bored piles.
''The entire route will be equipped with a CTC signalling system.''
The North-South Railway line will accommodate axle loads up to 32.4t with 1,800 concrete sleepers laid every kilometre. Each concrete sleeper weighs 60kg / m.
As of April 2010, 800km of the 1,486km industrial line had already been laid. This line is intended to transport 16,000t of minerals in a single journey. |
Rail Projects | Signalling and communications
The entire 2,400km rail route will be equipped with a centralised traffic control (CTC) signalling system. In addition, the industrial rail line will be equipped with a computer-assisted manual block system. |
Rail Projects | Rolling stock
The passenger route from Riyadh to Al Haditha will accommodate trains travelling at 250km/h but this will be limited to 160km/h. The freight trains will be running at a speed of 80km/h when loaded and 100km/h when empty.
The North-South Railway line will deploy 25 diesel locomotives with 4,300hp engines. Each locomotive will be 3km long, with 160 wagons and each wagon will carry 100t of minerals. Of the 668 wagons, 524 will be used to transport phosphate. |
Rail Projects | Tenders have been invited to begin work on the passenger line for the construction of six rail stations and mosques at Al-Haditha, Al-Jawf, Hail, Al-Qassim, Al-Majma'h and Al-Riyadh, as well as SAR's headquarters in Al-Riyadh. The pre-qualification of tenders will begin from 30 June 2010
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Rail Projects | The line was claimed to be the world's fastest design, build to operate metro in the world, at 22 months, 16 months if religious habit is taken into consideration. It was initially operated at 35% capacity with automatic train protection to assist manual driving.[9]
China Railway Construction Corporation Limited was responsible for infrastructure construction and systems integration under the 6.7 billion riyal phase I contract which was awarded by the Saudi Arabian government in February 2009 following a visit by President Hu Jintao of China.[10]
CRCC carried out construction of the project infrastructure and integrated and subcontracted various systems. The line was built in only 21 months by about 8,000 skilled and unskilled workers and approximately 5,000 engineers.
DBI - Deutsche Bahn International GmbH - a fully owned subsidiary of DB Deutsche Bahn AG and DAR Dar Al Handasah were awarded with a contract from the Ministry of Municipalities and Rural Affairs of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to become the supervising engineers, responsible for Design, Construction, Railway Systems Implementation and Railway Operations until today.
Several subcontracts were awarded. Al-Muruj Electromechanical Co. was awarded MEP works at all 9 stations. Siemens provided the Overhead Line Catenary System supplied at 1500 V DC.Westinghouse Platform Screen Doors supplied the platform screen doors,[2][11] Siemens power supplies, and WS Atkins is responsible for electrical and mechanical systems and project management.[9] Thales supplied SelTrac Communications-Based Train Control, an operations control centre, CCTV, SCADA and passenger information systems.[9] Systra supervised the civil work.[9] Serco provides operations and maintenance consultancy. TÜV Rheinland were the Independent Competent Person (ICP)on the project and provided Safety, Operations, Training, Fire and Systems Assurance consultancy support including the development of System-Wide, O&M Safety Case and HSQE Management Systems. TUV Rheinland also secured the Operating License & Safety Certificate for acceptance by the Saudi Railway Commission (SRC) in 2011, 2012 & 2013. Air Conditioning solution was provided by SKM Sharjah, UAE.
The line is elevated at a height varying between 8 metres (26 ft) and 10 metres (33 ft).[12][9]
Although the current metro uses conventional steel wheel on rail technology, it is incorrectly referred to as a 'monorail' due to cancellation on planned project in 2009.[12]
CRCC losses on contract[edit]
In November 2010 CRCC claimed they had lost 4.15 billion yuan (~US$600 million) on the US$1.77 billion contract due to changes insisted on by the client.[13] The earth works alone reportedly increased two-and-a-half times from 2 million cubic metres to 5 million.[14] CRCC was seeking, with Chinese government support, extra compensation from the Saudi Arabian government to help cover the losses. |
Rail Projects | The Al Mashaaer Al Mugaddassah Metro Line (MMMP), which is part of the Makkah (Mecca) Metro, is an 18.1km line constructed to connect the holy cities of Mecca, Arafat, Muzdalifa and Mina. The line was opened in November 2010 and became fully operational in November 2011.
The Mecca monorail project has been one of many undertaken by Saudi Arabia to expand its railway network to meet the transportation needs of its growing population of 25 million and improve an antiquated logistics infrastructure.
The line provides transport for about 3.5 million people who arrive at Mecca annually to perform Hajj. The number is expected to increase to five million in future.
Details of the Al Mashaaer Al Mugaddassah Metro Line project
"The Makkah monorail project has been one of many undertaken by Saudi Arabia to expand its railway network."
Construction of the monorail project has helped to solve the problem of heavy traffic congestion in the holy cities during the Hajj period and meet the transportation needs of the local people . Masterplans drawn up by MonoMetro show that five monorails need to be constructed to handle the flow of pilgrims to the holy cities.
Based on the need to transport pilgrims from Mina to Arafat a four-line parallel loop network was developed. The line can transport about 500,000 pilgrims in six to eight hours. It has also allowed authorities to reduce the number of buses needed to transport pilgrims from 70,000 to 25,000.
The first phase of the project included the four-line loop with a network of pick-up and drop-off stations between Mina and Arafat. The first of the five new metro lines started operating with Automatic Train Protection at 35% capacity by November 2010.
The metro could carry 72,000 passengers in each direction per hour by 2011's Hajj. About 8,000 skilled and unskilled workers, along with 5,000 engineers, were engaged in the project.
The line services Mina, Arafat and Muzdafila, each of which have three substations each. The four-line parallel loop network splits into single tracks covering all the encampment zones in Mina. Mina is the last station on the metro line and is located towards the west of the Jamarat Bridge. The metro line is linked to all the four floors of the bridge with elevators.
The four-line parallel route moves south towards Arafat before reaching a main station next to the Arafat Mosque and splitting again into a single-line network to carry pilgrims into Arafat. The lines come together again and move towards Muzdelefa, where pilgrims can spend ceremonial time before returning to Mina.
The line runs on a viaduct with the depot located at the end of the trail that is behind the first station in Arafat. |
Rail Projects | The trains of the monorail can operate at an elevation ranging from 8m to 10m so that they do not obstruct the movement of vehicles and pedestrians on the ground.
"The metro reached full capacity to carry 72,000 passengers in each direction per hour by 2011's Hajj."
The trains comprise 12 carriages, each 20m long and 3m wide. The monorail runs on a powerful superstructure made of steel railroads supported by solid concrete pillars made of prefabricated steel masts and beams.
The design of the superstructure is auto-responsive to the forces of acceleration and emergency braking, with columns and specialised beamways that act as a kinetic energy absorbing/redistribution network, as well as the modular elevated station kit.
Controlled access to the monorail prevents accidents such as the tragedy at Mina in 2006, when more than 350 people died in a stampede. Trains on four elevated tracks transport 20,000 pilgrims per hour in an orderly manner. The project also included the construction of multi-storey parking facilities at the entrance of Mecca to help pilgrims park their cars before boarding the trains. |
Rail Projects | The rolling stock for the monorail includes five-car sets running together as ten-car sets supplied by MonoMetro, UK. Each five-car set is entirely interconnected and air-conditioned with separate areas for men and women.
Each five-car set has a central emergency escape car with inflatable chutes to enable pilgrims to escape in case of an emergency. As the tracks form a closed loop each train set circulates several times between Mina and Arafat. The rolling stock is stabled throughout the year for cleaning and maintenance at the depot in Arafat.
The technology on which the monorail is based is steel wheels running on steel rails in a vector bifurcation bogie capture configuration. The wheel-rail interface geometry for the monorail was developed by MonoMetro with SKF, the Swedish bearings manufacturer. ESG, the mechanical engineering arm of English Welsh and Scottish Railways, developed the vector bifurcation bogie sets.
Knorr-Bremse was awarded a $55m contract to provide braking systems for trains and station platform screen doors for nine stations of the metro line. The contract to supply 17 Type-A 12-car metro train sets was awarded to Changchun Railway Vehicles in April 2009. |
Rail Projects | CRCC awarded a $144m contract to Thales in June 2009 to supply, integrate and deploy its driverless train control and telecommunication systems for the project. Thales designed, integrated, installed, tested and commissioned the systems. It also installed the SelTrac Communications-Based Train Control (CBTC) system in the metro project.
Thales also supplied its fully integrated communications solution including an operation control centre, CCTV, SCADA and an automatic address and information system. |
Rail Projects | "Each five-car set is entirely interconnected and air-conditioned with separate areas for men and women."
A contract worth $1.8bn for the project was awarded by the Saudi Arabian government in February 2009 to a consortium of companies led by China Railway Construction (CRCC). CRCC carried out construction of the infrastructure and integration of various systems.
Westinghouse Platform Screen Doors provided the PSDs for the project, Siemens supplied power and Lloyds Register acted as the safety assessor. Systra carried out the civil work and WS Atkins was in charge of electrical and mechanical systems, and project management.
Brecknell Willis, a UK supplier of power rails and current collection shoes for railways, provided a lightweight aluminium power rail with stainless steel contact surface. It also supplied 1,500v DC and a current draw of 3,000A.
TPI Composites, a US manufacturer of high-strength low-weight composite lightweight vehicles, manufactured the cars.
UK firm Intelligent Engineering provided patented elastomeric bonding technology for the butterfly masts, side arms and the consecutive beam junction assembly with viscous damping. The technology enables cyclical expansion and contraction to sustain heat in the region. It also provides high resistance to emergency braking force. Buro Happold was responsible for developing the structural engineering of the MonoMetro superstructure.
Hsin Chong Construction Group provided consultancy services for the system design and construction. |
Refinery Piping Design | Sponseller modeled all the mechanical utilities piping and piping supports using our clients P&ID. Utilizing SolidWorks Premium, our engineers placed the required piping runs in and around their 3D designed structure. The utilities involved included fresh water, process water, centrate and caustic systems. The design in three dimensions enabled our engineers to visually inspect for interferences while still in the design phase enabling a clean installation of the entire structure with no unforeseen problems. Sponseller provided the pipe spool fabrication detail drawings as well. |
Ship Building | Shipbuilding has changed radically since the 1980s. Formerly, most construction took place in a building or graving dock, with the ship constructed almost piece by piece from the ground up. However, advances in technology and more detailed planning have made it possible to construct the vessel in subunits or modules that have utilities and systems integrated within. Thus, the modules may be relatively easily connected. This process is faster, less expensive and provides better quality control. Further, this type of construction lends itself towards automation and robotics, not only saving money, but reducing exposures to chemical and physical hazards.
Gives an overview of shipbuilding. The initial step is design. The design considerations for various types of ships vary widely. Ships may transport materials or people, may be surface ships or subsurface, may be military or commercial and may be nuclear or non-nuclear powered. In the design phase, not only should normal construction parameters be considered, but the safety and health hazards associated with the construction or repair process must be considered. In addition, environmental issues must be addressed. |
Ship Building | The basic component of ship building is steel plate. The plates are cut, shaped, bent or otherwise manufactured to the desired configuration specified by the design (see figure 92.2 and figure 92.3). Typically the plates are cut by an automatic flame cutting process to various shapes. These shapes may be then welded together to form I and T beams and other structural members |
Ship Building | The plates are then sent to fabrication shops, where they are joined into various units and subassemblies (see figure 92.5). At this juncture, piping, electrical and other utility systems are assembled and integrated into the units. The units are assembled using automatic or manual welding or a combination of the two. Several types of welding processes are employed. The most common is stick welding, in which a consumable electrode is used to join the steel. Other welding processes use inert gas shielded arcs and even non-consumable electrodes. |
Ship Building | The units or subassemblies are usually then transferred to an open-air platen or lay down area where erection, or joining of assemblies, occurs to form even larger units or blocks (see figure 92.6). Here, additional welding and fitting occurs. Further, the units and welds must undergo quality-control inspections and testing such as radiography, ultrasonic and other destructive or non-destructive tests. Those welds found defective must be removed by grinding, arc-air grouping or chiseling and then replaced. At this stage the units are abrasive blasted to ensure proper profiling, and painted (see figure 92.7). Paint may be applied by brush, roller or spray gun. Spraying is most commonly utilized. The paints may be flammable or toxic or pose an environmental threat. Control of abrasive blasting and painting operations must be performed at this time. |
Ship Building | The completed larger units are then moved to the graving dock, shipway or final assembly area. Here, the larger units are joined together to form the vessel (see figure 92.8). Again, much welding and fitting occur. Once the hull is structurally complete and watertight, the vessel is launched. This may involve sliding it into the water from the shipway on which it was constructed, flooding of the dock in which it was constructed or lowering the vessel into the water. Launchings are almost always accompanied by great celebration and fanfare. |
Ship Building | After the ship is launched, it enters the outfitting phase. A large amount of time and equipment are required. The work includes the fitting of cabling and piping, the furnishing of galleys and accommodations, insulation work, installation of electronic equipment and navigation aids and installation of propulsion and ancillary machinery. This work is performed by a wide variety of skilled trades.
After completion of the outfitting phase, the ship undergoes both dock and sea trials, during which all the ships systems are proved to be fully functional and operational. Finally, after all testing and associated repair work is performed, the ship is delivered to the customer.
Steel used for construction can be subdivided into three types: mild, high-strength and high-alloy steel. Mild steels have valuable properties and are easy to produce, purchase, form and weld. On the other hand, high-strength steels are mildly alloyed to provide mechanical properties that are superior to the mild steels. Extremely high-strength steels have been developed specifically for use in naval construction. In general, the high-strength and high-yield steels are called HY-80, HY-100 and HY-130. They have strength properties in excess of the commercial-grade high-strength steels. More complicated welding processes are necessary for high-strength steels in order to prevent deterioration of their properties.
A third general class of steels, the high-alloy steels, are made by including relatively large amounts of alloying elements such as nickel, chromium and manganese. These steels, which include stainless steels, have valuable corrosion-resistance properties and also require special welding processes. |
Ship Building | Painting is performed at almost every location in the shipyard. The nature of shipbuilding and repair requires several types of paints to be used for various applications. Paint types range from water-based coatings to high-performance epoxy coatings. The type of paint needed for a certain application depends on the environment to which the coating will be exposed. Paint application equipment ranges from simple brushes and rollers to airless sprayers and automatic machines. In general, shipboard paint requirements exist in the following areas:
underwater (hull bottom)
waterline
topside superstructures
internal spaces and tanks
weather decks
loose equipment
Many different painting systems exist for each of these locations, but navy ships may require a specific type of paint for every application through a military specification (Mil-spec). There are many considerations when choosing paints, including environmental conditions, severity of environmental exposure, drying and curing times, applications equipment and procedures. Many shipyards have specific facilities and yard locations where painting occurs. Enclosed facilities are expensive, but yield higher quality and efficiency. Open-air painting generally has a lower transfer efficiency and is limited to good weather conditions. |
Ship Building | Final painting of the ship occurs on board, and touch-up painting will frequently occur on block (see figure 92.10). On-block touch-up painting occurs for several reasons. In some cases, paint systems are damaged on block and need to be resurfaced, or perhaps the wrong paint system was applied and needs to be replaced. On-block painting involves using portable blasting and painting equipment throughout the on-block outfitting areas. On-board painting involves preparing and painting the interface sections between the construction blocks and repainting areas damaged by welding, rework, on-board outfitting and other processes. The surfaces can be prepared by hand tools, sanding, brushing, solvent cleaning or any of the other surface preparation techniques. Paint is applied with portable airless sprayers, rollers and brushes. |
Ship Building | Pre-erection outfitting of construction blocks is the current shipbuilding method used by all competitive shipbuilders worldwide. Outfitting is the process of installing parts and various subassemblies (e.g., piping systems, ventilation equipment, and electrical components) on the block prior to joining the blocks together at erections. The outfitting of blocks throughout the shipyard lends itself to forming an assembly line approach to shipbuilding.
Outfitting at each stage of construction is planned to make the process flow smoothly throughout the shipyard. For simplicity, outfitting can be divided into three main stages of construction once the steel structure of the block has been assembled:
1. Unit outfitting
2. On-block outfitting
3. On-board outfitting. |
Ship Building | Unit outfitting is the stage where fittings, parts, foundations, machinery and other outfitting materials are assembled independent of the hull block (i.e., units are assembled separate from steel structural blocks). Unit outfitting allows workers to assemble shipboard components and systems on the ground, where they have easy access to the machinery and workshops. Units are installed at either the on-board or the on-block stage of construction. Units come in varying sizes, shapes and complexities. In some cases, units are as simple as a fan motor connected to a plenum and coil. Large, complex units are mainly composed of components in machinery spaces, boilers, pump rooms and other complex areas of the ship. Unit outfitting involves assembling piping spools and other components together, then connecting the components into units. Machinery spaces are areas on the ship where machinery is located (e.g., engine rooms, pump stations and generators) and outfitting there is intensive. Outfitting units on the ground increases safety and efficiency by reducing the work hours that would otherwise be allocated to on-block or on-board work in more confined spaces where conditions are more difficult. |
Ship Building | On-block outfitting is the stage of construction where most of the outfitting material is installed onto the blocks. Outfitting materials installed on block consist of ventilation systems, piping systems, doors, lights, ladders, railings, electrical assemblies and so on. Many units are also installed at the on-block stage. Throughout the on-block outfitting stage, the block can be lifted, rotated and moved to efficiently facilitate installing outfitting materials on the ceilings, walls and floors. All of the shops and services in the shipyard must be in communication at the on-block stage to ensure that materials are installed at the right time and place. |
Ship Building | On-board outfitting is performed after the blocks are lifted onto the ship under construction (i.e., after erection). At this time, the ship is either at a building position (building ways or building dock), or the ship could be berthed at pierside. The blocks are already outfitted to a large extent, although much more work is still needed before the ship is ready to operate. On-board outfitting involves the process of installing large units and blocks on board the ship. Installation includes lifting the large blocks and units on board the new ship and welding or bolting them into place. On-board outfitting also involves connecting the shipboard systems together (i.e., piping system, ventilation system and electrical system). All of the wiring systems are pulled throughout the ship at the on-board stage. |
Ship Building | Testing
The operation and test stage of construction assesses the functionality of installed components and systems. At this stage, systems are operated, inspected and tested. If the systems fail the tests for any reason, the system must be repaired and retested until it is fully operational. All piping systems on board the ship are pressurized to locate leaks that may exist in the system. Tanks also need structural testing, which is accomplished by filling the tanks with fluids (i.e., salt water or fresh water) and inspecting for structural stability. Ventilation, electrical and many other systems are tested. Most system testing and operations occur while the ship is docked at pierside. However, there is an increasing trend to perform testing at earlier stages of construction (e.g., preliminary testing in the production shops). Performing tests at earlier stages of construction makes it easier to fix failures because of the increased accessibility to the systems, although complete systems tests will always need be done on board. Once all preliminary pierside testing is performed, the ship is sent to sea for a series of fully operational tests and sea trials before the ship is delivered to its owner. |
Ship Building | Steel ship repair practices and processes
Ship repair generally includes all ship conversions, overhauls, maintenance programmes, major damage repairs and minor equipment repairs. Ship repair is a very important part of the shipping and shipbuilding industry. Approximately 25% of the labour force in most private shipbuilding shipyards does repair and conversion work. Currently there are many ships that need updating and/or conversions to meet safety and environmental requirements. With fleets worldwide becoming old and inefficient, and with the high cost of new ships, the situation is putting a strain on shipping companies. In general, conversion and repair work in US shipyards is more profitable than new construction. In new-construction shipyards, repair contracts, overhauls and conversions also help to stabilize the workforce during times of limited new construction, and new construction augments the repair labour workload. The ship repair process is much like the new construction process, except that it is generally on a smaller scale and is performed at a faster pace. The repair process requires a more timely coordination and an aggressive bidding process for ship repair contracts. Repair work customers are generally the navy, commercial ship owners and other marine structure owners. |
Ship Building | The customer usually provides contract specifications, drawings and standard items. Contracts can be firm fixed price (FFP), firm fixed price award fee (FFPAF), cost plus fixed fee (CPFF), cost plus award fee (CPAF) or urgent repair contracts. The process starts in the marketing area when the shipyard is asked for a request for proposal (RFP) or an invitation for bid (IFB). The lowest price usually wins an IFB contract, while a RFP award can be based on factors other than price. The repair estimating group prepares the cost estimate and the proposal for the repair contract. Bid estimates generally include worker-hours and wage rates, materials, overhead, special service costs, subcontractor dollars, overtime and shift premiums, other fees, facilities cost of money and, based on these, the estimated price of the contract. Once the contract is awarded, a production plan must be developed |
Ship Building | Repair planning, engineering and production
Although some preliminary planning is performed at the proposal stage of the contract, much work is still needed to plan and execute the contract in a timely manner. The following steps should be accomplished: read and understand all contract specifications, categorize the work, integrate the work into a logical production plan and determine the critical path. Planning, engineering, materials, subcontracts and repair production departments must work closely together to perform the repair in the most timely and cost-effective manner. Prefabrication of piping, ventilation, electrical and other machinery is performed, in many cases, prior to the ships arrival. Pre-outfitting and pre-packaging of repair units takes cooperation with the production shops to perform work in a timely manner. |
Ship Building | Common types of repair work
Ships are similar to other types of machinery in that they require frequent maintenance and, sometimes, complete overhauls to remain operational. Many shipyards have maintenance contracts with shipping companies, ships and/or ship classes that identify frequent maintenance work. Examples of maintenance and repair duties include:
blasting and repainting the ships hull, freeboard, superstructure, interior tanks and work areas
major machinery rebuilding and installation (e.g., diesel engines, turbines, generators and pump stations)
systems overhauls, maintenance and installation (e.g., flushing, testing and installation of a piping system)
new system installation, either adding new equipment or replacing systems that are outdated (e.g., navigational systems, combat systems, communication systems or updated piping systems)
propeller and rudder repairs, modification and alignment
Creation of new machinery spaces on the ship (e.g., cut-out of existing steel structure and adding new walls, stiffeners, vertical supports and webbing).
In many cases, repair contracts are an emergency situation with very little warning, which makes ship repair a fast moving and unpredictable environment. Normal repair ships will stay in the shipyard from 3 days to 2 months, while major repairs and conversions can last more than a year |
Ship Building | Large repair contracts and major conversions are common in the ship repair industry. Most of these large repair contracts are performed by shipyards that have the ability to construct ships, although some primarily repair yards will perform extensive repairs and conversions.
Examples of major repair contracts are as follows:
conversion of supply ships to hospital ships
cutting a ship in half and installing a new section to lengthen the ship
replacing segments of a ship that has run aground
complete rip-out, structural reconfiguration and outfitting of combat systems
Major remodelling of ships interior or exterior (e.g., complete overhauls of passenger cruise ships). |
Ship Building | Most major repairs and conversions require a large planning, engineering and production effort. In many cases, a large quantity of steel work will need to be accomplished (e.g., major cut-out of existing ship structure and installation of new configurations). These projects can be divided into four major stages: removal, building new structure, equipment installation and testing. Subcontractors are required for most major and minor repairs and conversions. The subcontractors provide expertise in certain areas and help to even the workload in the shipyard.
Some of the work that subcontractors perform are as follows:
support of ship repair
major combat systems installations (technical)
boiler re-tubing and rebuilding
air compressor overhauls
asbestos removal and disposal
tank cleaning
blasting and painting
pump system overhauls
small structural fabrication
winch overhauls
main steam system modifications
system fabrications (i.e., piping, ventilation, foundations and so on). |
Ship Building | As with new construction, all installed systems must be tested and operational before the ship is returned to its owner. Testing requirements generally originate from the contract, although other sources of testing requirements do exist. The tests must be scheduled, tracked for proper completion and monitored by the proper groups (shipyard internal quality, vessel operation, government agencies, shipowners and so on). Once systems are in place and properly tested, the area, compartment and/or system can be considered sold to the ship (i.e., completed). |
Ship Building | There are many similarities between new construction and repair processes. The primary similarities are that they both use the application of essentially the same manufacturing practices, processes, facilities and support shops. Ship repair and new construction work require highly skilled labour because many of the operations have limited potential for automation (especially ship repair). Both require excellent planning, engineering and interdepartmental communications. The repair process flow is generally as follows: estimate, plan and engineer the job; rip-out work; refitting of steel structures; repair production; test and trials; and deliver the ship. In many ways the ship repair process is similar to shipbuilding, although new construction requires a greater amount of organization because of the size of the workforce, size of the workload, number of parts and the complexity of the communications (i.e., production plans and schedules) surrounding the shipbuilding work flow. |
Ship Building | Cleaning and Other Cold Work
Click on an area for more specific information. Figure 1: Cleaning and Other Cold Work Figure 1: Cleaning and Other Cold Work: Cleaning Preparation, Cleaning Operations and PPE.
Cleaning and other cold work often requires manual activities such as scraping, mucking, pumping, or gas freeing (removing liquid residues). This work often takes place in spaces containing, or that previously contained, flammable or combustible liquids, gases, or toxic or corrosive materials. A worker may be struck by high pressure equipment, slip, trip or fall while cleaning machinery spaces, bilges, or ballast tanks. |
Ship Building | Sliding or Rolling Caissons
These are built up box sections with a sliding or rolling surface at the base. The gate slides or rolls into a notch built into the side of the dock. |
Ship Building | Floating Caisson Gate
This is probably the most common type of basin closure gate. It is a watertight box girder with flooding and dewatering systems. After flooding the dock, the caisson is deballasted to raise it up off the seat. It can then be towed out of the way. |
Ship Building | MARINE RAILWAYS
A marine railway is a mechanical means of hoisting a ship out of the water along an inclined plane.
Lift capacities range from 100 to 6,000 tons. Theoretically, even larger sizes are possible, but generally the floating dock becomes a more economical alternative. |
Asset Management & Marine Structures Maintenance | The purpose of the asset management plan is to have a tool which assists Council to achieve its asset management outcomes which are consistent with Mosplan the Councils Community Strategic Plan.
This plan outlines the broad approach that Council will adopt to manage the condition of and use of marine structures assets over the next 12 years providing future directions for marine structure use, safety, and maintenance.
Routine maintenance actions are required to ensure the structures are in a safe condition and include the following items: |
Asset Management & Marine Structures Maintenance | Baths and Jetties
? Visual inspection of timber pile every 3 years
? Visual inspection of timber headstocks and girders every 3 years
? Borer inspections every 5 years
? Patch works to concrete jetty deck
? Tightening of decking screws
? Repainting of handrails
? Repainting of non-slip sections of decks
? Clean off marine growth on swimming turn boards and ladders
? Replacing light bulbs to jetty lights
? Repair large holes to shark netsa |
Asset Management & Marine Structures Maintenance | Sea Walls
? Regrout between sandstone blocks of sandstone sea walls
? Grout up cracks in concrete seawalls to prevent water ingress
? Repainting of handrails
? Vegetation growth in sea walls to be removed
? Exposed reinforcement to be repaired
? Blocked drainage holes to be flushed
? Weathering of concrete rendering to be repaired |
Pipeline Construction Project | Flowlines
Flowlines are used as part of a crude gathering system in production areas to move produced oil from individual wells to a central point in the field for treating and storage. Flowlines are generally small-diameter pipelines operating at relatively low pressure. Typical in the United States flowlines are between 2 and 4 inches in diameters.
Flowlines typically operate at pressures below 100 psi.
Flowlines are normally made of steel, although various types of plastic have been used in a limited number of applications. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Crude Trunk Lines
Crude is moved from central storage facilities over long-distance trunk lines to refineries or other storage facilities. Crude trunk lines operate at higher pressures than flowlines and could vary in size from 6 inches in diameter to as large as 4 feet, as in the TAPS in Alaska.10 |
Pipeline Construction Project | Product Pipelines
Pipelines carrying products that are liquid at ambient temperatures and pressures do not have to operate at excessive pressures in order to maintain the product in a liquid state. However, liquids that vaporize at ambient temperatures must be shipped at higher pressures. For instance, ethane pipelines can operate at pressures up to 1,440 psi. Product pipelines usually are 12 to 24 inches in diameter, but can be as large as 40 inches in the case of the Colonial Pipeline, which carries gasoline and distillate from the Gulf Coast to northeast markets. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Valve Manifolds
Valves are installed at strategic locations along the mainline pipe to control flows and pressures within the pipe and to isolate pipe segments in the event of upset or emergency conditions. Regardless of design, all valves require regular monitoring and maintenance. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Valves
Valves located in the mainline must be compatible with pigging equipment |
Pipeline Construction Project | Corrosion Control Systems
Corrosion control of pipeline systems primarily composed of steel and other metals is critical to system integrity. Buried metallic objects will corrode (chemically oxidize) through participation in electrochemical reactions if not adequately protected. Corrosion control is accomplished through a variety of means. In most instances, paints and protective coatings are applied followed by wrapping and taping sections of mainline pipe prior to burial to isolate the metallic pipe and prevent its participation in electrochemical reactions. In addition, cathodic protection is provided through the use of an impressed current or sacrificial anodes to counteract. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Catholic protection involves either the use of an
Impressed current
For impressed-current systems, anodes are buried in the soil proximate to the section of buried pipe being protected. A current is applied to the anodes equivalent to the current that would result from the electrochemical oxidation of the pipe. This current is allowed to flow through the soil to the pipe which then completes the circuit. This impressed current counterbalances the flow of electrons from the pipe to the soil that would otherwise have resulted from the pipes oxidation, thereby canceling that reaction. Impressed-current systems can be monitored from the ground as a demonstration of their continued proper performance. Unless malfunctions occur, impressed-current system components that are buried with the pipe will typically not need replacement for 20 to 25 years, and many last over the lifetime of the pipe.
SCADA systems can be configured to monitor the performance of impressed-current systems.
Alternatively, individuals using monitoring devices can check their performance (i.e., measure the voltage being applied to the pipe) at ground-level monitoring points installed along the length of the pipeline.
Sacrificial (Galvanic) electrodes.
Composed of magnesium or zinc, both of which corrode more easily than the iron in the pipe, are electrically bonded to and buried alongside of the pipe. Current is allowed to naturally flow from the pipe to the ground; however, it is the zinc or magnesium in the electrodes that looses electrons in the process. Thus, the electrodes are sacrificed to protect the iron pipe. Galvanic electrodes must be replaced periodically. Site-specific conditions of soil moisture and electrical conductivity determine the proper anode replacement intervals. |
Pipeline Construction Project | The major steps in pipeline system design involve establishment of critical pipeline performance objectives and critical engineering design parameters such as:
Required throughput (volume per unit time for most petroleum products; pounds per unit time for petrochemical feedstocks);
Origin and destination points;
Product properties such as viscosity and specific gravity;
Topography of pipeline route;
Maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP); and
Hydraulic calculations to determine: Pipeline diameter, wall thickness, and required yield strengths; Number of, and distance between, pump stations; and Pump station horsepower required.14 |
Pipeline Construction Project | Pipeline Coating
Protective wrappings, followed by the application of tape to the edges of the spirally applied overlapping wrapping, are often installed on the exterior of the pipe to further assist in corrosion control, but also to primarily protect the pipe from mechanical damage at installation. Wraps and tape often are impregnated with tar or other asphalt-based materials and heated in place once applied, to ensure uniform coverage.
Figure 2.1-1 illustrates installation of an exterior pipe tape wrap prior to the pipes installation in its trench. Other coatings, such as thin-film epoxy and extruded polymers are also used as alternative to wraps and asphaltic coatings.
Methods used to detect product leaks along a pipeline can be divided into two categories,
Externally based (direct)
Externally based methods detect leaking product outside the pipeline, and include traditional procedures such as ROW inspection by line patrols, as well as technologies like hydrocarbon sensing via fibre optic or dielectric cables.
Internally based (inferential).
Internally based methods, also known as computational pipeline monitoring, use instruments to monitor internal pipeline parameters (i.e., pressure, flow, temperature, etc.), which are inputs for inferring a product release by manual or electronic computation (API 1995a) |
Pipeline Construction Project | Overpressure Protection
A pipeline operator typically conducts a surge analysis to ensure that the surge pressure does not exceed 110% of the maximum operating pressure (MOP). The pressure-relief system must be designed and operated at or below the MOP except under surge conditions. In a blocked line, thermal expansion is a concern, especially if the line is above ground. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Pumps and Pumping Stations
Desired material throughput values as well as circumstantial factors along the pipeline route are considered in designing and locating pump stations. Desired operating pressures and grade changes dictate individual pump sizes and acceptable pressure drops (i.e., the minimum line pressure that can be tolerated) along the mainline; grade changes also dictate the placements of the pump stations. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Valve Spacing and Rapid Shutdown
The spacings of valves and other devices capable of isolating any given segment of a pipeline are driven by two principal concerns:
Maintaining the design operating conditions of the pipeline with respect to throughput and flexibility and (2) facilitate maintenance or repairs without undue disruption to pipeline operation and rapid shutdown of pipeline operations during upset or abnormal conditions
Valves designed to prevent the backward flow of product in the event of a pump failure (check valves) will also be installed in critical locations. Valves may also be required on either side of an exceptionally sensitive environmental area traversed by the pipeline. Finally, valves will be installed to facilitate the introduction and recovery of pigs for pipeline cleaning and monitoring. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Electrical Interference
The question of the impact of the colocation of metallic pipelines and high-voltage transmission lines can be framed by three broad concepts:
(a) Influence
(b) Coupling
(c) Susceptibility
Other issues that add to the overall impact are identified and discussed below.
Influence can be thought of as the sum total of the magnetic induction and ground-return currents. Coupling can be thought of as the distance between the source of the magnetic induction (power line) and the objects being affected (pipelines). Susceptibility relates to the vulnerability of the induction element (i.e., the metallic pipeline) to induced and ground-return currents.
Colocation may mean that the pipelines are located on an electric utility ROW directly underneath the power lines, usually buried in earth. This is the worse case for the coupling of magnetic induction currents, since the separation between the power line and the pipeline is very small. Thus, the full effect of the magnetic induction from the power line into the pipeline takes place. |
Pipeline Construction Project | The actual installation of the pipeline includes these major steps:
1. Clearing the ROW as needed.
2. Ditching.
3. Stringing pipe joints along the ROW.
4. Welding the pipe joints together.
5. Applying a coating and wrapping the exterior of the pipe (except for the portions of the pipe at each end, which is sometimes coated before being delivered to the job site).
6. Lowering the pipeline into the ditch.
7. Backfilling the ditch.
8. Testing the line for leaks
9. Clean-up and drying the pipeline after testing to prepare it for operation.
10. Reclaiming impacted environmental areas. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Standard pipeline construction is composed of specific activities including survey and staking of the ROW; clearing and grading; trenching; pipe stringing, bending, welding, and lowering-in; backfilling; hydrostatic testing; and cleanup. In addition to standard pipeline construction methods, the pipeline construction contractor would use special construction. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Pipe segments are normally delivered from their point of manufacture by rail to a rail off-loading yard conveniently located to the construction ROW (see Figure 3.3-4). From there, pipe segments are loaded onto flatbed trucks and taken to a material laydown yard that is temporarily maintained in an area close to the construction site (see Figure 3.3-5). Numerous laydown yards may be constructed to support individual pipe construction spreads. A truck typically carries a maximum of 20 pipe segments at a time; however, this varies by pipeline diameter, wall thickness, weight, and pipe stacking method. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Clearing and Grading
The survey crew will carefully survey and stake the construction ROW to ensure that only the preapproved construction workspace is cleared. The clearing and grading crew leads the construction spread. This crew is responsible for removing trees, boulders, and debris from the construction ROW and preparing a level working surface for the heavy construction equipment that follows. Depending on existing soil conditions, this may require bringing in additional materials such as stone and sand to create a temporary work road adjacent to the pipeline.
The clearing and grading crew is also responsible for installation of silt fences along the edges of streams and wetlands as necessary to prevent erosion of disturbed soil. Trees inside the ROW are cut down, roots are excavated; and timber is stacked along the side of the ROW for later removal. Brush is commonly shredded or burned. The amount of clearing required varies widely. Sometimes only one pass down the ROW with a bulldozer is required.
In virtually all circumstances, topsoils and subsoils are separately stockpiled adjacent to the trench. In most instances, the subsoil can be used to backfill the trench once appropriate bedding materials have been placed at the bottom of the trench and the pipe has been installed. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Stringing Pipe Joints along the ROW
Normally, pipe segments are delivered to staging areas closest to the point along the mainline where they will be installed and then subsequently deployed along the ROW. This guarantees that each joint needs only to be moved over to the ditch when it is ready to be welded into the pipeline. Not only does this save cost and time, it also lessens the potential for damage to the pipe before installation. Figure 3.3-7 shows pipe segments being deployed along the ROW in preparation for welding and installation into the trench (not yet constructed in this photograph).
In some rugged locations, pipe segments must be staged on the ROW with helicopters |
Pipeline Construction Project | Pipe Bedding Material
Bedding material must be clean sand or soil and must not contain stones having a maximum dimension larger than 0.5 inch. Material must be placed to a minimum depth of 6 inches under the pipe and 6 inches over the top of the pipe. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Welding Inspection
The most common inspection method relies on radiographic, or X-ray, examination of completed welds. Construction plans specify what type of inspection will be required and what portion of welds must be examined by each method. For instance, it might be specified that where the pipeline traverses open areas, 10% of the welds must be X-rayed, however, where the pipeline passes under railroads, highways, or rivers, all welds must be examined using radiography |
Pipeline Construction Project | Pipe Bending
As welding proceeds along the pipeline, a slight change in direction or a significant change in elevation may require a bend in the pipeline. Many such bends are made by a bending machine on the job site that bends a joint of pipe to the required curvature (see Figure 3.3-11).
Even large-diameter pipe can be accommodated in todays modern bending machines, but it may also be necessary to make some bends in a shop on a special machine. Depending on the diameter and the wall thickness of the pipe, slight changes in elevation may be accommodated by flexing the pipe without the bending machine. Very small changes in direction may sometimes be made by letting the pipe lie to one side of the ditch. But changes in direction or elevation without bending must be small, especially when large-diameter, heavy-wall pipe is being used. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Pipe Coating
If not pre coated at the coating mill, the pipe exterior is coated and wrapped after welding is complete. Coating and wrapping are done using special machines that move along the pipeline ROW. Coal tar enamel is the most common pipeline coating; others include thin-film powdered epoxy and extruded polyethylene. Asphalt enamel and asphalt mastic are also used as pipe coating materials. Tape is then wrapped over this coating to provide additional protection to the pipe and to protect the corrosion coating, especially through rocky areas that might damage the pipe coating.
In some cases, coating and wrapping are yard-applied to the pipe before the pipe is delivered to the job site (see Figure 3.3-12). When this is done, a short distance at each end of the pipe joint is left bare to permit welding. Then those areas are coated and wrapped over the ditch after welding is complete. |
Pipeline Construction Project |
Lowering the Pipeline into the Ditch
When the welding and coating are complete, the pipe is suspended over the ditch by sideboom tractors, which are crawler tractors with a special hoisting frame attached to one side.
Then the pipeline is gradually lowered to the bottom of the ditch (lowering in) (see Figure 3.3-13). In rocky soil or solid rock, it is sometimes necessary to put a bed of fine soil in the bottom of the ditch before lowering the pipeline. The fine fill material protects the pipe coating from damage. |
Pipeline Construction Project | Hydrostatic Testing
All newly installed pipelines, including pipe segments that have been replaced in existing pipelines, undergo hydrostatic testing before being put into service. Hydrostatic testing involves isolating that portion of the pipeline undergoing testing, filling it with water, and then pressurizing the line to a specified pressure to check for leaks
U.S. federal safety regulations for pipelines require that pipelines used to transport hazardous or highly volatile liquids be tested at a pressure equal to 125% of the maximum allowable operating pressure (MAOP) for at least four continuous hours and for an additional four continuous hours at a pressure equal to 110% or more of the MAOP, if the line cannot also be visually inspected for leakage during the test. A batching pig driven ahead of the water is used to remove any air and forms an efficient seal to isolate that portion undergoing testing. Without a pig in downhill portions of the line, the water will run down underneath the air, trapping pockets at the highest points within the pipe.
Temporary connections for filling and draining the pipeline are used, and a pump is used to pressure up the line. Once the specified pressure is attained, the pump is shut off and the static leak test commences. A leak is indicated if the pressure falls over the period of the test.
Once hydrostatic testing is completed, the water is removed and typically delivered to a wastewater treatment facility (e.g., a publicly owned sewage treatment works) for treatment.
While the majority of the water will be removed simply by draining the water at appropriate locations along the segment undergoing a test, some water will still remain and will contaminate the subsequent product unless it is removed. Typically a pig is used that is designed specifically to capture water and deliver it to a point where it can be removed. This dewatering pig serves a dual purpose, removing water and also removing construction debris that may still remain in the pipeline and could be very damaging to downstream pumps.
The water removal process described above is usually sufficient for crude oil and petroleum products. However, for some petrochemical feedstocks that would react adversely with water, additional steps are taken to remove the last vestiges of water before the product is introduced. Super-dry air, methanol, or inert gases such as nitrogen are typically used to flush the pipeline and capture any last remaining amounts of water. |
Marine Facilities | Marine facilities
The design of the marine foundations especially, is highly dependent on the results obtained from any further geotechnical and geophysical work. Thus as the final design is completed; various design details will change from what is shown on the current drawings. These design details can include, but are not limited to:
Sizes and dimensions of structural beams and members;
Span lengths;
Diameter, wall thickness, length, arrangement and number of piles;
Bracing configurations;
Details of pile anchorage into rock;
Dimensions of foundation elements such as pile caps and the bridge anchor block; and
Materials used for construction such as steel versus concrete |
Marine Facilities | The projects marine infrastructure comprises several marine facilities which are within intertidal or sub-tidal waters. These marine facilities can be categorized into 4 main sites consisting of:
LNG Jetty/Suspension Bridge (including LNG berth structures and the Suspension Bridges SW Anchor Block and SW Tower foundations and associated scour protection armouring);
Pioneer Dock;
Materials Off-loading Facility (MOF); and
Lelu Island Access Bridge.
The construction methodologies will be developed with consideration of minimizing the potential for environmental disturbance.
The LNG Jetty has been divided into two main components consisting of the
Suspension Bridge which spans over Flora Bank, and the
Trestle and Berth Structures which make up the balance of the overall LNG Jetty.
The Suspension Bridge is approximately 1,100m long and is the closest jetty section to the shore. Since the Suspension Bridge spans over Flora Bank, it effectively avoids any form of marine foundations within Flora Bank.
The Trestle section of the jetty and the Berth Structures are located in deeper waters and are comprised of pile-and deck construction.
Because of the inherently different structures used for the two Jetty components, the construction methodologies will be divided between the
Suspension Bridge and the
Trestle/ Berth Structures.
The Suspension Bridge component will be further divided between the
Bridges superstructure and the
Bridges marine foundations consisting of the Southwest Tower and Southwest Anchor Block.
A comparison will be drawn between viable methods for constructing the Trestle and Berth Structure component. |
Marine Facilities | The following definitions describe basic marine terminology used in this report:
Pile: A pile is a heavy column or post either driven or drilled into the ground or seabed to support the foundations of a structure. Piles are commonly made of either timber, concrete or steel. For the PNW LNG marine facilities, steel pipe piles fabricated from large diameter steel pipe sections welded together to form the final pile length are most practical.
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Marine Facilities | Bent: A bent is part of a bridge or trestle substructure and is comprised of a group of piles, typically installed in a single line, connected at their tops with a pile cap forming a single rigid frame that supports a vertical load. Bents are typically placed transverse to the length of the overall structure and directly support the beams and girders that support the deck of the bridge or trestle. |
Marine Facilities | Cofferdam: A cofferdam is a watertight enclosure from which water is pumped to expose the bottom of a body of water and permit construction. |
Marine Facilities | Jetty: A jetty is a pier structure built out into the sea or along the shore as part of a port. It typically includes a landing stage at which ships can dock or be moored. For the purposes of the PNW LNG project the LNG Jetty includes the Suspension Bridge, and the Trestle and Berth Structures. |
Marine Facilities | Trestle: A long bridge-like structure which typically spans from the shoreline out to berth structures located in deeper navigable waters. The trestle is supported on a series of bents spaced at regular intervals, using large beams or girders to span between the bent foundations. A trestles deck typically includes space for a roadway, pipe supports, and pedestrian walkways. |
Marine Facilities | Dolphin (Breasting dolphin) (Mooring dolphin): A dolphin is a man-made marine structure that extends above the water level and is not connected to shore. Dolphins are usually installed to provide a fixed structure when it would be impractical to extend the shore to provide a dry access facility. Typical uses include extending a berth (a berthing dolphin) or providing a point to moor to (a mooring dolphin). The berthing dolphin is equipped with a fender which is used to "cushion" ship impacts whereas mooring dolphins are set a certain distance from the vessel and are equipped with hooks used to secure the vessels mooring lines. For the PNW LNG facilities both berthing dolphins and mooring dolphins are required to securely hold a vessel in the berth. The dolphin structures typically consist of a number of piles set into the seabed and connected above the water level to provide a platform or fixing point. The piles are typically steel pipe piles connected by a reinforced concrete capping or a structural steel frame. Access to a dolphin is typically gained via a catwalk (pedestrian bridge). |
Marine Facilities | Caisson: "Caisson" is the French word for "box." A caisson is a huge box or tub made of steel-reinforced, waterproof concrete with a central core that is open from the top. For a wharf facility, the caisson comprises both the foundation and main superstructure of the wharf. For the Suspension Bridge, the caisson becomes the Anchor Block or the pilecap supporting the bridge tower. |
Marine Facilities | Dock: A structure extending alongshore or out from the shore into a body of water, to which boats may be moored. |
Marine Facilities | Wharf: A structure built typically along the shoreline of deeper navigable waters so that ships may be moored alongside to receive and discharge cargo and passengers. |
Marine Facilities | Spud: A spud is a retrac Table leg or underwater column that is deployed from a dredge or marine derrick barge and is used for staying or maintaining the barge in position as construction proceeds. |
Marine Facilities | Fender: A fender is a rubber component that is attached to wharves, berthing dolphins, and other marine structures where vessels can make contact with the structure. The fender absorbs the impact energy of berthing (incoming) vessels and hence protects the structure and ship from damage. A fender is formed of rubber which absorbs berthing energy by virtue of the work required to deform it elastically by compression, bending or shear or by a combination of such effects. Because a fender is made of rubber it makes little to no noise as it is compressed or stressed by a berthing vessel. |
Marine Facilities | The bridge marine foundations are shown on concept drawings prepared by Infinity Engineering Group Ltd. (Infinity). Two major marine foundations are required for the proposed Suspension Bridge located at the SW Tower and SW Anchor Block |
Marine Facilities | Conceptual Foundations Overview
The preliminary design for the South West (SW) Anchor Block consists of,
a 45 m x 44 m x 21.3 m deep concrete cap
Supported by an 8 x 8 grid of 1800 mm diameter concrete filled pipe piles. |
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