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39_27 | Albedo [SEP] formula_7, |
39_28 | Albedo [SEP] where formula_8 is the astronomical albedo, formula_9 is the diameter in kilometers, and formula_10 is the absolute magnitude. |
39_29 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects. |
39_30 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Illumination. |
39_31 | Albedo [SEP] Albedo is not directly dependent on illumination because changing the amount of incoming light proportionally changes the amount of reflected light, except in circumstances where a change in illumination induces a change in the Earth's surface at that location (e.g. through albedo-temperature feedback). That said, albedo and illumination both vary by latitude. Albedo is highest near the poles and lowest in the subtropics, with a local maximum in the tropics. |
39_32 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Insolation effects. |
39_33 | Albedo [SEP] The intensity of albedo temperature effects depends on the amount of albedo and the level of local insolation (solar irradiance); high albedo areas in the arctic and antarctic regions are cold due to low insolation, where areas such as the Sahara Desert, which also have a relatively high albedo, will be hotter due to high insolation. Tropical and sub-tropical rainforest areas have low albedo, and are much hotter than their temperate forest counterparts, which have lower insolation. Because insolation plays such a big role in the heating and cooling effects of albedo, high insolation areas like the tropics will tend |
39_34 | Albedo [SEP] to show a more pronounced fluctuation in local temperature when local albedo changes. |
39_35 | Albedo [SEP] Arctic regions notably release more heat back into space than what they absorb, effectively cooling the Earth. This has been a concern since arctic ice and snow has been melting at higher rates due to higher temperatures, creating regions in the arctic that are notably darker (being water or ground which is darker color) and reflects less heat back into space. This feedback loop results in a reduced albedo effect. |
39_36 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Climate and weather. |
39_37 | Albedo [SEP] Albedo affects climate by determining how much radiation a planet absorbs. The uneven heating of Earth from albedo variations between land, ice, or ocean surfaces can drive weather. |
39_38 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Albedo–temperature feedback. |
39_39 | Albedo [SEP] When an area's albedo changes due to snowfall, a snow–temperature feedback results. A layer of snowfall increases local albedo, reflecting away sunlight, leading to local cooling. In principle, if no outside temperature change affects this area (e.g., a warm air mass), the raised albedo and lower temperature would maintain the current snow and invite further snowfall, deepening the snow–temperature feedback. However, because local weather is dynamic due to the change of seasons, eventually warm air masses and a more direct angle of sunlight (higher insolation) cause melting. When the melted area reveals surfaces with lower albedo, such as grass or |
39_40 | Albedo [SEP] soil, the effect is reversed: the darkening surface lowers albedo, increasing local temperatures, which induces more melting and thus reducing the albedo further, resulting in still more heating. |
39_41 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Snow. |
39_42 | Albedo [SEP] Snow albedo is highly variable, ranging from as high as 0.9 for freshly fallen snow, to about 0.4 for melting snow, and as low as 0.2 for dirty snow. Over Antarctica snow albedo averages a little more than 0.8. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt because more radiation is being absorbed by the snowpack (the ice–albedo positive feedback). |
39_43 | Albedo [SEP] Just as fresh snow has a higher albedo than does dirty snow, the albedo of snow-covered sea ice is far higher than that of sea water. Sea water absorbs more solar radiation than would the same surface covered with reflective snow. When sea ice melts, either due to a rise in sea temperature or in response to increased solar radiation from above, the snow-covered surface is reduced, and more surface of sea water is exposed, so the rate of energy absorption increases. The extra absorbed energy heats the sea water, which in turn increases the rate at which sea ice |
39_44 | Albedo [SEP] melts. As with the preceding example of snowmelt, the process of melting of sea ice is thus another example of a positive feedback. Both positive feedback loops have long been recognized as important to the modern theory of Global warming. |
39_45 | Albedo [SEP] Cryoconite, powdery windblown dust containing soot, sometimes reduces albedo on glaciers and ice sheets. |
39_46 | Albedo [SEP] The dynamical nature of albedo in response to positive feedback, together with the effects of small errors in the measurement of albedo, can lead to large errors in energy estimates. Because of this, in order to reduce the error of energy estimates, it is important to measure the albedo of snow-covered areas through remote sensing techniques rather than applying a single value for albedo over broad regions. |
39_47 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Small-scale effects. |
39_48 | Albedo [SEP] Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. In sunlight, dark clothes absorb more heat and light-coloured clothes reflect it better, thus allowing some control over body temperature by exploiting the albedo effect of the colour of external clothing. |
39_49 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Solar photovoltaic effects. |
39_50 | Albedo [SEP] Albedo can affect the electrical energy output of solar photovoltaic devices. For example, the effects of a spectrally responsive albedo are illustrated by the differences between the spectrally weighted albedo of solar photovoltaic technology based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon (a-Si:H) and crystalline silicon (c-Si)-based compared to traditional spectral-integrated albedo predictions. Research showed impacts of over 10%. More recently, the analysis was extended to the effects of spectral bias due to the specular reflectivity of 22 commonly occurring surface materials (both human-made and natural) and analyzes the albedo effects on the performance of seven photovoltaic materials covering three common photovoltaic system |
39_51 | Albedo [SEP] topologies: industrial (solar farms), commercial flat rooftops and residential pitched-roof applications. |
39_52 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Trees. |
39_53 | Albedo [SEP] Because forests generally have a low albedo, (the majority of the ultraviolet and visible spectrum is absorbed through photosynthesis), some scientists have suggested that greater heat absorption by trees could offset some of the carbon benefits of afforestation (or offset the negative climate impacts of deforestation). In the case of evergreen forests with seasonal snow cover albedo reduction may be great enough for deforestation to cause a net cooling effect. Trees also impact climate in extremely complicated ways through evapotranspiration. The water vapor causes cooling on the land surface, causes heating where it condenses, acts a strong greenhouse gas, and |
39_54 | Albedo [SEP] can increase albedo when it condenses into clouds. Scientists generally treat evapotranspiration as a net cooling impact, and the net climate impact of albedo and evapotranspiration changes from deforestation depends greatly on local climate. |
39_55 | Albedo [SEP] In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Deciduous trees have an albedo value of about 0.15 to 0.18 whereas coniferous trees have a value of about 0.09 to 0.15. Variation in summer albedo across both forest types is correlated with maximum rates of photosynthesis because plants with high growth capacity display a greater fraction of their foliage for direct interception of incoming radiation in the upper canopy. The result is that wavelengths of light not used in photosynthesis are more |
39_56 | Albedo [SEP] likely to be reflected back to space rather than being absorbed by other surfaces lower in the canopy. |
39_57 | Albedo [SEP] Studies by the Hadley Centre have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g., Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming. |
39_58 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Water. |
39_59 | Albedo [SEP] Water reflects light very differently from typical terrestrial materials. The reflectivity of a water surface is calculated using the Fresnel equations (see graph). |
39_60 | Albedo [SEP] At the scale of the wavelength of light even wavy water is always smooth so the light is reflected in a locally specular manner (not diffusely). The glint of light off water is a commonplace effect of this. At small angles of incident light, waviness results in reduced reflectivity because of the steepness of the reflectivity-vs.-incident-angle curve and a locally increased average incident angle. |
39_61 | Albedo [SEP] Although the reflectivity of water is very low at low and medium angles of incident light, it becomes very high at high angles of incident light such as those that occur on the illuminated side of Earth near the terminator (early morning, late afternoon, and near the poles). However, as mentioned above, waviness causes an appreciable reduction. Because light specularly reflected from water does not usually reach the viewer, water is usually considered to have a very low albedo in spite of its high reflectivity at high angles of incident light. |
39_62 | Albedo [SEP] Note that white caps on waves look white (and have high albedo) because the water is foamed up, so there are many superimposed bubble surfaces which reflect, adding up their reflectivities. Fresh 'black' ice exhibits Fresnel reflection. |
39_63 | Albedo [SEP] Snow on top of this sea ice increases the albedo to 0.9. |
39_64 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Clouds. |
39_65 | Albedo [SEP] Cloud albedo has substantial influence over atmospheric temperatures. Different types of clouds exhibit different reflectivity, theoretically ranging in albedo from a minimum of near 0 to a maximum approaching 0.8. "On any given day, about half of Earth is covered by clouds, which reflect more sunlight than land and water. Clouds keep Earth cool by reflecting sunlight, but they can also serve as blankets to trap warmth." |
39_66 | Albedo [SEP] Albedo and climate in some areas are affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the burning of the Kuwaiti oil fields during Iraqi occupation showed that temperatures under the burning oil fires were as much as 10 °C colder than temperatures several miles away under clear skies. |
39_67 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Aerosol effects. |
39_68 | Albedo [SEP] Aerosols (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) have both direct and indirect effects on Earth's radiative balance. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as cloud condensation nuclei and thereby change cloud properties) is less certain. As per Spracklen et al. the effects are: |
39_69 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- "Aerosol direct effect." Aerosols directly scatter and absorb radiation. The scattering of radiation causes atmospheric cooling, whereas absorption can cause atmospheric warming. |
39_70 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- "Aerosol indirect effect." Aerosols modify the properties of clouds through a subset of the aerosol population called cloud condensation nuclei. Increased nuclei concentrations lead to increased cloud droplet number concentrations, which in turn leads to increased cloud albedo, increased light scattering and radiative cooling ("first indirect effect"), but also leads to reduced precipitation efficiency and increased lifetime of the cloud ("second indirect effect"). |
39_71 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Black carbon. |
39_72 | Albedo [SEP] Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change estimates that the global mean radiative forcing for black carbon aerosols from fossil fuels is +0.2 W m, with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m. Black carbon is a bigger cause of the melting of the polar ice cap in the Arctic than carbon dioxide due to its effect on the albedo. |
39_73 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Examples of terrestrial albedo effects.:Human activities. |
39_74 | Albedo [SEP] Human activities (e.g., deforestation, farming, and urbanization) change the albedo of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect on the global scale is difficult. |
39_75 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Other types of albedo. |
39_76 | Albedo [SEP] Single-scattering albedo is used to define scattering of electromagnetic waves on small particles. It depends on properties of the material (refractive index); the size of the particle or particles; and the wavelength of the incoming radiation. |
39_77 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::Acquisition. |
39_78 | Albedo [SEP] Albedo can be measured by an Albedometer. |
39_79 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::See also. |
39_80 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Cool roof |
39_81 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Daisyworld |
39_82 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Emissivity |
39_83 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Exitance |
39_84 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Global dimming |
39_85 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Irradiance |
39_86 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Kirchhoff's law of thermal radiation |
39_87 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Opposition surge |
39_88 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Polar see-saw |
39_89 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Solar radiation management |
39_90 | Albedo [SEP] Section::::External links. |
39_91 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Albedo Project |
39_92 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Albedo – Encyclopedia of Earth |
39_93 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- NASA MODIS BRDF/albedo product site |
39_94 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- Surface albedo derived from Meteosat observations |
39_95 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- A discussion of Lunar albedos |
39_96 | Albedo [SEP] BULLET::::- reflectivity of metals (chart) |
316_0 | Academy Award for Best Production Design [SEP] Academy Award for Best Production Design |
316_1 | Academy Award for Best Production Design [SEP] The Academy Award for Best Production Design recognizes achievement for art direction in film. The category's original name was Best Art Direction, but was changed to its current name in 2012 for the 85th Academy Awards. This change resulted from the Art Director's branch of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS) being renamed the Designer's branch. Since 1947, the award is shared with the set decorator(s). It is awarded to the best interior design in a film. |
316_2 | Academy Award for Best Production Design [SEP] The films below are listed with their production year (for example, the 2000 Academy Award for Best Art Direction is given to a film from 1999). In the lists below, the winner of the award for each year is shown first, followed by the other nominees in alphabetical order. |
316_3 | Academy Award for Best Production Design [SEP] Section::::See also. |
316_4 | Academy Award for Best Production Design [SEP] BULLET::::- BAFTA Award for Best Production Design |
316_5 | Academy Award for Best Production Design [SEP] BULLET::::- Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Art Direction |
330_0 | Actrius [SEP] Actrius |
330_1 | Actrius [SEP] Actresses (Catalan: Actrius) is a 1997 Catalan language Spanish drama film produced and directed by Ventura Pons and based on the award-winning stage play "E.R." by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet. The film has no male actors, with all roles played by females. The film was produced in 1996. |
330_2 | Actrius [SEP] Section::::Synopsis. |
330_3 | Actrius [SEP] In order to prepare herself to play a role commemorating the life of legendary actress Empar Ribera, young actress (Mercè Pons) interviews three established actresses who had been the Ribera's pupils: the international diva Glòria Marc (Núria Espert), the television star Assumpta Roca (Rosa Maria Sardà), and dubbing director Maria Caminal (Anna Lizaran). |
330_4 | Actrius [SEP] Section::::Cast. |
330_5 | Actrius [SEP] BULLET::::- Núria Espert as Glòria Marc |
330_6 | Actrius [SEP] BULLET::::- Rosa Maria Sardà as Assumpta Roca |
330_7 | Actrius [SEP] BULLET::::- Anna Lizaran as Maria Caminal |
330_8 | Actrius [SEP] BULLET::::- Mercè Pons as Estudiant |
330_9 | Actrius [SEP] Section::::Recognition. |
330_10 | Actrius [SEP] Section::::Recognition.:Screenings. |
330_11 | Actrius [SEP] "Actrius" screened in 2001 at the Grauman's Egyptian Theatre in an American Cinematheque retrospective of the works of its director. The film had first screened at the same location in 1998. It was also shown at the 1997 Stockholm International Film Festival. |
330_12 | Actrius [SEP] Section::::Recognition.:Reception. |
330_13 | Actrius [SEP] In "Movie - Film - Review", "Daily Mail" staffer Christopher Tookey wrote that though the actresses were "competent in roles that may have some reference to their own careers", the film "is visually unimaginative, never escapes its stage origins, and is almost totally lacking in revelation or surprising incident". Noting that there were "occasional, refreshing moments of intergenerational bitchiness", they did not "justify comparisons to "All About Eve"", and were "insufficiently different to deserve critical parallels with "Rashomon"". He also wrote that "The Guardian" called the film a "slow, stuffy chamber-piece", and that "The Evening Standard" stated the film's "best |
330_14 | Actrius [SEP] moments exhibit the bitchy tantrums seething beneath the threesome's composed veneers". MRQE wrote "This cinematic adaptation of a theatrical work is true to the original, but does not stray far from a theatrical rendering of the story." |
330_15 | Actrius [SEP] Section::::Recognition.:Awards and nominations. |
330_16 | Actrius [SEP] BULLET::::- 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film' at Butaca Awards for Ventura Pons |
330_17 | Actrius [SEP] BULLET::::- 1997, won 'Best Catalan Film Actress' at Butaca Awards, shared by Núria Espert, Rosa Maria Sardà, Anna Lizaran, and Mercè Pons |
330_18 | Actrius [SEP] BULLET::::- 1998, nominated for 'Best Screenplay' at Goya Awards, shared by Josep Maria Benet i Jornet and Ventura Pons |
330_19 | Actrius [SEP] Section::::External links. |
330_20 | Actrius [SEP] BULLET::::- as archived February 17, 2009 (Spanish) |
332_0 | Animalia (book) [SEP] Animalia (book) |
332_1 | Animalia (book) [SEP] Animalia is an illustrated children's book by Graeme Base. It was originally published in 1986, followed by a tenth anniversary edition in 1996, and a 25th anniversary edition in 2012. Over four million copies have been sold worldwide. A special numbered and signed anniversary edition was also published in 1996, with an embossed gold jacket. |
332_2 | Animalia (book) [SEP] Section::::Synopsis. |
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